Human Impact On The Environment, An Illustrated World Atlas (2016)

Sergey Govorushko
Human
Impact on the
Environment
An Illustrated World Atlas
Human Impact on the Environment
Sergey Govorushko
Human Impact
on the Environment
An Illustrated World Atlas
123
Sergey Govorushko
Pacic Geographical Institute
Far Eastern Federal University
Vladivostok
Russia
ISBN 978-3-319-24955-1
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5
ISBN 978-3-319-24957-5
(eBook)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015951778

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microlms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specic statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media
(www.springer.com)
Preface
This book has a dual purpose. On the one hand, it is a geographic atlas, a collection
of geographical maps united by a common theme. In this case, the theme is human
impacts on nature. All of the maps in this atlas show either distribution of different
kinds of human activities or geographical aspects of their effects on natural components. As for territorial coverage, it is an atlas of the world because all the aspects
of human impact on the environment are considered on a global basis.
On the other hand, this volume is a reference book. It contains short descriptions
of the various kinds of human activity and their effects on specic natural components. It reflects scientic knowledge on these problems as it stood during the late
twentieth to early twenty-rst century. The extremely limited volume of text
allowed us to provide only minimal necessary information. More detailed information can be found in the references listed at the end of each chapter.
At the same time, this volume is an illustrated atlas, meaning that text and maps
are accompanied by photographs showing specic examples of human effects on
the environment. As the saying goes, One picture is worth a thousand words.
In the atlas, there are 300 photographs taken in 70 countries and all oceans.
As to the sources, they can be divided into three categories: (1) some citizens of
different countrieschiefly, scientic associates who sent me the needed illustrations in the form of slides, photographs, or separate electronic les; (2) some
organizations; and (3) sites of different international, national, and local organizations. I am grateful to the authors and organizations granting permissions for the use
of the photographs in this book. It seems to me sometimes that collecting permissions was more difcult than writing the text of the book. Lists of copyright
holders for maps and photographs are given in an appendix.
The book also includes about 65 maps. They were obtained for the atlas in a
variety of ways: (1) maps found in different sources (books, articles, Internet sites);
(2) maps synthesized on basis of two, three, and more sources; and (3) maps
prepared by the author specically for this book. In this case, a search of list of
objects was carried out at rst, the coordinates were determined, and, after that, the
objects were automatically plotted on the map using the program ArcGIS for
vi
Preface
Desktop. All of maps in the atlas are presented in the same projection (Robinson
projection).
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Academician P.Ya. Baklanov,
Director of the Pacic Geographical Institute, FEB of RAS (Far-Eastern Branch
of the Russian Academy of Sciences), for every possible support over many years
in conducting the investigations.
The support and assistance of current and former colleagues at the
Pacic Geographical Institute are also gratefully acknowledged; included are
Mr. V.B. Primak, Dr. S.M. Krasnopeev, Prof. A.M. Panichev, Dr. V.V. Aramilev,
Prof. A.V. Moshkov, Mr. A.V. Vlasov, and Mr. V.A. Solkin.
Numerous colleagues from Russia have also contributed indirectly to this book,
including Mr. V.A. Kantor, Prof. S.P. Gorshkov (Moscow State University,
Moscow), Prof. S.A. Bulanov, Dr. E.V. Tromova, Prof. A.A. Tishkov (all from the
Institute of Geography, Moscow), Ms. E.I. Udilova (Greenpeace/Russia, Moscow),
Dr. M.V. Khotuleva (Ecoline EA Centre, Moscow, Russia), Mr. E.V. Kovalev,
Ms. L.O. Kudryavtseva, Mr. A.A. Lapin, and others.
The author has had the unique opportunity of becoming acquainted and collaborating with numerous international colleagues. Of particular note are
Dr. I. Kelman (Centre for International Climate and Environment Research,
Oslo, Norway), Prof. C. Tisdell (University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia),
Prof. H.J. Walker (Louisiana State University, United States), Dr. S.F. Trush
(National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Hamilton, New Zealand),
and Prof. B. Braun (Geographical Institute of Kln University, Germany).
Of major importance to the author are the positive attitude and helpfulness of
Ms. L.P. Slavinskaya for assistance in preparation of the manuscript for publication,
and Ms. E.V. Oleinikova for preparation of electronic versions of maps.
Special thanks to Ms. D.M. Miller (Boulder, Colorado, USA) for close editing
of the manuscript and her persistence in overcoming differences between the
Russian and English, which, as I hope, allowed the book to become clearer for
the Western reader. The author would like to thank the translator, V.M. Karpets
(Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia).
The author will be very grateful to all who, after discovering errors, uncertainties, etc., in the book, send information concerning them to me at sgovor@tig.
dvo.ru. In addition, e-mailed photographs illustrating impacts of humanity on the
environment also would be helpful.
Contents
Electric Power Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1 Hydropower Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Thermal Power Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Nuclear Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Non-traditional or Alternative Power Structures
1.4.1 Solar Power Structures . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Wind Power Structures . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Geothermal Power Structures. . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Use of Oceanic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5 Electricity Production from Biomass. . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1
2
11
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27
31
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45
50
Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Petrochemical Industry . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Mining and Chemical Industry. . .
2.1.3 Other Chemical Industries . . . . . .
2.2 Metallurgy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Iron and Steel Manufacturing . . .
2.2.2 Non-ferrous Metal Manufacturing
2.3 Mechanical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Building Materials Industry . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Woodworking Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Wood Pulp and Paper Industry. . . . . . . .
2.7 Light Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Food Processing Industry . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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55
56
57
63
68
72
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85
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101
106
Mining and Mineral Processing . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1 Opencast Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Underground Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Drag and Hydraulic Extraction of Deposits
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113
113
120
124
vii
viii
Contents
3.4
3.5
In Situ and Heap Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Oil and Gas Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Land Oil and Gas Development . . . . .
3.5.2 Sea Bottom Oil and Gas Development
3.5.3 Extraction of Shale Oil and Shale Gas
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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130
133
133
138
143
147
Agriculture and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Plant Growing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Animal Husbandry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Timber Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Reforestation and Plantation Development.
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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151
151
151
162
174
174
185
188
Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 Automobile Transport .
5.2 Railway Transport . . .
5.3 Pipeline Transport . . .
5.4 Air Transport . . . . . . .
5.5 Water Transport . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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193
193
201
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230
Other Kinds of Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1 Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Hunting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Water Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 Housing and Communal Services . . . . . . . . . .
6.7 Power Transmission and Communication Lines
6.8 Recreational Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 Sports Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.10 Military Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.11 Space Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.12 Health and Veterinary Services . . . . . . . . . . .
6.13 Ritual Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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233
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250
255
259
264
272
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284
291
297
301
304
311
Appendix 1: List of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
321
Appendix 2: List of Copyright Holders for Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
323
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Contents
ix
Appendix 3: List of Photos and Their Copyright Holders . . . . . . . . . .
325
Appendix 4: List of Copyright Holders for Photos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
333
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
337
About the Author
Sergey Govorushko is a chief research scholar at the Pacic Geographical

Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences (Vladivostok, Russia). He is also professor
at the Far Eastern Federal University (Vladivostok). His research activities focus on
the interaction between humanity and the environment, including the impact of
natural processes on humanity; the impact of humanity on the environment; and
assessment of the interaction (environmental impact assessment, environmental
audit, etc.). He has authored ten and co-authored 14 monographs.
xi
Introduction
The effects of society on nature began when people rst appeared and have a long
history. At the early stages of the survival of the human race, the human population
was relatively small, and the impact of people on nature was minimal. The situation
has changed since people embraced the use of re more than a hundred thousand
years ago.
At the beginning, humans cleared forests with the aid of re in the course of
bushmeat hunting. Later on (80003000 BC), forests were cleared with the aid of
re for the purposes of agriculture and military operations (at rst in the course of
conflicts between tribes, and then between states) rather than hunting. The
slash-and-burn system resulted in one of the most essential environmental consequences: the desertication of 2 billion ha of fertile lands, which is greater than the
area of presently cultivated lands.
The distribution of different kinds of human activities in 1000 BCi.e., about
3000 years agois shown in Fig. 1. The numbers indicate the following:
America: (1) Arctic marine mammal hunters; (2) Subarctic forest
hunter-gatherers; (3) North American Pacic foraging, hunting, and shing peoples;
(4) Plateau shers and hunter-gatherers; (5) Desert hunter-gatherers; (6) Plains
bison hunters; (7) Poverty Point culture; (8) Eastern North American woodland
hunter-gatherers; (9) Maize farmers; (10) Olmec civilization; (11) Caribbean
hunter-gatherers; (12) Manioc farmers (replacing hunter-gatherers); (13) Chorrera
culture; (14) El Paraiso culture; (15) Amazon forest hunter-gatherers;
(16) Chinchoros culture; (17) Savanna hunter-gatherers; (18) Shellsh gatherers;
(19) Andean hunter-gatherers; (20) Pampas cultures; and (21) Patagonian shellsh
and marine mammal hunters.
Eurasia: (1) Saami; (2) Finno-Ugric taiga hunter-gatherers; (3) Paleo-Siberian
taiga hunter-gatherers; (4) Arctic marine mammal hunters; (5) N. European Bronze
Age cultures; (6) Karasuk culture (transhumant pastoralist chiefdoms);
(7) Proto-Altaic pastoralists; (8) Urneld cultures; (9) Cimmerians; (10) Celtiberians;
(11) Illyrians; (12) Thrace; (13) Greeks; (14) Phrygians; (15) Hittites; (16) Urartu;
(17) Iranian pastoralists; (18) Tibetans (transhumant pastoralists); (19) Sinic peoples;
(20) Koreans; (21) Ainu; (22) Levantine Kingdoms; (23) Aramaeans; (24) Elam;
xiii
xiv
Introduction
5
8
10
5
9 10
22
4
5
12
11 12
14
1516
13
22 23
11
17
24
25
31
18
34
26
27
21
33
19
20
28
30
29
32
35
13
14
12
15
7
16
17
19
18
20
21
Hunter-gatherers
Nomadic pastoralists
Uninhabited
Simple farming societies

Area of iron working, ca. 1000 BCE
Complex farming societies/chiefdoms
State societies
Area of bronze working, ca. 1000 BCE
Fig. 1 The world in 1000 BCE (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_1000_BCE.png) [CC

BY 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons
(25) Vedic Aryans; (26) Dravidians; (27) Burmese; (28) Zhou; (29) Thais; (30) Wu;
(31) Arabian pastoral nomads; (32) Austro-Asiatic rice farmers; (33) Late Jomon
culture; (34) Saba; and (35) Austronesians.
Africa: (1) Berbers; (2) Saharan pastoral nomads; (3) Egypt; (4) Kush; (5) West
African cereal farmers; (6) Ethiopian highland farmers; and (7) Khoisan.
Australia and Oceania: (1) Papuan Neolithic farmers; (2) Lapita culture
(proto-Polynesians); (3) Australian Aboriginal hunter-gatherers; (4) Tasmanian
hunter-gatherers.
Three thousand years ago, the worlds population was approximately 50 million
people. Naturally, hunting, gathering, and primitive agriculture and livestock
farming prevailed in those days. However, in the most developed civilizations, the
spectrum of activities was much wider. In some cases, we may speak of housing
and communal services.
For example, in the early third millennium BC in Mohenjo Daro, the largest
ancient city of the Indus River valley (within the territory of the present-day
Pakistan), each house had a canal for discharge of sewage into large main channels.
The rst waterworks also emerged many millenniums ago. For example, a permanent system of plated pipelines arranged on slopes for providing gravity flow of
water existed in ancient Iran 3000 years ago. The water was provided at the expense
of groundwater. At that time, water supply lines were also used in the interfluves
of the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers and in the valleys of the Nile and Indus.
Diversion of runoff was also used at that time. For example, an efcient system
of drainageirrigation channels within the Euphrates River basin (south
Introduction
xv
Mesopotamia) was created as early as the middle of the fourth millennium BC.
It consisted of channels, floodgates, dams surrounding the elds, and shadoofs.
Using each of them, one can lift about 2 t of water an hour time to a height of 6 m.
At that time, a primitive cement was already produced in Egypt, while burnt
loam bricks were used in the above-mentioned Mohenjo Daro. The oldest known
dam has been dated at 3000 BC. It was situated within 100 km of Amman (todays
Jordan); it was a stone wall 4.5 m high and 1 m thick. According to data from
archaeological nds, shipbuilding was used 7200 years ago.
However, technological development has made a gigantic step forward over the
last few millenniums. A vast number of new kinds of activities have developed, and
industrialization and scientictechnological progress have intensied environmental destruction. On the one hand, the development of industry and its infrastructure required additional destruction of natural ecosystems; on the other hand, a
new kind of the impact on the environment and on humans has been seen
pollution of natural constituents by anthropogenic wastes and their effects on living
organisms.
Human influences on the environment have reached critical scales, and the
existence of a global ecological crisis is generally recognized. Some idea of this
crisis is given by this atlas.
Chapter 1
Electric Power Industry
The electric power industry is the branch of power engineering that includes the
generation and transmission of electric energy. The key role of this branch is
explained by the advantages of electric energy over other kinds of energy
advantages such as the relative easiness of its long-distance transmission, distribution between consumers, and conversion to other kinds of energy (mechanical,
thermal, chemical, optical, and so on). A distinctive feature of electric energy is that
its generation and consumption are relatively simultaneous, because the electric
current propagates through the network with a speed close to the speed of light. In
the foreseeable future, it will remain a principal kind of energy, providing engineering progress in all spheres of the lives of people. Electricity is generated by
power plants through the use of energy carriers or the conversion of other kinds of
energy. For example, heat in thermal power stations transforms water into steam,
forcing the rotors of steam turbines. These turbines are connected to the rotors of
generators, in which the mechanical energy of the turbines is transformed into
electrical energy. Solar power stations transform the energy of sun-rays into electrical or thermal energy, for example.
The distribution of different kinds of electric power engineering is illustrated in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Contribution of power plants of different types to global electric power production
(percent) in 2011
Thermal power
engineering
Hydropower
engineering
Nuclear power
engineering
67.2
16.5
11.9
From http://www.c2es.org/technology/overview/electricity

S. Govorushko, Human Impact on the Environment,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5_1
Non-traditional
power engineering
Total
(%)
4.4
100
1.1
1 Electric Power Industry
Hydropower Structures
Hydropower engineering is a power industry based on the use of hydraulic power

for generation of electric energy in hydroelectric power plants (HPPs).
The HPPs are widely distributed (Fig. 1.1). Hydropower is a fully mature
technology, use in 159 countries (Technology Roadmap 2012). Worldwide
hydroelectric power production in 2010 amounted to 3427 terawatt-hours
(TWh) (Use and capacity of global hydropower increases 2012). Worldwide total
installed hydropower capacity in 2009 was 926 GW, generating 3551 TWh/year
(12.8 EJ/year), and representing a global average capacity factor of 44 % (Kumar
et al. 2011). World leaders (share of hydropower global capacity, percent) at the end
of 2013 were China (26.0), Brazil (8.6), the United States (7.8), Canada (7.6), and
Russia (4.7) (REN21 2014).
The major structures of an HPP include a dam, a storage reservoir, channels,
pressure pipelines, distribution devices, and other structures; however, the major
changes in the environment are caused by the construction of storage reservoirs
(Fig. 1.2).
The major damage associated with hydropower engineering is caused by
flooding of the land, changes in river run-off below a dam, and the backwater effect,
which, in turn, involve effects on practically all natural components. Basically,
these components include the following (Govorushko 2014): (1) condemned land;
(2) surface waters; (3) vegetation; (4) soils; (5) animal kingdom; (6) atmosphere;
and (7) geologic environment.
Legend:
more than 10;
Currently operational power stations
3,1-5;
Installed capacity (MW):

Power stations under construction
5,1-10;
2-3.
Fig. 1.1 Largest hydropower stations in the world. Prepared by author based on data at http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_hydroelectric_power_stations
1.1 Hydropower Structures
Legend:
>500
100-500
50-100
10-50
<10
No data available or reservoirs are absent
Fig. 1.2 Reservoirs of the world. Summary total capacity (by countries, million cubic metres per
1000 km2) (Resources and Environment 1998). Reproduced with permission of Institute of
Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences
More than 95 % of the land area used for energy facilities is used by HPPs
(Electrical power engineering and nature 1995). Such signicant condemnation of
lands creates strong socioeconomic impacts related chiefly to forced resettlement.
For example, construction of the Aswan High Dam required the resettlement of
120,000 local residents (Ibrahim 1983); the Pa-Mong Dam in Vietnam led to the
resettlement of 450,000 (Canter 1996); and construction of the Three Gorges Dam
in China resulted in the resettlement of 1.2 million people (Steil and Yuefang 2007).
The total number of displaced people is estimated at 80 million (Gorkina 2013). As
a result of flooding of land, historical, architectural, and archeological monuments
often disappear.
The influences on surface waters are diverse. A storage reservoir changes the
thermic regime of a river downstream as warmer water than that the river flows into
it in autumn and colder water flows into it in spring; differences reach, on average,
24 C. Sometimes, affected zones are several hundred kilometers long (Avakyan
et al. 1987).
Irregularities in daily and weekly water flow rates result in abrupt variations in
the ice regime. In regions with cold climates, this often causes autumn and spring
ice jams and, thereby, water level rises. Hydrochemical conditions change with the
seasons as well as the drainage of biogenic substances.
Variations in hydrological, hydrochemical, and thermal conditions result in
changes in the conditions under which ichthyofauna develop, because the biomass
of forage organisms decreases and the conditions of spawning, fattening, and
hibernation of sh deteriorate (Avakyan et al. 1987). In turn, these changes
influence the vegetative ground cover and the animal inhabitants of the river
valleys and deltas.
In storage reservoirs, there is an abrupt drop in water exchange as compared
with that in rivers. Reductions in flow velocities cause the sedimentation of nearly
all tractional load and a large portion of suspended solid particles on the bottom.
A World Bank study (Mahmood 1987) estimated that about 0.51 % of the total
freshwater storage capacity of existing reservoirs is lost each year due to sedimentation. These gures correspond to an annual loss of reservoir storage capacity
of some 45 billion m3 (estimated based on a rate of 0.75 %) (Zhide and Tong 2010).
Depending on the conditions in a storage reservoir, the water quality may be
either higher or lower than that in a river. The processes of natural purication
including sedimentation, settling, dilution, disintegration of organic substances, and
so oncan lead to improvements in water quality. In tropical areas, the water
quality is, as a rule, worse. The carriers of many diseases (such as malaria and
schistosomiasis) experience favorable living conditions, which results in increases
in the morbidity and mortality of people (Golubev 2006).
Transformation of the banks of storage reservoirs is especially intense over the
rst years after they are lled. The losses of land due to bank transformation may be
considerable. For example, about 5000 hathat is, approximately 2 % of the
flooded areawere lost near the Tsimlansky storage reservoir (Russia) (Electrical
power engineering and nature 1995). One more consequence of constructing
storage reservoirs is an under flooding of lands due to rising groundwater levels.
The under flooding, in turn, causes changes in the species composition of vegetation within the coastal zone.
Influences on vegetation are expressed as flooding of forests when a storage
reservoir is being lled. For example, more than 20 million m3 of wood appeared to
be under water after construction of the Ust-Ilimsky hydropower station (Russia)
(Engineering ecology 2003). The creation of storage reservoirs also results in
fundamental changes in higher aquatic vegetation and phytoplankton. For many
storage reservoirs, the rapid development of bluegreen algae is a serious problem
(water bloom).
Soils are affected due to their under flooding around the reservoir and lowering
of the groundwater line downstream of the dam due to decreases in the area of the
flood plain (Reservoir storages 1986).
Filling a reservoir has adverse effects on fauna. Often, the fast flooding of a
territory causes the loss of many animals. Many species of animals (snakes, shrews,
moles, hedgehogs, and so on) move too slowly to escape the rising water. Because
lands that previously were inundated primarily in spring may become flooded
permanently, the richest biogeocenoses are destroyed, which results in disappearance of the habitats of many animals. Unfavorable water levels cause a decrease in
the quantity of waterfowl and wading birds as well as of semiaquatic animals.
The construction of storage reservoirs signicantly affects the ichthyofauna.
Changes occur in things such as the rates of sh growth, the number and structure
of populations, lifetimes, and reproduction and maturing conditions. The erection of
dams on the majority of large rivers in the world disturbed the migration paths of
valuable diadromous and catadromous sh (sturgeon, salmon, herring). Their

spawning grounds proved to be inaccessible for spawners.
Effects on the atmosphere are expressed as changes in the climate of adjacent
territories. On the great plain storage reservoirs, the climatic variations affect the
territory commensurable with the water surface area; mountain storage reservoirs
exert little effect on the climate. In essence, the variations consist of a decline in the
climate continentality.
Storage reservoirs affect the climate through the discharge of greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere. The global annual emissions from hydroelectric reservoirs are
estimated around 301.3 Tg carbon dioxide and 18.7 Tg methane (Li and Zhang
2014). This effect is maximal in northern areas where great areas of peatlands are
within the flooded area (Louis et al. 2000).
The influence on the geological environment is expressed as increases in
seismicity. It is well known that the construction of great storage reservoirs in areas
of tectonic activity results in earthquakes. Some examples of the interrelationships
between storage reservoirs and earthquakes are as follows: Kremasta in Greece,
Koyna in India, Kariba in Zimbabwe and Zambia, Monteynard in France, and
Nurek in Tajikistan. Earthquakes with magnitudes of 6.0 or greater have been
observed in these areas (Mekkawi and Schnegg 2004; Nikolayev and
Vereshchagina 2006).
Most probably, the effects of storage reservoirs on surface waters, as well as on
ichthyofauna, soils, and vegetation of adjacent territories, should be recognized as
most important.
HPPs are quite safe sources of electric energy, but emergency situations related
to them are not uncommon. The failure of dams is most dangerous. The largest
catastrophic failure of a dam was that of the Banqiao Dam (Henan Province,
China) in 1975; the disaster killed 26,000 people (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Dam_removal). The greatest nancial loss (almost US$2 billion) was recorded in
the course of the 1976 Teton Dam failure in the Colorado River basin (Idaho,
United States) (Malik 2005).
The effects of HPPs on the environment are illustrated by Photos 1.11.10.
Photo 1.1 Dams are classied into four major categories based on the type of construction and
materials used: (1) embankment; (2) gravity; (3) arch; and (4) buttress dams. This image shows the
Kariba Dam. It is a concrete arch dam constructed between 1955 and 1959 on the Zambezi River.
The height of the dam is 128 m (420 ft.) and the length is 579 m (1900 ft.). It creates a reservoir (Lake
Kariba) with a total capacity of 180 km3 (43 cu mi). Photo credit: FAO Aquaculture Photo Library
Photo 1.2 Besides the dam hydroelectric stations (with articial control of the river levels through
the use of a dam), there are diversion power stations (with supply of water from the watercourse
through a special channel to the point where there are large differences in levels). These stations are
often constructed in the area of waterfalls. In this case, the water is taken from the watercourse
upstream of the waterfall and fed to the turbines downstream of the waterfall. In this aerial
photograph taken at a height of about 1 km, the American (to the left) and Canadian (to the right)
parts of Niagara Falls are shown. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall by user IDuke
on en.wikipedia (Photo by Duke) [CC BY-SA 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)
or CC BY-SA 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons
Photo 1.3 Now from 50 to 75 % of all water passing through Niagara Falls is carried away
through four great tunnels that are far upstream of the falls themselves. Then the water passes
through hydroelectric turbines that provide energy to the immediate areas of the United States and
Canada before it returns into the river downstream of the waterfalls. The aggregate capacity of the
electric power plants is 4.4 gigawatts (GW). The photo shows the Canadian electric power plant
Adam Beck II. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok,
Russia), 18 November 2011
Photo 1.4 The creation of reservoirs has strong socioeconomic impacts related chiefly to forced
resettlement. In total, the number of displaced people is estimated at 4080 million. After
construction of the Uglich Hydroelectric Station dam in 1939, the Uglich Reservoir was created
(surface area of 249 km2 and a water volume of 1.2 km3; its length is 143 km, and the maximum
depth is 23 m), which resulted in partial flooding of the town of Kalyazin. The photo shows the
submerged Kalyazin Bell Tower, located only partially above the water level. Photo credit: A.M.
Panichev (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 14 June 2013
Photo 1.5 Flooding of land can also result in the disappearance of historical monuments.
Recovery operations concerning masterpieces of Nubian architectonics found in the area flooded
by the Aswan hydropower station (Egypt) are widely known. The operation Recovery of
Abu-Simbel temples is known worldwide; two temples (those of Pharaoh Ramses II and his
beloved wife Nefertari) were cut into 2168 blocks weighing as much as 30 tons and moved
upwards by 64 m. A mounting of the face of Pharaoh Ramses II is shown.The face weighs
19.6 tons. Photo credit: Per-Olow Anderson, 1967
Photo 1.6 Reservoirs affect vegetation as forests are flooded when a storage reservoir is being
lled. The forest flooded in the course of lling the Kopylkov hydroelectric power station
(Velikaya River, Pskov Oblast, Russia) reservoir is shown. The construction of this hydroelectric
station was completed in 1952. The area of water storage is 23 km2, while the maximum depth is
29 m. Photo credit: A. Zabulonov, 26 July 2013
Photo 1.7 Creation of water storage reservoirs results in lateral erosion. The process of shore
transformation is especially intense during the rst years after a reservoir is lled. Losses of lands
due to shoreline erosion can be great. The transformed section of the Bratsk Reservoir shore at the
location of the Artumey settlement is shown. For the rst six years after the reservoir was lled, the
average rate of shore retreat reached 139.5 m/year. Photo credit: A.L. Ragozin, 1990
Photo 1.8 Large water reservoirs accumulate up to 9598 % of all alluvia brought down by a
river. The photo shows the Three Gorges Dam (upgrade-stream side) in China. At current levels,
80 % of the land in the catchment of its reservoir is experiencing erosion, depositing about
40 million tons of sediment into the Yangtze annually. Because the flow is slower above the dam,
much of this sediment will now settle there instead of flowing downstream, and there will be less
sediment downstream. Photo credit: A.N. Makhinov (Institute of Water and Ecological Problems,
Khabarovsk, Russia), 21 February 2009
10
Photo 1.9 Water quality in reservoirs may deteriorate due to slowdowns in water exchange,
development of living organisms, and processes of oxygen and thermal stratication. Storage
reservoirs are more subject to contamination as compared with rivers. The picture shows the
Tsimlyansk Reservoir in the lower course of the Don River (Russia). The green color of the water
indicates high levels of eutrophication due to an oversupply of nutrients, which induces explosive
growth of plants and algae. Photo credit: Russian Space Agency
Photo 1.10 Fish ladders are built on or around dams to aid the migration of diadromous sh. The
sh swim and leap up a series of relatively low steps to reach the waters on the other side of the
dam. The water must fall over the steps fast enough to attract the sh to the ladder, but it should
not flow so fast that it washes the sh back downstream or exhausts them to the point that they are
unable to continue their journey upriver. Photo credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_ladder by
USACE (USACE) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
1.2 Thermal Power Structures
1.2
11
Thermal Power Structures
A thermal power station is a power station that uses the energy of combustion of
any fuel to generate electric energy. The prevalent fuel is coal (59.5 %), followed by
gas (31.3 %), black oil (8.2 %), peat (0.8 %), and oil shales (0.2 %) (Fig. 1.3).
Legend:
Coal power stations
Natural gas power stations
Fuel oil power stations
Oil shale power stations
Peat power stations
Fig. 1.3 Thermal power stations. Prepared by author based on data from numerous internet
sources
Thermal power stations influence the following environmental components

(Govorushko 2013): (1) air; (2) surface waters; and (3) soils. Thermal and noise
effects are also of some importance. Thermal power stations exert indirect effects on
other components of the environment (e.g., vegetation, underground waters).
The effects on the atmosphere are expressed as consumption of enormous
amounts of oxygen and contamination of the air. The major contaminants discharged to the atmosphere include flying dust (ash), sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides,
and carbon dioxide. The contribution of thermal power engineering to air basin
contamination is estimated at 27 %. Solid particles account for 31 % of the total
amount of discharges, while sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides account for 42 and
24 %, respectively (Golubev 2006).
Some elements are discharged into the atmosphere in amounts exceeding their
extraction from deposits. For example, emission of molybdenum from coal-red
power plants is more than 3 times the amounts extracted from deposits; arsenic, 7
times; uranium and titanium, 10; aluminum, iodine, and cobalt, 15; mercury, 50;
lithium, vanadium, strontium, beryllium, and zirconium, in the hundreds; and
gallium and germanium, in the thousands (Engineering ecology 2003).
It should be noted that the volume released determines only the amount of fallout
contaminants. Reactions taking place in the atmosphere alter the emitted compounds.
12
Some emissions react with each other or natural elements in the atmosphere and are
transformed into more dangerous compounds, while others, on the contrary, become
safe. For example, nitrogen oxides, after oxidation to dioxides, fall to the ground in the
form of xed nitrogen, replacing common fertilizers in super alkaline soils.
The effects on surface waters include the following: (1) changes in the qualitative condition of water bodies and (2) influence on the amount of surface water.
Changes in the qualitative condition occur in the case of discharge to water bodies
of waste water with increased concentrations of contaminants.
The major contaminants released into water bodies are mineral salts (mainly
sulphates and chlorides) and oil products (e.g., sulfur fuel oils and kerosene) and
other pollutants (such as corrosion products, solutions of inorganic acids, and other
compounds). A danger of contamination of surface waters with soluble salts is that
they, in contrast to other pollutants (e.g., solid particles and organic, toxic, and
surfactant species), are not subjected to the effects of environmental processes (e.g.,
deposition, decomposition, and uptake by living organisms); therefore, they can be
extracted only by articial techniques (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
Pollution by oil products is characteristic mainly of oil-red thermal power
plants, and it is insignicant on the whole. Other pollutants are delivered to water
bodies with waters of cooling and hydraulic ash removal systems, spent solutions
after the chemical treatment of heat and power equipment, and so on. On the whole,
the effects of thermal power engineering on the qualitative condition of water bodies
are not too great.
The quantitative effects are expressed as an irrevocable withdrawal of water
resources. The major water losses take place in the operation of cooling systems
(water cooling towers, cooling ponds, and cooling passages). For example, about
2.5 % of the water circulating in a water cooling tower is lost due to evaporation
(ReVelle and ReVelle 1995).
The influences of thermal power engineering on soils also can be subdivided into
quantitative and qualitative. The former are expressed as a condemnation of land for
construction of the power plants (basic structures, cooling storage reservoirs, ash
disposal areas, etc.). For example, in the United States alone, coal-red power
plants generate nearly 140 million tons of fly ash, scrubber sludge, and other
combustion wastes every year (Stant 2010).
Changes in soil quality are caused by dust rising from the ash disposal area
surface, settling of atmospheric emissions directly on the soil, and washout of toxic
matter from vegetation when it rains.
As for thermal pollution, only 3035 % of the energy generated by fuel combustion in a coal-red power plant is delivered to consumers. About 10 % of the heat
goes to the atmosphere, while 5055 % of the energy is removed in the course of
water cooling of condensers (Rudsky and Sturman 2014). The discharge of warm
water may result in changes in the species composition of the aquatic flora and fauna,
because conditions become favorable for the reproduction of thermophiles.
The effects on vegetation are caused mainly by the contact of green parts of
plants with atmospheric pollutants and soil degradation. Soil contamination has
marked effects on crop capacity.
The effects of thermal power engineering on natural components are illustrated
by Photos 1.111.14.
1.2 Thermal Power Structures
13
Photo 1.11 The effects of electric power plants on the atmosphere include consumption of
enormous amounts of oxygen and contamination of the air. The major contaminants discharged to
the atmosphere include flying dust (ash), sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and carbon dioxide. From
the environmental viewpoint, coal combustion is the most dangerous process. When natural gas is
burned, the volume of released carbon dioxide is nearly two times less as compared with
combustion of coal. The releases from a coal electric power station (Luchegorsk, Primorsky krai,
Russia) into the atmosphere are shown. Photo credit: A.M. Panichev (Pacic Geographical
Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 14 June 2013
Photo 1.12 During the burning of peat, carbon dioxide emissions are lower by 424 times, and
suspended solid particles are lower by 219 times as compared with the burning of coal. One of the
worlds largest peat-fueled power plants, the Toppila Power Station, in Oulu, Finland, is shown. Its
capacity is 190,000 kW. It consists of two electric power units with capacities of 77,000 and
113,000 kW. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toppila_Power_Station
14
Photo 1.13 The prevailing type of fuel in thermal electric power plants is coal, followed by gas,
fuel oil, peat, and oil shale. The Buck Steam Station (North Carolina, United States) is a two-unit
coal-red generating station situated on the Yadkin River. Operating since 1926, this station has a
256 MW generating capacity and emitted 680,009 tons of carbon dioxide in 2011. Photo credit:
Les Stone (Greenpeace), 13 December 2011
Photo 1.14 The Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill occurred on 22 December 2008. An
ash dike ruptured at an 84-acre (0.34 km2) solid waste containment area at the Kingston Fossil
Plant in Roane County, Tennessee, United States. 1.1 billion gallons (4.2 million m3) of coal fly
ash slurry was released. The sludge traveled downhill, covering up to 400 acres (160 ha) of the
surrounding land, damaging homes and flowing into nearby waterways such as the Emory River
and Clinch River (tributaries of the Tennessee River). It was the largest fly ash release in U.S.
history. A collapsed house inundated by the spill is shown. Photo credit: Tennessee Valley
Authority, 23 December 2008
1.3 Nuclear Power Plants
1.3
15
Nuclear Power Plants
A nuclear power plant (NPP) is a power plant that transforms the energy of
nuclear disintegration in a reactor into electricity. In 2014, there were 435 civil
nuclear power reactors operating in 31 countries, with a further 71 under construction (http://www.world-nuclear.org/Nuclear-Basics/Global-number-of-nuclearreactors/). Global nuclear power capacity was 392 GW in 2013 (World energy
outlook 2014). The leaders in total generation are the United States, France, Russia,
South Korea, and Germany (http://www.businessinsider.com/countries-generatingthe-most-nuclear-energy-2014-3?op=1). As for percentage of total national electric
power generation, the countries rank in the following order (2013): France
(74.8 %), Slovakia (51.7 %), Belgium (51.0 %), Hungary (50.7 %), and Ukraine
(46.2 %) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country). Global distribution of NPPs is shown in Fig. 1.4.
While NPPs are operating, the following effects are observed (Semikolennykh
and Zharkova 2013): (1) radioactive pollution of natural components (especially the
atmosphere and surface waters); (2) thermal pollution of the water cooling reservoir
and underground waters; (3) chemical pollution of the atmosphere, soils, and water
bodies; (4) underflooding of territory; and (5) impacts on hydrobionts.
The major sources of atmospheric pollution with radioactive substances are as
follows: (1) combustible material nuclear ssion (supplies inert gases such as xenon
and krypton as well as radioactive iodine); (2) impact of neutron currents on the heat
carrier of the primary coolant system and ambient air; and (3) disturbance of the fuel
element cans. A number of auxiliary facilities are also sources of radioactivity.
The contribution to hydrospheric pollution is made by subactive waters (waters
of low radioactivity) of the following systems: (1) primary coolant circuit (waters
Fig. 1.4 Nuclear power plants of the world (Maksakovsky 2006, vol. 1). Reproduced with
permission of V.P. Maksakovsky
16
of cooling and fuel assembly transfer ponds); (2) control and protection system
loop; (3) waters forming during decontamination of the reactor plant rooms;
(4) flushing waters used in equipment deactivation; (5) waters of sanitary inspection
rooms and special laundries; and (6) waters discharged by radiochemical laboratories. During normal NPP operation, the volume of tritium in the water body silts
increases 2050 times as a result of water discharge (Alekseenko 2005).
Radioactive contamination of soils and vegetation occurs when radionuclides
fall out to the Earth surface from the atmosphere. Depending on the landscape
biochemical conditions, the radioactive contamination may accumulate or disperse.
During NPP operation, radioactive wastes of three kinds are produced: (1) spent
fuel (fuel elements lled with compressed, sintered pellets of uranium dioxide);
(2) waste products of reactor operation (wastes from cleaning of heat transfer agents
from radioactivity, control rods, and so on); and (3) dismantled waste products.
Depending on the disposal method, contamination of different natural media (surface and underground waters, geological environment, etc.) is possible.
Thermal pollution from NPPs, which is greater than that from thermal power
stations, is important (Yablokov 2001). In addition, the heat released by an NPP is
created through the condensation system with cooling water and only partially with
ventilation air; therefore, this thermal contamination does not signicantly affect the
atmosphere and instead extends to surface and underground waters.
For example, 4 million m3 of fresh and sea water per minute are discharged from
NPP water cooling systems in the United States, and temperatures of process water
exceed the temperatures of natural waters by 515 C (Dynamics of marine
ecosystems 2007). At the Kola NPP (Russia), located within the Arctic Circle, the
temperature of underground waters increased from 6 to 19 C near the main
building (Vronsky 2007).
NPPs also cause chemical pollution of surface waters. The pollutants can be
subdivided into three groups (Electrical power engineering and nature 1995):
(1) inorganic matter not exceeding the maximum permissible concentrations
(MPCs) in waters (sulphates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, and sodium);
(2) toxic substances whose concentrations exceed their MPCs in water bodies (salts
of iron, copper, and zinc, fluorine compounds, etc.); and (3) matter affecting biological oxygen demand values (ammonium salts, nitrates, suldes, etc.).
The contamination of air in the course of NPP operation is minor, caused by
volatile substances and dust emitted from different processing solutions and stored
solid waste, and combustion of organic fuels (gas, fuel oil, coal) used in heaters and
other plants (Semikolennykh and Zharkova 2013).
Hydrobionts are affected by thermal contamination of the aquatic environment
and their passage through water intakes. For example, the total number of sh
involved in the water intakes in an NPP on Lake Erie (with water flow of about
85 m3/s) can exceed 500 million individuals a year. In the Leningrad NPP (Russia),
50 % of zooplankton is killed when it enters the water intakes (Kryshev and
Ryazantsev 2000).
The influence of NPPs on natural components that occurs during dismantling is
not clearly understood, because we have little experience in decommissioning.
The effects of NPPs on the environment are illustrated by Photos 1.151.20.
17
Photo 1.15 The thermal pollution from nuclear power plants is greater than that from thermal
power stations. The heat is released by an NPP through the condensation system with cooling
water and through ventilation air. The photo shows cooling towers of a nuclear power plant in
Cattenom, France. It ranks seventh in capacity among nuclear power station in the world,
generating 5200 MW of electric energy (four reactors with capacities of 1300 MW each). Photo
credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 24 August 2012
Photo 1.16 The photo shows the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, located in Miyagi Prefecture,
Japan. It was the most quickly constructed NPP in the world. The plants waste heat water leaves
7 C higher than it came in and it released 10 m under the surface of the water, in order to reduce
adverse effects on the environment. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onagawa_Nuclear_
Power_Plant by user Nekosuki600 on en.wikipedia [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons
Photo 1.17 The Vermont Yankee is a NPP located in Vernon, Vermont, United States. The
Connecticut River provides cooling water for its two major water systems: the circulating water
system and the service water system. The circulating water system is used to cool the plants main
condenser. The service water system is used to cool auxiliary components in the nuclear facility
and the turbine facility; it is also used to absorb decay heat from the reactors cooling systems
during emergencies or when the reactor is shut down. Photo credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Vermont_Yankee_Nuclear_Power_Plant by Nuclear Regulatory Commission
18
Photo 1.18 NPPs produce three kinds of radioactive wastes: (1) spent fuel (fuel elements lled
with compressed, sintered pellets of uranium dioxide); (2) waste products of reactor operation
(wastes from cleaning of radioactive materials from heat transfer agents, control rods, and others);
and (3) dismantled waste products. The fuel elements in the reactor hall of the Leningrad NPP
(Russia) are shown. Photo credit: V. Kantor (Greenpeace Russia), October 1997
19
Photo 1.19 The photo shows technicians placing transuranic waste at the Waste Isolation Pilot
Plant near Carlsbad, New Mexico. Mishaps that occurred at the plant during 2014 brought
attention to the problem of how to deal with increasing stockpiles of spent fuel from commercial
nuclear reactors, which are currently stored at the reactor sites. In 2010, the U.S. Department of
Energy shelved plans to develop the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository in Nevada. Photo
credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repository by DOE Photo [Public domain],
via Wikimedia Commons, 31 August 2005
Photo 1.20 Different groups of organisms can be ranked according to their degree of
susceptibility to radioactive irradiation as follows: beasts; birds; higher plants; shes; reptiles;
amphibians; crustaceans; insects; mosses; lichens and algae; bacteria; protozoa; mollusks; and
viruses. A piggy-mutant having one head and two trunks is shown. This mutation was due to the
Chernobyl NPP accident, which took place on 26 April 1986. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Chernobyl_disaster_effects by Vincent de Groothttp://www.videgro.net (Own work)
[GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
20
1.4
Non-traditional or Alternative Power Structures
Non-traditional or alternative power structures include power plants that use

renewable energy sources. Strictly speaking, hydraulic power is also a renewable
source, but it, along with thermal and nuclear power, is generally categorized as
traditional power engineering. The shares of different types of power generation are
shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Global renewable energy capacity production, 2013
Geothermal
Solar
PV
Solar
thermal
Wind
Capacity
12
139
3.4
318
(GW)
Share (%)
2.14
24.78
0.61
56.69
Calculated by author with using data from REN21 (2014)
Tide
Biomass
Total
0.5
88
560.9
0.09
15.69
100
By the end of 2013 the ve countries that were leaders in the generation of
electric power from these sources were China, the United States, Germany, Spain,
Italy, and India (REN21 2014).
1.4.1
Solar Power Structures
A solar power plant (SPP) is an engineering structure used to convert solar

radiation into electric power. Sunlight can be converted into electricity by using
photovoltaics (PV). More than 100 countries use solar PV. In 2013, Germany
(35.9 GW), China (19.9 GW), Italy (17.6 GW), Japan (13.6 GW), and the United
States (12.1 GW) were the leaders in this eld. The global solar PV market at the
end of 2013 exceeded 139 GW (REN21 2014).
Photovoltaics have mainly been used to power small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes
powered by photovoltaic arrays. For large-scale generation, SPPs are used
(Fig. 1.5). As of April 2013, the largest PV power plants in the world were the
Agua Caliente Solar Project (Arizona, United States, 250 MW), California Valley
Solar Ranch (United States, 250 MW), the Golmud Solar Park (China, 200 MW),
the Welspun Energy Neemuch Project (India, 150 MW), and the Mesquite Solar
project (Arizona, United States, 150 MW) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_
power_by_country).
21
100
100
80
120
100
160
180
140
120
140
160
180
200
220
200
240
220
240
140
260
220
240
200
140 160
180
180
260
240
220
240
220
220
260
240
200
220
180
160
260
240
220
240
220
240
240
220
240
200
220
240
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
140
120
100
80
100
Solar thermal power stations;
Legend:
Solar photovoltaic power stations
Fig. 1.5 Average annual amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth surface in watts per square
meter (Resources and environment 1998). Reproduced with permission of the Institute of
Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Main solar power stations. Prepared by author
based on data from numerous internet sources
Electricity and heat are produced from solar radiation in the following ways:
(1) generation of electric power by using photocells; (2) conversion of solar energy
into electricity by means of thermal machines, such as (a) steam engines (piston or
turbine) using steam, carbon dioxide gas, propane-butane, or Freon and (b) Stirling
engines (a kind of external combustion engine that may operate on any heat source);
(3) solar power engineering (heating of a surface absorbing sun-rays and subsequent distribution and use of the heat; focusing of solar radiation on a vessel
containing water for subsequent application of the heated water in heating systems
or steam electric generators); (4) thermo-air power plants (conversion of solar
energy into the energy of an air stream directed to a turbo-generator); and (5) solar
balloon power plants (generation of steam inside a balloon covered with a selectively absorbing coating that is heated by solar radiation).
The methods of solar radiation conversion are different and depend on the
power plant construction. All SPPs are subdivided into several types:
(1) tower-base SPPs; (2) dish-shaped SPPs; (3) SPPs using photovoltaic cells;
(4) SPPs using parabolic concentrators; (5) combined SPPs; and (6) balloon SPPs.
The often-declared environmental cleanness of solar power engineering is an
illusion. From an environmental point of view, only the operation stage can be
considered relatively clean, and even that assertion is made with reservations.
The negative effects of solar power engineering become apparent in the following: (1) condemnation of land; (2) contamination of natural media in manufacturing materials for plants; (3) contamination of the environment with highly
toxic chlorates and nitrites from working fluid leaks; (4) influence on vegetation and
22
soils when they are shaded by solar concentrators; (5) changes in the heat balance
and humidity near plants; (6) death of birds at power-base solar plants; (7) climatic
effects of SPPs in space; (8) television and radio noises; and (9) thermal effects on
the environment of cooling a condensate.
The construction of solar power stations needs large areas of land. A power
plant producing 1000 MW in a hot, dry locality (such as west or central Australia)
will need a total collector area of 1325 km2. This area is more than that occupied
by an ordinary thermal power plant but less than the territory used for a plant and
coal open-cut (Govorushko 2011a).
The indirect environmental impact of solar power engineering lies in the fact
that it demands considerable resources. Enterprises manufacturing concrete, glass,
steel, and other materials are needed to support the construction of SPPs. The
making of photoelectric cells for solar batteries demands substances (silicon, cadmium, arsenide-gallium) that are hazardous to produce. In the case of wide
development of solar power engineering, such indirect effects on the natural
environment could be considerable.
The effects of solar power stations on the environment are illustrated by Photos
1.211.28.
Photo 1.21 Power-base SPPs consist of numerous mirrors. They direct the sun-rays to containers
lled with water that are mounted on towers In this process, a great deal of thermal energy is
generated. The water is heated and transformed into vapor, which is transferred to
turbine-generator units. Birds flying over the surfaces of such power plants are roasted alive on
the fly due to the high temperatures, which can reach 1000 F (about 537 C). The photo shows
Solucar PS10, the rst solar thermal power plant based on a tower in the world that generates
electricity for commercial use. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_thermal_
power_stations by afloresm (SOLUCAR PS10) [CC BY 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons, 27 September 2007
23
Photo 1.22 The construction of solar power stations requires large areas of land. A power plant
producing 1000 MW of electricity in a hot, dry locality (such as west or central Australia) will need
a total collector area of 1325 km2. This area is more than that occupied by an ordinary thermal
power plant but less than the territory used for a plant and coal open-cut. The photo shows the Nellis
Solar Power Plant, located in Nevada, United States. The power plant occupies 140 acres, contains
about 70,000 solar panels, and generates 14 MW of solar power for Nellis Air Force Base. Photo
credit: U.S. Air Force photo, Airman 1st Class Nadine Y. Barclay, 9 October 2007
Photo 1.23 Solar thermal energetics is not designed to generate electric energy. As a result of
heating of surfaces absorbing sunlight, water can be heated and used for hot water supplies or
heating systems. The photo shows solar collecting panels used to provide a hot water supply in
north-eastern China. China accounts for 64 % of the globes solar water heating collectors, followed
by the United States (5.8 %), Germany (4.2 %), Turkey (3.9 %), and Brazil (2.1 %). Photo credit:
S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia) 25 August 2007
24
Photo 1.24 One of the environmental problems associated with photovoltaic solar panels is the
use of cadmium in cadmium telluride solar cells. Metallic cadmium is a toxic substance that tends
to accumulate in ecological food chains. The amount of cadmium used in thin-lm PV modules is
relatively small (510 g/m2), and cadmium emissions during module production can be reduced to
almost zero with proper pollution control methods. Current PV technologies result in cadmium
emissions of 0.30.9 g/kWh over the whole life cycle. The photo shows solar panels on the roof
of a house in the town of Bad Drkheim (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany). Photo credit: S.M.
Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia) 26 August 2012
Photo 1.25 Solar power is used in a numerous mechanisms and devices. A solar panel cooker is
displayed. It is a corrugated board box coated on inside with foil; the open side is situated to face
the sun. The foil surface reflects the sunlight, heating a vessel containing water to pasteurization
temperatures at a certain point inside the box. Villagers like this woman in Zouzugu, Ghana,
prevent dracunculiasis and other water-borne diseases by pasteurizing water in solar cookers.
Photo credit: Tom Sponheim

