Chapter 1 Part One

River Engineering
river development& training
Chapter one
PART-I: RIVER DEVLOPMENT AND TRAINING
1. RIVERS AND THEIR BEHAVIORS
Introduction
Rivers are the natural canals which carry a huge quantity of water drained by the
catchments as runoff. They take off From Mountains, flow through plains and finally join
the sea or an ocean. Rivers are important arrangements of the hydrological cycle. In
addition to water, rivers carry a large amount of silt or sediment which is washed down
from the catchments area and also eroded form the bed and banks of river. The silt plays
an important role in the behavior of rivers in alluvial soils.
Floods in rivers cause tremendous devastation and miseries to human beings. In the
primitive times there was no control on river. With the development of science and
technology, the behavior of rivers is now better understood, and various river training
methods are used.
1.1 Types of rivers

Rivers can be classified according to different criteria:
A. Classification based on variation of discharge

1.
Perennial River: Perennial Rivers have adequate discharge throughout

the year.
2.
Non-perennial rivers: their flow is quite high during and after rainy
seasons and reduces significantly during dry seasons.
3.
Flashy rivers: in these rives, there is a sudden increases in discharge. The

river stage rises and falls in a very short period.
4.
Virgin rivers: these are those rivers which get completely dried up before
joining another river and sea.
B. Classification based on the location of reach:

1.
Mountainous rivers: they flow in hilly and mountainous regions. These

rivers are further divided into rocky rivers and Boulder Rivers.
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River Engineering
2.
Rivers in flood plains: after the boulder stages, a river enters the flood
plains having alluvial soil. The bed and banks of river are made up of sand
and silt.
3.
Delta Rivers: when a river enters a deltaic plain, it splits into a number of
small branches due to very flat slopes. There is shoal formation and braiding
of the channels in the delta rivers.
4.
Tidal rivers: just before joining a sea or ocean, the river becomes a tidal
river. In a tidal river, there are periodic changes in water level due to tides.
C. Classification based on plan-from:

1.
Straight rivers: these rivers are straight in plain and have cross-sectional
shape of a trough. The maximum velocity of flow usually occurs in the
middle of the section. Fig 1-a. Straight River
2.
Meandering Rivers: follow a winding course. They consist of a series of

bends of alternate curvature in the plain. The successive curves are
connected by small straight reach of the river called crossovers or crossings.
Fig 1-b. Meandering rivers
3.
Braided rivers: flow in two or more channels around alluvial islands

developed due to deposition of silt.
Fig 1-c Braided rivers
FIG 1
(.. Rocky stage)
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River Engineering
The cross section of the river is usually made up of rock.
The river has a very steep slope and velocity of water is quite high.
As the beds and banks are rocky, erosion hazard is less.
It is ideal for the construction of dam.
1.2. Stages of rivers

As the river flows from its origin in a mountain to a sea, it passes through various
stages. A river generally has the following 4 stages:
1. Rocky stages
2. boulder stage
3. alluvial stage
4. deltaic rivers
1. Rocky stage: it is also called the hilly or mountainous stage or the incised stage.
The flow channel is formed on the rock by degradation and cutting.
2. Boulder stage: the bed and banks are usually composed of large boulders, gravels
and shingles.
The bed slop is quite steep
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River Engineering
The river first flows through wide shallow and interlaced channels and then
develop a straight course.
3.
Most of the diversion head works are constructed in this stage.
Alluvial stage: the river in this stage flows in a zig- zag manner known as
meandering.
The cross section of the river is made up of alluvial sand and silt.
The materials get eroded form the concave side (the outer side) of the bend
and get deposited on the convex side (inner side) of the bend.
The bed slope is flat and consequently the velocity is small.
The behavior of the river in this stage depends up on the silt charge and the
flood discharge.
River training works are required in the alluvial stage.
4. Deltaic stage: is the last stage of the river just before it discharge into the sea.
The river is unable to carry its sediment load. As a result, It drops its
sediments and gets divided into channels on either side of the deposited
sediment and form the delta.
Types of alluvial rivers

