Gene Transcription: Embryology: The Field Investigations of The Molecular, Cellular, and Structural
Gene Transcription: Embryology: The Field Investigations of The Molecular, Cellular, and Structural
Gene Transcription: Embryology: The Field Investigations of The Molecular, Cellular, and Structural
Gene Transcription
Genes are contained in a complex of DNA and proteins (mostly histones)
called chromatin, whose basic unit of structure is the Nucleosome (see Fig.
1.3). Each nucleosome is composed of an octamer of histone proteins and
approximately 140 base pairs of DNA. Nucleosomes themselves are joined
into clusters by binding of DNA existing between nucleosomes (linker
DNA) with other histone proteins (H1 histones; Fig. 1.3). Nucleosomes
keep the DNA tightly coiled, such that it cannot be transcribed. In this
inactive state, chromatin appears as beads of nucleosomes on a string of
DNA and is referred to as heterochromatin. For transcription to occur, this
DNA must be uncoiled from the beads. In this uncoiled state, chromatin is
referred to as euchromatin.
Genes reside within the DNA strand and contain regions called exons,
which can be translated into proteins, and introns, which are interspersed
between exons and which are not transcribed into proteins (see Fig. 1.4).
In addition to exons and introns, a typical gene includes the following: a
Promoter region that binds RNA polymerase for the initiation of
transcription; a transcription initiation site; a translation initiation site to
designate the first amino acid in the protein; a translation termination
codon; and a 3 untranslated region that includes a sequence (the poly A
addition site) that assists with stabilizing the mRNA, allows it to exit the
nucleus, and permits it to be translated into protein (Fig. 1.4). By
convention the 5 and 3 regions of a gene are specified in relation to the
RNA transcribed from the gene. Thus, DNA is transcribed from the 5 to
the 3 end, and the promoter region is upstream from the transcription
initiation site (Fig. 1.4). The promoter region, where the RNA polymerase
binds, usually contains the sequence TATA, and this site is called the TATA
box (Fig. 1.4). However, in order to bind to this site the polymerase
requires additional proteins called Transcription factors (see Fig. 1.5).
Transcription factors also have a specific DNA binding domain plus a
transactivating domain that activates or inhibits transcription of the gene
Cell Signaling
Cell-to-cell signaling is essential for induction, for conference of
competency to respond, and for cross talk between inducing and
responding cells. These lines of communication are established by
paracrine interactions, whereby proteins synthesized by one cell diffuse
over short distances to interact with other cells, or by juxtacrine
interactions, which do not involve diffusable proteins. The diffusable
proteins responsible for paracrine signaling are called paracrine factors or
growth and differentiation factors (GDFs). There are a large number of
GDFs, but most are grouped into four families, and members of these
same families are used repeatedly to regulate development and
differentiation of organ systems. Furthermore, the same GDFs regulate
organ development throughout the animal kingdom from Drosophila to
humans. The four groups of GDFs include the fibroblast growth factor
(FGF), WNT, hedgehog, and transforming growth factor families.
Fgfs
Approximately two dozen FGF genes have been identified, and they can
produce hundreds of protein isoforms by altering their RNA splicing or
their initiation codons. FGF proteins produced by these genes activate a
collection of tyrosine receptor kinases called fibroblast growth factor
receptors (FGFRs). In turn, these receptors activate various signaling
pathways. FGFs are particularly important for angiogenesis, axon growth,
and mesoderm differentiation. Although there is redundancy in the family,
such that FGFs can sometimes substitute for one another, individual FGFs
may be responsible for specific developmental events. For example, FGF8
is important for development of the limbs and parts of the brain.
Hedgehog Proteins
There are three hedgehog genes, Desert, Indian, and sonic hedgehog.
Sonic hedgehog is involved in a number of developmental events
including limb patterning, neural tube induction and patterning, somite
differentiation, gut regionalization, and others. The receptor for the
hedgehog family is Patched, which binds to a protein called Smoothened.
The Smoothened protein transduces the hedgehog signal, but it is
inhibited by Patched until the hedgehog protein binds to this receptor.
Thus the role of the paracrine factor hedgehog in this example is to bind
to its receptor to remove the inhibition of a transducer that would
normally be active, not to activate the transducer directly.
WNT Proteins
There are at least 15 different WNT proteins that are involved in
developmental pathways. Their receptors are members of the frizzled
family of proteins. WNT proteins are involved in regulating limb
patterning, midbrain development, and some aspects of somite and
urogenital differentiation among other actions.
The TGF Superfamily
The TGF superfamily has over 30 members and includes the
transforming growth factor s, the bone morphogenetic proteins, the
activin family, the Mllerian inhibiting factor (MIF, anti-Mllerian
hormone), and others. The TGF members are important for extracellular
matrix formation and epithelial branching that occurs in lung, kidney, and
salivary gland development. The BMP family induces bone formation and
is involved in regulating cell division, cell death (apoptosis), and cell
migration among other functions.
Signal Transduction Pathways
Paracrine Factors
Paracrine factors act by signal transduction pathways either by activating
a pathway directly
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