Photo 1.26 Yet another
similar example of the use of
solar power is a starboard
lateral post marking the
channel of Otago Harbor in
New Zealand. It glows during
hours of darkness by using
energy accumulated by a solar
cell battery during daylight
hours. Photo credit: http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_
power_in_New_Zealand, 26
November 2010
Photo 1.27 A solar-powered

trash compactor in
Hertogenbosch (Netherlands)
is shown here. By
compressing its contents, the
unit gains capacity, so it does
not have to be emptied as
often. Fewer trash collections
mean cost savings for labor,
fuel, and maintenance, and
reduced greenhouse gas
emissions. Solar-powered
trash compactors are perfect
for cities, community centers,
parks, beaches, or other
high-trafc areas. Photo
credit: S.M. Govorushko
(Pacic Geographical
Institute, Vladivostok,
Russia), 10 August 2014
25
26
Photo 1.28 A solar pump used to deliver water to a pasture is shown. A hose is submerged in the
water body, and the pump, through a system of flexible pipelines, conveys water to where it is
used. A solar cell battery is used as the electric power source. Photo credit: U.S. Department of
Agriculture
1.4.2
27
Wind Power Structures
Wind power stations convert wind energy into electric power. They consist of
several wind turbines constructed in one locality. Worldwide, at least 806,000
small-scale turbines were operating at the end of 2012, exceeding 678 MW (REN21
2014) (Figs. 1.6 and 1.7).
Fig. 1.6 Global wind power potential (http://blog.fabric.ch/index.php?/archives/1309-WhereWind-and-Solar-Power-Make-Sense.html; http://news.cnet.com/i/bto/20080304/3t_global_wind_

540x420.jpg; http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/wind_maps.asp)
Legend:
Offshore wind farms
Onshore wind farms
Fig. 1.7 Wind farms. Prepared by author based on data from numerous internet sources
28
By the end of 2013 wind energy was used in 103 countries. The leaders in the
generation and use of wind power were China (91.4 GW), the United States
(61.1 GW), Germany (34.7 GW), Spain (23.0 GW), and India (20.2 GW). The
worldwide wind capacity reached 336,327 GW by the end of June 2014 (http://
www.wwindea.org/webimages/WWEA_half_year_report_2014.pdf).
Wind power plants are categorized according to where they are placed:
(1) ground (wind turbines are usually installed in the hills); (2) coastal, or onshore
(a small distance from the sea coast); (3) offshore (constructed at sea, within
1012 km of shore); and (4) floating.
So far, ground wind power plants are the most common. The greatest of them is
the Jiuquan Wind Power Base in Gansu Province (China). It has a capacity of
5160 MW (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu_Wind_Farm). The largest onshore
wind farm is the Alta Wind Energy Center located in Tehachapi Pass in California,
with an installed capacity of 1320 MW (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_Wind_
Energy_Center).
The greatest offshore wind power plant is the London Array (outer Thames
Estuary in United Kingdom), with an installed capacity of 630 MW (http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Array). The worlds rst operational deep-water floating large-capacity wind turbine is the Hywind (52.3 MW turbine) in the my Fjord
near Stavanger, Norway (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_wind_turbine).
The adverse effects of wind power engineering include the following
(Govorushko 2011b): (1) condemnation of land; (2) influence on the animal world;
(3) noise impact; (4) visual impact; and (5) electrical, radio, and television noises.
Wind turbines cannot be too close to each other, because their capacities will be
reduced due to wind flow interference. The result is considerable withdrawal of
land. Wind power plants require approximately 0.1 km2 of free space per megawatt.
Wind power plants pose dangers to birds, insects, and aquatic organisms. The
impact on the ichthyofauna is most dangerous during WPP construction: disturbances in their habitats result in sh migration and sh kill. During the operational
period, the effects of noises and vibrations are not great, while cessation of navigation and shing between the turbine supports may even have positive consequences. The effects on marine mammals (dolphins, seals, whales) are also minor.
During construction, the bottom deposits and structure of turbulent currents
change, which has an adverse effect, rst of all, on benthic organisms. The extent
of the impact depends on the substrate; it is minimal in the case of bottom rock
(Kiseleva and Nefedova 2006). During operation when electric power is transmitted through a submarine cable, strong electric and magnetic elds may cause
fright reactions among sh and bottom-dwelling organisms, and, in this case, the
cable will be a barrier to sh migration (Kadomskaya et al. 2006).
The effect on birds is minimal according to data obtained by European
ornithologists. Birds feel wind turbines at a distance of more than 1 km and avoid
them (Kiseleva and Nefedova 2006). According to data obtained by Sovacool
(2009), 0.30.4 fatalities per gigawatt-hour of electricity have been recorded, which
29
corresponds to about 70,000 birds a year for the United States. There are also data
on the death of bats. A study in 2004 estimated that over 2200 bats were killed by
63 onshore turbines in just 6 weeks at two sites in the eastern United States (Arnett
et al. 2005).
The noise impacts caused by wind turbines include mechanical and aerodynamic. The components responsible for the greatest noise are the generator; the
swing actuator, which turns the top part of the wind power plant toward the wind;
the gearbox; and the blades. Noise from some of these components is continuous,
while that from the others occurs from time to time; however, noise is produced
only when the turbine is operating. All in all, the noise of spinning turbines is
relatively low as compared with that of other industrial sources.
Visual impacts also occur, but they are subjective. Many people believe that
wind power stations improve the esthetic qualities of the landscape; however, there
are people who consider them to be unacceptable.
Wind power stations are a source of radio and television interference. In
particular, the reflection of radio waves in the ultrashort band (USB) and microwave
range by the rotating blades of wind power plants disturbs normal operation of
airlines navigational instruments and complicates television transmissions
(Engineering ecology 2003).
The effects of wind power stations on the environment are illustrated by Photos
1.291.32.
Photo 1.29 Windmills, along with watermills, have been used by humanity for a long time. Such
mills have been used largely for grain milling and woodworking (lumber mills), and as pumping or
lift stations. Other uses have included tree bark milling for use in the leather industry, for cutting of
rolled metal products, for degradation of ores of some nonferrous metals, and for milling of oil
seeds. They were also used in textile manufacturing, and in the production of carpets, gunpowder,
paints, and other products. A windmill in Belgium is shown. Photo credit: V.V. Rudsky (Moscow
State Regional University, Russia), 10 August 2014
30
Photo 1.30 According to the where they are placed, the following types of wind power plants can
be categorized: (1) ground (wind turbines are usually installed in the hills); (2) coastal, or onshore (a
small distance from the sea-coast); (3) offshore (constructed at sea, within 1012 km of shore); and
(4) floating. Ground wind turbines in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, are shown here. Photo
Photo 1.31 The Lillgrund offshore wind farm in Sweden is shown here. Global installed wind
power capacity reached 282.5 GW in 2012, a 19 % increase over that in the previous year. Photo
credit: Tomasz Sienicki, 2 September 2011
Photo 1.32 The effect of wind farms on birds is not very great. Birds feel wind turbines at a
distance of more than 1 km and avoid them. However, 0.30.4 fatalities per gigawatt-hour of
electricity have been recorded, which corresponds to about 70,000 birds a year in the United
States. Some wind power stations discontinue operation during seasonal migration of birds. The
picture shows birds navigating near wind turbines. Photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/Sterna_paradisaea by Dirk Ingo Franke (Own work) [CC BY-SA 2.0 de (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/de/deed.en)], via Wikimedia Commons
1.4.3
31
Geothermal Power Structures
A geothermal power plant is a power station that converts the heat in the Earth
into electric power. World high-temperature geothermal provinces are shown in
Fig. 1.8. At present, geothermal resources have been identied in some 90 countries, and there are quantied records of geothermal utilization in 78 countries
(Lund 2010). Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries,
while geothermal heating is used in 70 countries.
Based on the rated electrical power (in gigawatts), the following countries
occupied the leading positions at the end of 2013: (1) United States, 3.4; (2) the
Philippines, 1.9; (3) Indonesia, 1.3; (4) Mexico, 1.0; and (56) Italy and New
Zealand, 0.9 (REN21 2014).
A geothermal power plant operates as follows. Water is pumped through wells
deep in the Earth where the rocks are very hot. Inltrating into the rock joints and
cavities, water gets warm with steam formation and rises back through the other,
parallel wells. Thereafter, the hot water is delivered immediately to the power plant,
where its energy is transformed into electricity by one or more turbines and
generators.
At present, three types of geothermal power plants are used: (1) those using
superheated steam [geothermal steam is directly used for rotation of turbines (dry
steam)]; (2) those using steam-hydrotherms [hot, deep water under high pressure is
pumped into reservoirs at reduced pressure; the steam that is formed rotates a
turbine (flash steam)]; and (3) those with a binary cycle (moderately hot water
comes into contact with a second liquid having a lower boiling point; the heat of the
Legend:
Geothermal power stations.
Fig. 1.8 World high-temperature geothermal provinces (Maksakovsky 2006, vol. 1). Reproduced
with permission of V.P. Maksakovsky
32
geothermal water evaporates the second liquid, and the resulting vapours drive the
turbines) (Kagel et al. 2007).
Geothermal power stations have major adverse effects on the following environmental components (Kubo 2003; Arnorsson 2004): (1) atmosphere; (2) geological environment; (3) surface and underground waters; (4) animal world;
(5) condemnation of land; and (6) noise pollution.
The major air pollutants include hydrogen sulde, carbon dioxide, methane,
ammonia, hydrogen, nitrogen, mercury vapor, radium, and radon (Gupta and
Aggarwal 2001). These pollutants contribute to global warming and acid rain, and
produce noxious smells if released. Hydrogen sulde is the most hazardous.
Existing geothermal power plants emit an average of 122 kg of carbon dioxide
per megawatt-hour of electricity (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_power).
The atmospheric contamination per gigawatt-hour is believed to be as small as
compared with that for coal-red power plants. The power plants using binary
cycles do not contaminate the atmosphere (Govorushko 2011c).
The effects on the geological environment include increases in seismicity and
subsidence of the Earth surface. A project in Basel, Switzerland, was suspended
because more than 10,000 seismic events measuring up to 3.4 on the Richter scale
occurred over the rst 6 days of water injection (Deichmann et al. 2007).
The construction of geothermal power plants can adversely affect land stability.
Subsidence has occurred in the Wairakei eld in New Zealand (Lund 2007) and in
Staufen, southern Germany (Waffel 2008).
Surface waters are polluted when waste waters are discharged. The most toxic
pollutants are arsenic, boron, and hydrogen sulde, elements and compounds that
are frequently present in poisonous concentrations in geothermal waters. Other
pollutants that may be present in harmful concentrations include aluminum,
fluorine, ammonia, salts, and various heavy metals.
High concentrations of heavy metals are associated with high-temperature brines
such as those at the Salton Sea in California. High bromine and arsenic concentrations are found in many geothermal systems associated with andesitic volcanism.
Examples include Mount Apo in the Philippines and Achuapan in El Salvador.
Boron-rich geothermal waters form upon reaction with marine sediments, such as at
Ngwaha in New Zealand (Arnorsson 2005).
Consumption of water by geothermal power plants is insignicant. They use 20 l
of fresh water per megawatt-hour versus over 1000 l per megawatt-hour for coal
plants (Lund 2007). Cases are known of contamination of underground water due
to leakages in reservoirs and pipelines (Birkle and Merkel 2000).
Animal inhabitants of surface waters are affected by these plants. For example,
the geothermal heat carrier used in the New Zealand geothermal power plant
Wairakei is discharged to the river of the same name. Concentrations of a number
of heavy metals (e.g., mercury) in trout muscular tissue exceed many times the
norm (Tomarov 1997).
The condemnation of land for utilizing geothermal power is minor.
A geothermal facility uses 404 m2 of land per gigawatt-hour, while a coal facility
uses 3632 m2/GWh (Kagel et al. 2007). The noise impact is also minor. At the well
33
drilling stage, it does not exceed 54 db, while during operation, levels are only
1528 db (Kagel et al. 2007).
The effects of geothermal power stations on the environment are illustrated by
Photos 1.33 and 1.34.
Photo 1.33 This picture shows the Larderello geothermal power station (Italy), the worlds rst
such plant built for commercial use. The history of the plant began on 4 July 1904 when the rst
geothermal power generator was tested there. Geothermal reservoirs must reach or exceed 180 C
in order to be useful for energy production. The geology of Larderello makes it uniquely
conducive to geothermal power production, with hot granite rocks lying unusually close to the
surface, producing steam as hot as 202 C (396 F). Now it produces 10 % of the worlds entire
supply of geothermal electricity, amounting to 4800 GWh per year and powering about a million
Italian households. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larderello, August 2009
Photo 1.34 Existing geothermal electric power plants emit an average of 122 kg of carbon
dioxide per megawatt-hour of electricity. The atmospheric contamination per gigawatt-hour of
electricity is small as compared with that for coal-red power plants. The photo shows the
Reykjanes Power Station. It uses steam and brine from a reservoir at 290320 C, which is
extracted from 12 wells that are 2700 m deep. This is the rst time that geothermal steam of such
high temperatures has been used for electricity generation. Photo credit: Steve Morgan
(Greenpeace), 5 December 2010
34
1.4.4
Use of Oceanic Energy
1.4.4.1
Wave Power Structures
The wave power of the world ocean is estimated at 2.7 billion KW (Engineering
ecology 2003). For electricity generation, one can use wind-generated waves and
surge. A peculiarity of sea disturbances is their inhomogeneity over time: maximum values are 511 times higher than average values (Govorushko 2011d).
Spatial inhomogeneity is also characteristic of ocean disturbances. Wave power
flows are greatest in coastal zones at high latitudes, and the wave energy density in
the southern hemisphere is much higher than that in the northern hemisphere. The
coasts in the low latitudes show comparatively small energy flows. The boundaries
of sharp changes in the wave energy flow values for the Pacic coasts of North and
South America, as well as for the American coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, pass along
30N and 30S. For the eastern Atlantic coasts, the boundary of abrupt change in
the energy flow in the southern hemisphere shifts to 10S (Modern global changes
2006, vol. 2) (Fig. 1.9).
< 5 kW/m;
5-10 kW/m;
10-15 kW/m;
15-20 kW/m;
Legend:
20-30 kW/m;
30-40 kW/m;
40-60 kW/m;
>60 kW/m;
Wave power stations
Fig. 1.9 Wave energy flux in kilowatts per meter wave front (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_
power)
The average maximal density of wave energy is 40 MW/km of coastline

(Grifths 2003). The extreme values are characteristic of the north-western coast of
Great Britain in the vicinity of the Hebrides, where the wave energy density reaches
80 MW/km (Engineering ecology 2003). Wave energy levels are shown in Fig. 1.9.
On the whole, increased energy density is characteristic of the Pacic coastal zone,
35
which is also extremely long. This index is slightly lower for the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans (Modern global changes 2006, V. 2).
There are three basic methods for converting wave energy to electricity:
1. Float or buoy systems that use the rise and fall of ocean swells to drive
hydraulic pumps. The object can be mounted to a floating raft or to a device
xed on the ocean floor. A series of anchored buoys rise and fall with the waves.
The movement strokes an electric generator and produces electricity, which is
then transmitted ashore by underwater power cables.
2. Oscillating water column devices in which the in-and-out motions of waves at
the shore enter a column and force air to turn a turbine. The column lls with
water as the wave rises and empties as it descends. In the process, air inside the
column is compressed and heats up, creating energy the way a piston does. That
energy is then harnessed and sent ashore by electric cable.
3. Tapered channel, or tapchan, systems rely on a shore-mounted structure
to channel and concentrate the waves, driving them into an elevated reservoir.
Water flow out of this reservoir is used to generate electricity, using standard
hydropower technologies (http://www.oceanenergycouncil.com/index.php/
Wave-Energy/Wave-Energy.html).
The worlds rst commercial wave energy plant was put into service in the
Portuguese area of Aguadoura on 23 September 2008. Its turbines provide a power
of 2.25 MW. It is believed that the number of turbines (generators) in this plant can
be increased in the future and raise the capacity to 21 MW (http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Wave_farm).
The influence of wave power engineering on the environment is not great and is
expressed as follows: (1) animal world; (2) surface waters; (3) variations in the
dynamics of deposit movement within the coastal zone; (4) visual impact; and
(5) indirect impact caused by high materials consumption.
Wave power stations create hazards for some animals near them. Large
machines have to be put near and in the water to gather energy from the waves.
These machines disturb the sea floor, change the habitat of near-shore creatures
(like crabs and starsh), and create noise that disturbs the sea life.
Impacts on surface waters involve spillage and pollution by toxic chemicals
that are used on wave energy platforms (http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/
Advantages_Disadvantages_WaveEnergy.php).
The effects on deposit movement dynamics occur when the wave energy plants
are constructed within the coastal zone. The structures serve as breakwaters, disrupting the balance between erosion and accumulation of deposits. If the energy
converters are placed in the deep waters of the open sea, the energy plants do not
affect coastal stability (Ageev 2004).
The visual impact lies in the fact that, when wave energy plants are installed
near a coastline, problems of esthetics arise because the plants are visible from
shore. The indirect impacts occur because signicant quantities of metals are
melted to construct the wave energy plants, which is ecologically harmful.
36
In addition, the presence of a continuous line of wave energy plants may become
a barrier for navigation and prove to be hazardous for ships under stormy conditions. On the whole, wave power engineering is characterized by the least environmental impact of all the energy industries (Govorushko 2003).
The effects of wave power plants on the environment are illustrated by Photos
1.351.37.
Photo 1.35 The indirect impact of wave farms occurs because signicant quantities of metals are
melted to construct the wave energy plants, which is ecologically harmful. The photo shows one of
three Pelamis machines bursting through a wave at the Aguadoura Wave Park off Portugal. Each
Pelamis machine is 140 m long and 3.5 m in diameter and comprises four sections. Photo credit:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Electricity, September 2008
37
Photo 1.36 OPTs PB150 is a power station for generating electrical energy from wave power. It
is a point absorber or buoy, currently in use or in planning at nine locations around the world, but
primarily within Australia and the United States. It generates power using a hydroelectric turbine.
Power Buoys can be connected to the electrical grid by power transmission cables, or they can
operate autonomously in a deep-water environment. The rising and falling of the waves offshore
causes the buoy to move freely up and down. The resultant mechanical stroking drives an electrical
generator. The generated wave power is transmitted ashore via an underwater cable. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBuoy, 1 April 2011
Photo 1.37 The Wello Penguin is truly organic and unique in design. It captures kinetic energy,
turning it into usable power while riding the waves. The 1600 ton vessel, approximately 30 m
long, is held in place by three wires anchored to the seabed below. The Penguin fleet may consist
of anything from one or more units, depending on the desired energy production capacity. The
Penguin is designed to be simple, reliable, and extremely durable in order to withstand the harsh
conditions of the ocean environment. All operational parts are placed inside its protective cover.
The Penguin represents great value over its lifetime, as it requires very little maintenance. Overall
it has a longer life cycle than an average wind power plant. Photo credit: Steve Morgan
(Greenpeace), 29 September 2011, Orkney Islands
38
1.4.4.2
Tidal Power Stations
Tidal power is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity. There are three basic types of tidal power plants: (1) tidal stream systems
make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines, in a way that is
similar to windmills using moving air; (2) barrages make use of the potential energy
in the difference in height between high and low tides; they are essentially dams
across the full width of a tidal estuary; (3) dynamic tidal power exploits a combination of potential and kinetic energy, by constructing dams 3050 km long from
the coast straight out into the sea or ocean, without enclosing an area (http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_power) (Fig. 1.10).
Legend:
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
Tidal power stations:
0,8
1,0 1,2 1,5 2,0

Height of tiges (m)
existing;
3,0
under construction;
5,0
8,0
12,0
proposed.
Fig. 1.10 Global tide range (http://www.meted.ucar.edu/oceans/tides_intro/print.html. Reproduced

with permission of Bureau of Meteorology, Australia)
The SeaGen tidal stream power station built in Strangford Lough (Northern
Ireland) in 2007 is an example of power stations of the rst type. A 1.2 MW
underwater tidal electricity generator was installed here. The rates of tidal streams at
this location reach 4 m/s (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangford_Lough). Such
turbines have a minimal effect on the environment.
As for power stations of the second type, the tidal water is fed to a baffled-off
basin. When the water levels in it and in the sea become equal, the gates at
discharge openings are closed. With the onset of ebb tide, the sea water level drops
and, at that time, turbines and electric generators connected to them come into
action and water leaves the basin gradually (Nekrasov 1990).
39
Such tidal power plants can be double-acting. In this case, turbines work when
water moves from the sea to the basin and vice versa. The double-acting tidal power
plants are able to generate electric power for periods of 45 h with interruptions of
12 h for four times a day (Marfenin et al. 1995).
The number of power stations using barrage tidal power is not great. The largest
ocean energy facilities in operation are all tidal projects and are used for electricity
generation. They include the 254 MW Sihwa plant in South Korea (completed in
2011); the 240 MW La Rance station in France (1966); the 20 MW Annapolis plant
in the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Canada (1984); and the 3.9 MW Jiangxia plant
in China (1980) (REN21 2014).
The effects of the tidal power plant at the Bay of Fundy were analyzed in great
detail, because of the following factors: (1) long duration of discussion of its
construction suitability (more than 70 years); (2) intense development of environmental legislation in the United States and Canada; (3) economic opportunities in
these states; (4) considerable interest of the community in nature conservation; and
(5) location of the bay on the border of two states that have responsibilities with
regard to the plant (Marfenin et al. 1995).
The principal effect of tidal energy stations on the environment is a reduction of
natural water exchange between the cut-off water body and the sea, which results
in the following consequences: (1) changes in the distribution of current speeds in
the bay; (2) redistribution of bottom sediments; (3) decreases in the aqueous
medium stability in the bay (desalination, temperature rise, contamination, etc.)
under the action of land processes; (4) decreases in the amplitudes of the bays
water level variations; and (5) reductions in water turbidity (Govorushko 2011d).
First of all, a tidal power plant affects hydrobionts because the exchange of salt
and fresh waters is disturbed, and redistribution of bottom sediments results in
changes in the living conditions for sea flora and fauna. The investigations carried
out in the La Rance tidal power plant showed an essential change in the composition of bottom hydrobionts, but they did not record a drop in their numbers
(Charlier 2007). At the same time, a sharp reduction in bioproductivity, a twofold
decrease in the numbers of species of flora and fauna, and decreases in the total
numbers of individuals were observed at Kislaya Guba (Russia) (Preobrazhensky
et al. 2000).
A reduction of water turbidity increases the penetration of sunlight and the
productivity of phytoplankton. Passage of sh through turbines results in their loss
due to pressure drop, contact with blades, cavitation, and other causes. Even with
the most sh-friendly turbine design, sh mortality per pass is approximately 15 %.
The loss of large marine mammals (whales, seals, dolphins, etc.) is possible (http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_power). In addition, the dams not infrequently prevent
the renewal of sh resources, since the species that travel to the bays to spawn
(salmon, herring, smelt, etc.) cannot enter (Preobrazhensky et al. 2000).
The environmental effects of tidal power plants are much less as compared with
those of hydropower plants with similar output capacities.
The effects of tidal power stations on the environment are illustrated by Photos
1.38 and 1.39.
40
Photo 1.38 Tidal stream generators make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to
powerturbines, in a way similar to wind turbines that use moving air. This method is gaining
inpopularity because of the lower cost and lower ecological impact compared to tidal barrages.
SeaGen, the worlds rst commercial tidal generator, in Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland, is
shown here. It was installed in April 2008 and was connected to the grid in July 2008. It generates
1.2 MW of electricity for between 18 and 20 h a day. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
SeaGen, 1 April 2011
Photo 1.39 The major environmental effect of tidal hydroelectric stations is a reduction in the
natural water exchange between the cut-off part of the water area and the sea. First of all, this
influences hydrobionts. The Kislaya Guba Tidal Power Station (Kola Peninsula near Murmansk,
Russia) is the worlds sixth largest tidal power plant, with an output of 1.7 MW. It began operating
in 1968. The site was originally chosen because the long and deep ford had a fairly narrow outlet
to the sea, which could easily be dammed for the project. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Kislaya_Guba_Tidal_Power_Station by 20 (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
1.4.4.3
41
Other Sources
Production engineering and costs of electric power generation from different

renewable energy sources differ markedly. Some of them do not at present nd
practical application, although their potential is very high.
In particular, huge reserves of energy that can be transformed into electric power
are concentrated in ocean currents Fig. (1.11). For example, the Gulf Stream
carries a water volume exceeding 50 times the volume transported by all the rivers
of the world. Based on the Gulf Stream, one could produce more than
100 million kW of power. There are projects of such power plants in the Straits of
Florida and Gibraltar and off the eastern shore of Japan (Kuroshio Current).
However, the cost of such electric power is so far too high (Govorushko 2011d).
Of all kinds of oceanic energy, the reserves of osmotic energy are the highest.
The global potential is estimated to be 16001700 TWhequivalent to 50 % of the
European Communitys total annual power generation today (Osmotic power
2009).
Osmosis is the transport of water from a place where dissolved substances (e.g.
salt) are present at low concentrations through a semipermeable membrane to a
place with higher concentrations. A semipermeable membrane allows some substances to pass through, but stops other substances. The concentrations on both
sides of the membrane will tend to equalize. As water passes through the membrane
only one way, osmotic pressure builds up inside; in an osmotic power plant this
pressure can be used to generate electricity.
An osmotic power plant can be located anywhere freshwater meets the sea,
provided that the seawater is sufciently saline. Osmotic power plants are not
affected by weather changes as solar and wind power plants are, and they can
Fig. 1.11 Areas of the world ocean most favorable for ocean current electricity generation.
Prepared by author based on data from Kenny (2007)
42
continuously generate electricity. Most river outlets are suitable locations for such
power plants, although some river water must be cleaned more than others. The
worlds rst osmotic plant, with a capacity of 4 kW, was opened by Statkraft on 24
November 2009 in Tofte, Norway (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statkraft_osmotic_
power_prototype_in_Hurum).
The environmental consequences of operation of salt power plants are as follows (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_power): (1) damage to living organisms in the course of water extraction or on membranes; (2) influence on freshwater
species when waters of greater salinity are discharged; (3) variations in water
circulation, which affect the motion of nutrients and oxygen concentrations; and
(4) penetration of toxic biocides used to prevent membrane contamination into the
trophic chains.
Another important potential source of energy is the temperature drop caused by
the facts that solar radiation does not penetrate deep into ocean waters and,
therefore, cold waters are at shallow depths below the warm layer. Power plants that
take advantage of these temperature differences may use the heat of surface waters
to transform cooling fluid into steam (vapor). The cold water from depths of some
hundred meters will cool and condense this steam (vapor), forming a low-pressure
zone to which new portions of steam (vapor) will move, rotating the turbines (http://
energy.gov/eere/energybasics/articles/ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-basics).
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) utilizes the temperature differences
between the warm surface seawater and cold deep ocean water to generate electricity (Fig. 1.12). As long as a sufcient temperature difference (20 C or 68 F)
Legend:
o
< 20 C;
20oC-22oC;
22oC-24oC;
>24oC;
area where ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) will work.
Fig. 1.12 Differences in temperature between the ocean surface and water a kilometer down
(http://www.otecnews.org/what-is-otec/resource/; http://physics.ucsd.edu/do-the-math/2012/01/
the-motion-of-the-ocean/; http://www.energyland.emsd.gov.hk/en/energy/renewable/otec.html)
43
exists between the warm upper layer of water and the cold deep water, net power
can be generated.
There are three types of OTEC processes: closed-cycle, open-cycle, and
hybrid-cycle. In the closed-cycle system, heat transferred from the warm surface
seawater causes a working fluid (such as ammonia, which boils at a temperature
of about 25 C, or 78 F, at atmospheric pressure) to turn to vapor. The expanding
vapor drives a turbine attached to a generator that produces electricity.
Open-cycle OTEC uses the warm surface water itself as the working fluid. The
water vaporizes in a near vacuum at surface water temperatures. The expanding
water vapor drives a turbine attached to a generator and produces electricity. The
water vapor, which has lost its salt and is almost pure fresh water, is condensed
back into a liquid by exposure to cold temperatures from deep ocean water. Hybrid
systems use parts of both open-cycle and closed-cycle systems to optimize production of electricity and fresh water.
The use of similar power plants can result in changes in water circulation,
disturbances in the biological balance, and climate change. In order to construct
such power plants, large quantities of non-ferrous metals (magnesium, titanium,
etc.) and new synthetic materials whose production is related to serious environmental contamination will be needed. The rise of deep waters rich in nutrients may
have a favorable effect on organisms in surface waters.
The environmental effects of these power stations are illustrated by Photos 1.40
and 1.41.
Photo 1.40 An important potential source of energy is the temperature drop caused by the fact that
solar radiation does not penetrate deep into ocean waters; therefore, cold waters are present at shallow
depths below the warm layer. Power plants that take advantage of these temperature differences may
use the heat of surface waters to transform cooling fluid into steam (vapor). The cold water from
depths of some hundred meters will cool and condense this steam (vapor), forming a low-pressure
zone to which new portions of steam (vapor) will move, rotating the turbines. A view of the ocean
thermal energy conversion facility at Keahole Point on the Kona coast of Hawaii is shown. Photo
credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OTEC_in_Hawaii.jpg, 30 October 2011
44
Photo 1.41 For such power stations to work, differences in temperature between the ocean
surface and water a kilometer down must be more than 20 C. So the areas where ocean thermal
energy conversion will work are situated in equatorial and tropical zones of the World Ocean. Left
pipes used for OTEC. Right floating OTEC plant constructed in India in 2000. Photo credit: http://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Otec2.jpg, Harishmukundan at the English language Wikipedia
1.4.5
45
Electricity Production from Biomass
Biomass is organic matter that retains the energy of the Sun owing to the process of
photosynthesis. Its initial form is plants. Further along the food chain, biomass can
be transferred to herbivorous animals, and then to carnivores when the herbivorous
animals are eaten. In turn, humans also eat plants and animals (Fig. 1.13).
Legend:
Percent share:
<10
10-25
25-50
50-75
>75
Data incomplete
The largest biofuel power stations
Fig. 1.13 Share of wood fuels in national energy consumption. Wood energy includes fuel wood,
charcoal, and black liqor, measured in thousand metric tons of oil equivalent (TOE). Wood energy
consumption is expressed as a percentage of total nal energy consumption from all energy
sources in thousand TOE (Matthews et al. 2000; http://forests.wri.org/pubs_dataset.cfm?PubID=
3055; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_power_stations_in_the_world)
The further transformation of biomass occurs in many ways. It can be present

in the form of manure, bird droppings, fecal deposits, and domestic waste.
Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, and sugarcane (http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass). According to data from different sources, biomass
reserves are equivalent to 1.0 (Hall 2002) to 1.2 billion tons of petroleum
(Solovyanov 2008). Bio-power generated around 405 TWh of the worlds electricity in 2013. The ve countries that led in biofuel production (billion liters) in
2013 were (1) the United States, 55.4; (2) Brazil, 28.4; (3) Germany, 3.9;
(4) France, 3.0; and (5) Argentina, 2.7 (REN21 2014).
So far, biomass is mainly used for production of heat energy by three basic
processes: (1) direct combustion; (2) biomass fermentation; and (3) use of energy
carriers produced during biomass transformation (biogas, spirits, etc.) (Engineering
ecology 2003).
46
In the rst process, biomass is directly used as a fuel. For example, approximately 2.5 billion people in the world use re-wood for heating and cooking.
Fire-wood accounts for 15 % of the worlds energy supply and up to 35 % of the
supply in the developing countries (Govorushko 2011e). The share of wood fuels in
national energy consumption is shown in Fig. 1.13.
In the second process, heat released in the course of fermentation by organic
waste (manure, droppings, sawdust, etc.) is harnessed. This heat is most often used
for heating greenhouses, hotbeds, and other structures. In the third process, such
energy carriers as biogas and spirits are extracted from biomass. Electric energy
can be generated from biomass with the third process.
Biogas, which is produced by the fermentation of biomass, consists of methane,
carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases such as hydrogen sulde.
Different organic wastes are suitable for this process, including waste of sh and
slaughtering workshops (blood, fat, guts); wastes of starch and treacle production
(ber and syrup, wastes of potato processing and production of chipspeelings,
rinds, rotten tubers); wastes of juice manufacturing (fruit, berry, vegetable marc,
grape refuse); waste of milk plants (lactoserum as well as manure); and bird
droppings and feces (http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/).
Decomposition of biomass occurs under the influence of three kinds of bacteria.
In the food chain, the subsequent bacteria are supplied with products of the vital
functions of the preceding ones. The rst kind is hydrolytic, the second is
acid-forming, and the third is methane-forming bacteria.
At present, about 60 technologies of biogas production are used or are being
developed. The most routine method is anerobic fermentation in metatanks or
anerobic columns (http://www.biogasinfo.ru/about/).
Biogas consists of 5575 % methane and 2545 % carbon dioxide. Gas yield
depends on the content of dry substance and the kind of raw materials used. One ton
of cattle manure may provide 5065 m3 of biogas with a methane content of 60 %.
By using different kinds of plants, one can produce 150500 m3 of biogas with
methane contents of up to 70 %. The maximal quantity of biogas (1300 m3), with
methane contents of up to 87 %, can be obtained from fat.
Landll gas, a kind of biogas, is obtained from municipal waste dumps. Global
production of landll gas is about 1.2 billion m3/year (Production 2009). From 1 m3
of biogas, one can obtain from 2 to 3 kWh of electric power. There are several
techniques for generating electric power from biomass through its gasication. For
electric power generation, the following equipment can be used: gas turbine units,
steam turbine plants, gas-diesel plants, or internal combustion engines with spark
ignition (Geletukha and Zheleznaya 1998).
Power generation from biomass is considered to be the one of most environmentally friendly branches of power engineering, as it helps reduce contamination
of the environment with every possible waste (stock raising, domestic activities,
forestry, woodworking, etc.).
At the same time, during biomass fermentation for producing ethanol, considerable amounts of byproducts (flushing waters and distillation residue) are produced
that pollute the environment (Govorushko 2011e). For example, in the extraction of
47
1 l of ethanol, 13 l of waste liquids are produced (Pimentel 2001). In addition, other

impacts include thermal pollution, depletion of soil organic materials, and
exhaustion and erosion of the soil (Ageev 2004).
The environmental effects of power generation from biomass are illustrated by
Photos 1.421.47.
Photo 1.42 Biomass is organic matter that retains the energy of the sun owing to the process of
photosynthesis. Its initial form is plants; it is largely used for generation of thermal energy.
A sugarcane plantation in Brazil (state of So Paulo) is shown here. Cane is used for biomass
energy. Photo credit: Jose Reynaldo da Fonseca, 9 June 2007
Photo 1.43 Further along the food chain, biomass can be transferred to herbivorous animals and
transformed into manure. In turn, manure can be used for generation of thermal energy. The photo
shows piles of dried manure, used as fuel for re in Mongolian households, on a farm near the
Khargistai-Bayanburd Forest (near Tsagaan Nuur, Mongolia). Photo credit: Sean Gallagher
(FAO), 7 October 2011
48
Photo 1.44 Firewood and woody coal provide 12 % of the worlds energy, largely in the
developing countries. The photo shows splitting chocks for ring furnaces in the settlement of
Krasny Yar (Primorsky Krai, Russia). Photo credit: A.M. Panichev (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), 7 February 2014
Photo 1.45 About 1.2 billion people do not have access to electricity, and 2.8 billion have to rely
on wood or other biomass to cook and heat their homes. Burning of wood contributes to
atmospheric contamination and to the greenhouse effect. The photo shows smoke from red stoves
in the settlement of Krasny Yar (Primorsky Krai, Russia). Photo credit: A.M. Panichev (Pacic
Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 7 February 2014
49
Photo 1.46 A wood chip factory near Mapua, Nelson, New Zealand, is shown. In the bottom left
corner, the logs delivered to the factory are shown. These logs fall into the important group of
woody biomass (this group includes rewood, pellets, and briquettes). The chipped wood is used
for generation of thermal and electric energy. In order to produce the chips, the moisture content of
the raw material should not exceed 30 %. Photo credit: Lorette Dorreboom (Greenpeace), 7
February 1991
Photo 1.47 A combined heat and power plant in Metz, France. The 45 MW boiler uses waste
wood biomass from the surrounding forests as a renewable energy source and provides electricity
and heat for 30,000 dwellings. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass, Bava Alcide57
at English Wikipedia [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
50
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http://news.cnet.com/i/bto/20080304/3t_global_wind_540x420.jpg
http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/wind_maps.asp
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_Wind_Energy_Center
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam_removal
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_wind_turbine
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu_Wind_Farm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_power
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kislaya_Guba_Tidal_Power_Station
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_hydroelectric_power_stations
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_power_stations_in_the_world
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Array
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_power
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics#Overview
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangford_Lough
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_power
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_farm
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http://www.biogasinfo.ru/about
http://www.businessinsider.com/countries-generating-the-most-nuclear-energy-2014-3?op=1
http://www.c2es.org/technology/overview/electricity
http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/Advantages_Disadvantages_WaveEnergy.php
http://www.energyland.emsd.gov.hk/en/energy/renewable/otec.html
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http://www.oceanenergycouncil.com/index.php/Wave-Energy/Wave-Energy.html
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http://www.wwindea.org/webimages/WWEA_half_year_report_2014.pdf
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Chapter 2
Industry
In an extended sense, the term industry means the totality of enterprises occupied
with the production of instruments of labor, extraction of raw materials and minerals, and power generation. It also includes the further processing of products
manufactured in industry or in other activities (agriculture and forestry, shing).
Electric power generation and transmission were considered earlier in Chap. 1,
while extraction of raw and other materials is described in Chap. 3. The branches
considered here belong to the manufacturing industry. They include the enterprises
occupied with processing raw and other materials. The characteristic features of
these industrial enterprises are serial production, division of labor, and the use of
highly productive machines and equipment and their maximum specialization.
During industrial production, raw materials are transformed into nished goods
on a large scale. Such nished goods may be used for manufacturing other, more
complex products, such as aircraft, household appliances, or automobiles, or sold to
wholesalers. Industrial regions of the world are shown in Fig. 2.1.
Fig. 2.1 Industrial regions of the world (Maksakovsky 2006, vol. 1). Reproduced with permission
of V.P. Maksakovsky
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5_2
55
56
2.1
2 Industry
Chemical Industry
In the chemical industry, raw materials of oil and mineral origin are used to
produce chemical intermediates or nished products through chemical reactions.
The major products of this branch are fertilizers, oil products, solvents, acids,
bases, and chemical intermediates.
The complexity of the chemical industry is conrmed by the fact that 500
industrial chemical substances are produced as a result of 400 processes, using 1 of
10 kinds of charge stock: benzene, butylene, cresol, ethylene, methane, naphthalene, parafn, propylene, toluene, and xylene.
These organic intermediates, together with 100 inorganic acids, salts, and bases
manufactured by the chemical industry, are used to produce more than 70,000 kinds
of products. Polymers and plastics, especially polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene, and polycarbonate, comprise about 80 % of the industrys output worldwide (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Chemical_industry).
There are now over 20 million synthetic chemicals, and that number is
increasing by more than 1 million a year (http://www.worldwatch.org/node/485).
This industrial sector is most developed in the United States, Japan, Germany,
Great Britain, France, Italy, and the Netherlands (Maksakovsky 2006, vol. 1).
The environmental impacts of this industry are extremely diverse, which is
explained by the enormous number of technological processes and manufacturing
operations, composition of raw materials, physicogeographical features of affected
regions, and so on.
The major reasons for the atmospheric pollution released by chemical enterprises are the following: (1) incomplete product yield; (2) discharge of admixtures
and pollutants in the processing of raw materials; (3) losses of substances used for
manufacturing processes; and (4) emission of odorous substances and oxidation and
destruction products into the air.
The most signicant gaseous pollutants of the atmosphere with regard to the
volume of their production and toxicity are (1) chlorine; (2) nitrogen oxides;
(3) sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide; (4) hydrogen chloride (hydrochloric acid);
(5) hydrosulde; (6) hydrogen fluoride; (7) carbon disulde; and (8) fluorine and its
compounds.
The chemical industry is a powerful source of effects on surface waters. The
considerable withdrawal of water that is used in the manufacturing processes for
purposes such as cooling and flushing is characteristic of this branch. During the
manufacturing of chemical substances, pollution of water with chemicals and
by-products takes place.
Some of the factors causing hydrospheric pollution are rainfall run-off from
territories where structures for storage of raw materials and nished products are
2.1 Chemical Industry
57
located; and discharges of bleed waters from cooling systems, flushing waters, and
manufactured product. Typical pollutants of surface waters include phenols,
spirits, resins, chlorides, sulfates, sodium, and calcium (Arzhanov 1994).
In chemical production, more than 800 types of solid waste are formed, and only
one-third of them are fully or partially used. The solid wastes include residues of
raw materials and polymers, and sludge and sediments formed in treatment facilities
and feed systems of steam generating units as well as in the course of washing tanks
and reservoirs. Considerable ash-and-slag waste is also formed as a result of the
operation of coal-dust steam generating units (Chizhov and Shekhovtsov 2004).
Considerable noise is also characteristic of many chemical enterprises, and
sources include such production equipment as compressors, gas turbines, pumps,
control valves, furnaces, flares, heat exchangers with air cooling, evaporative
cooling towers, and ventilation systems (Environmental assessment sourcebook
1992).
It also should be noted that many materials and substances involved in the
production of chemicals are dangerously explosive and constitute re hazards.
Taking into account the fact that the application of high pressure as well as the use
of substances with high reactivity are characteristic of manufacturing technologies,
they result in serious danger of explosions and drastic consequences.
2.1.1
Petrochemical Industry
The petrochemical industry is a part of the chemical complex based on the