Rivers in flood plains (alluvial stage) is future sub divide into the following
classification:1. aggrading
2. degrading
3. stable deltaic
4. deltaic
If the river is collecting sediment and is building up its bed it is called an aggrading
(accreting) type. If the bed is getting scoured year to year, it is called a degrading type. If
there is no silting or scouring, it is called a stable river. It is not necessary that a river
reach should be of one type the entire alluvial length; rather it is generally of more than
one type of reach, in its length. In other words, the same river reach may behave as
aggrading, degrading, or stable type. However under what circumstances the river my
change its type will be prominent after the following discussion:
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River Engineering
a. Aggrading or accreting type: is a silting river.
It builds up its slope.
The silting is mainly due to various reasons, such as: heavy sediment load,
construction of an obstruction across a river, sudden intrusion of sediment
from a tributary, etc.
Fig. aggrading river
b. Degrading type; if the river bed is constantly getting scoured, to reduce and
dissipate available excess land slope as shown in the figure below, then it is
known as degrading.
It is found either above a cutoff or below a dam or weir
Fig: degrading rivers
c. Stable type: a river that does not change its alignment, slope and its regime
significant is called Stable River.
d. Deltaic River: is as discussed in the proceeding sections.

1.3 Behaviors of rivers in alluvial stages
The behaviors of alluvial rivers depend to a large extent on the sediment carried by it.
The sediment carried by the river poses numerous problems, such as:
increasing of flood levels
sitting of reservoirs
silting of irrigation and navigation channels
splitting of a river into a number of interacted channels
meandering of rivers
Especially the meandering causes the river to leave its original course and adopt a new
course.
An alluvial river usually has the following three stages:
1. flow in a straight reach
2. flow at bends
3. development of meanders
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River Engineering
1. Flow in a straight reach: the river cross section is in the shape of a trough, with
high velocity flow in the middle of the section.
Since the velocity is higher in the middle, the water surface level will be
lower in the middle and higher at the edges. (see fig.)
Due to the existence of this transverse gradient from sides towards the
center,
transverse
rotary
currents
get
developed.
However,
straight reaches are very few in alluvial channels.
Fig 2
flow in a straight reach
2. Bends: every alluvial river tends to develop bends, which are characterized by
scouring on the concave side and silting on the convex side. (see fig.)
The silting and scouring in bends may continue due to the action of centrifugal
force.
Process: when the flow moves around a bend, a centrifugal force is exerted upon the
water, which results in the formation of transverse slope of water surface from the convex
edge to the concave edge, creating grater pressure near the convex edge. To keep its level,
water tends to move from the convex side towards the concave side. However, the top
most water surface movement is prevented by the centrifugal force. Moreover, towards
the bottom, the velocities are much less than towards the top; and enough centrifugal
force is not available to counteract the tendency of water at the top to move inwards.
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River Engineering
Hence, the water dives in, from the top at the concave end, and moves at the bottom
towards the convex end. These rotary currents cause the erosion of concave edge and
deposition on the convex edge forming shoal on this edge. When once the bend forms, it
tends to make the curvature large and larger.
Fig 3 Bends
3. Development of Meanders:
Once a bend in the river has been developed, either due to its own characteristics or due
to the impressed external forces, the process continues furthest downstream.
The successive bends of the reveres order are formed. It ultimately leads to the
development of a complete S-curve called a meander.
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River Engineering
Fig 4 Meandering River
.8

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River Engineering

river development& training

1.1 Types of rivers

A. Classification based on variation of discharge

Perennial River: Perennial Rivers have adequate discharge throughout

Flashy rivers: in these rives, there is a sudden increases in discharge. The

B. Classification based on the location of reach:

Mountainous rivers: they flow in hilly and mountainous regions. These

river development& training

C. Classification based on plan-from:

Meandering Rivers: follow a winding course. They consist of a series of

Braided rivers: flow in two or more channels around alluvial islands

(.. Rocky stage)

river development& training

The cross section of the river is usually made up of rock.

As the beds and banks are rocky, erosion hazard is less.

It is ideal for the construction of dam.

1.2. Stages of rivers

The flow channel is formed on the rock by degradation and cutting.

The bed slop is quite steep

river development& training

Most of the diversion head works are constructed in this stage.

The bed slope is flat and consequently the velocity is small.

River training works are required in the alluvial stage.

Types of alluvial rivers

river development& training

a. Aggrading or accreting type: is a silting river.

It builds up its slope.

Fig. aggrading river

It is found either above a cutoff or below a dam or weir

Fig: degrading rivers

d. Deltaic River: is as discussed in the proceeding sections.

increasing of flood levels

silting of irrigation and navigation channels

splitting of a river into a number of interacted channels

river development& training

straight reaches are very few in alluvial channels.

flow in a straight reach

river development& training

river development& training

Fig 4 Meandering River

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