products of oil, gas condensate, and associated petroleum and natural gas
processing.
The raw materials and manufacturable products of this industry can be divided
into four groups: (1) raw materials (two kinds: oil and gas); (2) base intermediate
products (about 10 kinds; e.g., ethylene, propylene, benzene, methanol); (3) petrochemicals (about 100 kinds: spirits, glycols, oxides, anhydrides, and others); and
(4) nal petrochemical products (about 1000 kinds, such as plastics, resins, synthetic bers, synthetic rubbers, synthetic detergents, varnishes). In transitions from
one group to the other, the number of products increases by an order of magnitude
(Braginsky 2009).
The petrochemical industry involves more than 100 technological processes.
Major processes include rectication, cracking, reforming, alkylation, isomerization, carbonization, pyrolysis, dehydrogenation (including oxidizing processes),
hydrogenation, hydration, ammonolysis, oxidation, and nitration (Ratanova 1999).
Among the countries leading in volumes of oil and gas processing are the
United States and countries of Western Europe (particularly Italy, Germany, France,
and Great Britain). This industry is developing at a swift rate in China
(Maksakovsky 2006, vol. 1) (Fig. 2.2).
58
2 Industry
Fig. 2.2 Main petrochemical companies. Prepared by author based on data from numerous
Internet sources
There are essential differences in the types of raw materials used in different
countries. In the United States, Canada, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, a number of Asiatic
countries, Brazil, and Venezuela, the major kinds of raw materials are products of
gas processing plants (ethane, propane, butane, etc.), while in European countries,
Russia, China, India, Japan, and Korea, fractions from oil processing are used as
raw materials (Braginsky 2009).
In Russia, petrochemical enterprises account for about 48 % of the emissions of
harmful substances into the atmosphere, 27 % of contaminated waste waters, more
than 30 % of detectable solid waste, and up to 70 % of the overall volume of
greenhouse gas emissions (Mukhamatdinova et al. 2012). The petrochemical
industry affects, rst of all, the following natural components: (1) atmospheric air;
(2) surface waters; and (3) withdrawal of lands. The effects on other components are
indirect. It also affects public health and results in considerable mortality and trauma.
The most signicant pollutants of the atmosphere (in the order of decreasing
priority) are hydrogen sulde, sulfur dioxide, phenol, carbohydrates, nitrogen
oxides, carbon oxides, and dust (Karlovich 2005). The major sources of pollution
are plants for sulfur extraction and catalytic crackers (Environmental problems of
the petroleum industry 2005).
Gas processing also makes its contribution to atmospheric pollution. In the
operation of one of the gas processing plants in western Siberia (Russia), 230,000
tons of pollutants are released into the atmosphere every year (Mukhamatdinova
et al. 2012).
59
The effects on surface waters are caused by the withdrawal of great volumes of
water that is needed for participation in the chemical reactions, cooling, process
steam generation, and washout of foreign substances from oil products. Per 1 ton of
rened oil, 2.03.5 m3 of water are used (Vladimirov and Izmalkov 2000).
Considerable quantities of oil products, sulfates, chlorides, nitrogen compounds,
phenols, and salts of heavy metals enter surface waters with the waste waters of
reneries (the annual quantity is 500 km3) (Ratanova 1999).
The wastes discharged, besides polluting water bodies, also result in variations
in such factors as pH and biochemical consumption of oxygen. These changes, in
turn, affect hydrobionts (Loughery et al. 2014). The withdrawal of lands occurs in
the construction of petrochemical enterprises and in storage of the waste products.
Every year, the petrochemical industry generates 3 billion tons of solid waste
(Mukhamatdinova et al. 2012).
The atmospheric pollution has indirect effects on soils and vegetation. The
combustion of petroleum gas damages vegetation, for example; within a radius of
200250 m of a flare, the vegetation is fully destroyed, while within 3 km of it, trees
suffer and cast leaves. Trees and bushes suffer from necroses, while twisted needles
and shorter sprouts are characteristic of conifers (Shuitsev 1982).
This kind of economic activity influences the life and health of people. In the
petrochemical industry, explosive mixtures arise during technological processes.
More frequently, they are generated by escaping gases, vapors, or fogs.
The rst severe re caused by leakage of liqueed natural gas took place on 20
October 1944, in the city of Cleveland, Ohio (United States), and killed 130 people.
The rst major incident related to liqueed petroleum gas occurred on 28 July
1959, in the state of Georgia (United States), and resulted in the loss of 23 lives
(Petrova 2014). In 2011, about 15,000 incidents were recorded in the worlds
petrochemical industry, although during 20022011 accidents dened as temporary
and without permanent consequences, declined dramatically. However, cases with
permanent disability were up to 5 %; cases with permanent disability were up to
more than 5 %, and the fatal cases were almost constant (Giacobbe et al. 2013).
The environmental effects of the petrochemical industry are illustrated by Photos
2.12.5.
60
2 Industry
Photo 2.1 The petrochemical industry delivers into the atmosphere about 1 billion tons of
different aerosols per year, making a considerable contribution to global warming. The most
signicant pollutants of the atmosphere are hydrogen sulde, sulfur dioxide, phenol, carbohydrates, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, and dust. The photo shows emissions at the Shell Puget
Sound Renery, Anacortes, Washington, United States. Photo credit: Walter Siegmund
Photo 2.2 Considerable quantities of oil products, sulfates, chlorides, nitrogen compounds,
phenols, and salts of heavy metals enter surface waters with the waste waters of reneries (the
annual quantity is 500 km3). The photo shows waste oil discharged onto the ground from a
lubricant factory in the state of Khartoum, Sudan. Photo credit: United Nations Environment
Program from UNEP Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment Report, 22 June 2007
61
Photo 2.3 The withdrawal of lands occurs in the construction of petrochemical enterprises and in
storage of the waste products. Every year, the petrochemical industry generates 3 billion tons of
solid waste. Mountains of PVC incineration waste in Lisbjerg, Denmark, are shown. Poly (vinyl
chloride), commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely produced polymer, after
polyethylene and polypropylene. Photo credit: Thomas Mark (Greenpeace), 1 January 1997
Photo 2.4 The combustion of petroleum gas fully destroys vegetation within a radius of 200
250 m of a flare, while within 3 km of it, trees suffer and cast leaves. Trees and bushes suffer from
necroses, while twisted needles and shorter sprouts are characteristic of conifers. Gas flaring in a
petrochemical complex at Skikda, Algeria, is shown. Photo credit: E.V. Kovalev, 25 April 2013
62
2 Industry
Photo 2.5 Every year, about 1500 accidents and catastrophes occur in the petrochemical industry,
and 4 % of them are accompanied by the deaths of 100150 people and property damage of up to
US$100 million. Fire-extinguishing operations after a Texas City renery explosion are shown.
Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_renery by Chemical safety and hazards investigation board [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons, 23 March 2005
2.1.2
63
Mining and Chemical Industry
The mining and chemical industry is a complex of enterprises engaged in production, concentration, and preprocessing of apatite and phosphatic rocks, natural
potassium salts, and ores containing sulfur, boron, arsenic, barium, and barite, as
well as iodine and bromine.
This industry produces fertilizers, which are subdivided into phosphoric, potash,
and nitrogenous fertilizers (Fig. 2.3). There are also compound mineral fertilizers,
which contain two or three nutritive substances. Strictly speaking, the manufacturing of nitrogenous fertilizer does not belong to the mining and chemical industry,
but we will consider it here for the sake of convenience.
The largest nitrogen-producing countries are China, India, the United States, and
Russia. The largest phosphate-producing countries are China, the United States,
India, and Russia, while the largest potash-producing countries are Canada, Russia,
and Belarus (http://www.t.org/statistics/statistics-faqs). The world fertilizer manufacturing in 2013 reached 178.6 million tons, including 108.8 million tons of
nitrogen fertilizers, 41.1 million tons of phosphate fertilizers, and 28.7 million tons
of potash fertilizers (Heffer and Prudhomme 2014).
The prevalent phosphoric fertilizers are superphosphate, double superphosphate, ammophos, precipitate, and ground phosphate rock. Phosphorites (sedimentary rocks containing phosphoric anhydride, P2O5) and apatite (mineral,
calcium phosphate) serve as raw materials for their production.
About 9095 % of the world output of phosphoric ores is used to produce
mineral fertilizers (Ivanov et al. 2014). In the mining of phosphoric ores in the
world, the phosphorites predominate over apatite ores (91 % vs. 9 %). The sole
K
K
N P
N
N
P
N P
Major producers of nitrogen fertilizer
Legend:
Major producers of phosphorus fertilizer
Major producers of potassium fertilizer
Fig. 2.3 Largest fertilizer producers (http://www.fertilizer101.org/sources/?seq=2; http://www.

potashcorp.com/annual_reports/2010/graph_gallery/19/)
64
2 Industry
exception is in Russia, where the inverse ratio is observed: the ratio for ore reserves
is 1882 %, while that for production output is 595 %. The leading nations in the
extraction of phosphatic rocks in 2012 were (1) China; (2) the United States;
(3) Morocco; (4) Brazil; and (5) Russia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorite).
Potash fertilizers (potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, and double manure
salt) are produced from natural salts, primarily carnallite and sylvinite. The world
reserves of potassium salts are about 50 billion tons. More than 80 % of reserves of
ore used for potassium production fall in only three countries: Canada, Russia, and
Belarus. The major countries producing potassium ores are Canada, France,
Germany, the United States, Belarus, and Russia. The production of potash fertilizers includes the separation of calcium chloride from associated salts by selective
solution or flotation methods (Ratanova 1999).
The raw feedstock for production of nitrogen fertilizers (ammonium nitrate,
carbamide, ammonium sulfate, etc.) is ammonia. Earlier, ammonia was produced
from coke and coke oven gas, while now it is produced from natural gas.
The mining and chemical industry affects the following natural components:
(1) atmospheric air; (2) surface waters; (3) soils; (4) animal world; and (5) vegetation.
The composition of atmospheric emissions depends strongly on the charge
stock and technique of operation. In the production of phosphate fertilizers, the
major pollutants are fluorides, which are present in gaseous and aerosol emissions.
In addition, the air is polluted with arsenic, copper, zinc, strontium, thorium, and
rare-earth elements (Gorbunov et al. 2001). Everyday, plants manufacturing
nitrogen fertilizers emit 512 t of nitric oxides and nitric acid, as well as ammonia
and formaldehyde (Fig. 2.4).
Legend:
100-7000;
Estimated population at risk:
50001-100000;
7001-20000;
20001-50000;
100001-173400.
Fig. 2.4 Pesticide pollution from pesticide manufacturing facilities (http://www.worstpolluted.org/

projects_reports/display/93). Reproduced by permission of Blacksmith Institute for a Pure Earth
65
Surface waters are contaminated with waste waters containing sulfates, phosphates, fluorine, copper, and zinc (Gorbunov et al. 2001). The influences on soils
are caused by storage of waste. For example, in the production of potash fertilizers,
the stocking of halite waste results in considerable salinization of soils (Baboshko
2005). Dust particles in high concentrations can considerably decrease soils permeability to water (Environmental considerations during potash production 1987).
Indirect effects on vegetation and the animal world are related to contamination
of water and air. In Qatar, for example, fertilizer production releases about 3 million
tons of ammonia and 5 million tons of urea every year to the Persian Gulf in the
form of liquid wastes, which have extremely unfavorable effects on hydrobionts
(Abdel-Moati and Al-Ansari 2000). Industrial sewage released from the
Stebnikovsky potash fertilizer plant (Ukraine) in September 1983 led to the total
disappearance of hydrobionts in the upper Dniester River (Cheredarik and
Shnarevich 1988).
The mining and chemical industry has a high risk of casualties. The production
of fertilizers involves high risks of explosions. For example, on 17 April 2013, an
explosion occurred at the West Fertilizer Company storage and distribution facility
in West, Texas, 18 miles (29 km) north of Waco, while emergency services personnel were responding to a re at the facility. At least 14 people were killed, more
than 160 were injured, and more than 150 buildings were damaged or destroyed
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Fertilizer_Company_explosion).
The environmental effects of the mining and chemical industry are illustrated by
Photos 2.62.10.
Photo 2.6 The Dead Sea area is characterized by a combination of two natural factorshigh
water mineralization and excess solar energy. Each kilogram of water contains 190 g of
magnesium and calcium chlorides (Mg+Ca) Cl2, 67 g of sodium chloride (NaCl), 12.7 g of potash
chloride, and many other salts. The average annual amount of solar radiation approaches
200 kcal/cm2. This is an orbital image of the Dead Sea. Jordanian and Israeli mineral evaporation
ponds can be seen at the south end, separated by a central dike that runs roughly north-south along
the international border. Photo credit: Russian Space Agency, 9 August 2008
66
2 Industry
Photo 2.7 The production of salts from sea water is based on differences in the solubilities of
natural salts, depending on concentrations in brines. Water from the Dead Sea is delivered to
ponds. As the water evaporates, one or another salt precipitates. The retained water is drained off to
the neighboring pond-evaporator, where the other salt is crystallized by further evaporation. The
precipitated salt along with the bottom brine is transferred by means of specialized dredgers
through a floating pipeline to shore for further processing and rening. Photo credit: S.M.
Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 18 July 2010
Photo 2.8 The composition of atmospheric emissions from fertilizer plants depends largely on the
charge stock and techniques of operation. In the production of phosphate fertilizers, the major
pollutants are fluorides, which are present in gaseous and aerosol emissions. In addition, the air is
polluted with arsenic, copper, zinc, strontium, thorium, and rare-earth elements. The picture shows
high pollution of the atmosphere by the Yingfeng Chemical Plant (Sichuan, China), which
manufactures phosphate fertilizers. Pollution causes distress for residents in the vicinity of the
production facilities. Photo credit: Wen Wenyu (Greenpeace), 25 November 2012
67
Photo 2.9 The effects of manufacturing fertilizers on surface waters are related to increased
content in waste waters of sulfates, phosphates, fluorine, copper, and zinc. The photo shows
outflow pipes from the Lebanese Chemical Company fertilizer plant in Selaata, Lebanon. Photo
credit: Greenpeace, 1 October 1997
Photo 2.10 The mining and chemical industries involve high risks of casualties. The production
of fertilizers involves high risks of explosions. Aerial views are shown of buildings surrounding a
Texas fertilizer plant that erupted in a thunderous explosion, killing 14 people, including 12
reghters battling a blaze at the facility. Photo credit: Ron Heflin (Greenpeace), 19 April 2013
68
2.1.3
2 Industry
Other Chemical Industries
There are several important industries in addition to the petrochemical and mining
and chemical industries. These include the resin and chemical and pharmaceutical
industries and the manufacturers of acids (Figs. 2.5 and 2.6).
100%;
Legend:
10%;
1%.
Fig. 2.5 Sulfuric acid output in 2000 shown as percentage of that of the top producer (China
24,720,000 tons) (adapted from Anwar saadat at English Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Sulfuric_acid)
Fig. 2.6 Main pharmaceutical companies in the world. Prepared by author based on data from
numerous Internet sources
69
The resin industry is developed to the greatest extent in the United States,
Canada, Sweden, and Finland. It is based on chemical processing of forest raw
materials (timber, bark, needles, dip, etc.).
The chemical and pharmaceutical industry is engaged in the production of
pharmaceutical products, including synthetic and phytochemical preparations,
antibiotics, vitamins, blood substitutes and organic preparations, and different types
of medicaments. The pharmaceutical industry accounts for 25 % of the total cost of
production of the chemical industry (Krotkov 2013).
The major products in the manufacture of acids are sulfuric and nitric acids. In
the past, the use of sulfuric acid was so widespread that its production was considered for a long time to indicate the overall level of development of the chemical
industry (Marshall 1989).
Sulfur, suldes of metals, hydrogen sulde, waste gases of thermal power plants,
and sulfates of iron, calcium, etc., serve as raw materials for the production of
sulfuric acid. The basic stages of its manufacture are (1) burning of raw materials
with the production of sulfur dioxide; (2) oxidation of sulfur dioxide into sulfur
trioxide; and (3) absorption of sulfur trioxide. World sulfuric acid production in
2012 was 230.7 million tons. The top ve countries are China, the United States,
India, Russia, and Morocco (Sulphuric acid 2014).
Sulfuric acid is used for the following purposes: (1) in the production of mineral
fertilizers; (2) as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries; (3) for the manufacture of
different mineral acids and salts; (4) in the production of articial bers, coloring
agents, smoke-forming substances, and explosive materials; (5) in the petroleum,
metalworking, textile, tanning, and other industries; and (6) in reactions of industrial organic synthesis: (a) dehydration (production of diethyl ether, esters);
(b) hydration (ethanol from ethylene); (c) sulfurization (synthetic cleaning agents
and intermediate products in the manufacture of coloring agents); and (d) alkylation
(manufacture of isooctane, polyethylene glycol, caprolactam) (Rodionov and
Chang Wang Kui 2003).
Nitric acid ranks next to sulfuric acid in production volume. The raw material
used in its production is ammonia. This acid is used in the production of mineral
fertilizers; in the military industry; in the publishing business (etching of printing
forms); and for other purposes.
The above-mentioned industries influence the following natural components:
(1) atmospheric air; (2) surface waters; (3) underground waters; and (4) vegetation.
Contaminants of atmospheric air include dust and gases. In the chemical and
pharmaceutical industry, dust is formed mainly during crushing and milling of
feedstock. Crushing is carried out in jaw, roll, cone, hammer, and other crushers.
Milling is performed using ball and porcelain mills and disintegrators.
In the production of acids, gases are the predominant atmospheric emissions. For
example, in sulfuric acid manufacture, the basic components of atmospheric
emissions are nitrogen oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. In nitric acid
manufacture, nitrogen oxide and ammonia are emitted; in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, chlorine is emitted; and in the manufacture of phosphoric acid,
anhydrous hydrogen fluoride is emitted (Stadnitsky and Rodionov 1996).
70
2 Industry
In the production of 1 kg of sulfuric acid in the Federal Republic of Germany,

discharges of sulfur dioxide reach 2.6 kg, which corresponds to total sulfur dioxide
emissions of 8000 tons per year in that country (Environment 1999b, vol. 2). In
wood-chemical enterprises, discharges include oxides of nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon; and sulfurous anhydride (Bobkova et al. 1999). For plants producing soda,
ammonia, phosphoric anhydride, sulfur trioxide, and nitrogen oxides are emitted.
Surface waters are contaminated by discharges of sewage. The production of
1 ton of sulfuric acid results in the formation of 4570 m3 of sewage. In the
production of pigment (titanium dioxide), waste waters containing large quantities
of sulfuric acid are discharged (Environment 1999b, vol. 2). The waste waters of
pharmaceutical enterprises contain a large variety of materials, including alkalis,
different organic substances, and components of the products manufactured.
Influences on underground waters are often related to waste storage. For
example, the sludge collectors of factories manufacturing soda occupy territories of
34 ha. If the hydraulic seals of collectors foundations are damaged, polluted
waters get ltered to the underground horizons (Ratanova 1999).
Vegetation is affected mainly by atmospheric pollution. For example, forests are
depressed by emissions of a wood-chemical complex in the north of European
Russia: the lifetime of needles is reduced (particularly for pines), and there is
deterioration and dieback of forest species (Bobkova et al. 1999).
The environmental effects of these chemical industries are illustrated by Photos
2.112.13.
Photo 2.11 Charcoal is a light black residue consisting of carbon and any remaining ash, obtained
by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances.
Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood or other substances in the
absence of oxygen. The photo is an aerial view of a charcoal camp in the state of Par, Brazil.
Thousands of remote charcoal camps in Brazil have pillaged huge areas of natural rain forest to
smoulder into wood charcoal. The charcoal is burnt in blast furnaces that convert iron ore to pig
iron, an intermediate product in the steel-making process. Photo credit: Rodrigo Balia
(Greenpeace), 30 November 2011
71
Photo 2.12 In the industrial

production of chemicals and
pharmaceuticals, different raw
materials obtained from plant
and animal products, as well
as products extracted by
chemical synthesis, are widely
used. This photo shows a
platform where canisters
containing pharmaceuticals
are loaded into an automatic
dispensing machine at a mail
order pharmacy. Photo credit:
National Institute for
Occupational Safety and
Health, 7 April 2010
Photo 2.13 The chemical and pharmaceutical industries include the enterprises involved in
manufacturing synthetic and phytochemical preparations, antibiotics, vitamins, blood substitutes
and organic preparations, and different types of medicaments (such as injection in ampoules,
tablets, drage, capsules, pills, suppositories, liniments, emulsions, aerosols, and plasters).
A vervet monkey with a box of aspirin stolen from campers in the Augrabies Falls National Park,
South Africa, is shown. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_
pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products by NJR ZA (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)], via
Wikimedia Commons, 16 September 2009
72
2.2
2.2.1
2 Industry
Metallurgy
Iron and Steel Manufacturing
The countries that are leaders in steel-making include the following (million tons,
in 2013): (1) China, 779.0; (2) Japan, 110.6; (3) the United States, 87.0; (4) India,
81.2; and (5) Russia, 69.4. The worldwide production in 2013 was 1607 million
tons (World Crude Steel Production 2014). As for cast iron, the following countries
lead (million tons, in 2012): (1) China, 654; (2) Japan, 81; (3) Russia, 50; (4) India,
42; and (5) South Korea, 41. In all, 1.1 billion tons were smelted in the world in that
year (http://www.metaltorg.ru/n/99CDDE).
Ferrous metallurgy influences the following natural components and parameters: (1) atmosphere; (2) surface waters; (3) soils; (4) anthropogenic physical effects
(thermal, noise, vibration, etc.); (5) geological environment; (6) withdrawal of land;
and (7) visual impact. Indirect effects are also exerted on other components (vegetation, animal world, underground waters, etc.).
The effects on atmospheric air are expressed as pollution with solid and gaseous substances. The former are subdivided into coarse-grained dust particles that
settle on the ground near the plants and micron and submicron particles (suspended
dust) that can be transported for long distances (Zhuchkov et al. 2002).
Dust is formed at practically all stages of production, but especially in the course
of operation of blast, steel-making, ferroalloy, and coke-red furnaces; agglomeration plants; and lime burning plants (Yanin 2004). The following substances are
prevalent in the composition of gaseous pollutants (Sultanguzin et al. 2002):
(1) sulfur dioxide related to a presence of sulfur in fuels or ores; (2) nitrogen oxides
emitted to the atmosphere as combustion products; (3) carbon monoxide; and
(4) gaseous fluorides and chlorides. The most serious gaseous emission is sulfur
dioxide. Its major sources are (1) ore agglomeration lines; (2) coke-oven batteries;
(3) blast furnaces; and (4) steel-making units.
The share of ferrous metallurgy in the pollution of the atmosphere with gases is
15.5 % in Russia (Yanin 2004) and 10 % in Japan (An approach to recycling of
resources in Japan 2004). Integrated iron-and-steel works, with capacities of 2
10 million tons of steel a year, emit 10,00042,000 tons of sulfur dioxide; 7000
32,000 tons of nitrogen oxides; and 80,000430,000 tons of carbon monoxide
every year (Sultanguzin et al. 2002).
The influence of ferrous metallurgy on surface waters is quite strong. Ferrous
metallurgy works are signicant sources of waste waters. The average specic
volume of waste waters is 11.3 m3 per ton of steel. Metallurgical works, with
capacities of 1 million tons of steel a year, discharge 18,000 m3 of sewage every
day; high contents of suspended matter are characteristic of this sewage (exceeding
background levels by a factor of 10). The discharges of a number of works are
highly toxic alkalis with pH levels of 1213 (Doncheva and Pokrovsky 1999).
Soils are contaminated in the course of storage of raw materials and waste. The
smelting of 1 ton of cast iron and steel is accompanied by the formation of
2.2 Metallurgy
73
0.21 ton of slag. Blast-furnace slag consists of oxides of the following elements:
silicon (4044 %), calcium (3050 %), aluminum (516 %), magnesium (17 %),
iron (0.24.5 %), and manganese (0.53 %). Steel-smelting slag differs from
blast-furnace slag in its higher content of iron and manganese oxides (Rudsky and
Sturman 2014). Pollution is caused by both wind transport of dust from areas where
solid waste is stored and by precipitation scavenging of harmful substances from
waste storage facilities and from dust and gaseous discharges.
The effects on the geological environment are caused by large volumes of earth
works during the constructing of enterprises. In the course of construction of a
rolling-mill shop with ve rolling mills and a yield of 4 million tons of rolled metal
a year, 9.8 million cubic meters of ground are extracted (Khazanov 1975). Ferrous
metallurgy also exerts different anthropogenic physical actions (thermal pollution
that generally affects surface waters; noise pollution, and vibration).
Iron and steel plants rank among the greatest industrial complexes, and they require
signicant withdrawal of land. In order to produce 1 ton of cast iron, 2030 tons of
rocks are extracted from deep in the earth, and certain areas are used on the ground
surface for opencast mines, waste banks, and tailing dumps (Pevzner 2003).
Vegetation is subjected to indirect impacts. According to data obtained by
Rudsky and Sturman (2014), within the ferrous metallurgy enterprise zone, the
productivity of corn used for silage preparation decreases by 43 %; that of horse
beans decreases by 36 %; that of cereal crops, by 2627 %; and that of sugar beets,
by 55 %. In the steppes of southern Russia, pollution with heavy metals, especially
zinc, copper, and nickel, is observed (Dyakonov and Doncheva 2002).
The effects of ferrous metallurgy on the environment are illustrated by Photos
2.142.16.
Photo 2.14 The effects of ferrous metallurgy industrial plants on atmospheric air are expressed as
pollution with solid and gaseous substances. The former are subdivided into coarse-grained dust
particles that settle on the ground near the plants, and micron and submicron particles (suspended
dust), which can be transported for long distances. Dust is formed at practically all stages of
production, but especially during the operation of blast, steel-making, ferro-alloy, and coke-red
furnaces; agglomeration plants; and lime-burning plants. The photo shows an iron and steel plant
in Shefeld, United Kingdom. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), February 1977
74
2 Industry
Photo 2.15 Gaseous pollutants of ferrous metallurgy enterprises include the following substances:
(1) sulfur dioxide related to the presence of sulfur in fuels or ores; (2) nitrogen oxides emitted to the
atmosphere as combustion products; (3) carbon monoxide; and (4) gaseous fluorides and chlorides.
The most serious gaseous emission is sulfur dioxide. Emissions from the Cherepovets iron and steel
plant (Russia) are shown here. Photo credit: V. Kantor (Greenpeace Russia), 31 May 2010
Photo 2.16 Some of the major sources of the environmental effects of ferrous metallurgy include
blast and open-hearth furnaces, blast-furnace slag granulation plants, converters, ferro-alloy
complexes, steel continuous casting plants, etching rooms, sintering machines, pellet ring
machines, and crushing-milling equipment. Slag run-off from one of the open-hearth furnaces at a
Republic Steel Corporation steel mill in Youngstown, Ohio, United States, is shown here. Slag
drawn off the furnace just before the molten steel is poured into ladles for ingoting. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slag_heap, November 1941
2.2 Metallurgy
2.2.2
75
Non-ferrous Metal Manufacturing
Non-ferrous metallurgy is a much more complex branch than ferrous metallurgy.

A vast variety of different facilities, methods, and processes is characteristic of this
branch of industry. Accordingly, the compositions of discharges to the atmosphere
and water bodies are also different, related, rst of all, to the raw materials that are
used.
One of the peculiarities of non-ferrous metal ores is that they contain relatively
small amounts of the base metal. For example, the content of copper in ores
infrequently exceeds 5 %; zinc and lead, 67 %; and molybdenum, only 0.10.2 %.
The exception is ores of aluminum, which contain not less than 30 % of the base
metal (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
The major polluters in non-ferrous metallurgy are sintering furnaces and calcining kilns; electrolyzers; crushing-milling equipment; continuous transport
mechanisms; and areas of materials loading, unloading, and overturning. The
major smelted metals are copper, lead, zinc, nickel, and aluminum (Fig. 2.7).
Fig. 2.7 Main aluminum smelters in the world. Prepared by author based on data from numerous
Internet sources
This industry affects the following natural components: (1) atmospheric air;
(2) surface waters; (3) condemnation of land; (4) soils; (5) vegetation; and (6) the
animal world.
Air pollutants associated with this industry include sulfurous anhydride (75 %
of total emissions into the atmosphere), carbon monoxide (10.5 %), and dust
76
2 Industry
(10.4 %). Pollution of the air with sulfur dioxide is generally observed when lead,
antimony, copper, and zinc are smelted from sulde ores (Novikov 1999).
For example, in the course of producing 1 ton of copper, 8.3 tons of sulfur
dioxide are emitted into the atmosphere. On the whole, the production of copper is
responsible for approximately 13 % of anthropogenic sulfur dioxide emitted into
the atmosphere (Modern global changes 2006, vol. 1). In the production of magnesium, in addition to sulfurous anhydride, chlorine and hydrogen chloride (hydrochloric acid) are released. The aluminum industry also discharges anhydrous
hydrogen fluoride and carbonic oxide (Burkat and Smola 2006).
The major sources of dust are furnaces of different types, concentrate dryers, and
crushing-milling equipment. Very high concentrations of heavy metals and other
chemical elements, reaching some tens of percents of the dust mass and exceeding
many times their content in ores, are characteristic of the dust emissions (Yanin
2004).
Non-ferrous metallurgy is the greatest polluter of surface waters. The waste
waters of the enterprises contain particulate pollutants, oil products, ions of heavy
metals, sulfates, chlorides, fluorides, and other substances (Ratanova 1999).
The smelting of non-ferrous metals consumes a great deal of water. For example,
the following volumes of water are used for production of the following metals:
nickel, 4000 m3/t; tungsten and molybdenum, 2500; titanium, 1; aluminum, 1500;
copper, 5000; lead and zinc, 360; and tin, 750 (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
The enterprises of non-ferrous metallurgy are among the largest industrial
complexes, and they require considerable withdrawal of land. For example,
non-ferrous metals are extracted from ores that generally contain several grams to
several kilograms of commercial component per ton, thus large areas are occupied
for waste storage.
In the vicinity of metallurgical combines, intense pollution of soils is recorded
that is generally related to admixtures coming from the atmosphere. For example,
investigations near the Irkutsk aluminium smelter (Russia) showed more than
100-fold increases in contents of fluorine, aluminum, manganese, barium, and
sodium as compared with their background levels in soils (Belozertseva 2002). As a
rule, increases in soil acidity occur near aluminum smelters.
The effects on vegetation are related to pollution of air and soils. For example,
within 16 km of a metallurgical complex in Ontario (Canada), 25 species of plants
were found to be growing under normal conditions. As one grew closer to the
complex, the number of plant species decreased, and at a distance of less than
1.6 km, none of the plants were found (Strauss and Mainwaring 1989).
The effects on the animal world are also indirect and are related to contamination of the soil and vegetation. Around the Monchegorsk metallurgical complex,
the numbers of soil invertebrates were 614 times lower as compared with
uncontaminated territories, while the total biomass was 1012.6 times smaller
(Effect of metallurgical production 1995).
2.2 Metallurgy
77
The effects on natural resources are expressed indirectly, through the great power
and fuel consumption. The production of aluminum (16,00018,000 kWh of
electric power per ton), magnesium, and titanium requires especially large amounts
of power. The production of nickel (5055 tons of equivalent fuel per ton), alumina
of nepheline raw materials, black copper, and other non-ferrous metals also consumes large amounts of fuel (Geographical encyclopaedic dictionary 1988).
As compared with ferrous metallurgy, non-ferrous metallurgy is a much more
adverse industry from an environmental viewpoint.
The environmental effects of non-ferrous metallurgy are illustrated by Photos
2.172.20.
Photo 2.17 Non-ferrous metallurgy is a heavy polluter of the atmosphere. The picture shows
emissions from a facility of the Mining and Metallurgical Company Norilsk Nickel (Russia).
This is one of largest companies involved in the production of precious and non-ferrous metals.
Share of world production are as follows: palladium, 50 %; nickel and platinum, 20 %; and cobalt,
10 %. Smelting is directly responsible for severe pollution, including acid rain and smog. By some
estimates, 1 % of the entire global emissions of sulfur dioxide originates here. Heavy-metal
pollution in the area is so severe that the soil itself has platinum and palladium contents that are
feasible to mine. Photo credit: S.P. Gorshkov (Moscow State University, Russia), July 1990
78
2 Industry
Photo 2.18 The effects of non-ferrous metallurgy on vegetation are related to pollution of air and
soils. Dead larches in the Ergalakh River basin near the Mining and Metallurgical Company
Norilsk Nickel (Russia) are shown. Pollution levels (sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulde, phenol,
formaldehyde, dust, nickel, and copper) are extremely high here. Norilsk is one of the most
polluted places on Earth. Photo credit: S.P. Gorshkov (Moscow State University, Russia)
Photo 2.19 Within the non-ferrous metallurgy enterprise zone, the productivity of corn used for
silage preparation decreases by 43 %; that of horse beans decreases by 36 %; that of cereal crops,
by 2627 %; and that of sugar beets, by 55 %. A potato eld on the right-bank terrace of the river
Yenisei (Russia) is shown here. The Krasnoyarsk aluminum plant is visible in the background.
Photo credit: S.P. Gorshkov (Moscow State University, Russia), August 1994
2.2 Metallurgy
79
Photo 2.20 A large amount of toxic waste is characteristic of many non-ferrous metallurgy
enterprises. Accidents occur frequently in related storage facilities. For example, one such accident
occurred on aluminum plant in Ajka, Hungary. This is a natural color image of the area
surrounding a toxic sludge spill. The aluminum plant appears along the right edge of the image and
incorporates both bright blue and brick-red reservoirs. The sludge forms a red-orange streak
running west from the plant. This view shows the spill thinning but remaining discernible for
several kilometers to the west. Villages of Kolontar and Devecser were affected by this toxic spill.
Photo credit: Jesse Allen (NASA Earth Observatory), 9 October 2010
80
2.3
2 Industry
Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical engineering is developed to the greatest extent in the United States

(almost 30 % of total engineering products), Japan (15 %), the Federal Republic of
Germany (10 %), France, Great Britain, Italy, and Canada (Maksakovsky 2006,
Book 1).
Large-scale engineering works generally include the following departments
(Rodionova 2013): (1) power producing; (2) foundry; (3) rolling; (4) machining;
(5) galvanizing; (6) assembling; and (7) painting.
Based on their environmental effects, the power-producing departments (boiler
plants) do not differ from thermal power plants, while the environmental effects of
foundries and rolling plants are not as great as those of iron and steel plants.
Therefore, they are not considered here.
In machining shops, metalworking is performed, which includes turning, milling, grinding, drilling, forge-and-press, welding, and other kinds of work. The
most complex activity is metal cutting; it accounts for about 40 % of the nished
product value (Ratanova 1999).
The electroplating industry involves the deposition of metal, alloy, and
chemical conversion (phosphate, oxide, etc.) coatings. According to kinds of
coatings, the volume of output is subdivided as follows (percent): zinc plating,
58.8; nickel plating, 10.0; copper coating, 8.4; chromium plating, 8.4; cadmium
plating, 4.6; and tinning, 2.7. Every year, several billion square meters of metal
surfaces are processed; 50 % of the cadmium produced, 25 % of the tin, and 15 %
of the nickel is spent for these purposes (Bek 1991).
In applying coatings, the following operations are performed: (1) etching;
(2) degreasing; (3) activation; (4) applying special electroconductive layers;
(5) applying metal coatings; and (6) special treatment of coatings.
There are two types of assembling works: (1) stationary (all components and
units are fed to one place, the assembly stand) and (2) mobile (yet-to-be-assembled
units move successively through all stands). In paint shops, the paint-and-lacquer
coatings are applied to the nished products.
In the electrical manufacturing segment of mechanical engineering, various
units are made for energy generation, transmission, conversion, and consumption;
means of communication and electrical measuring instruments; and different
manufacturing equipment. The production of batteries, fluorescent lamps, and
mercury thermometers has the greatest effect on the environment (Yanin 1998).
Mechanical engineering affects the following environmental components and
parameters: (1) atmospheric air; (2) surface waters (3) underground waters;
(4) soils; and (5) noise pollution (Figs. 2.8 and 2.9).
2.3 Mechanical Engineering
81
Fig. 2.8 Helicopter plants in the world. Prepared by author based on data from numerous Internet
sources
Legend:
100-6000;
40001-95000;
6001-15000;
15001-40000;
95001-200000.
Fig. 2.9 Lead pollution from used lead-acid accumulator recycling (http://www.worstpolluted.
org/projects_reports/display/90). Reproduced by permission of Blacksmith Institute for a Pure
Earth
82
2 Industry
The effects of mechanical engineering on atmospheric air are signicant.

Atmospheric pollution takes place during machine working of metals; particles of
worked materials, and sublimates and fumes of lubrication-cooling fluids which
enter the air. Pollutants that enter the atmosphere include oxides of sulfur, nitrogen,
and carbon, as well as chlorine, abrasive dust, aerosols, and vapors (Popova 2006).
The harmful substances entering the air from galvanizing plants are in the form
of dust, ne fog, vapors, and gases. The processes of acid and caustic etching, as
well as plating (blackening, anodizing, phosphating, etc.), are most unfavorable.
In paint shops, the fumes of organic solvents, paint-and-lacquer materials, and
pigment aerosols predominate (Ratanova 1999). In battery factories, the air is
contaminated with dust containing lead, nickel, cadmium, arsenic, bismuth, antimony, and tin (Yanin 2004).
The major source of pollution of surface waters in metalworking is the discharge of used lubricant-cooling agents, electrolytes and washing agents containing
oil products, soluble metal compounds, suspensions, and harmful chemical
elements.
The waste waters of galvanizing activities generally contain cations (copper,
zinc, nickel, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, iron, aluminum, tin, bismuth,
cobalt, manganese, etc.) and their hydroxides (in the form of suspensions and
colloidal particles), and anions (chlorides, sulfates, fluorides, cyanides, nitrates,
nitrites, phosphates, etc.), as well as surfactant species (Bek 1991; Environment
1999a, b, vol. 1).
Galvanizing activities show the greatest water consumption. They account for
2050 % of the total water usage of mechanical engineering enterprises. Of particular importance is the workpiece flushing process performed after most manufacturing operations. This process accounts for about 7080 % of water
consumption and 30 % of water contamination by this industry. The second most
important source of contamination is the used electrolytes, which account for
30 % of the contamination but only 12 % of the waste water volume (Bek 1991).
The pollution of soils is generally related to solid waste storage. The waste is
mainly composed of chips and llings of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and scale
and sludge from the electroplating industry. The sludge of settling boxes contains
toxic compounds of lead, chromium, copper, and zinc (Engineering ecology 2003).
Effects on underground waters are common. For example, 35 % of the total
mercury in underground waters in Sweden is from burned batteries (Yanin 1998).
Noise pollution is especially high in the machine working of metals. For example,
it reaches 115130 db in press shops (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
The environmental effects of mechanical engineering are illustrated by
Photos 2.212.23.
2.3 Mechanical Engineering
83
Photo 2.21 Mechanical engineering is the most complex and differentiated branch of industry.
Based on the product range, mechanical engineering is subdivided into the following activities:
(1) general engineering; (2) transport engineering; (3) electrical manufacturing industry;
(4) agricultural engineering; (5) instrument engineering; (5) arms production; and others.
Assembly of a steam turbine rotor produced by Siemens, in Germany, is shown here. Photo credit:
Siemens Pressebild
84
2 Industry
Photo 2.22 Electronic waste includes discarded electrical or electronic devices (computers,
electronic ofce equipment, electronic entertainment devices, mobile phones, television sets, etc.).
All electronic scrap components may contain contaminants such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or
brominated flame retardants. An estimated 50 million tons of E-waste are produced each year.
Electrical waste contains hazardous but also valuable and scarce materials. Up to 60 elements can
be found in complex electronics. In the United States, an estimated 70 % of heavy metals in
landlls comes from discarded electronics. The photo shows electronic cards in one of the
computer companies in Vladivostok. Photo credit: A.S. Govorushko, 1 December 2014
Photo 2.23 The harmful substances entering the air from galvanizing plants are in the form of dust,
ne fog, vapors, and gases. The processes of acid and caustic etching, as well as plating (blackening,
anodizing, phosphating, etc.), are most unfavorable. The photo shows a hot-dip zinc galvanizing
plant in an industrial sector (Kot Lakhpat, Lahore) in Pakistan. Photo credit: Syed Zillay Ali
2.4 Building Materials Industry
2.4
85
Building Materials Industry
The products of the building materials industry are natural and manmade materials and articles applied in the construction and repair of buildings and other
structures. This industry affects the following environmental components and
parameters: (1) atmospheric air; (2) soils and vegetation; (3) surface waters;
(4) geologic environment; (5) condemnation of land; (6) thermal pollution; and
(7) radioactive contamination.
The adverse effects on the atmosphere are generally caused by dust discharges.
The major sources of its delivery to the atmosphere are cement mills, lime kilns,
carbonate of magnesia production plants, brick kilns, and asphalt processing units.
For example, raw materials for cement production include limestone, chalk, and,
more rarely, marbles, marls, travertine, and fusible clays and clay loams. For the
production of 1 ton of cement, about 3 tons of lump material must be crushed,
milled, burnt, and carried. This material is almost completely transformed into ne
dust consisting of a mixture of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), calcium oxide (lime,
CaO), and other substances (Vainshtein and Vainshtein 2003).
Dust that is extremely detrimental to health arises in the manufacture of goods
from natural rock materials (Starikov 2013). The major manufacturing operations
producing dust include (Bretschneider and Kurfurst 1989) (1) crushing; (2) cracking; (3) transfer to charging grid; (4) transportation; and (5) storage. Production of
lime is accompanied by discharge of about 200 kg of dust per ton of output
products, while 140 kg is discharged in the production of 1 ton of gypsum plaster
(Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
In the manufacture of lime sand brick, the dirtiest operations are charging of
limestone and sand by cranes, transportation, sorting with sifters, and pressing
(Primak and Baltrenas 1991). In the course of producing ceramics and clay brick,
the maximum escape of dust is characteristic of the chamotte milling division and
batch preparation shops (Vakunin and Koryakov 2005).
Some factories manufacturing building materials emit, in addition to dust, large
quantities of gaseous pollutants. For example, the worlds cement industry accounts
for 1.5 % of anthropogenic discharges of carbon dioxide (Yudovich et al. 2005).
The cement industry ranks third in this characteristic in the European Community
(Szabo et al. 2006).
Increased gas emissions are also characteristic of asphalt production. In this
case, the major source of emissions is drums for asphalt-concrete mix preparation,
to which the mineral components are delivered and where they are mixed with a
binding component, bitumen (Dorozhukova and Yanin 2004).
86
2 Industry
The manufacture of sanitary ware is accompanied by emissions of up to 200 kg

of carbon oxides per ton of product (UNEP 2013 Annual Report 2014). The smoke
fumes caused by glass making contain the following (milligrams per cubic meter):
fluorides, 150; arsenic oxides, 55; boron oxides, 1300; and sulfur oxides, 375
(Menzelintseva and Artemova 2006). The other harmful components of waste gases
emitted during the production of building materials are nitrogen oxides and
carbohydrates.
Effects on soils are observed particularly in the course of coating plant operation
and transportation of asphalt. A number of chemical elements enter the soil,
including zinc, copper, mercury, molybdenum, chromium, and lead (Dorozhukova
and Yanin 2004). Cement dust causes adverse effects for vegetation (Mehraj et al.
2013). Plant growth parameters, yield components of crops which can be considerably influenced by excessive metal accumulation in soil (Mehraj and Bhat 2014).
Surface waters are polluted by the following processes (Environmental
assessment sourcebook 1992): (1) fluid drainage from settling boxes used for dust
soaking; (2) scattering of kiln charge; and (3) storage of raw materials and processing wastes. These processes result in pH increases and pollution with suspended and dissolved substances, predominately potassium and sulfates.
The influences on the geological environment are related to two factors
(Govorushko 2009): (1) processing of huge volumes of natural materials (sand,
clay, crushed stone, limestone, etc.) and (2) excavation of large amounts of subsoil.
For example, the volume of earthworks in the course of construction of a cement
mill with a capacity of 1.2 million tons a year is approximately 1.3 million cubic
meters (Khazanov 1975).
Condemnation of land is caused by the considerable quantities of waste.
However, as a rule, these wastes are nontoxic or low in toxicity. In addition, a large
portion is returned to production (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
Thermal pollution is related to the fact that the manufacture of many kinds of
products requires considerable expenditures of energy. For example, 1 % of world
energy consumption is used for the production of cement. In order to produce one
ceramic brick, about 0.27 kg of the equivalent fuel is needed (Filatov 2005).
Generally, energy is consumed in processes of hard ring (e.g., brick, tile, Dutch
tile, and faience and porcelain sanitary ware items).
Radioactive contamination is caused by the fact that some natural rock
materials (granites, syenites, porphyrites) are characterized by increased background radiation (Filatov 2005). On the whole, its role is not great.
The influences of the building materials industry on the environment are illustrated by Photos 2.24 and 2.25.
2.4 Building Materials Industry
87
Photo 2.24 The production of bricks results in environmental degradation due to emissions of
gaseous and particulate pollutants. All the brick kiln operations, from digging earth to unloading
red bricks from the kiln, are accompanied by the generation of dust. Air pollution in a brick kiln is
produced through both stack emissions and fugitive emissions. The use of thermally low-efciency
kilns, outdated technology, and inefcient ring technologies contributes to particulate and gaseous
emissions. Emissions from brick kilns consist mainly of ne particles of coal, dust particles, organic
matter, and small amounts of gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulde,
carbon monoxide, and others. The photo shows numerous brick kilns near Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Photo credit: Boris Braun (University of Cologne, Germany), 21 February 2009
Photo 2.25 In order to produce 1 ton of cement, about 3 tons of lump material must be crushed,
milled, burnt, and carried. This material is almost completely transformed into ne dust consisting
of a mixture of calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, and other substances. The cement industry also
accounts for 1.5 % of anthropogenic discharges of carbon dioxide. The chimney of a cement factory
in Slite, Gotland, Sweden, is shown. Photo credit: John Cunningham (Greenpeace), 23 May 2001
88
2.5
2 Industry
Woodworking Industry
The woodworking industry manufactures sawn goods, plywood, wood-based

panels, furniture, matches, sleepers, and other products. The basic kinds of
woodworking machines and processes are: (1) sawing (band, circular, power-saw
benches, trimming, multi-edgers, butting, panel); (2) milling; (3) jointers; (4) panel
planers; (5) turning; (6) four cutters; (7) drilling; (8) polisher; and (9) dovetail
jointers.
Mechanical processing of wood is generally based on four operations:
(1) sawing; (2) planing; (3) drilling; and (4) polishing. As a result, sawn goods are
produced that are used in construction, manufacture of furniture, nishing agents,
musical instruments, sports goods, crafts, and so on.
Chemical treatment of timber-based materials is used to make wood berboard
(sheet material made of plexiform wood bers by drying or hot-pressing) and wood
chipboard (sheet material made by hot-pressing wood chips with binding
materials).
As for environmental pollution, the woodworking industry is not a leading
source. For example, it ranks 10th among all industrial branches in Russia by
volumes of atmospheric emissions and accounts for 2.9 % of their total amount
(Yanin 2004). Woodworking has effects mainly on the following natural components: (1) atmospheric air; (2) soils; and (3) underground waters. In addition, it has
serious impacts on human health.
Effects on atmospheric air are generally related to dust emitted during the
mechanical treatment of timber, and gas discharges in the case of chemical treatment. In 1991, the emissions of harmful substances by the Russian woodworking
industry into the atmosphere reached 855,300 tons (Lapkayev and Rogov 2005).
Dust is ne, solid particles suspended in the air. It is subdivided into (1) coarse
dust, which is visible to the naked eye; (2) ner dust, which is visible when passing
through sun-rays in the air; and (3) dust that is invisible to the naked eye.
The most intense dust formation is characteristic of radial saw, panel saw, band
saw, and belt-grinding machines (Lomakin et al. 2005). For example, grinding
machines produce from 24 to 2040 kg of dust per shift (Lapkayev and Rogov
2005).
Fine dust with particle sizes of less than 10 m is most dangerous. In mechanical
treatment of timber, this dust comprises about 65 % of the total amount (Yanin
2004). Among all kinds of mechanical processing, grinding (polishing) operations
are most signicant from this point of view. As to toxicity, the dust of the East
Indian redwood, or sappanwood tree, is most dangerous, followed by ash, larch,
pine, birch, and oak dust (Lapkayev and Rogov 2005).
2.5 Woodworking Industry
89
The waste volumes of the mechanical processing of timber are relatively small.
For example, they are 36 % in the timber works of British Columbia (Canada)
(Orban et al. 2002). They contain generally 34.5 % bark, 15.4 % sawdust, 8.5 %
cuttings, 21.9 % chips, and 19.6 % other waste (Yanin 2004). When this waste is
milled with the objective of further processing, more dust escapes.
Gaseous emissions are largely related to the production of chipboard and
include redolent terpene hydrocarbons and formaldehydes. For example, about 40
plants in the Federal Republic of Germany manufacturing chipboard discharged
4600 tons of these organic compounds into the atmosphere in 1979 (Environment
1999a, vol. 1).
The influences on soils and underground waters are generally related to
leaching from waste wood that is buried in the ground (Bassett 1996). Some
contribution is made by penetration into the soil of toxic preservatives in the course
of impregnation and drying of timber, as well as their washout when preserved
timber is used (Popova and Kharuk 1991).
The effects on human health are related to the release of dust. Three types of
reactions of humans to wood dust have been identied: (1) primary irritations;
(2) allergic reactions; and (3) systemic diseases (Lapkayev and Rogov 2005).
The rst group is related to the irritation of mucous membranes, which is
accompanied by rhinitis, lachrymation, nasal hemorrhage, and other reactions.
Allergic reactions are more often expressed as itching, but whole-body dermatitis is
possible. Many known skin diseases are caused by the wood dust of a number of
tropical species. However, it is now known that the wood dust of many species of
the temperate zone (spruce, pine, larch, linden, birch, maple, beech, and oak) has
similar effects (Lapkayev and Rogov 2005).
The third group includes diseases of the respiratory tract, eyes, and other parts
of the body. Wood dust causes the occupational disease pneumoconiosis
(Golovunina 2001). The oncogenic effect of beech and oak dust is considered to be
proven (Environment 1999a, vol. 1).
An additional threat to people is related to the ability of wood dust to ignite and
explode under certain conditions (Voronova and Avlokhova 2005).
The environmental effects of the woodworking industry are illustrated by Photos
2.262.28.
90
2 Industry
Photo 2.26 Chemical treatment of timber-based materials is used to make wood berboard (sheet
material made of plexiform wood bers by drying or hot-pressing) and wood chipboard (sheet
material made by hot-pressing wood chips with binding materials). The photo shows wood
berboard and wood chipboard. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), 16 November 2013
Photo 2.27 The wastes produced in the mechanical processing of timber contain generally 34.5 %
bark, 15.4 % sawdust, 8.5 % cuttings, 21.9 % chips, and 19.6 % other wastes. The photo shows the
operation of a belt sawmill in Idaho, United States. Photo credit: Chris Schnepf (University of
Idaho, United States)
2.5 Woodworking Industry
91
Photo 2.28 Illegal logging contributes to deforestation and by extension global warming, and it
also causes loss of biodiversity. The identication of illegally logged timber is technically difcult.
Illegal logging accounts for up to 30 % of the global logging trade and contributes to more than
50 % of tropical deforestation in central Africa, the Amazon Basin, and South-East Asia. The
photo shows the Odani sawmill, located in Placas (Par state, Brazil), linked with logging and
processing of illegal timber. Photo credit: Lunae Parracho (Greenpeace), 28 September 2014
92
2.6
2 Industry
Wood Pulp and Paper Industry
The following ve countries lead in paper and paperboard production (million tons,
2011): (1) China, 99.3; (2), the United States, 75.1; (3) Japan, 26.6; (4) the Federal
Republic of Germany, 22.7; and (5) Canada, 12.1 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Pulp_and_paper_industry) (Fig. 2.10).
(http://www.paperonweb.com/ppmanfaa.htm;
http://www.risiinfo.com/risi-store/do/product/detail/north-american-pulp-and-paper-millmap.html; http://www.nscorp.com/nscportal/nscorp/Customers/Industrial-Products/Paper-ClayForest/; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paper_mills)
Fig. 2.10 Main pulp and paper mills. Prepared by author based on data from numerous Internet
sources
Cellulose produced from the wood of coniferous trees is stronger, and its bers
are longer; however, cellulose can be manufactured from any plant. The technological process can be described simply as follows. Cuttings of logs (13 m long)
are freed from bark and abraded into wood pulp. The wood pulp is bleached with
hydrogen peroxide or sodium peroxide. Then the non-cellulosic substances (lignin,
gums, mineral substances, etc.) are removed from the wood pulp.
There are two methods of cellulose production: (1) sulte and (2) sulfate. In the
sulte method, the wood pulp is processed with a solution of calcium bisulfate and
sulfuric acid. The processing is carried out in autoclaves at temperatures of 130
160 C and pressures of up to 6 atmospheres. Within 1016 h, most of the
non-cellulosic substances have been dissolved, and, as a result, we have 95 %
cellulose. Then the cellulose is washed with water, dehydrated, and compressed
(Ratanova 1999).
2.6 Wood Pulp and Paper Industry
93
The sulfate method of cellulose production includes the boiling of wood chips in
white liquor (a mixture of sodium hydroxide [NaOH] and sulphureous sodium
[Na2S]) at 165175 C for 35 h. The cellulose produced is washed, disintegrated,
dried, and bleached. As in the sulte method, a major pollution source is the
bleaching shop (Ratanova 1999).
The pulp-and-paper industry influences the following natural components:
(1) surface waters; (2) atmospheric air; (3) animal world; (4) soils; (5) underground
waters; and (6) thermal pollution.
The effects on surface waters are basically observed in the sulte method of
production. The waste waters in this case can be divided into the following types:
(1) bark-containing waters (polluted with bark, which degrades water quality by
releasing tarry matter); (2) ber-containing waters (polluted with wood bers and
dyes that are deposited on the bottoms of water bodies; the bers rot, emitting
carbon dioxide and ammonia); (3) leachate-containing waters (contain lignin, tarry
matter; disturb the oxygen regime of water bodies); (4) acid waters (contain mineral
acids, including sulfric acid; reduce pH and dissolved oxygen content); and
(5) chlorine-containing waters (polluted with chlorine, alkali, and sulfuric and
hydrochloric acids) (Shabalova and Tarasyavichute 2006).
In the sulfate method of production, the major effect is also related to
leachate-containing waste waters. They include gums, phenols, hydrogen sulde,
methyl mercaptane, turpentine, methanol, and other substances. Sludge-containing
waters show very high alkalinity (Ratanova 1999).
The pulp-and-paper industry consumes large quantities of water: for production
of 1 ton of cellulose, from 200 m3 (Ince et al. 2011) to 400500 m3 (Rudsky and
Sturman 2014) of water are needed.
Atmospheric pollution results from emissions of dust and gaseous substances.
The solid particles include sodium and calcium compounds, and particles of starch,
talc, lime, clay, and pigments. The volumes of emissions may reach 283 kg per ton
of the nal product (Yanin 2004). The gaseous pollutants include hydrogen sulde,
oxides of nitrogen and carbon, methyl mercaptane, dimethyl sulde, terebenthene,
and methanol (Romanova and Bratseva 2004; Turanchiyeva 2005).
Effects on the animal world are indirect and related to the pollution of water
bodies with waste waters. The discharge of leachate-containing waste waters
reduces the water transparency, which decreases available sunlight and thus phytoplankton formation. Pulp-and-paper mill effluents affect sh reproduction
(Milestone et al. 2012; Kovacs et al. 2013).
Effects on soils are caused by dust that falls from the atmosphere and leakage of
high-alkalinity waste. Data on soil changes near a paper-making plant in the Assam
State (India) are given in a paper by Phukan and Bhattacharyya (2003). In soils near
the plant, aluminum oxide, iron (III) oxide, and manganese (II) oxide, as well as
calcium, sodium, magnesium, and lead, accumulate; soil becomes alkaline, and its
water retentivity and density decrease.
94
2 Industry
Effects on underground waters are also related to leakages. For example,

23 years after a Baykal pulp-and-paper plant was put into operation, underground
waters between the industrial site and the edge of Lake Baykal were found to be
polluted with sulfate ion, hydrocarbonates, and other substances. In order to resolve
this problem, 12 interceptive wells were drilled. Pumped underground waters were
cleaned; in 1999, 474 m3 were pumped (Gorkina 2009).
Thermal pollution is caused by the use of large volumes of water (flushing of
cellulose, using water for cooling systems, etc.) and then discharge of the heated
water to water bodies.
The environmental effects of the pulp-and-paper industry are illustrated by
Photos 2.292.31.
Photo 2.29 Cellulose can be manufactured from any plant. However, cellulose produced from the
wood of coniferous trees is stronger, and its bers are longer. Stockpiles of rain-forest logs at
APPs Indah Kiat Perawang pulp mill in Riau, Sumatra, Indonesia, are shown. Photo credit:
Greenpeace, 2012
2.6 Wood Pulp and Paper Industry
95
Photo 2.30 The effects of wood pulp and paper plants on surface waters are basically associated
with the sulphite method of production. The waste waters are polluted with bark, wood bers,
lignin, tarry matter, mineral acids, chlorine, alkali, sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, and other
substances. The photo shows a waste disposal basin at a paper company in Minnesota, United
States. Photo credit: U.S. EPA Great Lakes Program Ofce
Photo 2.31 Atmospheric pollution from pulp and paper plants results from emissions of dust and
gaseous substances. The solid particles include sodium and calcium compounds, and particles of
starch, talc, lime, clay, and pigments. The gaseous pollutants include hydrogen sulde, oxides of
nitrogen and carbon, methyl mercaptane, dimethyl sulde, terebenthene, and methanol. The
Baykalsky wood pulp and paper works (Russia) are shown here. On 25 December 2013, it was
closed. Photo credit: V. Kantor (Greenpeace Russia)
96
2.7
2 Industry
Light Industry
Light industry includes such branches as the textile industry, clothing manufacture, tanning, shoemaking, the fur industry, and toy manufacture. The most
important branch is the textile industry, which provides about half of the entire
production volume and ranks rst in the number of employed people.
The textile and tanning branches have the greatest effects on the environment.
The basic technological processes of the textile branch are (1) raw material
preparation; (2) spinning; (3) weaving; (4) painting and coloring; and (5) other
nishing (addition of materials that decrease combustibility and improve color
fastness and extension resistance, and so on).
In the production of leather, the animal fells are subjected to the following
operating steps: (1) preparatory processes (skin with hairs is changed into
untanned, semi-nished goods; rawhide, at this step, is preserved with salts, dried,
and washed with solutions of chemicals, and the hairs are removed); (2) tanning (in
order to increase resistance and elasticity, a skin is treated with chromium sulfate,
sodium sulfate, and sodium carbonate); (3) trimming (foliation) of skin (natural skin
has a thickness of about 1 cm; it is split into three to six layers); and (4) nishing
operations (dyeing, malaxation, and greasing) (Poyarkov 2002) (Fig. 2.11).
Legend:
100-7000;
70001-160000;
7001-25000;
25001-70000;
160001-300000.
Fig. 2.11 Chromium pollution from tanneries (http://www.worstpolluted.org/projects_reports/

display/88). Reproduced by permission of Blacksmith Institute for a Pure Earth
Light industry affects the following natural components: (1) surface waters;
(2) atmospheric air; (3) soils; and (4) the animal world. It also exerts serious
influences on human health.
2.7 Light Industry
97
Surface waters are polluted with different substances. As for water consumption, light industry is among the leading branches of industry. Water use in the
textile branch is basically related to cloth washing at different stages of nishing.
Water consumption is 100330 m3/t for different cloths (Marinich et al. 2000;
Sadova et al. 2002). Water consumption in leather making is much lower: in the
treatment of 1 ton of raw tanning products, 35 m3 of waste waters are formed (Van
Groenestijn et al. 2002).
Water pollution caused by operating textile production units is basically related to
cloth washing, coloring, and nishing. Waste waters are contaminated with pesticides
(used for sanitizing sheep) and soil particles (Rogachev 2000), and they contain
particles of fat, soap, soda, surface-active materials, and wool (Smirnov et al. 2000).
Much of the initial solutions are contained in the waste of dye-nishing production. For example, the amounts of thickeners, Glaubers salts, starch, and
surface-active materials in the waste waters are up to 90 % of their initial content in
the nishing liqors; for sodium hydroxide, it is 50 %; for dispersed and cationic dyes,
40 %; for sulfur dyes, 30 %; and for potassium dichromate, 25 % (Kiselev 2002).
The major contaminants in the tanning industry are chromium salts used for
tanning, and cobalt, copper, and nickel, which are components of coloring agents
(Rodrigues and Formoso 2013; Rudsky and Sturman 2014). In the treatment of
1 ton of raw stock, 200 kg of chlorides, 100 kg of sulfates, and 10 kg of trivalent
chromium are formed (Van Groenestijn et al. 2002).
Emissions into the atmosphere include dust and gases. Wool dust consists of
particles of mineral and organic origin. Silicon dioxide, part of the mineral component, is the most dangerous (Smirnov et al. 2000). The composition of gaseous
pollutants in the textile branch depends on the technological operation. They are
carbon monoxide; nitrogen dioxide; sodium hydroxide; hydrogen peroxide;
hydrogen sulde; sulfur dioxide; ammonia; nitrogen dioxide; formaldehyde; and
nitric, hydrochloric, and sulfuric acids (Sadova et al. 2002; Marinich et al. 2000).
In leather manufacture, the air is polluted with hydrogen sulde, ammonia, and
vapors of sulfuric and formic acids (Pisareva et al. 2003). Because polymeric
materials are used for the manufacture of leather goods, and different glues (including
those based on organic solvents) and dyes are widely applied, considerable amounts
of toxic pollutants are released into the atmosphere (Mikhailyuk et al. 2003).
Soils are contaminated when pollutants settle out from the atmosphere, and in
waste storage. In leather making, chromium and lead are major pollutants. The
animal world is affected through pollution of habitat. Discharges of waste waters
cause living conditions for hydrobionts to deteriorate. For example, discharges of
phenols and synthetic detergents poison sh (Kiselev 2002).
Many occupational diseases are characteristic of light industry; for example,
allergic asthma caused by pollen covering the wings of the silkworm moth, and
ursolic asthma of furriers. Byssinosis, a lung disease caused by inhalation of organic
dust containing textile bers, is found in workers in cotton and flax spinning mills
(Environment 1999b, vol. 2). Also, tanneries are contaminated by bacteria and
fungi that create occupational inhalation risks to workers (Skora et al. 2014).
The environmental effects of light industry are illustrated by Photos 2.322.37.
98
2 Industry
Photo 2.32 Sheep hair is one of the

major kinds of raw material used in
the textile industry. Sheep shearing
is the process by which the woolen
fleece of a sheep is cut off. The
person who removes the sheeps
wool is called a shearer. Typically,
each adult sheep is shorn once each
year. The annual shearing most often
occurs in a shearing shed, a facility
especially designed to process often
hundreds, and sometimes more than
3000, sheep per day. The photo
shows a sheep shearer at the
Shearing Shed, Yallingup, Western
Australia. Photo credit: http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep_shearing,
Martin Pot (Martybugs at en.wikipedia) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/
copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY 3.0
(http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons
Photo 2.33 In the production of leather, the animal fells are subjected to the following operations:
(1) preparatory processes (skin with hairs is changed into untanned, semi-nished goods; rawhide,
at this step, is preserved with salts, dried, and washed with solutions of chemicals, and the hairs are
removed); (2) tanning (in order to increase resistance and elasticity, a skin is treated with chromium
sulfate, sodium sulfate, and sodium carbonate); (3) trimming (foliation) of skin (natural skin has a
thickness of about 1 cm; it is split into three to six layers); and (4) nishing operations (dyeing,
malaxation, and greasing). The photo shows workers handling hides to produce leather at a tannery
in Cceres, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Photo credit: Ricardo Funari (Lineair/ Greenpeace), 8 April 2009
2.7 Light Industry
99
Photo 2.34 The major contaminants in the tanning industry are chromium salts used for tanning,
and cobalt, copper, and nickel, which are components of the coloring agents. In the treatment of
1 ton of raw stock, 200 kg of chlorides, 100 kg of sulfates, and 10 kg of trivalent chromium are
formed. The photo shows the flow of contaminated water from tanneries to the Ganges in Kanpur,
India. Photo credit: Boris Braun (University of Cologne, Germany), 16 September 2007
Photo 2.35 A total of 75 % of tanneries are located in South Asia (especially in Nepal,
Bangladesh, and India). In the largest tannery region of Bangladesh, Hazaribagh, more than 200
tanneries generate 7.7 million liters of liquid waste and 88 million tons of solid waste every day.
The direct discharge of these wastes has contaminated the ground and surface water with
dangerously high concentrations of chromium, as well as cadmium, arsenic, and lead. The photo
shows a dump site containing chromium sulfate in Rania, Northern India. Photo credit: Boris
Braun (University of Cologne, Germany), 17 January 2010
100
2 Industry
Photo 2.36 Tanning is the stage in which raw leather is processed and made more durable so that
it can be made into various products in the subsequent segment of the industry. The types and
concentrations of the chemicals used in different stages of production are varied. Chromium is one
of the most widely used chemicals throughout this process. The primary health impacts from
chromium are damage to the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and immunological systems, as well as
reproductive and developmental problems. Tanners at work treating hides in Fez, Morocco, are
shown here. Photo credit: A. Gandol (FAO)
Photo 2.37 Byssinosis, a disease of the lungs caused by inhalation of organic dust containing textile
bers, is characteristic of workers in shops conducting preliminary treatment in cotton and flax
spinning mills. The photo shows baskets with cotton being unloaded at a cotton factory in Asifabad,
Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Photo credit: Peter Caton (Greenpeace), 18 November 2009
2.8 Food Processing Industry
2.8
101
Food Processing Industry
The food processing industry comprises facilities for producing ready-to-eat

products and prepared foods, as well as tobacco goods, soap and other cleaning
agents, perfumes, and cosmetics.
The food industry affects the following natural components: (1) surface waters;
(2) atmospheric air; (3) the animal world; and (4) condemnation of land. In addition, it seriously affects human health and results in high mortality.
Surface waters are polluted with different substances. The compositions of
pollutants are very different, depending on the enterprise. Organic compounds (fats,
proteins), mineral suspensions, and chlorides are present in the waste waters of
meat processing plants. The discharges of cattle slaughterhouses are polluted the
most (Uglov 2006).
The waste waters of margarine production plants show high acidity and high
contents of fats and sulfates (Willey 2001). A large volume of nitrogen-containing
waste forms in the production of cheese (Tusseau-Vuillemin 2001). Preparation of
1 kg of cheese yields 9 kg of whey. About a half of its global production is not
processed, but instead is discharged in the form of waste waters (Siso 1996); in this
case, the biological oxygen demand (BOD5) reaches 3000 mg/l (Kionga-Kamau
1995).
The sugar industry (Fig. 2.12) exerts a considerable influence on surface waters.
In the Gorakhpur district of Nepal, for instance, improperly treated water
Fig. 2.12 Main sugar mills. Prepared by author based on data from numerous Internet sources
102
2 Industry
discharged from two sugar factories into a stream rendered the streams water unt
for drinking, bathing, or irrigation (Hess et al. 2014). The waste waters of olive
processing plants are highly toxic due to their content of phenols (DAnibale et al.
2004).
Air is polluted with dust and different gaseous contaminants. Dust emissions
usually originate from dry, loose products (sugar, salt, grain, flour, coffee, tea,
starch, etc.). In most cases, the dust particles are released during mechanical
fragmentation. The food industry in Russia releases to the atmosphere 1.4 % of the
total volume of solid particles for all industrial sectors (Yanin 2004).
This industrial branch emits odorous gaseous substances. They may be visible
(as for instance, in vegetable oil expression, coffee bean roasting, smoking of meat
and sh, drying of sh, and broiling of peanuts and hamburgers). Sometimes, the
odors are emitted without visible pollution, such as in the cooking of tomatoes,
processing of spices, and sh dressing and processing (Protection of the atmosphere
against industrial pollution 1988, vol. 2).
The production of smoked products results in serious atmospheric pollution with
gases. All types of smoking chambers generate phenols, carbonyl compounds,
acids, and benzopyrene (Kim and Filippov 2003). Benzopyrene is of great
importance because it accounts for 97 % of the environmental danger related to the
production of smoked products (Kim et al. 2004; Kim and Kim 2005). For production of 1 l of beer, about 30 kg of carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere (The
geography of beer 2014).
In the animal world, hydrobionts suffer the most from pollution of this industry,
related to reduction in dissolved oxygen in water and to the toxicity of a number of
pollutants. Examples of these effects include mass sh mortality due to discharges
of waste waters from a brewery in Iraq (Khayat 1986) and a sugar mill in Latvia
(Sugar plant ordered to close 2005). Another example is the sharp decrease in
species diversity of zooperiphyton due to waste waters from a cheese dairy in
Russia (Skalskaya 2002).
The condemnation of land is related to accumulation of considerable amounts
of waste in some enterprises. When different cereals are processed, huge masses of
husks, ne vegetable particles, and other debris are generated (Rudyka et al. 1999).
For example, production of flour and rice flour and cotton cleaning yield 17.7 tons,
66 tons, and 63 tons of waste per worker a year, respectively (Yanin 2004). In some
factories producing potato starch, from 100,000 to 250,000 m3 of starch-containing
sludge are generated every year (Facts and gures: food processing and the environment 1995).
In the making of baked goods and confectionery, the waste basically consists of
reject pastry and egg-shells. For example, 34 tons of reject pastry and shells of
4 million eggs (approximately 2838 tons per year) are generated in a plant producing 6000 tons of goods every year (Nayman 2006). Serious problems also arise
103
with packaging materials, which constitute a considerable portion of domestic

waste (Brown 1993).
Dust that forms in flour milling plants, sugar mills, and plants producing cocoa
powder, dried milk, and other products is able to spontaneously explode (Yanin
2004). For example, dust exploded at a sugar renery in Port Wentworth, Georgia
(United States) on 7 February 2008. As a result, 13 people were killed and 42 were
injured (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_disasters#Food_industry).
The environmental effects of the food industry are illustrated by Photos
2.382.42.
Photo 2.38 The enterprises of the food processing industry are divided into three categories
according to the raw material used: (1) those that run on raw stock of vegetable origin; (2) those
that run on raw stock of animal origin; and (3) those that use non-agricultural raw materials.
Checking of carcasses in a slaughterhouse in Chad is shown here. Large differences in meat
consumption exist both within and between countries, ranging from an average of 83 kg per person
per year in North America and Europe to 11 kg per person per year in Africa. Photo credit: Roberto
Faidutti (FAO)
104
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Photo 2.39 Many enterprises of the food industry are sources of considerable water pollution.
Hydrobionts suffer from this pollution to the greatest extent; ill effects are related to reduction in
dissolved oxygen in water and to the toxicity of a number of pollutants. In addition, 0.5 ton of
water is spent in slaughterhouses for each killed animal in the course of slaughter and butchering.
Offal and effluent flowing from the slaughter yard past a well toward the White Nile are shown
here. Photo credit: United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), from UNEP Sudan PostConflict Environmental Assessment Report, 22 June 2007
Photo 2.40 A large volume of nitrogen-containing waste forms during the production of cheese.
Preparation of 1 kg of cheese yields 9 kg of whey. About a half of the global production of cheese is
not processed, but instead is discharged in the form of waste waters. Cheese production located at
the foot of Knzelspitze, between the towns of Schoppernau and Schrcken, in the Bregenzerwald,
Austria, is shown here. Photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Production_
of_cheese_in_Hopfreben_19.JPG by Bhringer Friedrich (Own work) [CC BY-SA 2.5
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons, 28 May 2011
105
Photo 2.41 Dust that forms in flour milling plants, sugar mills, and plants producing cocoa
powder and dried milk and other products is able to spontaneously explode. The photo shows the
damage caused by a sugar dust explosion on February 7, 2008, at the Imperial Sugar renery at
Port Wentworth in Georgia, United States. Photo credit: U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard
Investigation Board, 10 February 2008
Photo 2.42 The influences of the food industry on atmospheric air are related to pollution with
dust and different gaseous contaminants. The emissions of dust usually originate from dry, loose
products (sugar, salt, grain, flour, coffee, tea, starch, etc.). In most cases, the dust particles arise in
the course of mechanical fragmentation. A chimney at the Puunene sugar mill, Puunene, Maui,
Hawaii, is shown here. Photo credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pu%CA%BBunene,_Hawaii by
joanna orpia from QLD, Australia (sugar cane factory in maui) [CC BY 2.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
106
2 Industry
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Internet resources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_industry
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_disasters#Food_industry
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorite
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Fertilizer_Company_explosion
http://www.fertilizer101.org/sources/?seq=2
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http://www.worstpolluted.org/projects_reports/display/88
111
Chapter 3
Mining and Mineral Processing
3.1
Opencast Mines
Opencast mining is extraction of commercial minerals from the Earths surface

using open-pit workings. About 60 % of metallic ores, 85 % of non-metallic ores,
100 % of non-metallics, and 35 % of coal are produced by this method. The
distribution of mineral resources of the world is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Zn
Pb
Au
Pb Ag
Au
Ni
Au
V W
Au
K
S
Ag Pb
Ph
Au
Au
Fe
Fe
Cr
Ph
Mn
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Fe
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Mn W
Cu Fe Cu
Au
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Mn Fe
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Au
Ag
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Mn Cr
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Au Ni
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Cu
Cu
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Al
Mn
Mn
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Nb Fe
Au
Cu
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Ag
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Cu
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Cu
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Sn
Au
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Mn
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Sn
W
Au
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Cu
Cu
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Mn
Mn
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Mn
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Al
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Fe
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W
W
Zn
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Hg
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Fe
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Zn
Pb
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Zn
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Pt Ag
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Au
Au
Fe
Fe
Fe
Cr Pb
Al
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Fe Fe Hg
Pb
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Mn
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Pb Zn
Zn
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Cu
Zn
Ag
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Pb
Pt
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Pt Au Zn
Cu Ag S
W Hg
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Zn S
W
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Cu
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Zn
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Fe
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Ag
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Ag
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Ti
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Cr
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Cu
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Ni
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Ni W
Cu
Fe
Ni
Cu
Ti
Pt
Ti
Fe
Ni
Al
Fe
Ni
Au
Au
Cu
Ti
Fe Ag Cu
Zn Sn
Cu
W
Legend:
Ag
Al
Au
Cr
Silverores
Aluminiumores
Gold
Chromitite
Cu
Fe
Hg
K
Copperores
Ironores
Mercuryores
Potashsalts
Manganeseores
Nickelores
Pb Lead
Ph Phosphorites
Mn
Ni
Pt
S
Sn
Ti
Platinum
Sulphur
Tinores
Titaniumores
Vanadiumores
Tungsten-molybdenumores
Zn
Zincores
Complexores
Nb
Niobiumores
Diamonds
Fig. 3.1 Mineral resources of the world (not including fuels) (Kholina et al. 2009). Reproduced
with permission of V.N. Kholina

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5_3
113
114
Opencast mining impacts the following natural components: (1) condemnation

of land; (2) soils; (3) vegetation; (4) animal world; (5) atmospheric air; (6) surface
and underground waters; and (7) relief.
Regarding the area of condemned land, the mining industry is a leading branch
of industry. Extraction of 1 million tons of coal disturbs 343 ha; iron ore,
14640 ha; manganese ore, 76600 ha; ores for production of mineral fertilizers,
2297 ha; limestone, 60120 ha; and phosphorites, 2277 ha (Pevzner 2003;
Mirzekhanova 2008).
Soils are contaminated with fuels and lubricants, flushing liquids, sludge, and
other materials. The accumulation of dust from dumps and open casts on the soil
surface reduces a soils fertility. During reclamation activities, the physical properties of soils are disturbed and other impacts occur (Lukanin and Tromenko 2001).
The natural state of plant cover is disturbed both around open casts and in the
land plots where production sites are established. These disturbances include
destruction of trees and shrubbery, and degradation and loss of grass cover. The
effects on vegetation may be indirect and caused by air and soil pollution, which
have negative effects on plants.
Effects on the animal world are also indirect and are caused by contamination of
other media. Soil invertebrates are affected to the greatest degree; amphibians and
small mammals follow; and birds are affected to a lesser degree. The effects on
ichthyofauna are generally caused by increases in the acidity of surface waters, and
they often are considerable. Freshwater sh usually do well at pHs of 5.08.5.
A sudden change in pH within this range can have adverse effects on them, while
when the range expands to 4.09.5, the sh usually perish (Govorushko 2009).
The basic sources of air pollution are open casts and grinding-sorting factories
(Ovseychuk 2006). Specic sources of dust and gas emissions include (1) explosions; (2) motor transport; (3) handling operations; (4) drilling operations; and
(5) dust-forming surfaces (dumps, slopes, tailing dumps, etc.).
Mineral dust is the main component of aerosol atmospheric contamination. In
ore quarries, more than 90 % of the rock mass is extracted by using drilling and
blasting operations. The amounts of dust formed are 0.0430.254 kg of dust per
kilogram of explosive material (Lukanin and Tromenko 2001).
The total volume of dust discharged as a result of opencast mining in the
Russian Federation is 460,000 tons a year (Goncharov et al. 2005). As compared
with other branches of industry (power engineering, petrochemistry, etc.), the
spatial scales of this pollution are not great.
Surface waters are subjected to geochemical transformation to the greatest
extent. Generally, pollutants enter surface waters from three sources: (1) dewatering of mine workings; (2) drainage effluent from waste rock dumps; and
(3) drainage of concentrating mill tailing dumps (Yanin 2005).
As for contamination of surface waters, sulde minerals are of great signicance. When deposits are being developed, the rocks are crushed and, as a result,
there are large increases in their reactive surface areas. The abrupt increase in
accessibility to oxygen intensies oxidation processes of sulde minerals and
growth in discharges of ore components. From the ore-bearing rocks, considerable
3.1 Opencast Mines
115
quantities of heavy metals, aluminum, iron, manganese, etc., are released, which are
also toxic for aquatic organisms (Yellishetty et al. 2013).
Dewatering of quarries causes underground water levels to drop, forming a
depressed funnel area, which may be 23 orders of magnitude larger than the area
of the quarry. Around the Kursk magnetic anomaly (Russia), drops in levels reach
50113 m and increase at rates of 13 m per year, while the funnel area is about
40,000 km2. Around the Donets Basin (Ukraine), it exceeds 100,000 km2
(Kovalevsky 1994).
An opencast operation is a powerful factor in relief transformation. The mining
of each ton of ore is accompanied by several cubic meters of overburden. The area
of positive topographic forms (dumps) is usually slightly larger than that of negative forms (quarries). In the Mikhailovsky mining and concentration complex
(Kursk magnetic anomaly), for example, the area of dumps is 2000 ha, while that of
quarries is only 1500 ha.
On the whole, opencast operations exert marked adverse effects on the environment; surface waters and ichthyofauna are among the components that are
affected the most.
The environmental effects of opencast operations are illustrated by Photos 3.13.8.
Photo 3.1 The mining industry is among the leading branches of industry with respect to the area of
condemned land. The photo shows trucks loading coal at the Cerrejn coal mine, located in
Colombia on the border with Venezuela. It is an open-pit mine, one of the largest mines of that type
in the world. The mine extends over 69,000 ha (170,000 acres). By the end of 2011, the Cerrejn
mine had reached a production gure of 32.03 million tons. It represents 4.6 % of global coal sales.
Cerrejn has a mining fleet comprising 493 pieces of equipment: 258 trucks with load capacities of
190, 240, and 320 tons; 50 hydraulic shovels; and 185 pieces of auxiliary equipment. Photo credit:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerrejonmine2.png by en:User:Zero Gravity [Public
domain, GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons
116
Photo 3.2 The impacts of any mining enterprise are not limited to any one natural component.
For example, the Bingham Canyon Mine has had adverse environmental effects on the habitats of
sh and wild animals; it also is a source of air and water pollution, creating health hazards to the
surrounding public. Since the early 1990s, the mine has spent more than $400 million on clean-up
efforts in the affected areas. The Bingham Canyon Mine has been in production since 1906, and it
has created a pit over 0.6 miles (0.97 km) deep and 2.5 miles (4 km) wide, covering 1900 acres
(770 ha). Every year, it produces approximately 300,000 short tons of copper. In addition to
copper, the mine produces about 400,000 oz of gold, 4 million ounces of silver, and 25 million
pounds of molybdenum. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingham_Canyon_Mine
Photo 3.3 The important sources of air pollution in mining activities are motor transport and handling
operations. The main component of atmospheric contamination is mineral dust. The open-cast of the
Gafsa Phosphates Company (CPG) in south-western Tunisia is shown. CPG, with a current production
exceeding 8 million metric tons, is the worlds fth largest phosphate producer. Photo credit: S.M.
Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 23 August 2008
3.1 Opencast Mines
117
Photo 3.4 Drilling operations are an additional source of dust and gas emissions in the mining
industry. When drilling is carried out, carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, soot, sulfur
dioxide, benzo[a]pyrene, hydrogen sulde, and silicate dust enter the atmosphere. Considerable
preparation work related to territory leveling and construction of temporary approach roads is
required for transportation of the drilling equipment within the exploration area. Exploratory well
drilling in a gold ore eld in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, is shown. Photo credit: V.M. Govorushko,
21 July 2013
Photo 3.5 Surface waters are the component of the natural environment that is subjected to
geochemical transformation to the greatest extent in the mining industry. Generally, pollutants enter
surface waters from three sources: (1) dewatering of mine workings; (2) drainage effluent from
waste rock dumps; and (3) drainage of concentrating mill tailing dumps. The photo shows a
32.9-acre phosphogypsum slag heap in Sichuan, China. The fluoride content of the leaching
solution is 277 mg/l. According to state regulations, any gure over 100 mg/l is hazardous and
should be subject to strict regulation. No residential area should be built within 800 m, and no water
source should be used within 150 m. Photo credit: Wen Wenyu (Greenpeace), 25 November 2012
118
Photo 3.6 On 30 January 2000, the dam containing toxic waste material from the Baia Mare
Aurul gold mine in northwestern Romania burst and released 100,000 m3 of waste water, heavily
contaminated with cyanide, into the Lapus and Somes tributaries of the river Tisza, one of the
largest in Hungary. An estimated 80 % of all sh in the Tisza River died as a result of the spill.
Numerous other animals such as foxes, otters, and ospreys, died after eating contaminated sh.
The photo shows cyanide pipes coming from the Aurul gold mine, leaking cyanide into the
environment. Photo credit: Jim Hodson (Greenpeace), 1 February 2000
Photo 3.7 Dewatering of quarries causes underground water levels to drop, forming a depressed
funnel area, which may be 23 orders of magnitude (1001000 times) larger than the area of the
quarry. The Khingansky tin quarry in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russia, is shown. Photo
credit: I.D. Debelaya (Institute of Water and Ecological Problems, Khabarovsk, Russia),
20 August 2013
3.1 Opencast Mines
119
Photo 3.8 An opencast operation is a powerful factor in relief transformation. The mining of each ton
of ore is accompanied by several cubic meters of overburden. In this case, a variety of heavy machinery
is used, such as excavators and bulldozers. A Bagger 288 bucket-wheel excavator is shown. It was built
to remove overburden before coal mining at the Hambach strip mine in Germany. It can excavate
240,000 tons of coal or 240,000 m3 of overburden dailythe equivalent of a soccer eld dug to 30 m
(98 ft.) deep. The excavator is up to 220 m (721 ft.) long and approximately 96 m (315 ft.) high. The
excavating head itself is 21.6 m (70.9 ft.) in diameter and has 18 buckets, each holding 6.6 m3 (8.6 yd3)
of overburden. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_mining by User:Martinroell [CC
BY-SA 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons
120
3.2
Underground Mines
Underground mining is extraction of minerals from the Earths interior without

disturbance of the Earths surface. Underground mining accounts for about onethird of the minerals that are mined in the world. The deepest mines in the world
are the TauTona and Mponeng gold mines in the Republic of South Africa, which
are currently working at depths exceeding 3900 m (http://www.mining-technology.
com/features/feature-top-ten-deepest-mines-world-south-africa/).
Two basic techniques are used in underground mining: (1) blast-hole drilling
(periodic explosion of the rock, loading and transportation of loose rock, support
setting; it is a cyclic technology); and (2) combined techniques, in which the basic
technological processes are combined in time (Gorodnichenko and Dmitriyev
2008).
Underground mining affects the following natural components: (1) surface
waters; (2) underground waters; (3) animal world; (4) vegetation; (5) geological
environment; (6) condemnation of land; and (7) atmospheric air.
Surface waters are polluted with contaminated mine drainage waters. In
underground coal mining alone, 1.4 billion m3 of water are pumped every year from
mines. This water is contaminated with suspended substances, including ne particles of coal and rock, colloidal particles, and different bacteria; it is enriched with
dissolved chemical substances, and it contains surface-active materials (Rudsky and
Sturman 2014).
Mine drainage waters are often characterized by their acidity. For example, a
discharge of mine drainage waters in the Donets Basin (Ukraine) having a volume
of 55 million m3 causes pH in the watercourses to drop from 7.9 to 3.6. In addition,
mineralization doubles, while content of sulfates triples (Gorshkov 2001). In the
Republic of South Africa, river waters infrequently not contain increased concentrations of uranium from drainage waters of gold mines (Winde and Sandham
2004).
The carryover of chemical elements in mine drainage waters continues after a
mine has been closed (Semikobyla 2007). For example, hundreds of tons of
non-ferrous metals are carried every year by mine waters from an abandoned sulde
deposit complex near Freiberg (Germany); these metals settle partially in the river
deposits, while the remainder is carried to the sea (Kulikova 2005).
Underground waters are affected by drainage of the water-bearing horizons by
mine workings. In the course of water pumping, cones of depression are formed.
Their dimensions depend on geological and hydrogeological conditions in the area
and the duration of drainage works. Their radii can reach 10 km. Mines not only
dehydrate adjacent territories, but also contaminate the drained underground waters
(Kulikova 2005).
3.2 Underground Mines
121
Underground mining requires less condemnation of land than opencast mining.

Nevertheless, the surface complex of buildings and structures (mine site) occupies
considerable land and includes administration buildings, dumps, slime pits, warehouses for the natural drying of slime, coal storage facilities, quarry mine workings,
and other facilities (Semikobyla 2007; Zhao et al. 2013).
The geological environment is affected by the formation of underground
mined-out space due to extraction of rocks and the minerals they contain. In the
course of mining, rock burstssudden fracture failure of the strained part of the
mineral mass adjacent to the underground mine workingsometimes arise.
Rock bursts complicate mining activities owing to disturbances of mine
working supports, and damage to and moving of machines, mechanisms, and
equipment. The most powerful outburst ever recorded occurred in 1968, when
14,000 tons of coal and 600,000 m3 of methane were displaced in the Donets Basin
at a depth of 750 m (Yasamanov 2003).
The major sources of atmospheric pollution associated with underground mines
are the gas-dust emissions. An estimated 27 billion m3 of methane, 16.8 billion m3
of carbon dioxide, and 200,000 tons of dust are discharged every year into the Earth
atmosphere from underground mine workings (Glukhov et al. 1997).
Approximately 2021 billion m3 of methane are released from coal mines, while the
remaining amount is provided predominantly by mines producing iron, copper,
gold, nickel, mercury, diamonds, and potassium salts (Mining engineering and
environment 2001).
Gases and dust are also released from the surfaces of waste dumps and mineral
storage areas. In coal mines, conic dumps or pit refuse heaps are commonly
encountered, many of which may ignite spontaneously. The burning rock dumps
discharge much smoke and harmful gases (Protection of the environment against
anthropogenic impacts 1993). Underground mining of mineral resources is a dangerous activity. In the twentieth century, about 100,000 mine workers died in
accidents related to blasts of gas in coal mines alone (Ivanov et al. 2014).
For example, on 13 May 2014 the Soma mine disaster occurred in Turkey. An
explosion occurred 2 km below the surface; 787 workers were present during the
disaster, and 301 of them died (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_
disasters).
The environmental effects of underground mining operations are illustrated by
Photos 3.93.12.
122
Photo 3.9 World coal resources can be quantied as follows: 15 % of world land is occupied by
3600 coal-mining elds. Coal resources occur in 75 countries and comprise 14.810 billion tons. In
some regions coal is the base of the economy. For instance, the economy of the Svalbard
archipelago of Norway relies mainly on coal production. Most of the coal is exported to Germany,
Denmark, Portugal, and Spain. The Svalbard coal mine is shown here. Photo credit: Ilan Kelman,
http://www.ilankelman.org/aircraft.html, June 2009
Photo 3.10 The major factor influencing surface waters is discharge of contaminated mine
drainage waters. The photo shows highly contaminated acidic mine drainage coming from a
copper mine into the Rio Tinto, Spain. As a result of the mining, Rio Tinto is notable for being
very acidic (pH 2), and its deep reddish hue is due to iron dissolved in the water. Acid mine
drainage from the mines leads to severe environmental problems due to the heavy metal
concentrations in the river. Photo credit: Carol Stoker (NASA), July 2002
3.2 Underground Mines
123
Photo 3.11 As a result of extraction of great volumes of rock during mining, there are gradual
subsidence or crush bursts of the overlying rock roof. The image shows the results of a collapse at
the Elura lead-zinc underground mine after removal of stope material, Australia. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock), 27 January 2006
Photo 3.12 Some mining enterprises, on completion of mining operations, are transformed into
tourist attractions. For example, the Wieliczka Salt Mine lies within the Krakow metropolitan area
(Poland). The mine, built in the thirteenth century, produced table salt continuously until 2007.
The Wieliczka Salt Mine reaches a depth of 327 m (1073 ft.) and is over 287 km (178 mi) long.
About 1.2 million people visit the Wieliczka Salt Mine annually. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko
(Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 21 August 2014
124
3.3
Drag and Hydraulic Extraction of Deposits
Drag and hydraulic methods are used to develop placer deposits. Placer deposits
form due to the destruction of primary deposits by weathering processes and further
movement of the matter. The concentrations of the commercial component depend
on differences in the densities of the component and surrounding loose sediments.
There are many types of placers, but the two most important are (1) river and
(2) coastal-marine.
Placer deposits provide gold, platinum, diamonds, optical-grade quartz, amber,
different accessory minerals (ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and monazite; materials containing titanium, zirconium, and hafnium), building materials (gravel, sand), and
other materials. The greatest coastal-marine placer deposits are within water areas
of Australia, India, the United States (Alaska, California), and the Republic of
South Africa (Mironenko and Sorokin 2007).
The development of placers is a specic form of opencast mining. In the case of
river placers, cleaning the surface of vegetation, development mining (removal of
the upper non-productive stratum), watering, and production (extraction of the
commercial component from the productive stratum) are necessary. In the course of
production, flushing and concentrating sands are conducted based on differences in
the physical properties of commercial minerals and barren rocks (Mirzekhanova
et al. 2014).
Coastal-marine placers are developed in different ways. Within inshore belts,
sands are extracted by scrapers, bulldozers, excavators, and hydraulic guns. At great
depths (up to 160 m), dredges equipped with hoist winches and wireline bucketgrapplers are applied. The bucket is dropped into the sea, cut into the ground, and lifted
up after the material is captured. There are also dredges with sludge pumps (Fig. 3.2).
Fig. 3.2 Areas of alluvial gold deposits in the world (http://www.minelinks.com/alluvial/gold_

map_5.html)
125
The drag and hydraulic development of placers mainly influences surface

waters and hydrobionts. The condemnation of land is also important. Impacts on
underground waters, atmospheric air, soils, vegetation, and terrestrial animals are
much less (Fig. 3.3).
Legend:
100-6000;
6001-14000;
14001-33500;
33501-70000;
70001-150000.
Fig. 3.3 Mercury pollution from gold mining and ore processing (http://www.worstpolluted.org/
projects_reports/display/87). Reproduced by permission of Blacksmith Institute for a Pure Earth
The influences of river placer development on surface and underground waters are
related to the following factors: (1) operations are carried out in the overflow lands
and valleys of rivers; (2) technology provided for the displacement of watercourse
channels, and their blocking by dams and banks, disturbs the natural hydrological
regime; and (3) when rocks are excavated with dredges, water is contaminated, and
drainage flows contain heavily precipitable mineral particles (Konnov 2008).
The turbidity of dredge flows is generally 1520 g/l, which exceeds the natural
turbidity by hundreds of times (Tereshina 2003). Scour of anthropogenic formations
in the flood plain and unimpeded carryover of materials of this scour to rivers are
also of great importance.
The drag development of coastal-marine placers also contaminates the water. For
example, in the course of extraction of building materials from the Baltic Sea bottom,
the water turbidity increases from 8 to 400 times (Litvin and Tsupikova 1999).
This much water contamination affects hydrobionts. The high concentrations of
the suspensions reduce illumination and the productivity of phytoplankton. Fine
suspensions that are deposited in river channels deprive sh of their spawning
grounds, and they prevent small aquatic fauna from seeking refuge between stones
(Pain 1987). In the development of a placer located in the higher part of a small
126
river, the contamination can affect practically the whole downstream part of the
watercourse (Potemkin 1995).
In the development of coastal-marine placers, the redeposition of the suspended
material constitutes the greatest danger to sh spawning on the ground and also to
ltering mollusks. Some species of sh that are visually searching for food avoid
sections with concentrations of suspended substances of more than 10 mg/l. This
also influences the nutrition of sea birds. When minerals are extracted in the
vicinity of spawning grounds, the latter are entirely destroyed (Mirzekhanova et al.
2014; Kulikova 2005).
The condemnation of land is great in the case of river placer development. In
the extraction of alluvial minerals with dredges, quarries caused by ground
extraction, dams, and dredge relief elementsnumerous dumps of barren rocks and
flushing tailingsare formed (Govorushko 2009).
The atmosphere is polluted mainly during drilling and blasting operations, as well
as due to dust from rock dumps. Some contribution is provided by the construction of
hydraulic structures, approach roads, and other structures (Zelinskaya et al. 1999).
The effects on soils consist of the destruction of the humus layer during construction
of structures, blocking with dumps, and contamination of soils with dust.
The effects on vegetation occur when the placer and mine site surfaces are cleared
of trees, bushes, and grass; difculties in photosynthesis, growth, and development of
plants in adjacent territories result from the pollution of plant leaves with dust.
The environmental effects of dredge development of placers are illustrated by
Photos 3.133.19.
Photo 3.13 Gold is much heavier than the rocks enclosing it. It has a density of 19.3 g/cm3, while
the density of sands is usually 23 g/cm3. The hydraulic method of gold extraction is based on this
difference. The gold-bearing rock is loaded to a jig with flowing water, which carries the sand
away while the gold particles remain at the bottom. Sluicing of placer gold in the Ivalojoki Placer
Mining District (Lapland, Finland) is shown. Photo credit: J.J. Sederholm, 1898
127
Photo 3.14 Now this process is mechanized to a large extent. About 90 % of gold, 90 % of zircon
and niobium, 80 % of rare-earth elements, 70 % of titanium and tin, 65 % of diamonds, and 60 %
of tantalum are extracted with placers. The Blue Ribbon placer gold mine in Alaska is shown.
Mining of gold began there in 1906. The total amount recovered is unknown, but at least 20,000 oz
have been reported recovered, mostly by small-scale hand or mechanized methods. The placer
mine continues operating today. Photo credit: Dennis Garrett, 1999
Photo 3.15 In the case of hydraulic mining, the gold-bearing rock is washed out by pressurized
water. This method came into use during the well-known California gold rush. In 185155, the
Californian placers yielded about one-half of the worlds output of gold; 98 t of gold were panned
out in 1853, a record. The photo shows a view of gold miners excavating an eroded bluff with jets
of water at a placer mine in Dutch Flat, California, the United States. Photo credit: https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_extraction, between 1857 and 1870
128
Photo 3.16 A gold dredge is a placer mining machine that extracts gold from sand, gravel, and
dirt using water and mechanical methods. In order to excavate material, steel buckets move on a
circular, continuous bucket line at the front end of the dredge. The material is then sorted/sifted
by using water. On large gold dredges, the buckets dump the material into a rotating steel cylinder
(a specic type of trommel called the screen) that is sloped downward toward a rubber belt (the
stacker) that carries away oversized material (rocks) and dumps the rocks behind the dredge. The
photo shows a gold dredge at the Vangash River (Severo-Yeniseyskiy District, Krasnoyarsk Krai,
Russia). Photo credit: S.P. Gorshkov (Moscow State University, Russia), June 1966
Photo 3.17 The development of river placers involves cleaning the surface of vegetation,
development mining (removal of the upper non-productive stratum), watering, and production
(extraction of the commercial component from the productive stratum). The photo shows the
nishing stage of flushing on a gold river placer in Amur Oblast, Russia. In the foreground is
opened-up placer bedrock (bedding rock). The alluvial sediments are already removed and washed
out, and this stage is a last feeding of gold-bearing sands for flushing. Photo credit: I.D. Debelaya
(Institute of Water and Ecological Problems, Khabarovsk, Russia), 31 May 2009
129
Photo 3.18 The dredge development of placers results in considerable contamination of the
water, affecting hydrobionts. The high concentrations of the suspensions reduce illumination and
the productivity of phytoplankton. Fine suspensions that are deposited in river channels deprive
sh of their spawning grounds, and they prevent small aquatic fauna from seeking refuge between
stones. The settling ponds for catching the nest fractions of mineral particles in the water after
flushing at a placer deposit of platinum Conder (Khabarovsk Krai, Russia) are shown. Productive
formation thickness reaches 20 m. Photo credit: A.N. Makhinov (Institute of Water and Ecological
Problems, Khabarovsk, Russia), 22 August 2014
Photo 3.19 Using the conventional technologies of flushing, one cannot extract the nest particles
of gold (ne, flaky gold that is kept on the surface of the water by surface tension). Mercury,
coming into contact with gold washings, dissolves the gold particles. Then the mercury is heated.
After the mercury evaporates, the gold precipitate remains. About 20 % of the worlds gold is
produced by the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector. This sector is responsible for the
largest releases of mercury to the environment of any sector globally. It releases approximately
400 metric tons of airborne elemental mercury each year, threatening the health of 15 million
people in 70 countries. The photo shows a gold river placer in Guyana, South America, where
heavy mercury pollution takes place. Photo credit: Bill Barclay (Greenpeace), 1 January 1995
130
3.4
In Situ and Heap Leaching
Mining operations that use leaching started not long ago. The different types of
leaching are based mainly on selective dissolution of metals in their oxidized form.
As a result of interactions with reagents, the ores are transformed into freely soluble
compounds from which one can easily extract the deposited metals (Myazin and
Myazina 2006).
In addition to the different kinds of leachingchemical, bacterial, electrochemical, and radiochemicalthere are also different process flow sheets for this
method of ore concentration. Heap and in situ leaching are the most widely used
methods (Wippermann et al. 2005).
Heap leaching and, to a lesser extent, in situ leaching are widely used in different
countries (the United States, Spain, Chile, Czech Republic, Canada, China, Mexico,
Peru, Zambia, Australia, Republic of South Africa, and others) to extract uranium,
copper, gold, and silver. The production of uranium involves these methods, the
most. For example, the Beverley uranium mine in Australia, using in situ leaching,
produces about 21 % of the worlds uranium (www.theoildrum.com/node/3877).
The technology of ore processing by heap leaching is as follows. The crushed ore is
placed on a prepared damp-proof base. Then the stack of ore is irrigated with leaching
solutions that lter through the stack and then enter trays or pipelines. Further along,
they are collected in specially equipped reservoirs, where they settle. Afterwards, metal
is extracted from the solution (Dementyev et al. 2005; Krylova et al. 2005).
The principle of in situ leaching is analogous. The leaching solutions are
supplied through wells to the underground ore body; then the solutions, saturated
with metal, are pumped out to the surface. Further along, the metal is extracted from
the solution (Wippermann et al. 2005).
At present, the major method of recovery of metals from ores is cyanide
leaching. As a reagent, salts of cyanic acid are usedsodium or potassium cyanide
with concentrations of 0.020.3 %, which are highly toxic. Thus the major environmental problems are related to the circulation of production solutions.
In the case of in situ leaching, penetration of the commercial solutions into
underground waters must be prevented. A thorough geological examination of the
area, especially from the viewpoint of tectonic disturbances, is required. Where
faults or fractured zones are present, articial watertight barriers must be created
(Lbov et al. 2000). In the case of heap leaching, environmental problems are caused
by things such as spillages, leakages from pipelines, and incomplete flushing or
neutralization (Piskunov et al. 2007).
The major factors causing adverse ecological influences are (1) contamination of
underground waters with toxic substances used to convert the useful mineral into the
mobile state; (2) contamination of surface water bodies by emergency discharges of
solutions containing toxic substances; (3) contamination of soils by emergency discharges of toxic substances; and (4) contamination of the atmosphere by emissions of
gases through sublimation, gasication, and melting (Ovseychuk 2006).
3.4 In Situ and Heap Leaching
131
Underground waters are the most vulnerable natural component because existing
technologies do not fully prevent losses of cyanide-containing processing media. In
the case of in situ leaching, they may penetrate into the fresh water-bearing horizons.
In the case of heap leaching, leakages arise when the watertight diaphragms under the
ore stacks and in the clearing pools are damaged (Piskunov et al. 2007).
When in situ leaching is used, underground waters are contaminated due to
leakage of casing strings. For example, for uranium production in the Czech
Republic (Straz deposit), 16,000 wells were drilled in 19672000. Through them,
4.1 million tons of sulfuric acid, 315,000 tons of nitric acid, 26,000 tons of
hydrofluoric acid, 1400 tons of hydrochloric acid, and 112,000 tons of ammonia
were pumped. This resulted in great contamination of the neighboring
water-bearing horizon (Kopecky and Slezak 2002; Datel and Ekert 2008).
Impacts of heap leaching units on surface water bodies are possible when surface
run-off from the industrial site occurs during emergencies, as well as when water from
contaminated underground sources reaches surface waters (Robertus et al. 2005).
In the operation of heap leaching units, soils and snow cover may be contaminated by ore dust that is released in the course of crushing and transporting of ore
and as a result of wind erosion of the ore stake surface (Petrov et al. 2006). In
summer, the surface migration of mobile forms of technogeneous substances and
their accumulation in soils are possible (Piskunov et al. 2007).
The major sources of air pollution are crushing-and-sorting plants, ore stakes,
and hydrometallurgical shops. Among the major contaminants are hydrocyanic
acid vapors, nitric oxides, and free chlorine (Petrov 2005).
The environmental effects of in situ and heap leaching operations are illustrated
by Photos 3.20 and 3.21.
Photo 3.20 The technology of ore processing by the method of heap leaching is as follows. The
crushed ore is placed on a prepared damp-proof base. Then the stack of ore is irrigated with leaching
solutions that lter through the stack and then enter trays or pipelines. Farther along, they are collected
in specially equipped reservoirs, where they settle. Afterwards, metal is extracted from the solution.
The photo shows heap leaching at the Ortiz Gold Mine, New Mexico. The complete processing
method includes three-stage crushing, agglomeration, cyanide heap leaching, carbon-in-columns for
gold and silver recovery, electrowinning and electroplating from carbon eluate, and gold and silver
bullion smelting. Photo credit: http://www.metallurgium.com/projects.html
132
Photo 3.21 In situ leaching is a mining process used to recover minerals such as copper and
uranium. Holes are rst drilled into the ore deposit, and explosive or hydraulic fracturing may be
used to form open pathways in the deposit to allow leaching solution to penetrate. Leaching
solution is pumped into the deposit, where it makes contact with the ore. The solution containing
the dissolved mineral is then pumped to the surface and processed. Major environmental problems
are related to the circulation of production solutions that are extremely toxic. The photo shows
uranium production in the Czech Republic (Straz deposit). Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/In_situ_leach, 24 March 2007
3.5 Oil and Gas Development
3.5
3.5.1
133
Oil and Gas Development

Land Oil and Gas Development
Land oil and gas extraction affects the following environmental components and
parameters (Govorushko 2013): (1) surface waters; (2) underground waters;
(3) soils; (4) vegetation; (5) animal world; (6) atmospheric air; (7) land withdrawal;
(8) geologic environment; and (9) radiation background (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5).
Fig. 3.4 Global distribution of oil resources (USGS 2003; http://www.geo.msu.edu/geogmich/

Oil&gas.html; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_the_United_States; http://pubs.usgs.
gov/fs/fs-062-03/). Oil endowment (cumulative production plus remaining reserves and undiscovered resources) assessed. Darker green indicates more resources
Oil extraction exerts the greatest effect on surface waters. The major sources of
contamination are spent drilling fluids and grouting mortars, as well as the associated waters. When drilling wastewaters enter a water body, they change the water
transparency, color, and odor, while the chemical reagents present in them bind the
dissolved oxygen.
The effects on underground waters result from the following processes:
(1) cross-flows between the water-bearing horizons due to the low-quality
cementation and leakage of casing strings; (2) ltration of oil and mineralized
waters from the ponds (pits); (3) ltration from well embankments; and (4) injection
of water, air, or gas into the oil reservoirs (Dorozhukova and Yanin 2002).
The effects, on the whole, include changes in hydrogeological conditions, such
as intensication of water exchange; formation of new water-bearing horizons;
134
Fig. 3.5 Global gas elds (http://www.eia.gov/oil_gas/rpd/conventional_gas.jpg; http://www.

earthscienceworld.org/images/search/lightbox2.html?ID=h5imwy)
mixing of waters; changes in levels, slopes, rates of motion, and the chemical and
gas composition of underground waters; changes in temperatures; and drops in
intrastratal pressures. On completion of oil production, cross-flows often arise
between the fresh and salt horizons or between the water-bearing and oil-bearing
horizons (Moskovchenko et al. 2008).
The major factors affecting soils are (1) drilled-out rocks; (2) drilling sludge; and
(3) oil. At a well depth of 2500 m, 350 m3 of ground are extracted to the surface,
while at a depth of 5000 m, 800 m3 are extracted. These rocks are usually stored in
dumps near the wells. Because of strong contamination with drilling mud and oil
products, the effects on soils are considerable, including loss of humus, and
degradation of the hydrophysical, chemical, and ion-exchange properties of the
soils and of their biological activity (Utkina et al. 2005). Arctic, tundra, and marsh
peat soils differ in that they have the lowest resistance to contamination with
carbohydrates (Gennadiyev 2009).
Direct influences on vegetation occur in two ways (Korobov 2004): (1) disturbances of physiological processes due to conformal coating of surfaces of trunks
and leaves and (2) poisoning of plants with toxic oil components. Generally, the
plants perish and revegetation begins after 23 years (Khaustov and Redina 2006).
In the surviving specimens, changes in the rhythm of development, including
omission of some phenological stages; their general suppression; and occurrence of
necroses and tumors are characteristic (Dorozhukova and Yanin 2002).
Indirect impacts include contamination of soils and atmospheric air. In the case
of intrasoil oil contamination, effects include destruction of the grass cover,
changes in its species composition, and suppression of the growth of trees.
Atmospheric pollution is expressed through changes in the chemical composition of
air and thermal contamination.
135
The effects on the animal world are generally evident in the changes in other
natural components: soils, vegetation, and surface waters. Destruction of vegetation
during construction affects invertebrates to a greater extent, as the vegetation cover
is major habitat. First of all, the numbers of arthropods decrease.
The air is polluted with gases released during well drilling and testing. Associated
petroleum gases also play a major role. In west Siberia alone, about 19 billion m3 of
associated gases are burned, which results in air pollution with combustion products
such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, carbon and nitrogen oxides, and some heavy
metals. As a rule, the resulting pollution extends for tens and even hundreds of
kilometers from the source of the emissions (Polishchuk et al. 2001).
The scales of land withdrawal are also great. During prospecting and oil production, a territory is occupied by structures such as wells, processing containers,
reservoirs, treatment facilities, oil-gathering stations, oil treatment plants, group
pumping stations, and oil transfer pumping stations (Govorushko 2013).
The impacts on the geological environment are signicant, including earth
surface deformations and increases in seismicity. The intensication of seismicity is
related to oil recovery, which results in changes in the stressed state of rock (Sharov
et al. 2007).
The delivery to the earth surface of matter from large depths is often accompanied by increases in background radiation. In some cases, they may be signicant. For example, examination of a number of oil elds in the Khanty-Mansi
Autonomous Area (Russia) showed that acceptable doses of gamma radiation were
exceeded 38 times in the eastern part of the area and 48 times in the western part. In
this region, 4 % of elds are characterized by anomalous emissions of radionuclides
(Bulatov 2004).
The environmental effects of land oil production are illustrated by Photos
3.223.26.
Photo 3.22 A pumpjack is the overground drive for a reciprocating piston pump in an oil well. It
is used to mechanically lift liquid out of a well if there is not enough bottom-hole pressure for the
liquid to flow all the way to the surface. Depending on the size of the pump, it generally produces
540 l of liquid at each stroke. Pump size is also determined by the depth and weight of the oil to
remove, with deeper extraction requiring more power to move the increased weight of the
discharge column (discharge head). A pumpjack near Surgut (Khanty-Mansiy Autonomous Okrug,
Russia) is shown here. Photo credit: Denis Sinyakov (Greenpeace Russia), 31 May 2013
136
Photo 3.23 Signal Hill is a city (2.2 mi2, 5.7 km2) in California located in the greater Los Angeles
area. Oil was discovered there in 1921, and this oil eld turned out to be one of the most
productive oil elds in the world. The gas pressure was so great, the gusher rose 114 ft. (35 m) in
the air. Soon Signal Hill was covered with over 100 oil derricks, and because of its prickly
appearance at a distance, it became to known as Porcupine Hill. The photo shows Signal Hill in
1923. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach_Oil_Field
Photo 3.24 Contamination of soils with oil causes loss of humus, and degradation of the
hydrophysical, chemical, and ion-exchange properties of the soils and their biological activity.
A combination picture taken near Usinsk (Komi Republic, Russia) shows an oil spill before and
after. Photo credit: Denis Sinyakov (Greenpeace Russia), 10 and 12 August 2014
137
Photo 3.25 Direct influences of oil production on vegetation occur in two ways: (1) disturbances of
physiological processes due to conformal coating of surfaces of trunks and leaves and (2) poisoning
of plants with toxic oil components. Generally, the plants perish and revegetation begins after 2
3 years. Destruction of trees due to direct contact with oil near Usinsk (Komi Republic, Russia) is
shown here. Photo credit: Denis Sinyakov (Greenpeace Russia), 20 August 2014
Photo 3.26 The sources of

atmospheric pollution related
to oil production are gases
released in the course of well
drilling and testing.
Associated petroleum gases
also play a major role. In west
Siberia alone, about
19 billion m3 of associated
gases are burned, which
results in air pollution with
combustion products such as
polyaromatic hydrocarbons,
carbon and nitrogen oxides,
and some heavy metals. The
photo shows burning of
associated petroleum gases in
Khanty-Mansiy Autonomous
Okrug (West Siberia, Russia).
Photo credit: Greenpeace
Russia, 25 August 2013
138
3.5.2
Sea Bottom Oil and Gas Development
The rst offshore oil well was drilled in March 1938, at 2.4 km from the shore in
the state of Louisiana (United States) (Mitina and Singh 2005). In 2012, offshore oil
extraction accounted for 37 % and gas extraction accounted for 28 % of global
production (Oil and gas from the sea 2013).The adverse environmental consequences related to this activity are generally related to drilling and emergency oil
spills (Fig. 3.6).
Legend:
Oil development
Gas development
Fig. 3.6 Regions of oil and gas development in the world ocean (Maksakovsky 2006, vol. 1).
Reproduced with permission of V.P. Maksakovsky
The impacts of drilling on the aquatic environment are associated with

(1) drainage to the sea of waste mud and (2) release from the well of drilling
deposits. Used drilling mud is generally discharged directly to the platform foundation. The depths of most wells vary between 900 and 5000 m. In drilling a well,
the drilling mud is changed, on average, 810 times, and 160,000340,000 l are
usually changed at a time (Mitina and Singh 2005).
The solid phase of the drilling mud forms mud flows or is in the water as a
suspension. The turbidity concentration in the flow decreases rapidly with distance
from the well. For example, when drilling mud is discharged in a volume of
39,750 l at a rate of 729 l/min, the dilution of the suspended fraction to background
levels occurs at 500 m from the platform. The quantity of discharged macroparticles
depends on their concentrations in the drilling fluid (Korobov 2004).
The distance, the disintegrated particles travel depends on their sizes and the
rates of the bottom currents (Patin 1997). For example, the distance ne sand
139
(0.10.25 mm) travels at a current rate of 30 cm/s is only 57.4 m, whereas coarse
and medium pelite (particle sizes are 0.0010.01 mm) travels 37.5 km (Matishov
and Denisov 1998).
On completion of drilling, the major source of influence of operating platforms is
the associated waters. These waters are characterized by high temperatures, low
oxygen content, and considerable mineralization (up to 35,000 mg/l, caused by
inorganic cations of sodium, magnesium, and potassium, and anions of chloride,
sulphate, carbonate, and bicarbonate), as well as carbohydrates and other organic
components (in parts-per-million concentrations) (Kochergin et al. 2000).
The volumes of the associated water discharges vary depending on time and
geological formation. For example, from one platform situated in the Gulf of
Mexico (50 km south of Galveston, Texas, United States), the oil eld supplies, on
average, 160,000223,000 l of associated water a day, and these waters contain
382 g of alkanes and 1723 g of light aromatic hydrocarbonspredominantly,
benzene, toluene, and ethylbenzene (Mitina and Singh 2005).
Under conditions of drilling and normal operation of oil wells, hydrocarbons
contained in the associated waters are of prime environmental importance.
Although they are released in insignicant volumes from one well on a daily basis,
their total quantities over a long period of time are more than sizeable (Patin 2004).
Accidents at oil-producing offshore platforms are the greatest contributor to the
pollution of sea water. Two that happened in the Gulf of Mexico are well known.
First, as a result of the accident on 3 June 1979, at the drilling rig Ixtoc-1
(Campeche Bay, south-eastern Mexico coast), the daily oil blowout reached
4000 tons at the beginning. Numerous attempts to plug the well only decreased the
ingress of oil into the sea. The oil blowout continued until 24 March 1980 (i.e., it
lasted for nearly 9 months), when the well head was plugged with 30 tons of
concrete block. The total leakage of oil reached 475,000 tons (Oil and gas from the
sea 2013).
The second accident began on 20 April 2010, at a well situated 64 km to the
south-east of the Louisiana coast. As a result of an explosion, 11 persons were
killed and 17 were wounded. On 15 July 2010, the leak was stopped by capping the
gushing well head after it had released about 700,000 tons of crude oil (Gong et al.
2014). The area of the oil patch reached 75,000 km2 (Puchkov 2013).
The pollution of surface waters adversely affects hydrobionts and sea birds. For
instance, as result of exposure to oil from the Deepwater Horizon, an estimated
36,000670,000 birds died, with the most likely number near 200,000 (Haney et al.
2014). Impacts on hydrobionts and sea birds are discussed in Sect. 5.5, Water
transport.
Accidents at oil-producing platforms result in loss of life. During 19701995,
more than 1200 people were killed in offshore oil elds (Hart 2000). Among the
most damaging accidents was that on the offshore platform Piper Alpha, which was
located in the British sector of the North Sea oil eld in July 1987; 167 lives were
lost (Building process safety culture 2005).
The environmental effects of offshore oil and gas production are illustrated by
Photos 3.273.32.
140
Photo 3.27 During the rst stage of oil-and-gas development, geologo-geophysical exploration is
conducted. These activities include seismic exploration works, which interfere with shing and
affect aquatic organisms, and exploration drilling (which disturbs underwater landscapes, leads to
condemnation of water areas, pollutes the water due to process water disposal, and pollutes the air
with atmospheric emissions). The photo shows the Thunder Horse PDQ semisubmersible
platform. It is moored in waters 1840 m (6040 ft.) deep in the Gulf of Mexico. Thunder
Horse PDQ is the largest offshore installation of its kind in the world. Photo credit: http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder_Horse_PDQ by Andyminicooper (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)],
via Wikimedia Commons, 2005
Photo 3.28 Accidents at oil-producing offshore platforms account for the greatest amount of
pollution of seawater. As a result of an accident on 3 June 1979, at the drilling rig Ixtoc-1
(Campeche Bay, south-eastern Mexico coast), the daily oil blowout reached 4000 tons at the
beginning. The numerous attempts to plug the well only decreased the discharge of oil into the sea.
The oil blowout continued until 24 March 1980 (i.e., it lasted for nearly 9 months), when the
wellhead was plugged with 30 tons of concrete block. The total leakage of oil reached
500,000 tons. Photo credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1979
141
Photo 3.29 A second famous

accident in the Gulf of
Mexico began on 20 April
2010, at a well situated 64 km
to the south-east of the
Louisiana coast. As a result of
an explosion, 11 persons were
killed and 17 were wounded.
Fire then engulfed the
platform. After burning for
approximately 36 h, the
Deepwater Horizon sank on
the morning of April 22,
2010. Photo credit: Daniel
Beltr (Greenpeace), 2010
Photo 3.30 Oil spread northeast from the leaking Deepwater Horizon well in the Gulf of Mexico. On
15 July 2010, the leak was stopped by capping the gushing wellhead; it had released about 4.9 million
barrels (780,000 m3) of crude oil. The photo shows dark clouds of smoke and re that emerged as oil
burnt during a controlled burn in the Gulf of Mexico. The U.S. Coast Guard conducted the controlled
burn to aid in preventing the spread of the oil. Photo credit: Justin Stumberg, 6 May 2010
142
Photo 3.31 Hydrocarbon pollution also has severe negative impacts on phytoplankton and
zooplankton. The destruction of these organisms causes decreases in the numbers of sh and
cetaceans. Marine mammals die because they lose thermal insulation in their pelage when they
come into contact with oil. Striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) observed in emulsied oil on
April 29, 2010, are shown. Health assessments of dolphins four years later found that the dolphins
were 5 times more likely to have moderate to severe lung disease than dolphins at control sites and
in previous studies of wild dolphins. Photo credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, 11 June 2010
Photo 3.32 Sea birds suffer greatly from oil spills. The oil pastes the feathers together, destroying
their thermal insulation properties. The birds maintain body temperature by accelerating their
metabolism, which leads to rapid depletion of depot fat and death from exhaustion. When a bird
tries to clean itself with its beak, it just moves the oil inside the feather layer. At the same time, oil
enters the digestive system. Ducking birds mistake oil patches for food and are poisoned. An oiled
bird on a coast is shown. Photo credit: Greenpeace Russia, 14 November 2007
3.5.3
143
Extraction of Shale Oil and Shale Gas
Extraction of shale oil and shale gas affects the following environmental components and parameters: (1) surface waters; (2) underground waters; (3) soils;
(4) vegetation; (5) wildlife; (6) atmospheric air; (7) land withdrawal; (8) geologic
environment; and (9) radiation background.
The effects on surface waters are caused by two factors. First, the extraction of
these resources requires the use of substantial volumes of water. For example, for
one hydraulic fracturing for shale gas extraction, 7500 tons of water are needed
(Zelentsova 2011). When extracting shale oil, above-ground retorting typically
consumes between one and ve barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil,
depending on technology (Bartis et al. 2005) (Fig. 3.7).
CANADA
148
137
567
RUSSIA
UKRAINE 128
573
287
POLAND
FRANCE
UNITED STATES
CHINA
ALGERIA
707
545
INDIA
MEXICO
VENEZUELA
167
122
55
LIBYA
COLOMBIA
100
75
1115
96
PAKISTAN
EYGPT
105
PARAGUAY
BRAZIL
ARGENTINA
SOUTH AFRICA
245
390
802
437
AUSTRALIA
Legend:
Baseline Water Stress Level:
Low;
Low to medium;
Medium to high;
High;
Extremely high;
Arid and low water use;
Shale basins.
Water stress at shale plays around the world. 20 labeled countries have the world's largest technically recoverable shale gas resources.
Circle colour indicates average water stress level across a country's shale plays circle size indicates overall volume of recoverable shale resources.
Fig. 3.7 Location of worlds shale plays, volume of technically recoverable shale gas (billion
cubic meters) in the 20 countries with the largest resources, and the level of baseline water stress
(www.wri.org/water-for-shale; Lee 2010; World Shale Gas Resources 2011)
Second, there is signicant surface-water contamination. Considerable volumes

of waste water contaminated with large quantities of chemicals are often not disposed of by the producer companies in compliance with environmental standards;
these chemicals accumulate in surface waters. In addition, run-off from retorting
operations also impacts surface waters (http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/reserves/
npr/Oil_Shale_Environmental_Fact_Sheet.pdf).
The effects on underground waters are related to the use of enormous amounts
of chemicals. Chemicals are added to the water to facilitate the underground
144
fracturing process that releases natural gas. For one underground fracturing operation, 80300 tons of chemicals are used. The formulas of the chemical cocktail
used for underground fracturing are condential, unavailable from the companies
producing the shale gas. It is assumed that shale gas production contaminates
ground waters with toluene, benzene, dimethylbenzene, ethylbenzene, arsenic, and
other substances (Zelentsova 2011).
Only about 5070 % of the resulting volume of contaminated water is recovered
and stored in above-ground ponds to await removal by tanker. The remaining
produced water is left in the earth, where it can contaminate ground-water
aquifers (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale_gas). Fracking has seriously contaminated shallow ground-water supplies in northeastern Pennsylvania with flammable
methane (Kerr 2011). In some areas of Pennsylvania, one can ignite the water from
the wells (Zelentsova 2011).
Contamination of soils occurs from above and from below. When producing
shale gas, contamination from above takes place from spills of chemical solutions
on the soil. Since (depending on the size of the area) millions of liters of water are
used, this means that hundreds of thousands of liters of chemicals are often injected
into the soil (Cathles III et al. 2012). Contamination from below is caused by
penetration of chemical materials through cracks formed in the sedimentary mass
into the surface soil. When extracting oil from shale, there is soil contamination
with heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, lead).
The effects on vegetation and wildlife are mainly indirect and are expressed
through changes in other natural components. For example, chemical-laden water
affects livestock, with deaths occurring in major U.S. fracking areas such as
Louisiana and Pennsylvania as a direct result of hydraulic fracturing (Fracking in
Europe 2012).
The effects on atmospheric air are expressed as air pollution. When producing
shale gas, fugitive methane emissions from hydraulic fracturing processes can have
a large impact on the greenhouse gas balance (Fracking in Europe 2012). The
greenhouse gas emissions in the course of shale gas production are larger than those
in the production of coal, oil, and conventional gas; when extracting gas, gross
leakage of methane is 3.67.9 % (Zelentsova 2011).
Methane remains in the atmosphere for around a decade, compared with a
residence time of about 100 years for carbon dioxide. Over a 20-year horizon, the
GHG footprint of shale gas is primarily influenced by methane and is 2243 %
higher than that for conventional gas, at least 20 % twice as high as the GHG
footprint for coal, and at least 50 % to 2.5 times higher than that for oil (Howarth
et al. 2011).
Land withdrawal in the course of extraction of shale gas is fairly signicant.
For example, extraction of oil from oil shale requires large-scale mining operations:
nearly 0.52 barrels of oil are extracted from one ton of shale; in this case, more
than 700 kg of mining waste remain (volume exceeding that of the initial shale).
Impacts on the geologic environment are partly expressed as increases in
seismicity. Cases are known of earthquakes induced by hydraulic fracturing processes or waste-water injection (Fracking in Europe 2012).
145
Extraction of shale oil and shale gas results in increases in background radiation. The most productive shale elds were formed during the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic era and have high levels of gamma radiation, which correlates with the
thermal maturity of the shale eld. As a result of hydraulic fracturing, radiation
enters the upper sedimentary layer and, in areas where shale gas is being extracted,
a rise in background radiation is observed (Zelentsova 2011).
The environmental effects of shale oil and shale gas production are illustrated by
Photos 3.333.34.
Photo 3.33 Shale gas is a variety of natural gas stored in small gas formations, reservoirs, in the
shale layer of Earth. It consists largely of methane. Shale gas is found in shale plays, which are
shale formations containing signicant accumulations of natural gas and which share similar
geologic and geographic properties. The reserves of separate gas reservoirs are not too large, but
they are huge in the aggregate and require special production techniques. A tower for drilling
horizontally into the Marcellus Shale Formation in Lycoming County, Pennsylvania, United States,
is shown here. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale_gas Ruhrsch [GFDL (http://www.
gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0), GFDL
(http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-sa/4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0)], via Wikimedia Commons, November 2009
146
Photo 3.34 The effects of shale gas production on surface water are caused by two factors. First,
the extraction of these resources requires the use of substantial volumes of water. Second, there is
signicant surface-water contamination. Considerable volumes of waste water containing a large
quantity of chemicals accumulate near the elds if the waste is not disposed of by the producer
companies in compliance with environmental standards. In addition, run-off from retorting
operations also impacts surface water. The image shows a water impoundment at a drill pad in the
Fayetteville shale gas play in Arkansas, United States. Photo credit: Bill Cunningham, 2012
References
147
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www.theoildrum.com/node/3877
www.wri.org/water-for-shale
Chapter 4
Agriculture and Forestry
Agriculture and forest management are two closely related elds. Their similarity
can be found both in their aims (to a greater or lesser degree, they are oriented on
food provision for the population and raw materials supply for different industries)
and in their basic operating principles (based on the growth of living organisms).
This similarity can be seen the best when plant growing is compared to forest
management. In both cases, practically identical methods of growing, enhancement
and increase of productivity, and fertilizers and protection from weeds (herbicides)
and pests (pesticides) are used. The differences lay primarily in the duration of the
production cycle: half a year for crop farming, 35 years for horticulture, but not
less than 10 years for forestry. Besides, the object of agriculture greatly depends on
human involvement. For many countries and international organizations (e.g., Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), forestry is a part of the
agricultural sector.
4.1
Agriculture
Agriculture is the production, processing, marketing, and use of foods, bers, and
by-products from plant crops and animals. The share of agriculture in the gross
domestic product (percent) for various countries is shown in Fig 4.1.
4.1.1
Plant Growing
Plant growing is a branch of agriculture that deals with the cultivation of domestic
plants. Agricultural land occupies 15.32 million km2 (FAO 2012). On average,
there is 0.32 ha of agricultural land per capita (Ivanov et al. 2014). These numbers
are the largest in Australia2.2, Kazakhstan2.0, and Canada1.34 ha per
capita; and they are the smallest in China0.09, Egypt0.05, and Japan0.04 ha
per capita (Karakin et al. 2014). Cultivated land percentage of total land area is
illustrated in Fig. 4.2.
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5_4
151
152
4 Agriculture and Forestry
Legend:
40-66
30-39.9
20-29.9
5-9.9
10-19.9
<5
Fig. 4.1 The share of agriculture in GDP (percent) (Kholina et al. 2009). Reproduced with
permission of V.N. Kholina
Legend:
40-70
30-40
20-30
10-20
5-10
1-5
<1
Cultivated land absent
No data available
Fig. 4.2 Cultivated land percentage of total land area, 1992 (Resources and Environment 1998).
Reproduced with permission of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Plant growing produces 88 % of all food supplies (Modern global changes 2006,
vol. 2). The most important cultivated plants are (million tons a year, harvest of
2013): corn, 1016; rice, 745; and wheat, 713 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal)
4.1 Agriculture
153
(Fig. 4.3). Another essential culture is the potato, and in comparison to the rst
three cultures, its production rate is considerably smaller: 365 million tons in 2012
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potatoes).
Legend:
Yields never improved;
Yields stagnated;
Yields collapsed;
Yields increasing rapidly;
Yields increasing moderately;
Yields increasing slowly
Fig. 4.3 Map of wheat yield growth and stagnation (Ray et al. 2012)
There are three main factors of plant growing impact on the environment:
(1) agricultural equipment; (2) land reclamation; and (3) agricultural chemicals.
Agricultural equipment is used for cultivating, harvesting, and processing
domestic plants. The diversity of the equipment used is huge. It can be self-powered
or trail-type. Often it has very heavy gears and powerful combustion engines.
The impacts of agricultural equipment on the natural environment include the
following: soil consolidation; structural distortion of soil due to tillage; extermination of soil-forming microorganisms and different invertebrates (earthworms);
process losses and contamination of soil, water, and air by fuel, lubricant materials,
and by-products of running engines; and the deaths of animals and birds.
The most environmentally important impact is soil degradation due to contact
with machinery. The ground is affected by the drive systems and operating parts of
the agricultural equipment. By the end of eldwork, only 1015 % of the agricultural land is not affected. The rest of the territory is exposed to the drive systems
at least 35 times.
Due to ruptures in the sleeves and pipes of agricultural equipment, 500,000 t of
fluids get into soil in Russia, which takes 2000 ha of elds out of crop production
every year (Afanasyev et al. 2005).
Process losses mean transportation of soil outside the elds. For example, in
Turkey, when sugar beets are harvested, permanent soil losses are 1.158 million tons a year (Tugrul et al. 2012).
154
Land reclamation is divided into drainage and irrigation. On Earth, 203 million ha of the terrain has been drained, most of it in Asia (68 million ha) and North
America and Central America (65 million ha) (International commission on irrigation and drainage 2011). Possible consequences of drainage are increases of
erosion by wind and water, shallowing of rivers and lakes, risk of floods, a drop in
precipitation quantity, declines in animal and sh numbers, vanishing of rare plant
species, and depletion of flora. The irrigation aspect of land reclamation is considered in Sect. 6.5, Water transfers.
Agricultural chemicals used include mineral fertilizers and chemical plant
protectors. Big differences exist in the intensity of fertilization: from an average of
344 kg/ha a year in China, to 7.5 kg in Ghana and just 2.7 kg in Rwanda (A soiled
reputation 2013). Globally during the 20062007 season, 164 million tons of fertilizer were used, of which 98 million tons were for nitrogen, 27 million tons for
potassium, and 39 million tons for phosphates. China is the worlds largest mineral
fertilizer consumer, using 49 million tons, followed by India (22 million tons), the
United States (21 million tons), Brazil (9 million tons), Indonesia (3.5 million tons),
and France (3.4 million tons) (http://www.goodplanet.info/goodplanet/index.php/
eng/Food-Agriculture/Fertilizers/Engrais-agricoles/(theme)/263) Fig. 4.4.
Legend:
500-30000;
110001-200000;
30001-70000;
70001-110000;
200001-400000.
Fig. 4.4 Pesticide pollution from agricultural production (http://www.worstpolluted.org/projects_

reports/display/85). Reproduced by permission of Blacksmith Institute for a Pure Earth
The most dangerous of these chemicals are nitrogen fertilizers, due to the
considerable mobility of the nitrate nitrogen. The most critical impact is the pollution of surface and ground waters by bound nitrogen. At least half of
4.1 Agriculture
155
surface-water pollution by bound nitrogen is due to agriculture. Water contamination by biogenic elements results in excessive algal blooms, which die off and
decay due to anerobic bacteria. That process leads to suffocation of sh and other
aquatic animals due to the lack of oxygen.
Phosphate fertilizers are less hazardous. Nevertheless, considerable amounts of
phosphates get into water as a result of erosion by water, which also leads to water
eutrophication. One kilogram of phosphorus coming from the elds initiates the
growth of 100 kg of phytoplankton, which decreases the amount of dissolved
oxygen and reduces water quality (Ecological sketches of nature and humans 1988).
The use of phosphate fertilizers in large amounts also leads to undesirable
accumulations of other elements in soil (stable strontium, fluorine, natural
radioactive uranium compounds, radium, and thorium are present in phosphate
fertilizers). Thus, 23 g of cadmium is introduced into soil with the application of
70 kg of superphosphate (Heinrich and Hergt 2003).
The third main element of mineral fertilizers (potassium) does not impact the
environment much. However, along with potassium, a lot of chlorine is brought in,
which might lead to adverse effects.
The total production of chemical plant protectors (to prevent diseases and pest
invasions) is 5 million tons (Dyakonov and Anoshko 1995), and their global use, on
average, is 300 g/ha. In the United States and Western Europe, this number is 2
3 kg/ha. In the form of aerosols, pesticides can be carried over a distance of 500 km
(Heinrich and Hergt 2003). Pesticides are dangerous due to their high biological
reactivity, long duration in the environment, and accumulation potential.
Depending on the way they are used, the following shares of pesticides (of the
total amount introduced) get into the atmosphere (Savenko 1991): introduction into
furrows, 18 %; and plane spraying, 2035 %. Of the pesticides applied, 99.9 %
does not reach the target objects and gets into soil, air, and water (Hart and Pimentel
2002).
Pesticide use is most dangerous for water ecosystems, soils, animals, and also
humans. For example, in the former USSR, around 40 % of hares, hogs, and elk,
more than 77 % of ducks, geese, and upland fowl, and more than 30 % of freshwater sh that died were poisoned by pesticides (Mavrischev 2000).
Pesticide intoxication kills 220,000 people (Palmborg 2002) and damages the
health of another 3 million annually (Cornell 2003). The causes of intoxication are
given in detail in an article by Ferrer and Cabral (1995). Though developing
countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America account for only 25 % of the pesticides
used, 99 % of the deaths take place there (Ngowi et al. 2006).
Apart from the three main factors of plant growing impact on the environment,
there is also the problem of methane emissions. Methane is produced on flooded
rice elds during partial organic decay under conditions of oxygen shortage
(Rudsky and Sturman 2014). These elds are responsible for 510 % of global
methane emissions (UNEP 2014). Methane release from all the worlds rice bays is
estimated to be 20100 million tons a year (Modern global changes 2006, vol. 1).
The factors that determine the quantity of methane produced are the soil type, rice
variety, temperatures, and growing method (Kwun et al. 2003).
156
Withdrawal of nutrients from elds during harvesting has some importance.

For example, a yield of corn of 7 t/ha takes out 104 kg of nitrogen, 19 kg of
phosphorus, and 22 kg of potassium per hectare (Agricultural ecosystems 1987).
Grain crops and potatoes exhaust the soil the most. For a global gross wheat yield
of 1 billion tons, 33 million tons of nitrogen is taken out of the soil (Introduction to
ecology 1992).
Plant growing also contributes considerably to soil erosion. Annual soil outflow
from agricultural elds into water in the United States is estimated to be more than
1 billion tons. The Mississippi River alone carries out 331 million tons of topsoil
into the Gulf of Mexico annually (Ruhl 2000).
The environmental impacts of plant growing are illustrated by Photos 4.14.10.
Photo 4.1 Since ancient times, increases in arable area have occurred at the expense of decreasing
territories occupied by forests. The photo shows the Lacandon Jungle, which was burned for
agricultural use, in Chiapas, Mexico. Photo credit: Jami Dwyer, 5 May 2005
4.1 Agriculture
157
Photo 4.2 Sometimes, the

effect of crop husbandry on
the relief of an area used for
agriculture is quite noticeable.
Where agricultural lands are
lacking, it is necessary at
times to use less fertile lands
for crop husbandry. The photo
shows a terraced slope used
for plant growing in the
Trisuli area, Nepal. This
country has an area of
147,181 km2, and
approximately 77 % of the
total area consists of
mountains. Photo credit:
G. dOnofrio (FAO)
Photo 4.3 The most environmentally important impacts of agriculture occur due to contact with
machinery. The ground is affected by the drive systems and operating parts of the agricultural
equipment. By the end of eldwork, only 1015 % of the agricultural land is not affected. The rest
of the territory is exposed to the drive systems at least 35 times. Numerous traces from the
passage of agricultural vehicles aeld in Upper Normandy, France, are shown. Photo credit: S.M.
Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 7 August 2014
158
Photo 4.4 In cultivating plants, mechanical tillage that overturns soil is often used. This process
leads to deep interference with the soil life, causing the destruction of its natural structure, and
disturbance of water, air, and thermal conditions. A decrease in the number of soil organisms and
natural fertility of the soil takes place. Secondary tillage with a heavy disk harrow in Zambia near
the city of Chapula is shown. It is a low-impact technology that preserves soil structure and
fertility. It is applied under arid and semiarid conditions before seeding of plants with insignicant
depth of root bedding (more often used with grain crops). Photo credit: P. Johnson (FAO)
Photo 4.5 Pesticides are used in order to prevent pest invasions. During plane spraying 2035 %
of the total amount applied gets into the atmosphere and then into soil and water. Pesticide use is
most dangerous for water ecosystems, soils, animals, and also humans due to the chemicals high
biological reactivity, long duration in the environment, and accumulation potential. Near Sheldon,
Illinois, grower Joe Zumwalt applies a low-insecticide bait that is targeted against western corn
rootworms feeding on and laying eggs in these soybeans. Photo credit: Ken Hammond
4.1 Agriculture
159
Photo 4.6 The dangers of pesticides are caused by their high biological activity, persistence in the
environment, and capacity to accumulate. They are a serious hazard to aquatic ecosystems and
soils as well as to humans. Some 110,000 liters of very hazardous endosulfan (a strong
contaminant of surface and ground water) have leaked into the ground at the main Rahad Irrigation
Scheme warehouse in El Fao, Sudan. Photo credit: United Nations Environment Program from
UNEP Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment Report, 21 June 2007
Photo 4.7 The harvesting of crops and removal (export) of crop residues are major mechanisms
of nutrient removal from soils. Different crops withdraw different amounts of various nutrients
from soil. The picture shows a harvest of herbage for ensilage in Noviant-aux-Prs (a commune in
the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France). Photo credit: G. Guichard, 2011
160
Photo 4.8 Removal of soil

from elds is a serious
problem in agriculture.
During harvesting and
transporting root crops out of
elds, especially when the
soil is saturated with water, a
considerable amount of
humus (in some years, up to
30 % of the harvest mass)
adheres to the roots (as well as
to agricultural machinery) and
is withdrawn from agriculture.
The photo was taken at a
Vladivostok market, showing
a marked difference between a
carrot that has been cleansed
and one that has not been
cleansed of soil. Photo credit:
S.M. Govorushko (Pacic
Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), 6
September 2014
Photo 4.9 All plants from time to time have need of irrigation. The three main methods of irrigation
are as follows: (1) surface irrigation, when water is distributed under gravity; (2) sprinkling
irrigation; and (3) drip irrigation. These ways differ in cost effectiveness (taking into account both
prices and water losses). Sprinkling irrigation of maize in Alsace (France) is shown. Photo credit:
S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 24 August 2012
4.1 Agriculture
161
Photo 4.10 Methane emissions can have an impact on the environment in agricultural regions.
Methane is produced on flooded rice elds during partial organic decay under conditions of oxygen
shortage. Methane release from all the worlds rice bays is estimated to be 20100 million tons a
year. The photo shows a flooded rice eld in Jilin, China. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic
Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 12 June 2014
162
4.1.2
Animal Husbandry
There are about 1.43 billion cattle, 1.87 billion sheep and goats, 0.98 billion pigs,
and 19.60 billion chickens on the Earth (Robinson et al. 2014) (Figs. 4.5 and 4.6).
Legend:
Livestock per square kilometre:
<1
1-10
11-25
26-50
51-100
>100
Fig. 4.5 Global livestock density (Lerner and Matthews 1998; Robinson et al. 2014) This map
plots density of livestock including cattle, sheep and goats, horses, water buffalo, and camels
Fig. 4.6 Global density of chickens (Robinson et al. 2014)
4.1 Agriculture
4.1.2.1
163
Stall Feed
The concentrations of animals at stall feeding facilities increase sharply, making a

stock breeding complex a point source of environmental impact. The main factors
in this impact are dumping of raw animal materials (excrement and liquid waste),
pressed juice, and haying.
The natural components that are most affected include the atmosphere, surface
and ground water, soil cover, and vegetation. Fish and other aquatic organisms, as
well as animals consuming the food grown on soils that are fertilized with raw
animal materials, can be affected secondarily.
The main environmental problem is the tremendous amount of waste of animal
husbandry. For instance, in Russia alone, poultry farms annually produce more than
200 million tons of poultry manure and 2 billion m3 of waste water (Khazan et al.
2005).
The impacts of animal husbandry waste manifest mainly as atmospheric pollution. Cattle yards and manure storage facilities emit 136 different gases and
odorous substances (Hartung 1992). Some of them affect air locally (e.g., ammonia), and others (carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide) are greenhouse
gases and contribute to global warming. Livestock worldwide represented
approximately 9 % of total greenhouse gas emissions. Beef and dairy cattle account
for 74 % of global livestock emissions (Caro et al. 2014).
The manure input into methane production is not great; the most important
source is intestinal fermentation in ruminants. For example, in South and Southeast
Asia in 2000, 29.9 million tons of methane was emitted into the atmosphere;
manure accounted for only 4 million tons, while digestive fermentation accounted
for the remaining 29.5 million tons. The greatest amount of methane produced from
digestive fermentation is in the Ganges delta (Yamaji et al. 2003).
Nitrous oxide is the most reactive greenhouse gas. It is produced mainly by
manure and accounts for 7 % of all anthropogenic gases released (UNEP 2013
annual report 2014). Nitrogen oxide contributes to acid precipitation. All domestic
animals produce carbon dioxide (Tisdell 1998). However, from this point of view,
cows are 5 times more dangerous than pigs (Tilman and Clark 2014).
Stall feed is an active polluter of surface waters. Manure off-flow contains high
levels of biogenic matter, helminths, and pathogenic microorganisms, leading to
eutrophication, decreases in dissolved oxygen, and sharp drops in water quality in
surface waters (Denisov and Semizhon 2008).
Among all fauna, hydrobionts are affected the most. They are impacted through
surface-water contamination. If an accident occurs, mass mortality can result. For
example, in North Carolina (United States), a spill of 96,000 t of manure waste from
a pig farming complex in 1995 led to the death of 10 million sh and made mollusk
harvesting impossible on almost 147,000 ha of maritime territory (Ruhl 2000).
Impacts on terrestrial animals take place during forage procurement. For
instance, in Germany, where agricultural equipment is used on elds to make hay,
many wild animals are killed or injured, primarily roe deer juveniles. The total
number that suffers due to this activity is 420,000 animals (Heiko and Gerold 2002).
164
Stall feed affects vegetation through weed dissemination; 1 ton of manure

contains 2 million weed seeds. When manure is applied to elds as fertilizer, many
of the seeds sprout (Gruzdev 1988). Some importance must be given to brous feed
harvesting on natural grasslands (haying). It sometimes leads to depauperation of
flora due to the full withdrawal of some plant species.
When used correctly, raw animal materials have positive effects on soils.
Concentrations of biogenic elements (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium,
potassium) in soil increase, as well as the soils biological activity, harvests, and
quality of plants (carotene, protein). Nevertheless, excessive use of animal waste
(manure, watering with waste waters) often leads to increases in nitrate nitrogen
concentrations in soil, and that degrades its physicochemical properties.
Excess nitrate nitrogen also leads to the growth of nitrophilous plants, producing
huge biomass, mainly weeds (Czerwinski et al. 1987). Further ltration contaminates groundwater with water-soluble salts, nitrates, and pathogenic microorganisms, infecting animals and people with brucellosis, encephalitis, gastroenteritis,
and other diseases (Nastea and Dumitru 1986).
Impacts on groundwater also happen during ensilage harvesting and storage.
Some of the products (beet tops, corn, etc.) are kept in concrete pits or bunkers
(with special tanks for collecting liquor). Insufcient isolation of these facilities or
absence of liquor tanks (which happens often) results in juice leakage. In 1973, in
the territory of the modern Czech Republic, 25 % of ensilage liquid was released
into the soil (Evaluation of economy effect on nature 1985).
The environmental impacts of stall feed are illustrated by Photos 4.114.16.
Photo 4.11 The concentrations of animals at stall feed locations increase sharply, making a stock
breeding complex a point source of environmental impact. A commercial turkey meat production
house in the United States is shown here. Photo credit: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 4 October
2011
4.1 Agriculture
165
Photo 4.12 Ensilage harvesting and storage have an influence on ground water. Some of the
products (beet tops, corn, etc.) are kept in concrete pits or bunkers (with special tanks for collecting
liquor). Insufcient isolation of these facilities or absence of liquor tanks (which happens often)
results in juice leakage. Loaders compressing wheat silage in Revivim, Israel, are shown here.
Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silo by Felagund (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.
org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via
Wikimedia Commons, 6 March 2007
Photo 4.13 Haying has two major types of environmental impacts: (1) impacts on terrestrial
animals that take place during forage procurement (when agricultural equipment is used on elds to
make hay, many wild animals are killed or injured); and (2) depauperation of flora due to the full
withdrawal of some plant species. The photo shows bales of hay in Upper Normandy, France. Photo
166
Photo 4.14 The impacts of animal husbandry waste manifest mainly as atmospheric pollution.
Cattle yards and manure storage facilities emit 136 different gases and odorous substances. Some
of them affect air locally (e.g., ammonia), and others (carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous
oxide) are greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming. Conned cattle feeding operations
in Yuma, Arizona (United States) are shown here. Photo credit: Jeff Vanuga, USDA Natural
Resources Conservation Service, 4 October 2011
Photo 4.15 Where animals are housed in stall barns, one of the key factors affecting natural
constituents is disposal of animal waste products (excrements and manure slurry). The amount of
such wastes is tremendous. In the production of one kilogram of beef, 25 kg of manure are formed.
Correct manure storage is of fundamental importance; when manure is stored incorrectly,
concentrations of nitrate nitrogen in soil increase, and the physical and chemical properties of the
soil deteriorate. The photos show changes in manure storage in a farm in the United States. Photo
credit: Chad Cochrane (U.S. Department of Agriculture)
4.1 Agriculture
167
Photo 4.16 Where animals are housed in stall barns, one of the key factors affecting natural
constituents is disposal of animal waste products (excrements and manure slurry). The amount of
such wastes is tremendous. In the production of one kilogram of beef, 25 kg of manure are formed.
Correct manure storage is of fundamental importance; when manure is stored incorrectly,
concentrations of nitrate nitrogen in soil increase, and the physical and chemical properties of the
soil deteriorate. The photos show changes in manure storage in a farm in the United States. Photo
credit: Chad Cochrane (U.S. Department of Agriculture)
168
4.1.2.2
Livestock Grazing
Livestock grazing is widespread. In 2009, there were approximately 33 million km2 of pastures (FAO 2012). Livestock grazing is a form of land use that
allows increasing production at minimal costs; it supports ecosystem productivity.
Introduction of manure into the soil improves physical properties and conserves
fertility. Some seeds sprout faster or can sprout at all only after being digested.
Grazing and the condition of pastures are closely connected; both insufcient
grazing and overgrazing degrade the productivity of an area (Taddese et al. 2002).
The main factor having environmental impacts is overgrazing. This occurs
when the livestock density per unit area is very high; in this case the number and the
breed of the animals can exceed a pastures food production capacity. For instance,
in the Three-River Headwaters region of China in 2010 total number of sheep was
6.52 million with an average overgrazing number of 27.43 sheep/km2 (Zhang et al.
2014).
Livestock grazing impacts vegetation, soils, fauna, and geomorphology. The
impacts of grazing on vegetation are diverse and the most serious. The consequences of these influences are: (1) vegetation destruction; (2) change in plant
species composition; (3) plant community successions; (4) favorable conditions for
the spread of plant diseases; (5) decrease of timber quality; and (6) drop in timber
growth speed.
The destruction of plants occurs in different ways. Animal husbandry often
results in the logging of forests. In Brazil, for example, 38 % of the forests
destroyed by logging between 1966 and 1975 were cleared for animal husbandry
operations (Newman 1989).
Overgrazing also results in vegetation loss. There are many places where
overgrazing by goats has caused forest depletion: Greece, Cyprus, south of
Madagascar, and some regions of Venezuela. The fact that animals prefer some
plants over others leads to changes in plant species composition. The plants they
prefer are suppressed, and the plants they neglect thrive (Wu et al. 2013).
Plant community successions happen fairly often. For instance, during intensive grazing, a meadow can turn into bushes. Natural forest restoration is becoming
problematic in forest pastures. Stoll shoots of broadleaf species are more resistant
than self-seeding coniferous sprouts. Due to this, coniferous plants are being
replaced with deciduous plants (Anuchin 1991).
Morbidity of plants increases as a result of root damage by hooves, which
creates favorable conditions for fungal infections, and bark gnawing leads to trunk
rot.
Deterioration of wood quality is connected with nibbling of the tops of
sprouting trees, which provokes the growth of curved trunks, while bark gnawing
results in trunk scars. The slowest growth is observed in forest stands with shallow
4.1 Agriculture
169
roots, such as in spruce forests and coppice oak woods; comparatively high growth
rates are found in pine forests and birch wood (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
Among all domesticated animals, goats are the most harmful to the environment. Other animals that have adverse effects on the environment include pigs,
sheep, and cattle (Spurr and Barnes 1984). Unlike other animals, goats pull out
whole plants when they graze. A distinctive trait of goats is that they graze on a
very wide range of plant species. They eat even the bark of trees and bushes.
The impacts on soils are also diverse. Grazing change the soil water balance
through defoliation and soil compaction, causing a shift in vegetation composition
toward a drought-tolerant plant community (Veldhuis et al. 2014).
Soil compaction leads to a decline in water inltration capacity and increases in
run-off (Meules et al. 2001). Breaking of the surface destroys capillaries, which is
followed by changes in the evaporation regime. As a result, the land dries out and
deflation occurs. Because of vegetation loss, heating of the soil increases, which
leads to increased evaporation, consolidation of saline liquids, and soil salinization
(Modern global changes 2006, V. 2).
At present, the intensity of livestock grazing has reached catastrophic proportions. For instance, in India, 250 million feral sacred cows have caused huge
losses of vegetation in the Himalayan foothills (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
The animal world is influenced through the spread of epizootic diseases. Also
during cattle grazing in forests, undergrowth thinning leads to a drop in the number
of birds. The drop is also a result of anxiety, destruction of nests, and the killing of
chickens by shepherd dogs. Grazing by domestic ungulates has substantial impacts
on ecosystem structure and composition. In grasslands of the northern hemisphere,
livestock grazing limits populations of small mammals, which are a main food
source for a variety of vertebrate predators (Villar et al. 2013).
The main influence on geomorphology is the activation of erosion. For instance,
each goat could loosen 14 g of soil material per square meter; this material could
easily be removed by wind or water (Ries et al. 2014).
The impact of livestock grazing on the environment is demonstrated by the
Photos 4.174.24.
170
Photo 4.17 There are two categories of pastures: (1) cultivated (do not differ much from
agricultural landsthe same technology of cultivation, chemicals, and sometimes irrigation is
used); and (2) natural, usually with unregulated grazing. In 2009, there were approximately
3.3 billion ha of pasture. The picture shows cultivated pasture land in the Netherlands. Photo
Photo 4.18 Permanent pastures occupy 20 % of the land area on Earth; in addition, 24.5 % of the
land area is deserts and semideserts used as pastures from time to time, and 6.7 % is occupied by
tundra deer pastures. The influence of grassland farming is quite uniformly distributed along the
horizontal (except for watering points and routes of animal drift). Camels at a watering point in the
Dornogovi aimag, Mongolia, are shown. Photo credit: E. Batotsyrenov (The Baikal Institute of
Nature Management, Ulan-Ude, Russia), 29 August 2014
4.1 Agriculture
171
Photo 4.19 Grassland farming is a form of land use that allows food production to increase with
minimum costs and, at the same time, maintains ecosystem productivity. The addition of manure to
the soil helps conserve soil fertility and physical properties. Some seeds sprout faster or can sprout
at all only after being digested. The photo shows manure in Schengen, Luxembourg. Photo credit:
Photo 4.20 Overgrazing is the main factor having environmental impacts in animal husbandry.
This occurs when the livestock density per unit area is very high; in this case the number and the
breed of the animals can exceed a pastures food production capacity. The photo shows the
pasturage of sheep in western Tunisia. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical
Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 20 August 2008
172
Photo 4.21 The fact that animals prefer some plants over others leads to changes in plant species
composition in pasture land. The plants they prefer are suppressed, and the plants they neglect
thrive. Grazing goats near the town of Mandalgovi (Dundgovi aimag of Mongolia) are shown.
Photo credit: E. Batotsyrenov (The Baikal Institute of Nature Management, Ulan-Ude, Russia),
27 August 2014
Photo 4.22 Among all domesticated animals, goats are the most harmful to the environment.
Other animals that have adverse effects on the environment include pigs, sheep, and cattle. Unlike
other animals, goats pull out whole plants when they graze. A distinctive trait of goats is that they
graze on a very wide range of plant species. The photo shows a male goat in Primorsky Krai,
Russia). Photo credit: A.M. Panichev (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia),
11 August 2004
4.1 Agriculture
173
Photo 4.23 Impacts of

grazing on vegetation include
the following: (1) vegetation
destruction; (2) changes in
plant species composition;
(3) plant community
successions; (4) favorable
conditions for the spread of
plant diseases; (5) decreases
in timber quality; and
(6) drops in timber growth
speeds. A goat browsing
native vegetation at Coolabah,
New South Wales, Australia,
is shown here. Photo credit:
Willem van Aken (CSIRO),
1 January 1975
Photo 4.24 Animal husbandry is a major source of atmospheric contamination with greenhouse
gases. Methane is a very potent greenhouse gas, some 21 times more potent than carbon dioxide.
Methane is produced by sheep and cattle as part of the normal processes of fermentation of feed in
the rumen. For instance, in Australia methane produced by sheep and cattle is estimated to
contribute 14 % of Australias total greenhouse gas emissions. This image shows sheep tted with
mechanisms for collecting exhaled methane. Photo credit: Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial
Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia, 26 November 2001
174
4.2
4.2.1
Forestry
Timber Processing
Timber processing is the harvesting of wood for economic needs. The annual
volume of cuttings is 4.5 billion m3 (Ivanov et al. 2014). Total employment in
logging activities is about 3.5 million people (State of the worlds forests 2014).
The worlds forest resources (standing volume) are equivalent to 340370
billion m3, and the area of forest suitable for exploitation is 2528 million km2.
(Fig. 4.7) The countries with the greatest forest area include Russia (8.1 million km2), Brazil (3.2 million), Canada (2.6 million), and the United States
(2.0 million); nevertheless, the leaders in timber processing are the United States,
Canada, Brazil, and China (Karakin et al. 2014).
Legend:
Timber resources (cubic metres per hectare):
_>80
60-79
40-59
20-39
0-19
Forest-free territories
Fig. 4.7 Global distribution of timber resources (Resources and environment 1998). Reproduced
with permission of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences
The environmental impacts of timber processing can be divided into three categories: (1) taking matter out of nature (logging and transportation of the wood;
sweeping off the soil on some areas, including further washout); (2) introduction of
alien substances and energy (such as toxic chemicals for pest control; fuels and
combustion products released during timber dragging and transportation); and
(3) transformation and redistribution of the matter in nature: changes in forest
landscapes due to logging and cleaning out of debris-strewn forest.
Taking matter out of nature (trunks, branches, leaves) leads to soil impoverishment and decreased productivity. In Russian forests, trunks comprise 65 % of the
total timber mass; stumps and roots comprise 13 %; bark, 9 %; branches and lops,
8.5 %; and leaves and needles, 4.5 %. In the low latitudes, the share of trunk timber
4.2 Forestry
175
is lower. For instance, in the rain forest of the Ivory Coast, trunks and large
branches account for only 64 % of the biomass (Gorshkov 2001).
Timber processing influences the following natural components: (1) vegetation;
(2) soils; (3) animals; (4) surface waters; and (5) atmosphere. In addition, it is not
uncommon for this activity to cause human deaths.
Impact on vegetation is mainly dened by undergrowth conservation. In tropical
forests, selective cutting of the most valuable tree species often takes place. The
transportation of one of these trees causes the death or serious damage of another
two trees (Golubev 2006). In the developed countries, the damage is much smaller.
For instance, during timber processing in south-western France, 30 % of the area
remains untouched, 32 % is covered by the remains of cutting, 29 % is changed
insignicantly, and only 9 % is seriously damaged (Deconchat 2001).
Harvest cutting is believed to disturb vegetation diversity more than gradual felling
and selective cutting (Tatarinov 2002). It is also recognized that felling is much safer in
winter than during the warm seasons (Bock and Van Rees 2002; Kovalev 2004).
The impacts on soils are as follows: (1) fertility decline; (2) soil erosion; and
(3) change in physical qualities.
Fertility decline is explained by the fact that most of the biogenic matter is stored in
trees and is removed when trees are logged. So intensive logging results in losses in soil
nutrient supplies (Sutinen et al. 2010). After logging, the soils are exposed to direct
sun-rays and strong rains. Decits of phosphorus and potassium are observed in soils of
the humid tropics, and decits of nitrogen are found in the dry tropics (Golubev 2006).
Soil erosion is provoked by topsoil disturbance during wood transportation.
Intensity of the wash-off during the rst couple of years after logging on slopes of
1020 reaches hundreds of cubic meters per hectare. Main losses of soils occur
within the rst 56 years (Litvin 2002).
Disturbances of physical qualities of soil mainly include changes in density,
porosity, and coefcient of ltration (Rosnovsky 1999). Research in Washington
state (United States) has shown that soil consolidation as a result of a motor vehicle
slipping decreases its ltration characteristics by 92 %; microscopic capillaries
shrink by 53 %, and density increases by 35 % (Spurr and Barnes 1984).
Impacts on animals are determined by the complexity of ecosystem connections,
when a little change can lead to unpredictable results. For example, so-called keystone
species play unique, sometimes unclear, roles in ecosystems. Logging of such species
sometimes leads to catastrophic consequences for fauna (Golubev 2006). Also, hunting
and shing, including poaching, increase in areas where logging is taking place.
Effects on surface waters include increases in seasonal flood levels of rivers and
lack of water during other seasons (Geoecological principles of designing of
natural-engineering geosystems 1987). The atmosphere is polluted by the exhaust
of working machinery (Semenov 2001).
Accidents cause human deaths, which may be related to defective logging
equipment, helicopter crashes, log truck driver fatalities (Enez et al. 2014), and
intoxication caused by pesticides. Almost all the cases of poisoning are connected
with organophosphate insecticides (Berryman 1990).
The environmental effects of timber processing are illustrated by Photos 4.254.30.
176
Photo 4.25 Felling is the

process of downing individual
trees, part of the task of
logging. For a long time, this
process was weakly
mechanized. In hand felling,
an axe and saw are used to fell
a tree. The photo shows two
fellers felling a tree on the
Atherton Tablelands,
Queensland, Australia. Photo
credit: State Library of
Queensland, between 1890
and 1900
Photo 4.26 Timber processing is the harvesting of wood for economic needs. When a sensible
approach is used, the effect on the environment is minimal. However, the use of converted wood is
often irrational. Forestry operations near the settlement of Svetlaya (Primorsky Krai, Russia) are
shown. Numerous tree stumps are visible. Photo credit: I.S. Seleznev, 1999
4.2 Forestry
177
Photo 4.27 Timber harvesting operations include three stages: (1) cutting operations; (2) logging;
and (3) operations at the log collection point. Cutting operations include logging, branch cutting,
cutting area cleaning, timber bucking, dragging, and loading of logs for transport. The photo
shows harvesting operations in Karelia (north-western Russia). Photo credit: V. Kantor
(Greenpeace Russia), 18 June 2006
Photo 4.28 The second stage

of timber processing is timber
transportation. Logging roads
or logging railways are used,
which connect with sawmills,
railroads, highways, or
floatable rivers. The picture
shows a narrow-gage railway
in Vologda Oblast
(north-western Russia). Photo
credit: V. Kantor (Greenpeace
Russia), 12 October 2005
178
Photo 4.29 A plank road in the Vologda region is shown. It is a temporary wood-transport road
constructed from bodies of trees. In many cases, for construction of the plank roads, up to 3035 %
of all timber harvested, or about 800 m3 of timber per kilometer of road, are spent. Depending on
the construction technology and region, the operational life of a plank road is from 45 to
1520 years. Photo credit: V. Kantor (Greenpeace Russia), 2003
Photo 4.30 Erosion of soils is provoked by topsoil disturbance during wood transportation.
Intensity of the wash-off during the rst couple of years after logging on slopes of 1020 reaches
hundreds of cubic meters per hectare. Main losses of soils occur within the rst 56 years.
Development of erosion on a logging site in the upper reaches of the Maksimovka River
(Primorsky Krai, Russia) is shown. Photo credit: A.M. Panichev (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), 15 June 2005
4.2 Forestry
4.2.1.1
179
Timber Rafting
Timber rafting means transportation of wood by water using timber buoyancy.

There are three types of timber rafting: (1) drift floating (detached logs float with
the current; it is used on unnavigable rivers); (2) rafting (timber is transported in
rafts, mainly with the help of towing vessels; the volumes that rafts carry can be
from 150 to 40,000 m3, and transportation distances can reach 2,500 km); and
(3) bag boom towing (detached logs are transported by a vessel in special floating
booms; it is used on short distances on slow-flowing parts of rivers, lakes, and seas;
booms are usually made of logs, and they are connected by ropes, chains, or other
means).
Losses are unavoidable during all kinds of timber rafting and include (1) losses
due to drowning (timber, being porous, absorbs water, which increases its density;
sinking logs account for 57 % of all losses); (2) process losses (logs ducking under
booms, raft crashes, logs sticking on flood plains; these incidents account for 32 %
of all losses); and (3) other losses (logs breaking when they are dumped into water
or piled up; some logs are left in storage yards; extra logs are used during indirect
works; these losses account for 11 % of all losses) (Manukovsky and Patyakin
2004).
Timber rafting impacts the following natural components: (1) surface waters;
(2) ichthyofauna; and (3) soils. Impacts on surface waters can be characterized by
the following factors: (1) increases in solid discharges; (2) pollution with matter
emitted by timber; and (3) pollution with waste, branches, and sunken logs.
Solid discharges into water are connected with logs being rolled down from
slopes and silt sticking to the logs. During transportation by water, silt is washed off
and carried as a suspended or dragged drift (Wohl 2014).
Pollution with matter emitted by timber is the most serious problem. The
amount of soluble matter in timber depends on species, age, place of growth, time
of logging, length of storage period after logging, and other factors. The main types
of matter extracted by water include the following: (1) tannins (so-called hardening
agents, which are phenolic compounds); (2) some polysaccharides (so-called
gums (pectins, starch) or carbohydrates of high molecular weight); (3) some
carbohydrates of low molecular weight; and (4) inorganic salts (Fomintsev et al.
1990; Manukovsky and Patyakin 2004).
Washout of water-soluble matter decreases exponentially. The rst half is
washed out in the rst 27 days; then the speed of washout drops rapidly. For
instance, a drowned pine will contain only 36 % of soluble matter in 5 years, and
only 18 % will be present in 18 years (Manukovsky and Patyakin 2004). Pollution
with waste, branches, and sunken logs (excluding emitted matter) is physical pollution. Its importance is not high.
180
Impacts on the ichthyofauna include (1) impacts on spawning grounds;

(2) impacts of extracted matter; (3) timber waste sedimentation on the bottom; and
(4) increases in the area of distribution of some animals.
Mechanical damage to spawning grounds by drifting logs and branches takes
place. This damage has unfavorable effects on the spawning of many sh,
decreasing their numbers. To protect spawning grounds, booms consisting of logs
or metal pontoons are installed (Novikov 1999).
The impacts of extracted matter are controversial: they can be both positive and
negative. Increases in the nutritive base for sh is a positive effect. Extracts promote
phytoplankton growth, providing food for the sh. Nevertheless, those organisms
consume oxygen dissolved in water for respiration. After a certain threshold,
phytoplankton starts to affect sh adversely.
Negative impacts on hydrobionts are connected with increases in acidity. Many
types of extracted matter are toxic for hydrobionts. Plankton is the most vulnerable;
benthos is the next to be affected. Timber rafting was the basic cause of drastic
reductions in populations of the freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) in the rivers of the White Sea coast (Bespalaya et al. 2012; Makhrov et al.
2009).
Sedimentation of timber waste on the bottom of water bodies is also useful to
a certain extent. It increases the biomass of bottom grounds with low productivity,
because colonies of caddis worms, ephemerans, and chironomids form on the
timber substrate.
The territories of some animals can increase because insects, snails, lizards, and
other organisms can be found on the trunks of rafted trees. It is believed that timber
rafting is contributed to the spread of geckos (lizards that lay eggs with a long
development period in tree trunks) (Sedlag 1975).
Dumping of logs into water has an impact on soils through some increase in
erosion and removal of soil that clings to the logs, but, on the whole, it is negligible.
The environmental impacts of timber rafting are illustrated by Photos 4.314.38.
4.2 Forestry
181
Photo 4.31 There are three types of timber rafting: (1) drift floating (detached logs float with the
current); (2) rafting (timber is transported in rafts, mainly with the help of towing vessels); and
(3) bag boom towing (detached logs are transported by a vessel in special floating booms). The
photo shows logs prepared for raft formation next to the Angara River. Below the slipway, one can
see a raft section that has already been formed. Photo credit: P. Kurnakov (Ecoline EA Centre,
Moscow, Russia), 20 July 2006
Photo 4.32 Drift floating is used on unnavigable rivers. In the former USSR, in 1988, drift
floating was practiced on 197 rivers with a total length of 22,900 km, and 40 % of all timber
transportation by water was done this way. The photo shows drift floating on the Kostroma River
near the town of Buy (Russia). Photo credit: Jacques Dupquier, July 1976
182
Photo 4.33 Impacts of timber rafting on surface waters can be characterized by the following
factors: (1) increases in solid discharge; (2) pollution with matter emitted by timber; and
(3) pollution with waste, branches, and sunken logs. The photo shows a long logging raft
following the bend of a river in the state of Par, Brazil. Photo credit: Luciana Napchan
(Greenpeace), 1 January 1999
Photo 4.34 In order to speed up the process of timber rafting, tug boats are used to provide safe
passage of the raft along the water body and prevent it from colliding with vehicles and the shore.
The photo shows the Finnish steam tug Hurma preparing to tow a log boom. Photo credit: Matti
Mattila, 13 August 2009
4.2 Forestry
183
Photo 4.35 Log ponds are entry resistant constructions in water that are protected with floating
structures; they are used to retain logs at a xed position on a watercourse. A traverse (i.e., that
blocks the entire width of a water passage) booming ground in the Croix River, Maryland, United
States, is shown. Photo credit: Lee Lockwood (National Archives and Records Administration),
May 1973
Photo 4.36 Solid discharges into water are associated with logs being rolled down from slopes
and silt sticking to the logs. During transportation by water, silt is washed off logs and carried as a
suspended or dragged drift. The photo shows logs on a bank slope of the Angara River (Irkutsk
Oblast, Russia) that will be transported by timber rafting. Photo credit: P. Kurnakov (Ecoline EA
Center, Moscow, Russia)
184
Photo 4.37 When logs are transported by water (especially in case of floating of loose wood), part
of the logs is inevitably lost, being trapped in hurst and covered later on with silt and sand. Logs
lost in the process of floating of loose wood on the shoreline overwash of the Karaidel River
(Bashkiria, Russia) are shown. The timber of such logs quickly becomes unt for use due to decay
and fungosity. Their use as rewood is also problematic because sand lling hair cracks makes
chain saws inoperable. Photo credit: A.A. Lapin, 14 August 2012
Photo 4.38 During floating many logs become waterlogged and sink to the bottom of the bodies
of water. After many years of log drives, large quantities of wood have accumulated in certain
areas. Because of reduced oxygen and light levels, decomposition is greatly reduced and allows the
sunken logs, which may have sunk hundreds of years ago, to be preserved to this day. The Photo
shows logs being retrieved in, Canada. Photo credit: Underwater Logging Ltd., Canada
4.2 Forestry
4.2.2
185
Reforestation and Plantation Development
Reforestation is the generation of new forest on sites where logging and res have
taken place; that is, where forests were once. Plantation development is cultivation
of articial forest, similar to agriculture. The mean rate of reforestation and plantation development is illustrated in Fig. 4.8.
Legend:
Net loss of forest;
Current forest cover;
Net gain of forest
Fig. 4.8 Global forest status (http://www.dtgraham.com/about-reforestation/reforestationworldwide; Resources and environment 1998)
More than 2 billion ha of land where forests once grewan area twice the size of
Chinahas the potential to be restored (http://www.wri.org/our-work/topics/forests).
Forest restoration can be conducted in two different ways: (1) articial (i.e., creation
of forest cultures; planting and sowing of trees) and (2) facilitation of natural forest
restoration (i.e., creation of conditions that ensure fast repopulation by valuable tree
species). This facilitation means leaving seed trees and small areas of forest unlogged
(Nikonov 2001).
Forest plantations have reached 264 million ha (Global environment outlook 5
2012). More than 60 % of all forest plantations are located in Asia. For the countries
with the largest plantations, the gures are the following (million hectares): China,
77; India, 33; United States, 25; Russia, 18; and Japan, 10 (Karakin et al. 2014).
Plantation development usually means the growing of monocultures.
Plantation development, as well as forest restoration, has a number of negative
environmental consequences. These consequences are mainly connected with
aerial chemical treatment and melioration.
Aerial chemical treatment is used to (1) increase soil fertility and (2) regulate
juvenile population composition. To accomplish the rst task, mainly fertilizers are
used. The use of fertilizers leads to increased timber growth, but it also results in
186
considerable water pollution and has an impact on ichthyofauna (Munson et al.

1993).
To regulate the natural juvenile population composition formed on logging
sites, other chemicalsarboricidesare used. They have selective impacts on tree
species. For example, in young mixed pine-broadleaf forests, pine, which is the more
valuable species, suffers from shading by small-leaved deciduous species (aspen,
birch, willow, alder, and linden). Arboricides are disseminated in such forests, killing
many of the deciduous trees, while coniferous trees receive much less damage.
Considerable research done on sites where arboricides have been used has shown
that they have negative impacts on almost all animal species. These impacts include
effects such as decreases in the reproduction intensity of many groups of animals,
reductions of some animal population numbers, and provocation of developmental
defects (Sokolov 2008). The impacts of herbicides are similar; besides, their use leads
to drops in nitrogen and amounts of other nutrients in soils (Maillard et al. 2010).
Forest melioration is applied widely in the taiga zone. In many cases, it is
understood as forest draining. Melioration leads to productivity growth in dried
forests, due to increases in root layer thickness, accelerated mineralization of
organic matter, and improvement of tree root aeration (Handbook of forester 1980).
The negative impacts of forest draining are of much more diverse: (1) the
importance of drained forest ecosystems in sustaining oxygen and carbon balance in
the atmosphere drops radically; (2) waters where drainage waters are dumped are
polluted by turf bits and soluble decay products of accumulated organic matter,
which results in drops in the oxygen content in water and leads to sh suffocation
during winter (see Sect. 6.3); (3) rapid changes in the conditions in marsh
ecosystems cause death of many plant and animal populations; and (4) there is also
a catastrophic growth of re hazard in the drained territories.
In addition, plantation development often leads to soil degradation. For instance, in
cultures of different species of larch in northern China, soil degradation is connected
with changes in the nutrient cycle. Larch needles decay for a very long time, and it takes
4.4 years to mineralize forest litter. This process takes 0.92.4 years for birch and poplar.
At larch plantations, litter accumulation leads to thermal insulation of soil,
decreasing its temperatures and limiting microbial activity. Declines in fertility are
observed in the rst generation and worsen after two rotations. In mixed cultures
(with a share of deciduous trees and shrubs), recirculation of nutrients and sustainable soil fertility are more effective (Fu et al. 2015).
Impacts on soils also take place during timber processing. Moving equipment
causes soil to become denser, which in turn decreases a soils biological productivity. The growth of some cultures in itself can have negative impacts on soils. For
instance, soil erosion on eucalyptus plantations is very intense (Modern global
changes 2006, V. 2).
As a rule, plantation development leads to sharp decreases in biodiversity in
comparison to less-disturbed forests that grow in similar conditions, but appeared
naturally, or even those secondary forests that grew without human interference.
The environmental impacts of plantation development and reforestation are
illustrated by Photos 4.39 and 4.40.
4.2 Forestry
187
Photo 4.39 Plantation development is the cultivation of articial forest, similar to agriculture. It
usually means the growing of monocultures. As a rule, plantation development leads to sharp
decreases in biodiversity in comparison to less-disturbed forests that grow in similar conditions.
The photo shows a loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantation in Burke County, Georgia, the United
States. Plantations are usually easily distinguished from natural forests because the trees are
planted in straight lines. Photo credit: David Stephens (Bugwood.org), 26 August 2006
Photo 4.40 Reforestation is a process in which new forest is generated on sites where logging and
res have taken place; that is, where forests were once. A poplar reforestation project is being
carried out in six farm groups in the south of the Paran state and in the north of the Santa Catarina
state (Brazil). Approximately 2500 ha are covered with 800,000 poplar trees, in places where the
species has shown good adaptation. Photo credit: Everson Dezgeniski (Swedish Match)
188
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http://www.wri.org/our-work/topics/forests
Chapter 5
Transport
5.1
Automobile Transport
The impacts of automobile transport on the environment include the following:

(1) air pollution; (2) pollution and breaking of surface and subsurface drainage;
(3) soil pollution; (4) loss of lands; (5) fauna impacts; (6) flora impacts; (7) transformation of relief and the geological environment; and (8) noise impacts and
vibration (Fig. 5.1).
Fig. 5.1 Global road network (http://www.mapability.com/info/vmap0_download.html; http://

bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/gam/sources.htm; http://gis-lab.info/qa/vmap0.html)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5_5
193
194
5 Transport
Air pollution is the most signicant impact of automobile transport. Its main
components are (1) burnt engine gases; (2) crankcase fumes; (3) fuel evaporation
from tanks, carburettors, or hoses; (4) products of abrasion of tires, brakes, and
other parts of vehicles, and (5) products of a roadbeds wear.
The main pollutant is burnt gases from engines. The main emissions component is carbon dioxide; in consideration of toxicity, however, the most important
pollutants are carbon monoxide and lead for gasoline engines, and sulfur dioxide
for diesel engines.
Road construction often changes surface flow and groundwater conditions due
to the creation of new geomorphologic forms during the construction of a roadbed.
In cases when a road embankment interrupts the natural run-off, upstream overwetting, rises in the levels of subsoil water, gradual swamping, and the transformation of flora and fauna occur. The downstream areas are drained of water and,
consequently, biogeocenosis is transformed.
The pollution of surface waters happens through, rst, transfer into water
bodies of mechanical (sediments, suspensions, emulsions) and chemical (dissolved
substances in the ionic and molecular forms) pollutants, which are generated during
construction and use of the roads. The content of pollution in a flow depends on the
area, intensity of trafc, and other factors. In many areas, the main pollutants are
chemical substances that are used to counteract ground surface icing (chlorides;
nitrates; phosphates and sulfates of sodium, calcium, and magnesium; spirits; and
glycols). The most widely used substances are chloride compounds, particularly
sodium chloride and calcium chloride.
The second way includes sewage disposal by auto transport enterprises. The
main pollutants are oil products, alkalis, lubricoolants, and others that are generated
during car washing, servicing of accumulators, repair of coolant systems, and other
maintenance and repair activities.
Soil pollution takes place in a relatively narrow wayside (100150 m, up to 300
m). It is caused by the settling of lead compounds and other metals (copper, zinc,
nickel, vanadium, cobalt, molybdenum) from the atmosphere originating from an
engines burnt gas emissions and metal parts wear. A large contribution to soil
pollution is made by de-icing salts. Chlorides penetrate into the soil the deepest,
reaching groundwater.
Regarding condemnation of land, automobile roads and other components of
the infrastructure occupy a high place among the branches of industry. Total length
of roads is 68.937 million km (http://relaxic.net/entertaining-statistics-2/). For
instance, in the United States roads and waysides occupy about 1 % of the territory
of the country (Elaine 2003). The area under direct ecological influence is much
larger; in the United States 19 % of the territory is affected (Forman 2000).
The influences on fauna can be both positive (the waysides act as ecological
niches for synanthropic and semi-synanthropic species of birds and mammals; the
roads are migration passages) (Morelli et al. 2014) and negative (creation of ecological obstacles, deaths of animals in collisions with cars, the destruction of the
animals habitat, etc.).
5.1 Automobile Transport
195
Roads are often barriers to the migration of animals. Animal deaths caused by
collisions with motor vehicles occur, rst of all, with highly mobile animals (birds),
with animals having denite peculiarities (slow movement, sluggishness, weakness
of hearing or sight), with those showing vulnerable behaviors (stop when being lit
by headlights, assume protective poses in case of danger, night activity), and also
with those with a larger home range (amphibians, hoofed mammals).
Amphibians seem exceptionally vulnerable to death on the road. In studies on
four continents the percentage of vertebrate kills that were amphibians ranged from
6 to >90 % (Beebee 2013). The numbers of deaths of animals on roads are
extremely high. For example, between 89 and 340 million birds die annually from
vehicle collisions on the United States roads (Loss et al. 2014).
Automobile transport contributes to bioinvasions of plants and animals. For
example, the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, was accidentally brought
from Japan to the Western Hemisphere in the mid-1980s with used tires (Goddard
2012). Since then, this species has rooted itself in the United States, Argentina,
Brazil, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Mexico.
The geomorphologic and geological environments are influenced by the
removal of considerable amounts of ground, which leads to transformation of relief
(excavation, embankments). The creation and use of roads often intensify geomorphologic processes. The noises of road trafc are caused by working engines,
wheels, beeps, and so on.
The environmental impacts of automobile transport are illustrated by Photos
5.15.10.
Photo 5.1 The worldwide motor vehicle industry now produces more than 220,000 cars a day.
When the operating life of a motor vehicle is over, the vehicle must be scrapped. However,
vehicles are often put on scrap-heaps. A car dump in the suburbs of Vladivostok is shown. Photo
credit: V.A. Solkin (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia)
196
5 Transport
Photo 5.2 During its life cycle, every car produces a large amount of reusable resources (e.g.,
used engine oil) and waste products, amounting to 10 times more than the weight of the car. The
photo shows oil being drained from a GMC sport utility vehicle. Photo credit: Myke Waddy, 8
November 2009
Photo 5.3 Air pollution is the most signicant impact of automobile transport. Its main
components are (1) burnt engine gases; (2) crankcase fumes; (3) evaporated fuel from tanks,
carburettors, or hoses; (4) products of abrasion of tires, brakes, and other parts of a vehicle; and
(5) products of a road beds wear. The photo shows air pollution due to burnt engine gases of cars.
Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution by Ruben de Rijcke (Own
work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
197
Photo 5.4 The main component of motor vehicle emissions is carbon dioxide; in consideration of
toxicity, however, the most important pollutants are carbon monoxide, and lead in gasoline
engines and sulfur dioxide in diesel engines.Trafc jams increase air pollution many times. The
photo shows a transport collapse at Istanbul FSM Bridge (look from Etiler), Beikta, Istanbul,
Turkey. Photo credit: Adnan Behmen, 13 October 2007
Photo 5.5 Various activities related to construction and functioning of automobile roads also
contribute to air pollution. The photo shows an asphalt concrete factory in Primorsky Krai, Russia.
The charge of crushed stony material is moved by the front-end loader to the rotating furnace for
heating before it is mixed with bitumen to produce an asphalt-concrete mixture. Dust is the smallest
mineral particles of broken stone, while smoke (fumes) is products of incomplete combustion of fuel
(usually fuel oil) and bitumen vapors. Freshly prepared hot bitumen-concrete mixture is fed from
the furnace to the bunker and then to vehicles that transport it to where it will be used. Photo credit:
198
5 Transport
Photo 5.6 The numbers of deaths of animals on roads are extremely high. For example, in the
United States, 1 million vertebrate animals die on roads every day. Ungulates, as animals having
large home ranges, very often are hit by cars. The photo shows a deer killed on the Okatie
Highway along the Chechessee River, South Carolina, United States. The debris surrounding the
deer is a mixture of animal body parts and pieces of the car that hit it. A tire apparently passed over
the back portion of the animal. Photo credit: John ONeill, 9 April 2012
Photo 5.7 In order to decrease the number of animals dying on motor roads, warning signs are
posted that warn of the presence of animals most likely to be in an area. Depending on the country
and particular region, these animals can be most diverse. For example, the risk of collisions of cars
with camels is most probable in Tunisia. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical
199
Photo 5.8 The pollution of surface waters through motor vehicle use happens in two ways. The
rst one includes transfer into water bodies of mechanical (sediments, suspensions, emulsions) and
chemical (dissolved substances in the ionic and molecular forms) pollutants that are generated
during construction and use of roads. The products of auto tire wear are one type of contaminant.
For example, annual tire abrasion in Germany is estimated at 120,000 tons. The photo shows
braking traces on a road on the South Island, New Zealand. Photo credit: I. Kelman (http://www.
ilankelman.org/aircraft.html), 26 April 2014
Photo 5.9 In many areas, the main pollutants of surface waters are chemical substances that are
used to counteract ground surface icing. The most widely used substances are chloride compounds,
particularly sodium chloride and calcium chloride. This photo shows a snowplough and road salt
application truck that is used to clear snow and ice from roadways for improving trafc and
pedestrian safety. Photo credit: Steven Corsi (U.S. Geological Survey), 1 January 2009
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5 Transport
Photo 5.10 De-icing salts include chlorides, nitrates, phosphates, and sulfates of sodium, calcium,
and magnesium. These compounds penetrate into the soil the deepest, reaching ground water.
Damage to trees and shrubs also occurs. Extensive salt damage of a bush along a sidewalk in
Wooster, Ohio, United States, is shown. Photo credit: Joseph LaForest (University of Georgia,
United States)
5.2 Railway Transport
5.2
201
Railway Transport
Railway transport is the conveyance of cargo and passengers on railroads. The

total length of railroads over the whole world in 2006 was 1.37 million km. A total
of 148 countries have railroads. The leaders are (thousands of kilometres) (1) the
United States, 224,792 (2011); (2) Russia, 128,000 (2012); and (3) China, 103,144
(2013) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rail_transport_network_
size). Main railways and cities with metrosystems are shown in Figs. 5.2 and 5.3.
Fig. 5.2 Main railways of the world (http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-maps/major-railnetwork-map.html; https://www.reddit.com/r/travel/comments/k0d43/world_map_of_railways/;

http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/05/the-wonders-of-railway-maps-fromalgeria-to-zimbabwe/238575/). Source Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and
Sustainability, European Communities, 2009
Fig. 5.3 Cities with metrosystems. Prepared by author based on data from numerous Internet sources
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5 Transport
Virtually all components of the natural environment are impacted by railway

transport, including (1) air; (2) surface and ground water; (3) soils; (4) geological
and geomorphologic environments; (5) fauna; (6) flora; (7) noise impacts; and
(8) land withdrawal.
The main pollutant of the atmosphere during railroad construction is
non-organic dust of sand and crushed stone that is created during mining, conveyance, and laying of ballast. The share of gaseous pollutants (carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, sulfurous anhydride, soot) generated in the burning of fuels and
blasting is relatively small.
During the operation of railroads, the ratios of volumes of pollutants change.
The main factors polluting the atmosphere in railway transport are burnt gases from
diesel locomotives, which contain benzol, lead, soot, formaldehyde, toluol, and
xylol (Bulayev 2006).
Stove heating of carriages also has some impact. The main pollutants emitted by
rolling stock are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons,
and soot.
The goods being transported themselves are sources of considerable pollution,
which is caused by the leakage of those goods because of looseness; intensive
emissions during loading, unloading, and transportation; and also by blowing-off of
dust-like fractions with the wind while a train is moving.
Railway enterprises that cause air pollution include sleeper impregnation,
rubble, repair factories, disinfection and washing stations, and boiler houses, which
emit substances such as particulate matter (dust, soot), carbon monoxide, nitrogen
and sulfur oxides, and various varnish and paint substances (Tskhovrebov 1996).
The impacts on surface waters include their withdrawal and pollution. The
leakage of oil products is a main source of pollution in the use of rolling stock. It
also occurs when washing a train and changing coolant liquid in diesel locomotives;
the main pollutants are synthetic surfactants (SS), oil products, phenol, hexavalent
chromium, acids, alkalis, and organic and non-organic suspended substances.
Oil oozing from leaks in various locomotive devices and parts of carriages also
causes problems. Fecal drains and waste disposal from passenger cars also have
some signicance. Stationary sources of waste include considerable volumes of
sewage, containing mineral, suspended, and organic substances; phenols; oil
products; synthetic surfactants; different metals; and other materials.
Soil impacts basically occur in relatively narrow strips along railways and near
enterprises. For instance, investigation of heavy metals pollution in soils along the
Delhi-Ulan section of the Qinghai-Tibet railway detected high concentrations of Cr,
Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd (Zhang et al. 2013). However, the main pollutants near
tracks are coal and ore dust, oil products, and salt. Metal dust generated as a result
of intensive abrasion of cast-iron brake pads is also of some signicance.
The geological and geomorphologic environments are affected by withdrawal
and movement of geological materials, and intensication of geomorphologic
processes. The impacts on fauna consist of blocking by railways of animal
migration routes and creation of problems for selected species (Rudsky and
Sturman 2014).
203
Railways are distribution channels of invasive plant species. The stripes

alongside railways serve as places for naturalization and dissemination (Filippova
and Perevoznikova 2006). For instance, warty cabbage (Bunias orientalis) has
spread in central Europe mainly along railways (Kieltyk 2014).
In many countries, railways are considered as the second source of ambient noise
pollution, just after the noise from urban trafc (Monazzam et al. 2014;
Grubliauskas et al. 2014). The main source of noise is rolling stock. The noise of
locomotives is caused by motor-ventilators, compressors, generators, traction
engines, and so on; for motor carriages of electric trains, they are
motor-compressors and traction engines. Noise is also generated by wheel strokes
over railing junctions, knocks of automatic couplers, rattling and knocks of brake
rods and pads, braking, and other factors.
The noise from railway transport enterprises is generated during activities such
as the operation of different machinery and equipment and ventilation. Some
sources of intensive noise at stations are shunting operations, compressors, blow-off
of railway points, speakerphones, conveyors, and cranes.
Land withdrawal related to railway transport is not great. For instance, a
four-lane highway requires 5.6 ha of land per kilometer, but four railways occupy
2.5 ha/km, and the number of passengers being transported by automobiles is 13
times less (Wrong side of the tracks? 1991).
The environmental impacts of railway transport are illustrated by Photos 5.11
5.20.
Photo 5.11 Railway transport conveys cargo and passengers on railroads. However, some kinds
of railway transport hardly meet this denition. A suspension railway in Wuppertal, Germany, is
shown here. This unique system is the oldest electric elevated railway with hanging cars in the
world. It was built between 1897 and 1903 and is still in use today as a normal means of local
public transport, moving 25 million passengers annually. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic
Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 10 August 2014
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5 Transport
Photo 5.12 Not infrequently, railroad transport modies the geologic environment. First of all,
underground railway systems impact the geologic environment. The rst metro system, the
London Underground, was opened in 1863. As of 2010, there were approximately 140 metro
systems in the world. The photo shows the Santiago Metro in Chile. It opened for service in 1975.
It has 5 lines, 108 stations, and 103 km (64 mi) of revenue service. The system serves around 2.4
million passengers per day. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Photo 5.13 The use of underground space is sometimes necessary for common railway transport
handling long-distance trafc of passengers and goods. More often, it is required to overcome natural
obstacles (for example, tunnels under mountains or under water barriers). The Seikan Tunnel travels
beneath the Tsugaru Strait, connecting the main Japanese island of Honshu with the northern island
of Hokkaido. This tunnel is both the longest and the deepest operational main-line rail tunnel in the
world. It has a 53.85 km (33.46 mi) railway tunnel, with a 23.3 km (14.5 mi)long portion under the
seabed. The track is about 100 m (330 ft) below the seabed and 240 m (790 ft) below sea level. Photo
credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikan_Tunnel by Encino (talk/Contributions) at the Chinese
Wikipedia [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creative
commons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons, 1 June 2005
205
Photo 5.14 It is necessary at times to use underground space for railway stations, such as in big
cities that lack space for above-ground stations. Grand Central Terminal in New York has the
largest such facility in the world. Platforms are on two levels, both below ground, with 41 tracks
on the upper level and 26 on the lower, though the total number of tracks along platforms and in
rail yards exceeds 100. The terminal covers an area of 48 acres (19 ha). The photo shows one of
the tracks of Grand Central Terminal. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical
Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 15 April 2014
Photo 5.15 Railway transport is a source of vibrations. Vibration oscillations caused by tramway
cars penetrate down to depths of 70 m. The vibration contributes to compaction and structural
destruction of grounds, changing their thermal and water conditions. As a result of these changes,
reduction of massif resistance to external loads and appearance or activation of unfavorable natural
processes (sagging, landslides, solifluction, rock falls, subsidences, etc.) are possible. A tramway
in Vienna, Austria, is shown. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), 16 August 2014
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5 Transport
Photo 5.16 The main factors polluting the atmosphere in railway transport are burnt gases from
diesel locomotives, which contain benzol, lead, soot, formaldehyde, toluol, and xylol. The main
pollutants emitted by rolling stock are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide,
hydrocarbons, and soot. The stove heating of carriages also has some impact. A passenger train at
the station in Vladivostok is shown. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical
Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 31 March 2012
Photo 5.17 Goods being transported on rail cars themselves are sources of considerable pollution.
In the case of bulky goods, pollution is caused by intensive emissions during loading, unloading,
and transportation; and also by blowing-off of dust-like fractions by the wind while a train is
moving. The photo shows a coal train near Old Cambus, Scottish Borders, Scotland, heading past
the site of the Penmanshiel Tunnel. Photo credit: Callum Black, 23 May 2007
207
Photo 5.18 In the transport of oil products, pollution is caused by spills of residues from
drain-lling hoses, noncompliance with rules and operation manuals for rolling stock, and
spillovers in the course of heating of product and during lling due to unreliable control as well as
to pouring by open jet. Cars polluted with fuel oil at the station in Vladivostok are shown. The
pollution commonly happens when the cistern is charged. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic
Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 25 April 2014
Photo 5.19 The scales of contamination increase many times during emergencies. The photo
shows the consequences of a train derailment that happened on 30 December 2013 near Casselton,
North Dakota, United States. About 400,000 gal (1,283 metric tons) of crude oil spilled from 18
cars of a 106-car train. Workers continue to clean up the area. The train collided with derailed cars
of a train carrying soybeans. Photo credit: Ann Arbor Miller (Greenpeace), 2 January 2014
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5 Transport
Photo 5.20 Surface-water contamination takes place during railroad train washing and
replacement of coolant liquid in diesel locomotives, leakages of oil products, etc.
Contamination is also especially great during emergencies. When a freight train derailed on 15
June 2005, near Rzhev (Tver Oblast, Russia), 21 tanks lled with fuel oil overturned. All together,
about 300 t (approximately 92,000 gal) of oil products were released, some of it into a nearby
river. Floating booms were used in the water to prevent the contamination from spreading. Photo
credit: V. Pavlov (Greenpeace Russia), 21 June 2005
5.3 Pipeline Transport
5.3
209
Pipeline Transport
The transportation of oil and gas, and also the products of processing (e.g.,
ammonia, ethylene), with pipelines is widespread. The total length of pipelines in
2010 was 1,942,669 km (http://chartsbin.com/view/1322). Besides the pipelines
themselves, the infrastructure also consists of head and intermediate pump stations, receiving and distribution stations, control stations, approach roads, and so on
(Fig. 5.4).
Legend:
Total length of pipelines (km):
< 100;
101-1000;
1001-10000;
10001-100000;
100001-1000000;
> 1000001;
There are no pipelines.
Fig. 5.4 Total length of pipelines in countries of the world. Prepared by the author based on data
at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/elds/2117.html
Building a pipeline over land involves the following stages of work: (1) geological engineering survey; (2) route clearing; (3) making ditches; (4) laying the
pipes along the route of the pipeline; (5) pipe bending; (6) welding; (7) wrapping
the pipes with polymeric bands; (8) applying an insulating coating; (9) installing
cathodic corrosion protection systems; (10) laying the pipes into ditches; and
(11) ditch backlling.
In the process of building pipelines in the open sea, they are placed on the
bottom xed with anchorages (concrete slabs, blocks, etc.). If a pipeline must be
laid deeper, ditches are made with underwater digging machines. To lay the pipes,
pipelay ships are used.
On the whole, constructing pipelines has environmental influences similar to
those of other industrial projects. The exception is underwater laying, which
damages water ecosystems considerably. Such cases occur often, as besides
building pipelines on the sea bottom, laying numerous underwater crossings
through rivers is often required.
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5 Transport
Concentrations of suspended soil particles grow rapidly in river sections several

kilometers long during the digging of channel ditches. This material changes the
conditions in the habitats of sh, plankton, and benthos. Feeding water and
spawning spots get dirty or are completely destroyed. Wintering pits are often lled
during underwater soil storage. Fish are struck with hydrodynamic shock waves
during blasting. Ditch backlling from floating vehicles causes secondary pollution
of water bodies (Telegin et al. 1988).
While a pipeline is being used, the main sources of impacts are (1) the pipelines
themselves; (2) the products being transported; and (3) the heat of substances being
transported.
Basically, the impacts of the pipelines themselves involve land withdrawal and
obstruction of migration routes of a number of animals. For example, in 1969 the
spring migration of Taimyr reindeer from winter pastures in the Yenisei River
valley was interrupted by the MessoyakhaNorilsk gas pipeline (Russia). The
animals moved along it, searching for ravines or parts of the pipeline covered with
ice, where they got over it. The reindeer chose a new path to bypass the pipeline in
autumn of 1969 and spring of 1970 (Transport and storage of oil and gas 2002).
Additional slope loading near pipelines can provoke landslides. In the area of
permafrost soil, pipelines contribute to swamping (due to obstruction of surface
flow and additional dumping because of snow accumulation) and activation of
erosion processes (due to destruction of vegetation cover and instability of lled
soils).
The most intense source of impacts to the environment is transported products.
During normal pipeline transport, pollution of the atmosphere occurs (emission of
oil in reservoirs, loading and unloading operations at transfer stations, gas leakages,
etc.).
For example, as a result of gas leakage from a linear pipeline portion 1,100 km
long in northwestern Siberia, more than 100,000 t of hydrocarbons are emitted to
the atmosphere annually. Compressor plants emit 30,700 t of various pollutants,
including hydrocarbons, 58 %; nitrogen oxides, 25.7 %; and carbon monoxide,
15.6 % (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
In Russia, about 7 million tons of oil is spilt out at underwater river crossings
and near shorelines. In 1988 alone as a result of an oil pipeline breach in the
Samotlor eld, 110,000 t of oil flowed out into the lake of the same name
(Khaustov and Redina 2006). Accidents are known to have occurred in the North
Sea (where 4,800 km of pipelines are used), on the shelf of Saudi Arabia, in the
United States, and in other areas (Patin 1997). Pipeline function leads to deaths of
people. For instance, in Nigeria in 1998, 1,000 were killed in a pipeline blast in
Warri (Environmental technology in the oil industry 2008).
Accidental spills on land lead to two types of impacts on plants (Korobov
2004): (1) malfunction of physiological processes due to covering of the surfaces of
the trunks and leaves; and (2) plant intoxication with toxic components of oil. In
most cases, vegetation perishes and its regeneration starts after 23 years. General
oppression, necrosis, and tumors are typical in the surviving specimens
(Dorozhukova and Yanin 2002).
211
Heat impacts of oil transported in pipelines are especially signicant in areas of

permafrost. These impacts include changes in the thermal and humidity conditions
of the soils, and the appearance of thermokarst and frost swelling.
The environmental impacts of pipelines are illustrated by Photos 5.215.28.
Photo 5.21 During the construction of pipelines over land, the following primary stages of work
are performed: (1) geological engineering survey; (2) route clearing; (3) making ditches; (4) laying
the pipes along the route of the pipeline; (5) pipe bending; (6) welding; (7) wrapping the pipes with
polymeric bands; (8) applying an insulating coating; (9) installing cathodic corrosion protection
systems; (10) laying the pipes into ditches; and (11) ditch back-lling. A pipeline can be an
insurmountable obstacle to the movement of animals. Felling of trees on steep slopes also
intensies erosion processes. The photo shows a cut-through for laying a gas pipeline on Sakhalin
Island (Russia). Photo credit: V. Kantor (Greenpeace Russia), 27 June 2005
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5 Transport
Photo 5.22 While a pipeline is being used, the main sources of environmental impacts are (1) the
pipelines themselves; (2) the products being transported; and (3) the heat of the substances being
transported. In particular, the impacts of the pipelines themselves involve land withdrawal. The
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, in the northern Brooks Range, Alaska, United States, is shown. Rocks in
the background produce oil on the North Slope. Photo credit: Dave Houseknecht (U.S. Geological
Survey), 20 June 2007
Photo 5.23 Transported products are the source of the most intense impacts to the environment
associated with pipelines. During normal pipeline transport, pollution of the atmosphere occurs
(emission of oil in reservoirs, loading and unloading operations at transfer stations, gas leakages,
etc.). Spatial scales and intensities of impacts increase markedly in case of an incident. A lake of
oil that formed after an accident on a pipeline near Surgut (West Siberia, Russia) is shown here.
Photo credit: Greenpeace Russia, 29 May 2013
213
Photo 5.24 The heat of substances being transported impacts the surrounding ground.
Thermokarst not infrequently develops along the routes of pipelines. Oil is characterized by
high freezing temperatures and viscosity; therefore, oil is preheated so that it will flow through
pipelines with the required velocity. There also are compressor stations along natural gas pipelines
that compress the gas. This compression increases the temperature of the gas to 3040 C. The
warmth thaws the top layer of the perennially frozen grounds, which intensies cryogenic
processes. Thermokarst along a gas pipeline is shown. Photo credit: F.M. Rivkin (OJSC
Fundamentproekt), 1984
Photo 5.25 The effects of pipelines on wildlife are associated particularly with the fact that they
obstruct the migration routes of a number of animals. Frequently, the animals are afraid to get
under them and move along them. The photo shows caribou walking alongside the Trans-Alaska
Pipeline. Photo credit: Stan Shebs, July 1998
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5 Transport
Photo 5.26 Effects on animals also include damage and death due to contamination with pumped
products. Fur contaminated with oil loses the ability to retain heat and water. In addition, oil
irritates the skin and eyes, and makes it difcult for them to swim. The ingested oil can give rise to
digestive hemorrhages, kidney failure, liver intoxication, and disturbances of blood pressure.
A dead muskrat is seen in an oil spill in the Pyt-Yakh region of Russia. Photo credit: Denis
Sinyakov (Greenpeace Russia), 1 June 2013
Photo 5.27 In the case of accidental oil spills on land, two types of impacts upon plants can be
identied: (1) malfunctions of physiological processes due to covering of the surfaces of the trunks
and leaves; and (2) plant intoxication with toxic components of oil. In most cases, vegetation
perishes and its regeneration starts after 23 years. General oppression, necrosis, and tumors are
typical in the surviving specimens. Dead trees due to oil spill in the Surgut region in Siberia
(Russia) are shown. Photo credit: Denis Sinyakov (Greenpeace Russia), 31 May 2013
215
Photo 5.28 Pipeline breaks are not infrequent. At times, pipeline res and explosions result in the
deaths of people. The 2010 San Bruno pipeline explosion occurred on 9 September 2010, in San
Bruno, California, a suburb of San Francisco, when a 30-inch (76 cm) diameter steel natural gas
pipeline exploded in flames. As of 29 September 2010, the death toll was eight people.
Eyewitnesses reported the initial blast created a wall of re more than 1,000 ft high. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_San_Bruno_pipeline_explosion by MisterOh (Own work) [CC
BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/
copyleft/fdl.html)], via Wikimedia Commons, 9 September 2010
216
5.4
5 Transport
Air Transport
The impacts of air transport include the impacts of aircraft themselves and those of
airports. Numerous planes are in the air at any given time. For instance, 9,864
planes were in flight at 2 p.m. (EST) on 6 July 2014 (http://www.ightradar24.com/
data/airplanes/). The operation of aircraft and helicopters, rst of all, has impacts
on the atmosphere (e.g., pollution of air with burnt engine gases, and decreases in
ozone concentrations in the lower stratosphere) (Figs. 5.5 and 5.6).
Copenhagen
Moscow
Amsterdam
Frankfurt
London
Brussels
Paris
Zurich
Istanbul
Lisbon Madrid Rome
Ankara
Athens
Tehran
Anchorage
Dublin
Vancouver
Cander
Montreal
Chicago Toronto
New York
Saint Louis Washington
Los Angeles
Atlanta
Dallas
Miami
Seattle
San Francisco Denver
Cairo
Bahrain
Mexico
Panama
Caracas
Peking
Tokyo
Delhi
Karachi
Mascat
Bombay
Hong Kong
Honolulu
Bangkok
Lagos
Bogota
Nairobi
Manaus
Singapore
Kinshasa
Jakarta
Lima
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paolo
Santiago
Buenos Aires
Johannesburg
Perth
Cape Town
Legend:
Main air routes
Adelaide
Sydney
Melbourne
Auckland
Largest airports
Fig. 5.5 Main air routes and largest airports in the world (Resources and environment 1998).
Reproduced with permission of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Fig. 5.6 Global air routes map (http://openights.org/data.html; http://www.gl-co.com/gl_

aircargo.html)
5.4 Air Transport
217
The intensity of pollution and the composition of the burnt gases are different at
the different stages of aircraft engine operation. During idle running (parking),
taxiing, and approach landing, the quantity of carbon monoxide in burnt gases
increases, but the quantity of nitric oxides decreases. During flight, emissions of
carbon monoxide decrease, but emissions of nitric oxides increase.
The greatest pollution (emission of soot) occurs during take-off and climb (Wood
et al. 2008; Masiol and Harrison 2014). The take-off of one big aircraft produces the
same amount of pollution as 8,000 cars do; at the same time, as much oxygen is
consumed as 50,000 ha of forest produce in 1 day (Rudsky and Sturman 2014).
Soil and surface waters are polluted by excess fuel that aircraft discharge in
case of emergency to decrease the touchdown weight. The amount of fuel discharged varies from 1,0002,000 to 50,000 liters. Mainly, the fuel is dispersed in
the atmosphere. The share of non-evaporating fuel reaching the ground surface in
the form of drops depends on the temperature of the air and the height of the
discharge. It amounts to up to several percent (Naumova 2004).
It also should be noted that noise impacts can affect large areas. For example,
aircraft acoustic discomfort in the Moscow region affects 5 % of the territory
(Geoecological fundamentals of protection 1991). An estimated 23 % of the
population of Russia currently are exposed to aircraft noise that exceeds exposure
standards.
Levels of aircraft noise depend on the direction of runways and flight routes,
intensity of flights during the day, seasons, types of aircraft that are based at a given
airport, and many other factors. Noise levels in an airports 24-hour intensive
operation are 80 db in the daytime and 78 db at night; maximum levels are 92108
db (Govorushko 1999).
The main source of pollution from airports is the equipment based there.
Impacts include, rst of all, pollution of surface waters, noise, and electromagnetic
impacts. Main air routes and the largest airports are shown in Fig. 5.4.
Surface waters are polluted by (1) waste water (primarily from buildings and
aircraft service facilities); (2) sullage (from buildings and facilities for transportation servicesair terminals, hotels, etc.); and (3) airline surface flow (from aircraft
technical bases, areas for development works, aircraft washing and de-icing processes, apron and airport land side, etc.) that is formed due to melting snow and
rainwater.
The composition of waste water is closely related to things such as the kinds of
production, feedstock, and various extra products involved in processes, and also to
the course of those processes, and the kind and performance characteristics of
production equipment.
The sewage of airport production departments and other airline facilities contains benzol, acetone, oil products, acids, alkalis, dissolved metals, and other
polluting substances, and also herbicides and pesticides used in agriculture. Surface
flows from airports typically contain mineral suspensions, oil products, dissolved
organic admixtures, and nitrogen-containing substances.
218
5 Transport
The soil around airports is polluted with heavy metal salts and organic compounds up to 22.5 km away. In autumn and winter, de-icing of aircraft and
removal of snow and ice from the surfaces of airports are executed. Active de-icing
preparations and reagents used during those processes contain urea, ammonia
saltpetre, and synthetic surfactants, which also contaminate the soil.
The main sources of noise at airline facilities are aircraft and auxiliary power
houses, starting units, special aerodrome service vehicles, and machining and
technological facilities. The levels of jet aircraft noise at distances of 5100 m are
120140 db.
The sources of electromagnetic elds are radio and radar equipment comprising air trafc, navigation, and landing management systems. Radio stations,
Doppler radars, actual speed and drift angle measuring devices, radio altimeters,
radio beacons, and other equipment are included.
On the whole, the environmental impacts of air transport are important enough.
At present, it accounts for 3 % of the worlds manmade emissions of carbon dioxide
(Bonger and Strand 2013), and it has certain climatic consequences (Asaturov
2005). Aviation accounts for about 3.5 % of total anthropogenic pollution
(Aviation ecology 2004).
The environmental impacts of air transport are illustrated by Photos 5.295.34.
Photo 5.29 Large airports occupy vast territories. They include flight strips, bearing tracks, air
terminal buildings, buildings and structures for aircraft maintenance, and other structures. The
photo shows the Incheon International Airport in Jung-gu, Incheon, South Korea. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport, 24 April 2005
5.4 Air Transport
219
Photo 5.30 The intensity of pollution and the composition of burnt gases are different at the
different stages of aircraft engine operation. During idle running (parking), taxiing, and landing
approaches, the quantities of carbon monoxide in burnt gases increase, but the quantities of nitric
oxides decrease. During flight, emissions of carbon monoxide decrease, but emissions of nitric
oxides increase. The greatest pollution (emission of soot) occurs during take-off and climb. The
photo shows a plane taking off at the Narita International Airport, Tokyo, Japan. Photo credit: S.M.
Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 5 April 2014
Photo 5.31 Air pollution is especially high near airport terminals. Not infrequently, queues form
of aircraft waiting to take off or land. London Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in
West London, United Kingdom. Heathrow is the busiest airport in Europe based on passenger
trafc. Aircrafts flying a holding pattern near Heathrow airdrome are shown. Photo credit: I.
Kelman, http://www.ilankelman.org/aircraft.html, 26 April 2014
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Photo 5.32 The soil around airports is polluted with heavy metal salts and organic compounds up
to 22.5 km away. In autumn and winter, de-icing of aircraft and removal of snow and ice from the
surfaces of airports take place. Active de-icing preparations and reagents are used during those
processes that contain urea, ammonia saltpetre, and synthetic surfactants, which contaminate the
soil. The photo shows de-icing operations at an airport in Oslo, Norway. Photo credit: I. Kelman,
http://www.ilankelman.org/aircraft.html, 23 May 2010
Photo 5.33 Vapor traces left

in the sky behind flying
aircraft affect the atmosphere.
These traces are known as
contrails and, under proper
atmospheric conditions, they
evolve into shallow, high
cirrus clouds. They act as an
insulator, retaining part of the
Earths heat, and at the same
time, they reflect the rays of
the Sun back into space. The
overall net effect of contrails
is positive, i.e., a warming
effect. The picture shows how
a C-141B Starlifter aircraft
leaves four contrails behind it
over Antarctica. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Mobile_source_air_pollution
5.4 Air Transport
221
Photo 5.34 The main sources of noise at airline facilities are aircraft and auxiliary power houses,
starting units, special aerodrome service vehicles, and machining and technological facilities. The
levels of jet aircraft noise at distances of 5100 m are 120140 db. Noise impacts can affect large
areas, and populations near airports are exposed to aircraft noise that exceeds exposure standards.
The photo shows a plane Qantas Boeing 747-400 approaching runway 27L at London Heathrow
Airport, England. Photo credit: Adrian Pingstone, July 2004
222
5.5
5 Transport
Water Transport
The world fleet comprises about 86,000 vessels (without shing and military ships)
(Rodionova 2013). Environmental impacts are associated with (1) ships; (2) transported cargo; and (3) activities aimed at servicing water transport (channel
dredging; building of ports, locks, and channels, etc.) (Figs. 5.7 and 5.8).
Fig. 5.7 Intensity of navigation in the world (http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/GlobalMarine/impacts;

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea; Resources and environment 1998)
Fig. 5.8 Inland water routes in the world (http://www.evl.uic.edu/pape/data/WDB/; http://bioval.

jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/gam/sources.htm)
5.5 Water Transport
223
Water transport has negative impacts mainly on surface waters, and aquatic
flora and fauna are affected. Atmospheric air is exposed to impacts to a lesser
extent.
Pollution in water transport results mainly from the following operations:
(1) dumping of ballast water; (2) dumping of bilge, sanitary, and waste waters, and
garbage; (3) transportation of freight and accidents; (4) transfer operations; and
(5) running of ships engines.
Oil transportation is the most dangerous regarding impacts on the environment.
The dumping of tankers ballast water is the most powerful source of impacts,
providing more than 50 % of oil pollution.
Ballast water contributes greatly to the dissemination of aquatic organisms. Ten
billion tons of water are transported in ships ballast tanks every year, and they
contain 7,000 species of hydrocoles (Dynamics of marine ecosystems 2007). It has
been established that for the world ocean, successful invasion via ballast waters of
851 species has occurred (Zvyagintsev et al. 2009).
The second place goes to bunkering operations and bilge-water dumping, which
provide 23 % of oil product pollution. The third place goes to ship accidents, which
provide 14 % of oil pollution (Khristenko 1983). The reasons for accidents include
grounding, collisions, navigation equipment malfunctions, damage at moorages,
engine breakdowns, res, and explosions. Atmospheric pollution is considerable
during res in tankers.
Effects of water pollution on marine organisms are described in a review by A.
J. Mearns et al. (2013). Sea birds suffer greatly from oil spills. The oil pastes the
feathers together, destroying their thermal insulation properties. The birds maintain
body temperature by accelerating their metabolism, which leads to rapid depletion
of depot fat and death from exhaustion (Petrichenko 2009).
When a bird tries to clean itself with its beak, it just moves the oil inside the
feather layer. At the same time, oil enters the digestive system. Ducking birds
mistake oil patches for food and are poisoned (Blinovskaya, Bocharnikov 2008). In
the case of a medium oil spill, about 5,000 birds die; the wreck of the tanker
Exxon Valdez near Alaskas shores killed about half a million birds (Belikov 2003).
The negative impacts of oil patches on plankton are caused by the following
factors (Ehrhardt and Seguin 1984): (1) gas exchange between the ocean and the
atmosphere is blocked; (2) sunlight is prevented from reaching the water mass; and
(3) favorable conditions for bacterial development are created, as hydrocarbons are
a growth medium for many species.
Hydrocarbon pollution also has negative impacts on zooplankton. Its destruction causes decreases in the numbers of sh and cetaceans (Ehrhardt and Seguin
1984). Marine mammals die because they lose thermal insulation in their pelage
when they come into contact with oil.
224
5 Transport
Evaporation of oil products pollutes the air during transportation activities.

According to S.I. Khristenko (1983), up to 0.75 % of transported oil products
evaporate during transportation and associated activities (0.14 % at the loading
stage, 0.48 % during transportation, and 0.13 % at the unloading stage).
Many goods that are transported by dry-cargo ships can emit noxious gases. For
example, when mineral fertilizers are transported, ammonia and fluorine evaporate.
Fertilizers consume oxygen in water, leading to the deaths of hydrocoles and
contributing to so-called water bloom (reproduction of bacteria and plankton).
Transfer operations do not greatly pollute the environment. During loading and
unloading of bulked cargo, atmospheric pollution occurs because of spills and
emissions of dust, and then water becomes polluted.
The running of ships engines contributes to atmospheric pollution. It is
believed that about 2 % of the fuel is not consumed during engine operation.
As for water transport infrastructure, its impacts on environmental components
vary. The building of ports in river outlets can cause the invasion of seawater,
which affects the freshwater flora and fauna. Channel building can cause
increases in groundwater levels, changes in plant species composition, salinization of soils, changes in the habitat conditions of various animals, and impacts on
microclimate.
Channel dredging increases water turbidity and, consequently, decreases light
penetration and photosynthetic activity. Redistribution of particles of alluvium
leads to increases in the concentrations of toxic components and decreases in
oxygen content in water. The transformation of bottom relief causes changes in
water circulation, destruction of ecotopes of aquatic fauna, and reductions in
species diversity. Moving dredged material to land leads to land withdrawal, and
pollution of ground and surface waters.
The environmental impacts of water transport are illustrated by Photos
5.355.44.
5.5 Water Transport
225
Photo 5.35 Water transport has negative impacts mainly on surface waters. The accident of the
tanker Amoco Cadiz 5 km (3.1 mi) from the coast of Brittany, France, is shown. The tanker went
aground on 16 March 1978. It contained 1,604,500 barrels (219,797 t) of light crude oil. Severe
weather resulted in the complete breakup of the ship before any oil could be pumped out of the
wreck, so its entire cargo of crude oil and 4,000 tons of fuel oil were spilled into the sea. The total
extent of oiling one month after the spill included approximately 200 miles (320 km) of coastline.
Beaches of 76 different Breton communities were oiled. Photo credit: National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, March 1978
Photo 5.36 Atmospheric
pollution is considerable
during res in tankers. The
photo shows a re on the
Cypriot tanker Haven on 11
April 1991 near the coast of
Genoa, Italy. It was unloading
a cargo of 230,000 tons of
crude oil. There was an awful
explosion. As re engulfed
the ship, flames rose 100 m
high, and after a series of
further explosions occurred,
between 30,000 and 40,000
tons of oil poured into the sea.
On 14 April, the 250 m-long
main body sank a mile and a
half from the coast, between
Arenzano and Varazze. For
the next 12 years the
Mediterranean coast of Italy
and France was polluted,
especially around Genoa and
southern France. Photo credit:
Paolo Vaccari (Greenpeace),
13 April 1991
226
5 Transport
Photo 5.37 The world fleet comprises about 86 thousand vessels. Every ship generates waste
during its operation and when it is transporting cargo, including sludge, oily tank washings known
as slops, rubbish from the crew, and cargo residues. Depending on its size, a ship can generate a
few hundred tons of slops during a voyage. With 50,000 ships of more than 500 GT (gross
tonnage) in the world fleet, and assuming an average of ten port calls per ship, half a million port
calls take place annually. The photo shows water pollution due to water discharge in the Brasfels
shipyard facilities in Jacuecanga, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Water_pollution, 15 July 2006
Photo 5.38 Ballast water
makes a considerable
contribution to the
dissemination of aquatic
organisms. Ten billion tons of
water are transported in ships
ballast tanks every year, and
they contain 7,000 species of
hydrocoles. It has been
established that for the world
ocean, successful invasion via
ballast waters of 851 species
has occurred. The photo
shows a ship pumping ballast
water. The tanker is designed
for carrying sulfuric acid and
not oil. Photo credit:
Commonwealth Scientic and
Industrial Research
Organisation (CSIRO),
Australia
5.5 Water Transport
227
Photo 5.39 The laying of canals also leads to biological invasions. The Welland Canal is a ship
canal connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. The canal forms a key section of the St. Lawrence
Seaway, enabling ships to bypass Niagara Falls. Approximately 40 million tons of cargo are
carried through the Welland Canal annually by about 3,000 ocean and Great Lakes vessels.
Construction of the canal resulted in penetration of a number of alien species into the Great Lakes
system. Some of these, such as the sea lamprey and the zebra mussel, have had economic as well
as ecological impacts. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Photo 5.40 The lamprey came into Lake Ontario in 1825, but it could not go farther because of
Niagara Falls. However, after the Welland Canal was built, lamprey entered Lake Erie in 1921,
Lake Michigan in 1936, Lake Huron in 1937, and, nally, the eastern part of Lake Superior in
1946. Lampreys cause damage to local ichthyofauna. Victims typically die from excessive blood
loss or infection. Only about 10 % of sh survive after attacks by lampreys. A sea lamprey on a
lake trout is shown here. Photo credit: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
228
5 Transport
Photo 5.41 The environmental pollution that occurs during cargo transfer operations is not great.
During loading and unloading of bulked cargo, atmospheric pollution occurs because of spills and
emissions of dust, and then water becomes polluted. The photo shows air pollution with aluminum
powder being unloaded in the port of Bar, Montenegro. It is used as a pigment for paints, enamels,
and rubber adhesives. Aluminum powder has low toxicity, not mixing with water. Photo credit:
E.V. Kovalev, 13 May 2012
Photo 5.42 Environmental impacts related to the creation and functioning of water transport
infrastructure vary. In the course of construction and functioning of ports, the atmosphere and
surface waters are contaminated. Atmospheric contamination is especially high during res. The
photo shows a re at the port of Antwerp, Belgium. This port is the second largest (by tonnage) in
Europe (after Rotterdam). Photo credit: E.V. Kovalev, 2 April 2013
5.5 Water Transport
229
Photo 5.43 Channel dredging causes increases in water turbidity and, consequently, decreases in
light penetration and photosynthetic activity. The transformation of bottom relief causes changes in
water circulation, destruction of ecotopes of aquatic fauna, and reductions in species diversity.
Moving dredged material to land leads to land withdrawal, and pollution of ground and surface
waters. The photo shows dredging at the Government Cut shipping channel. It was created in
1905, cutting off Fisher Island from the south end of the Miami Beach peninsula. This channel is
commonly used by cargo ships and ocean liners. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic
Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 14 April 2014
Photo 5.44 Environmental problems also arise during emergencies at ports. The Roberts Bank
Superport is one of the busiest import/export ports in North America. It is a twin-terminal port
facility located on the mainland coastline of the Strait of Georgia in British Columbia. It typically
ships about 29 million tons of export coal a year. On 7 December 2012, the bulk carrier Cape
Apricot crashed into a causeway at the coal terminal, destroying about 100 m of the structure,
including a coal conveyor system. The accident resulted in an estimated 30 tons of coal entering
the water from the severed conveyor and the disabling of the largest of the terminals two
coal-loading berths. Photo credit: J. Newcomb, 12 September 2011
230
5 Transport
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Internet Resources
http://bioval.jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/gam/sources.htm
http://chartsbin.com/view/1322
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rail_transport_network_size
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea
http://gis-lab.info/qa/vmap0.html
http://openights.org/data.html
http://relaxic.net/entertaining-statistics-2/
232
http://www.evl.uic.edu/pape/data/WDB/
http://www.ightradar24.com/data/airplanes
http://www.gl-co.com/gl_aircargo.html
http://www.mapability.com/info/vmap0_download.html
http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-maps/major-rail-network-map.html
http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/GlobalMarine/impacts
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https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/elds/2117.html
5 Transport
Chapter 6
Other Kinds of Activity
6.1
Fisheries
Despite the name, the targets of sheries include not only sh, but also other sea
animals, invertebrates, and algae. There are about 3.5 million shing vessels
(Mamin 2011). In 2012, 79.7 million tons were harvested in seas and 11.6 million tons, in inland waters (The state of world sheries 2014). Several species form
the major part of the catch: herring, cod, anchovies, tuna, flounder, mullet, squid,
shrimp, salmon, crabs, lobsters, oysters, and scallops (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Fishery). Areas of world sheries are shown in Fig. 6.1.
Legend:
Most important
Important
Promising
Fig. 6.1 Areas of world sheries (Maksakovsky 2006, V. 1). Reproduced with permission of
V.P. Maksakovsky
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5_6
233
234
6 Other Kinds of Activity
The by-catch has the strongest influence on the environment. It is the unintentional or incidental capture of non-target species during shing operations.
Unlike target speciesanimals specically targeted for captureby-catch is
unwanted and often unused. By-catch that cannot be used must be thrown back.
This returned by-catch is called discard.
There are different estimates of global by-catch (%): 8 (Kelleher 2005), 26
(Alverson et al. 1994), 33 (Norinov 2004), and 40.4 (Davies et al. 2009). Recently
by-catch and discard have declined. The reasons of this decline have included:
(1) greater utilization of by-catch species in Asia; (2) adoption of more selective
shing methods; (3) a decline in the intensity of shing for some species having
high by-catch rates; (4) a variety of management actions; and (5) more progressive
attitudes by shery managers, user groups, and society toward the need to solve
discarding problems (Kelleher 2005). The level now is probably between 10 and
20 %.
Tropical shrimp trawl sheries have the highest discard rate and alone account
for over 27 % of total estimated discards (Kelleher 2005). The by-catch can include
(1) sh; (2) mammals; (3) reptiles; (4) birds; and (5) different seabed biota.
In catching sh, the presence of other species in the haul is unavoidable. For
instance, European tuna sheries in the Atlantic alone report that 12 species of skate
and ray, 11 species of pelagic shark, and 46 species of coastal shark are taken as
by-catch (Fordham 2006). An estimated 97 million sharks were caught and discarded in 2010 (Worm et al. 2013).
Mammals are often found in the by-catchan estimated 653,365 marine
mammals per year, comprising 307,753 cetaceans and 345,611 pinnipeds (Read
et al. 2006).
Reptiles in the by-catch are mostly represented by turtles. An estimated 90,000
450,000 turtles are caught and discarded every year (Wallace et al. 2010).
Considering by-catch intensity by gear categories worldwide, gillnets had the
highest by-catch intensity scores followed by long-lines and then trawls (Lewison
et al. 2014).
The main reasons for marine bird fatalities (albatross, tufted pufn, etc.) are that
they get tangled in shing gear or get hooked when swallowing bait. For instance,
during Japanese drift-net shing of salmon in the northwest Pacic more than
94,000 birds (32,500 slender-billed shearwaters, 23,300 thick-billed guillemots,
15,300 tufted pufns, 12,700 crested auklets, and 5700 northern fulmars, etc.), are
killed on average per year (Artukhin et al. 2010). In many cases, the deaths of the
adults lead to the deaths of the eggs or chicks. After the death of the breeding
partner, a new couple is usually formed after a long delay (Cuthbert et al. 2014).
Seabed biota (echinoderms, polychaetes, mollusks, sponges, crustaceans,
etc.) are in the by-catch of trails, dredges, and traps, which are installed on the
bottom or dragged along it. For example, during trawler shing in the Barents Sea,
the amount of sponges and cucumaria caught at one time sometimes reaches several
tons. When cucumaria are caught by trails in winter, it is lethal for them. Sponges
6.1 Fisheries
235
often get seriously damaged and do not survive after they have been returned to the
water (Dynamics of marine ecosystems 2007).
The second important consequence of shery is habitat deterioration. Much
shing gear is dragged along the sea bottom, damaging algae elds in particular.
Removal of seabed biota (sponges, hydroids, bryozoans, amphipod tubes, etc.) can
also result in habitat deterioration (Seitz et al. 2014).
Indirect impacts include changes in the numbers of prey organisms available to
predators; changes in the numbers of predators, which take out the prey; and
influences on interspecies competition intensity. For instance, the diet of many
sea-birds and mammals is restricted to a very limited number of sh species, and
decreases in ichthyofauna stock (as a result of shery) will immediately affect their
reproduction and abundance.
Fishery therefore has signicant environmental implications. Impacts are the
greatest in equatorial reefs, on solid substrates in temperate waters, and in the
depths. The influence on communities of sandy bottoms on shallow shelves is
insignicant by comparison, because they have already adapted to constant
movement and mudding (Jenings and Kaiser 1998).
The environmental impacts of sheries are shown in Photos 6.16.16.
Photo 6.1 Fishing gear is divided into active (moving in water) and passive (stationary). It is
categorized based on function as follows: (1) ltering gear (trail net; seine netshore seine, ring
seine, purse seine, dredge, etc.); (2) enmeshing gear (drift net, stationary net, stationary seine); and
(3) hook gear (trolling, hook long-lines, etc.). A purse seine is shown here. The net is now closing
in a nearly perfect circle, and the purse seiner is starting to pull the net back on board. The work
boat is seen to the left and is secured to the ship. It is acting like a tugboat and is pulling the purse
seiner away from the net so that it does not become entangled. Photo credit: National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
236
Photo 6.2 A purse seine gets its name because there are a number of rings are placed along the
bottom. A line (referred to as a purse line) passes through all the rings, and when pulled, the line
draws the rings close to one another, preventing the sh from sounding, or swimming down to
escape the net. A school of about 400 t of Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi) encircled by
a Chilean purse seine is shown here. Photo credit: C. Ortiz Rojas, 1997
Photo 6.3 Another method

of catching sh uses pumps.
Light, electricity, and
chemicals are used to attract
aquatic animals to the shing
gear. Individual shermen
also use gigs, chemicals, and
explosives. The picture shows
sh that have been killed as a
result of blast shing. Photo
credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Blast_shing
6.1 Fisheries
237
Photo 6.4 On average, the by-catch comprises 1020 % of the total catch around the world, but
sometimes it exceeds the amount of the target species being harvested by several times. For
example, there are 3000 t of by-catch for every 500 t of prawns off the coast of Australia. The
photo shows the separation of shrimp from by-catch near the coast of North Carolina (United
States). Photo credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, June 1969
Photo 6.5 In catching sh,

the presence of other species
in the haul is unavoidable.
By-catch comprises
unwanted, undersized, and
low-value species that are
discarded, dead, at sea. The
wasted catch is not included
in shing quotas. The picture
shows by-catch being
discarded through the hatch of
the Scottish trawler Carisanne
II in the North Sea. A gull flys
in for a feed. Photo credit:
Christian Aslund
(Greenpeace), 13 May 2007
238
Photo 6.6 Sunsh are accidentally but frequently caught in drift gill net sheries. The by-catch
rate of sunsh in the Mediterranean swordsh industry, for instance, is between 71 and 90 % of the
total catch. The photo shows a diver freeing a sunsh caught in a Japanese drift net in the Tasman
Sea. Photo credit: Roger Grace (Greenpeace)
Photo 6.7 Incidental capture in shing operations is the major threat to whales, dolphins, and
porpoises worldwide. The presence of dolphins in the by-catch during shing for salmon was a
serious problem. It is believed that 6 million dolphins were killed this way. The photo shows two
dead dolphins that were caught and drowned in large shing nets in the English Channel near
Plymouth. Photo credit: Kate Davison (Greenpeace), 7 February 2004
6.1 Fisheries
239
Photo 6.8 Fishing nets also catch other marine mammals. The global by-catch during 19901994
yielded 653,000 marine mammals per year, including 308,000 cetaceans and 345,000 pinnipeds.
A young seal killed by being entangled in a net near the coast of Bering Island (Commander
Islands, Russia) is shown here. Photo credit: V.A. Aramilev (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), 2 September 2004
Photo 6.9 Reptiles in the by-catch are mostly represented by sea turtles. Their total global
by-catch is estimated to be in the millions. The highest reported by-catch rates for long-line
sheries occurred off Mexicos Baja California peninsula, the highest rates for gill-net shing took
place in the North Adriatic region of the Mediterranean, and the highest rates for trawls occurred
off the coast of Uruguay. A sea turtle entangled in a derelict gill net is shown here. Photo credit:
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
240
Photo 6.10 Marine bird fatalities in sheries occur mainly when they get tangled in shing gear.
The by-catch of sea-birds in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea is estimated at between 100,000 and
200,000 each year. The haul of dead sea-birds shown in the photo is from one shing trip by a
single vessel that was targeting tuna and swordsh off the coast of South Africa. These birds are
mostly white-chinned petrels, plus a variety of small albatrosses (Thalassarche) and a few giant
petrels (Macronectes). Photo credit: Peter Ryan (Percy Fitz Patrick Institute of African
Ornithology), 1998
Photo 6.11 Large numbers of birds are lost in the course of drift-net shing of salmon in the
northwest Pacic. On average for a year, more than 94,000 birds, including 32,500 slender billed
shearwaters, 23,300 thick-billed guillemots, 15,300 tufted pufns, 12,700 crested auklets, and 5700
northern fulmars, are killed in the drift nets of the Japanese shing fleet. The photo shows a tufted
pufn running afoul of a drift net. Photo credit: V. Kantor (Greenpeace Russia), 15 June 2000
6.1 Fisheries
241
Photo 6.12 Other marine bird fatalities occur when the animals get hooked when swallowing
bait. The photo shows a black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melanophris) caught on a long-line
near the coast of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Photo credit: Fabio Olmos, 30 May 1997
Photo 6.13 As a rule, swallowing bait leads to the death of birds. Twenty-six species of sea-bird,
including 17 albatross species, are threatened with extinction because of long-lining, which kills
more than 300,000 sea-birds each year. The photo shows a Tristan albatross (Diomedea
dabbenena) that was killed by drowning. Photo credit: Guy Marcovaldi (Projeto Tamar Brazil
Image Bank)
242
Photo 6.14 Sea-bed biota

(echinoderms, polychaetes,
mollusks, sponges,
crustaceans, etc.) are present
in the by-catch of trails,
dredges, and traps, which are
installed on the sea bottom or
dragged along it. The photo
shows sponges found in a
trawl net after a sh trawl
survey in Spirits Bay at the
northern tip of New Zealand.
Photo credit: New Zealand
Ministry of Fisheries, 1989
Photo 6.15 Habitat deterioration is another important consequence of shery. Much shing gear
is dragged along the sea bottom, damaging algae elds, removing sea-bed biota (sponges,
hydroids, bryozoans, amphipod tubes), and causing other impacts. The photo shows the bottom
near Otama Beach on the Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand, before dredging. Photo credit:
S. Thrush (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Hamilton, New Zealand), 1997
6.1 Fisheries
243
Photo 6.16 This photo illustrates the area of the sea bottom shown in Photo 15 (depth is
1618 m), but after dredging operations. Photo credit: S. Thrush (National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research, Hamilton, New Zealand), 1997
244
6.2
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the breeding and raising of hydrobionts in conditions controlled by

humans. The main groups grown in culture are sh, mollusks, crustaceans,
echinoderms, and algae. In 2012 a total of 66.6 million tons were grown in
aquaculture: 41.9 million tons inland and 24.7 million tons in mariculture (The state
of world sheries 2014).
Aquaculture has the following environmental impacts: (1) resources consumption; (2) emission of chemicals from construction materials; and (3) influences
on ecosystems.
Resources consumption means that sh flour and sh oil (made of free-living
sh) are used to feed hydrobionts; as a result, the amounts of wild sh that are
consumed exceed the amounts of sh that are produced.
Chemicals introduced into the water by construction materials include heavy
metals, plastic additives (stabilizers, pigments, antioxidants, flame retardants,
fungicides, etc.), and antifoulants (e.g., tributyltin, antiseptics). Many of these
chemicals are toxic to sh, though their low solubility and low rates of leaching and
dilution ensure some protection.
Aquatic culture has impacts on the following natural components: (1) surface
waters; (2) flora; (3) fauna; (4) soils; and (5) the atmosphere. In addition to that,
social impacts also take place.
The influences on the aquatic environment are more typical, and they occur in
the farming of all types of hydrobionts. These effects consist mainly of water
pollution with different substances. For instance, articial granulated nutrition is
used for feeding many sh species. Food spreads all over the water surface and is
eaten by sh during its sedimentation (people can observe this effect in aquariums).
Even in a well-balanced feeding process, 30 % of the nutrition is not consumed. It
reaches the bottom, where it is utilized by benthos or is degraded by microorganisms (Boyd and Clay 1998).
Dumping from aquaculture facilities leads to eutrophication of surface waters.
The main materials launching the process are nitrogen and phosphorus. Their global
annual release in 2010 was estimated at 1.2 million tons of N and 0.1 million tons
of P in freshwater environments and 0.3 million tons of N and 0.05 million tons of
P in marine aquatic environments (Bouwman et al. 2013).
Other pollutants resulting from aquaculture include antibiotics, hormones,
growth stimulators, and pesticides (Langford et al. 2014). Antibiotics are added to
the food to prevent diseases. It is believed that 2030 % of the antibiotics are
consumed by the sh; the rest, 7080 %, pollutes the water.
Hormones and growth stimulators are used to change the gender, productive
capacity, and growth of the cultivated organisms. Their environmental impacts have
6.2 Aquaculture
245
not yet been studied sufciently to draw any conclusions as to their effects.
Pesticides are used for pest control.
The impacts on fauna have many forms. First, a lot of wild sh are used to feed
sh in culture. Second, the grown sh often escape. Different scenarios are possible
if sh escape. Escapees can win the competition with the local species at rst, but
then their numbers may drop or the offspring resulting from interbreeding may be
poorly adapted to the ecosystem (Bailly and Paquotte 1996).
Cases of infections or parasitic invasions of wild sh are frequent (Bergqvist and
Gunnarsson 2013). Salmon lice is a typical example. Overcrowding of sh creates
ideal conditions for the breeding of lice. If there are salmon farms on the routes
ngerlings take through estuaries or bays, the parasites enter the nearby waters and
infect the juveniles. At the Pacic coast of Canada, the infection rate of juveniles in
natural conditions does not exceed 5 %. Next to sh farms, it increases dramatically, which leads to ve times the mortality rate (Naymark 2007).
The transportation of prawns is known to disseminate pathogens (Liang et al.
2011). Viral diseases originating at prawn farms have been noted in some countries
(Bonami and Widada 2011).
The destruction of mangrove forests for building aquaculture facilities (mostly
prawn farms) affects vegetation. An estimated 10 % of mangrove forests worldwide have been lost because of this (Boyd and Clay 1998). For instance, shrimp
farming converted 17 % of the Peruvian mangrove (Mialhe et al. 2013).
Aquaculture has impacts on the atmosphere. For instance, nitrous oxide (N2O)
is an important greenhouse gas that has a global warming potential 310 times that of
carbon dioxide (CO2) over a hundred-year life span. The global N2ON emission
from aquaculture in 2009 was estimated at 9.30 1010 g. Their annual growth rate
is about 7.10 % (Hu et al. 2012).
The social impacts of aquaculture include the limitation of free access to the
seashore and decreases in its recreational value (swimming, sailing, windsurng,
and other activities); the esthetic characteristics of the shoreline are also changed
(Pomeroy et al. 2014).
The influences of aquaculture on the environment are illustrated by Photos
6.176.24.
246
Photo 6.17 Mariculture is the breeding and raising of hydrobionts under conditions controlled by
humans. Although, it is a quite ancient activity (aboriginal inhabitants reared eels as early as
8000 years ago in the area of the present-day state of Victoria in Australia), development of this
industry generally took place in the twentieth century. In 2007, 443 species of hydrobionts were
under cultivation; of those, the farming of 430 of them was initiated after 1900. A salmon farm near
Puerto Chacabuco, Chile, is shown. Photo credit: Daniel Beltr (Greenpeace), 3 February 2004
Photo 6.18 Aquaculture is divided into freshwater aquaculture and mariculturefarming of

useful algae, mollusks, shes, and other organisms in seas, lagoons, limans, and estuaries. The
major portion (61 %) of the aquaculture production of sh, crustaceans, and mollusks occurs in
inland waters. The most commonly encountered sh species in freshwater aquaculture are carp,
tilapia, and sheat-sh. The catching of carp in an aquaculture pond (Bangladesh) is shown. Photo
credit: M. Hasan (FAO Aquaculture Photo Library), 2011
6.2 Aquaculture
247
Photo 6.19 The influences of aquaculture on the aquatic environment consist mainly of water
pollution with different substances. For instance, articial granulated nutrition is used for feeding
many sh species. Food spreads all over the water surface and is eaten by sh during its
sedimentation (people can observe this effect in aquariums). Even in a well-balanced feeding
process, 30 % of the nutrition is not consumed. It reaches the bottom, where it is utilized by
benthos or is degraded by microorganisms. The photo shows sh feeding on a farm for breeding
tuna in Croatia. Photo credit: Bartolomeo Gorgoglione (University of Veterinary Medicine,
Vienna, Austria)
Photo 6.20 Overcrowding of sh creates ideal conditions for the spread of infections or parasitic
invasions. Salmon lice are a typical example. The infected sh become sick, and their resistance is
low. The photo shows male and female of salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis). Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_louse by 7Barrym0re (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/
copyleft/fdl.html), CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.03.0-2.5-2.0-1.0) or Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
248
Photo 6.21 Pesticides are used in aquaculture for pest control. For example, at sh farms in
Norway in 1989, 3488 kg of dichlorvos was used to prevent salmon louse infection. Such agents
have clear negative impacts on the environment; thus their use must be strictly limited. Treatment
of sh against parasites before transport in Szzhalombatta, Hungary, is shown. Photo credit: FAO
Aquaculture Photo Library, 1980
Photo 6.22 Other pollutants associated with aquaculture include antibiotics (added to forage for
disease prevention), and hormones and growth additives (used for sex transformation, and for
changing productive ability and growth of cultivated organisms). A dressing of salmon at a farm in
Norway is shown. The red color of the flesh is attained by adding coloring agents to forage. Photo
credit: I. Kelman, http://www.ilankelman.org/aircraft.html, 24 September 2010
6.2 Aquaculture
249
Photo 6.23 Bulldozers clearing mangroves for the creation of shrimp ponds in the Bay of
Guayaquil, Ecuador, are shown. Shrimp farms of all types, from extensive to super-intensive, can
cause severe ecological problems wherever they are located. For extensive farms, huge areas of
mangroves are cleared, reducing biodiversity. During the 1980s and 1990s, about 35 % of the
worlds mangrove forests had vanished. Shrimp farming was a major cause of this change,
accounting for over a third of the loss. Photo credit: Clive Shirley (Greenpeace), 24 April 1999
Photo 6.24 The picture

shows workers harvesting
channel catsh (Ictalurus
punctatus) at a Delta Pride
Catsh farm in Mississippi,
the United States. Catsh
farming leads to pollution of
the atmosphere with
ammonia. For instance, in the
United States, annual
emissions of this gas from
channel catsh breeding
ponds (which have a total area
of 66,000 ha) are estimated to
be 1548 t. Photo credit: Ken
Hammond
250
6.3
Hunting
Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any living organism used for food,
recreation, or trade. Contemporary tools for hunting wild animals can be divided
into two groups: (1) tools for active hunting (the presence of the hunter and his
actions are necessary at the moment of the bird or animal kill) and
(2) self-activating tools for hunting (the catch usually happens without the presence of the hunter).
The rst group includes (1) gun hunting; (2) use of hunting animals (predacious
birds, greyhounds, ferrets, domesticated cheetahs); and (3) nets. The second group
includes (1) steel traps (squeezing and jamming); (2) falling traps (jaws, billets,
sable traps); (3) snares and nooses; (4) live trapping; and (5) nets (Gusev 2001;
Alves et al. 2009).
This activity is most important in ve countries of the Congo River basin. The
meat of wild animals is a main source of animal protein, and hunting provides
income for families living in forests. This situation is most typical for Gabon and
Cameroon (Fa et al. 2003).
Hunting is less important in other regions of tropical rain forests. For instance,
during one year, the count of killed animals brought to 24 (Amazon) and 14
(Congo) villages showed that the rate of withdrawal of wild mammals with masses
more than 10 kg was 177.7 kg/km2 a year for the Congo basin, whereas for the
Amazon basin this number was just 3.69 kg/km2 (Fa et al. 2002).
Hunting influences mainly vegetation and the animal world (Fig. 6.2). The
impacts became noticeable after man had mastered re in the end of the Palaeolithic
Legend:
Marine:
Terrestrial:
1
15
30
53
60
16
23
33
55
Fig. 6.2 Number of species threatened by hunting, shing, or trapping. Reproduced with
permission of IUCN Red List Unit
6.3 Hunting
251
Age. At the same time that re technology appeared, forests and other vegetation
were burnt down during hunting. In some regions, such practices persist (Bird et al.
2005).
Systematic burning of forests used as a universal hunting too led to considerable environmental disturbance, degrading ecosystems, and decreasing the quantity and quality of biological resources (Ramade 1981). It is presumed that habitat
degradation contributed to the extinction of some animal species. Plant successions
led from forests to savannas, steppe, and shrubs, and the climate was changing.
Sometimes, excessively intense hunting caused population densities to drop to
critical levels, when regular (during mating season) meetings of animals of different
genders were becoming improbable, thus leading to species extinction. Hunting
caused the extinction of 21 bird species, 14 mammal species, and 7 reptile species
(Ivanov et al. 2014). Illegal ivory trade has tripled since 1998 (UNEP 2014).
Though habitat conversion is largely to blame in this process, since 1600 AD
many cases of extinction have been recorded as a result of overhunting (Rowcliffe
et al. 2003; Bocharnikov 2014). The scale of hunting can be characterized by the
gure 5 million tons, the amount of meat obtained by villagers in African and Latin
American tropical forests (Fa et al. 2002). Ungulates and rodents make up the
highest proportion of biomass extracted (Fa and Brown 2009).
The story of the American passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, is well
known. Its population was estimated at 35 billion individuals in the early and
middle 1800s (Hung et al. 2014). Nevertheless, intense hunting for their delicious
meat (in the state of Michigan [United States] alone in 1879, 1 billion pigeons were
caught) resulted in their extinction. The last passenger pigeon died at the Cincinnati
Zoo on September 1, 1914 (Greenberg 2014).
The environmental impacts of animal withdrawal are ambiguous. Limited
hunting has positive influences on animal populations, because it prevents land
degradation and resources, depletion by creating optimal population densities. It
also prevents animal migrations, and stops or limits pandemics that appear due to
overcrowding (Conover 2001).
Hunting often influences the sex-age structure of animal populations (Gosselin
et al. 2015). Very often during hunting, preference is given to individuals with certain
characteristics (e.g., males with big horns or females with tender meat). Selective
killing very often results in negative environmental outcomes (Cullen et al. 2001).
Indirect effects of hunting on animals also take place. Lead poisoning in
waterfowl due to ingestion of lead pellets is a long recognized worldwide problem
(Ferreyra et al. 2014). Aquatic birds mistake them for gravel and seeds (Hutarova
et al. 2013). In North America, 630,000 wild ducks die because of lead poisoning
every year (Laptev 1981).
Impacts on vegetation take different forms. For example, selective killing can
influence the populations of some plant pests (Wright 2003). The hunting of certain
animal species can lead to long-term changes in tropical forest dynamics because of
the loss of seed dispersers, large granivores, frugivores, and habitat landscapers
such as large forest mammals (Abernethy et al. 2013).
The environmental impacts of hunting are shown in Photos 6.256.30.
252
Photo 6.25 Contemporary

tools for hunting wild animals
can be divided into two
groups: (1) tools for active
hunting (the presence of the
hunter and his actions are
necessary at the moment of
the bird or animal kill) and
(2) self-activating tools for
hunting (the catch usually
happens without the presence
of the hunter). The rst group
includes (1) gun hunting;
(2) use of hunting animals
(predacious birds,
greyhounds, ferrets,
domesticated cheetahs); and
(3) use of nets. A Kyrgyz
hunter with his golden eagle,
in front of a traditional felt
(yurt) in Karakol, Kyrgyzstan,
is shown. Photo credit: https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Falconry, July 2002
Photo 6.26 Self-activating tools for hunting include (1) steel traps (squeezing and jamming);
(2) falling traps (jaws, billets, sable traps); (3) snares and nooses; (4) live trapping; and (5) nets.
A sable (Martes zibellina) trapped in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, is shown. On 22 July 2012, a ban
on the use of standard steel-jaw leg-hold traps was introduced in the Russian Federation. Photo
credit: V.M. Govorushko, 8 February 2012
6.3 Hunting
253
Photo 6.27 A musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) entrapped in Primorsky Krai is shown.
Generally, hunters wish to catch the males (but they are caught with wire snares much less
frequently) in order to extract the musk gland. This musk gland is highly valued in traditional
oriental medicine and in the European cosmetic and perfume industries. The wire snare is
convenient and accessible for poachers but the most pitiless method of hunting. An animal
restrained in one is subject to a lingering and painful death by hunger and injuries. Hunting with
wire snares has been banned in a number of countries, including Russia. At present, there are about
125,000 musk deer in Russia. Photo credit: A.M. Panichev (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), 12 February 2013
Photo 6.28 At the present time, the importance of hunting is not very great overall. However, in
some regions of tropical rain forests the meat of wild animals is a main source of animal protein,
and hunting provides the greatest share of income for families living in the forests. The photo
shows a man carrying a dead cassowary bird on his back in the forest near Lake Murray, Papua
New Guinea. Photo credit: Brent Stirton (Greenpeace), 1 January 2009
254
Photo 6.29 The Asiatic grass frog (Rana chensinensis) is a fodder for some animal species, and
the frog itself eats a great many invertebrates. The number of this species within Primorsky Krai is
about 25 million. This species of frog is in great demand in the countries of Southeast Asia: it is
used in cooking and traditional oriental medicine. The harvesting of frogs is basically carried out
by Chinese poachers who immobilize the frogs in the hibernating ponds using electric shocks or
pour toxic agents into the water. The drying carcasses of frogs outside Vladivostok are shown.
Photo credit: L.O. Kudryavtseva, 29 August 2013
Photo 6.30 Indirect effects of hunting on animals also take place. Aquatic birds swallow lead
pellets, mistaking them for gravel and seeds. In the state of Oregon (United States), pellets were
found in the stomachs of 40.2 % of wild ducks, 40.4 % of pintails, and 13.7 % of widgeons. In
North America, 630,000 wild ducks die because of lead poisoning every year. The numbers of
pellets per hectare can reach 100,000, in a 9 mm layer of bottom deposits. Hunting with decoy
ducks in the United States is depicted. Photo credit: F. Eugene (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
6.4 Introductions
6.4
255
Introductions
Introduction is a conscious transfer of animal and plant species to other regions.

Motives for this are diverse. Animals and plants can be transferred to increase
species diversity; birds and mammals, for purposes of hunting; sh, for subsequent
catching; animals and insects, for pest control; and agricultural, forest, and ornamental plants, for dissemination of the species (Fig. 6.3).
Legend:
Native
Introduced
Fig. 6.3 Global distribution of brown trout (Salmo trutta). Adapted from Goudie (1997) and
Elliott (1994)
Not infrequently, the objectives of the resettlement are not completely met. In
the new environment, a species-colonizer does not often encounter enemies that
existed in its native environment, and populations expand. In many cases, the
transfer of species has resulted in catastrophic environmental consequences and
serious economic damage.
Introduction of the common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) has had
notable negative effects. It is often called the green plague. South America is the
home of this spectacular plant, which has flowers resembling orchids. It was
shipped to New Orleans (United States) from Venezuela during an exhibition of
cotton in 1884. Visitors bought seedlings and planted them in their ponds and rivers
(Farb 1971).
The plants quickly multiplied under the new conditions and carpeted the surfaces of water bodies. Later, the water hyacinth was brought into many countries to
decorate ponds. Currently, it is found in more than 50 countries on ve continents
(www.issg.org/booklet.pdf).
Water hyacinths dramatically impact water flow, block sunlight from native
aquatic plants, and change the physical and chemical composition of water (Pawari
256
and Haram 2011). Oxygen is less available due to the dense mat, often killing sh
(or turtles). Water hyacinths have a signicantly negative impact on aquatic
invertebrate biodiversity (Coetzee et al. 2014). The plants also create prime habitat
for mosquitoes (Pawari and Haram 2011), classic vectors of disease, and a species
of snail known to host a parasitic flatworm that causes schistosomiasis (snail fever).
Introduction of kudzu (Pueraria lobata) in the United States is another example
of negative effects. It appeared in Philadelphia in 1896, and American gardeners
started to use it as an ornamental plant. It was actively planted to combat soil
erosion during the Great Depression.
Gradually, it became clear that kudzu harms other plants. It overwhelms them
with its dense foliage, wraps around stems and the trunks of trees, and breaks
branches with its weight. Rooted kudzu grows rapidly, extending to 18 m in length
at rates of about 30 cm/day during the vegetative period.
Kudzu impacts the atmosphere due to changes in nitrogen cycling and trace
nitrogen gas emissions (Hickman and Lerdau 2013). Changes in leaf litter associated with kudzu infestation resulted in changes to decomposition processes and a
28 % reduction in stocks of soil carbon, with potential implications for climate
change (Tamura and Tharayil 2014).
Lake Victoria was one of the richest lakes in the world, based on the diversity of
sh species, before the introduction of the Nile perch (Lates niloticus). In particular, there were over 400 haplochromine cichlid species, accounting for 5 % of the
worlds known freshwater sh. Haplochromine species accounted for 83 % of the
sh biomass in the lake (Cophen et al. 1995).
The Nile perch was transported there in 1954 from Lake Albert
(Ogutu-Ohwayo 2004). At rst, the environmental effects were minor. However,
the Nile perch population surged dramatically in the 1980s (van de Wolfshaar et al.
2014). Predation by the Nile perch destroyed 200 endemic sh species.
The introduction of Nile perch had additional ecological effects onshore. Native
cichlids were traditionally sun-dried sh, but Nile perch has a higher fat content
than cichlids, so instead, it is needed to be smoked to avoid spoilage. This led to an
increased demand for rewood in a region already hard-hit by deforestation, soil
erosion, and desertication (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_perch).
The introduction of the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) into the United
States is another example. In 1890, several pairs of these birds were released in
Central Park in New York City (http://iimk.ac.in/gsdl/cgi-bin/library). Now its range
extends from the western to the eastern coast and from Alaska to southern Mexico.
Starlings compete with native cavity-nesting birds such as bluebirds, flickers
and other woodpeckers, purple martins, and wood ducks for nest sites. One report
showed that, where nest cavities were limited, starlings had severe impacts on local
populations of native cavity-nesting species (http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/
EuropeanStarlings.asp).
Starlings may also be responsible for transferring disease from one livestock
facility to another. Tests show that gastroenteritis virus (TGE) can pass through the
digestive tract of a starling and be infectious in the starling feces (http://icwdm.org/
handbook/birds/EuropeanStarlings.asp). Also, these birds can be reservoirs and vectors
for the human pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7 (Kauffman and LeJeune 2011).
The environmental impacts of introductions are illustrated in Photos 6.316.34.
6.4 Introductions
257
Photo 6.31 The picture shows a ship blocked by water hyacinths in Winam Bay (Kisumu port,
Kenya). In the countries adjacent to Lake Victoria, abundant masses of water hyacinths are called
green icebergs since, driven by seasonal trade winds, they alternately migrate to the shores of
Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. The port of Kisumu is blocked by water hyacinths from late December
till early May every year. Photo credit: N.R. Robertson (Aquarius Systems Inc.) January 1999
Photo 6.32 The introduction of kudzu (Pueraria lobata) in the United States is a striking example
of negative environmental consequences. It causes signicant harm to other plants. It overwhelms
them with its dense foliage, wraps around stems and the trunks of trees, and breaks branches with
its weight. At the present time, kudzu occupies a territory of 20,00030,000 km2, and US$500
million is spent annually to ght it. A kudzu-covered eld near Port Gibson, Mississippi, United
States, is shown. Photo credit: Galen Parks Smith, 14 August 2006
258
Photo 6.33 The photo shows

an unusually large Nile perch
(Lates niloticus). Its
introduction into Lake
Victoria in 1954 had
extremely adverse effects on
local icthyofauna. Predation
by Nile perch led to the
destruction of 200 endemic
sh species. At present it
makes up 80 % of the lake
sh mass. Photo credit: http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_
perch by smudger888 [CC
BY 2.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0)], via
Wikimedia Commons, 26
January 2004
Photo 6.34 The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) was introduced into the United States in
1890. Now it is one of the most numerous birds there. They create flocks reaching up to 1.5 million
birds and cause problems with their droppings. These may accumulate up to 30 cm deep, killing
trees due to their concentrated chemicals. The photo shows a flock of starlings. Photo credit:
Tommy Hansen
6.5 Water Transfers
6.5
259
Water Transfers
The term water transfers mean the process of water withdrawal from one source
(river, reservoir, lake, etc.) and its transportation by riverbed, channel, tunnel, or
pipeline to consumers. One can subdivide such water transportation into transfers
for water supplies, providing navigation, hydropower engineering, irrigated farming, and drainage of overhumid lands.
The volume of transported water and the distance it is transported are the crucial
parameters of river flow transportation systems. The most widespread index to
estimate the scale of river flow modication is calculated as the product of the
annual river flow transported (cubic kilometers per year) times the distance it is
transported (kilometers).
The largest channel, judging by this index, is the SouthNorth Water Transfer
Project, which transports water from the Yangtze River in southern China to the
northern Chinese plain. This channel will transfer 44.8 km3/year over a distance of
1300 km (Qiu et al. 2013). By 2014, more than US$79 billion had been spent,
making it one of the most expensive engineering projects in the world (http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/South%E2%80%93North_Water_Transfer_Project).
Most river flow transfers, however, are carried out for irrigation needs and are
classied as small or average (up to 1000 km3/year). Irrigation is used for 37 % of
all cultivated lands in China, 32 % in India, 23 % in Mexico, and 1517 % in
Philippines and Indonesia (Starikov 2013). The global distribution of areas under
irrigation is shown in Fig. 6.4.
Fig. 6.4 Distribution of areas under irrigation in the world, 2000 (Water: a shared responsibility
2006). Reproduced with permission of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
260
Three zones are used to describe water transfers: (1) zone of water withdrawal;
(2) zone of water transportation; and (3) zone of water usage. Environmental
impacts in these zones are as follows.
The zone of withdrawal is characterized by decreases in river flow, drops in
water levels, intensication of riverbed processes, diminution of waterlogged sites,
greater penetration of salty seawater, and other effects. The zone of transportation
is characterized by increases in river flow, rises in water levels, underflooding and
waterlogging of nearby lands, intensication of erosion and evaporation, and other
impacts (Shiklomanov and Markova 1987; Ye et al. 2014). The zone of water usage
is characterized by intensication of erosion and evaporation, worsening of surface
water quality, and other effects (Shiklomanov and Markova 1987; Gu et al. 2012).
River flow has been almost completely eliminated in the zone of withdrawal in
some cases. One example is the Colorado River, which stopped flowing into the
Gulf of California, since water was used to irrigate elds in the United States and
Mexico (Rosenberg et al. 2000). The Syr Darya River and the Amu Darya River did
not reach the Aral Sea in drier years (e.g., 1980 and 1985) (Sempere-Antuan 2000).
Reducing water loss in the zone of transportation is very important. Sizeable
volumes of transported water are often lost because of ground leakage. For
example, in the rst years after the Karakum Channel was created, 3 km3/year (out
of 11) were lost in that manner; nowadays, those losses have been reduced to
1 km3/year due to silting where the leakage occurred (Govorushko 2009) (Fig. 6.5).
All together, more than 2200 channels with a total length of 170,000 km have
been built in the basin of the Aral Sea; but no measures to mitigate ltration have
been taken in most cases (Stadnitsky and Rodionov 1996). Water losses in irrigation systems in Pakistan amount to 5565 % (Shiklomanov and Markova 1987).
Legend:
Irrigation efficiency:
High
Low
(80%)
(30%)
Note: The term irrigation efficiency refers to the proportion of irrigation water that gets to the crop,
taking into account the management of the distribution system, conveyance losses, and losses during field application.
Fig. 6.5 Global irrigation efciencies, 2000. Reproduced with permission of Dr. D. Gerten
(Potsdam Institute of Climate Impact Research, Potsdam)
6.5 Water Transfers
261
In the zone of water usage, river flow increases considerably. Thus, the annual
river flow of the Burntwood River, which transports water to the Nelson River,
increased from 3.3 to 27.3 km3/year, or by 800 % (Shiklomanov and Markova
1987). Canada, the United States, India, China, and Turkmenistan show the greatest
river inflow transfers.
Water transfer, apart from changing river flow, also influences ichthyofauna
composition. Channels act as environmental pathways through which sh can
migrate. For example, when the waters from Dnepr went through the North Crimea
Channel (402 km long), Dnepr sh became usual for the Crimeaprimarily
low-value sh such as perch, ruff, tench, and silver bream (Kozlov 1979).
Another negative result of water transfer is that weeds are spread. Detailed
research on weeds spreading through the water of irrigation channels in the
Vakhshskaya Valley in Tajikistan have shown how serious the problem is. For
example, on one farm during 14 h, irrigation water brought in 955,000 seeds/ha in
July, 2 million seeds/ha in August, and 3.9 million seeds/ha in September (10
species were represented). The source of the seeds in irrigation water is the coppices
of weeds at the banks of the channels (Nikitin 1983).
The environmental impacts of water transfers re illustrated in Photos 6.356.39.
Photo 6.35 Water transfer is the process of water withdrawal from one source (river, reservoir,
lake, or other body of water) and its further transportation by river-bed, channel, tunnel, or pipeline
to consumers. These transfers can be for water supplies, providing navigation, hydropower
engineering, irrigated farming, and other uses. This aerial photo shows the Central Arizona Project.
It allows passage of water from the Colorado River to central and southern Arizona. At 336 miles
(541 km) long, it is the longest aqueduct ever constructed in the United States. Water is used for
municipal, industrial, and agricultural needs. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_
(water_supply)
262
Photo 6.36 The largest volume of transferred water is used for irrigation. Among the most
water-retaining cultures is rice, which is usually raised by means of prolonged flooding of its
seeds. One of the channels of the Khanka rice irrigation system in Primorsky Krai (Russia) is
shown. The water intake from Lake Khanka for flooding rice reaches about 340 million m3/year.
Much of the water in such channels is lost due to inltration. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko
(Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), June 2014
Photo 6.37 In order to reduce water losses from the channels, seepage-control linings are applied.
These linings can be made of concrete, natural ground, petroleum bitumen, or plastic lms. Siphon
irrigation in southern Tunisia is shown. The bed was lined with plastic lm. The water is fed to the
plants growing in the elds under gravity through a hose system. Photo credit: Florita Botts (U.N.
Food and Agriculture Organization)
6.5 Water Transfers
263
Photo 6.38 In some cases, water transfers are for industrial needs. A water supply canal
channeling water from the Yellow River as part of a stage I water supply project of the Ningdong
coal-chemical base, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, is shown. Ten billion cubic meters of water
are expected to be consumed by 16 new coal-red power plants and mines in China in 2015,
triggering severe water crises in the countrys arid northwest. The water is needed to minimize the
coal-dust explosion risk associated with coal mining, and it is involved in the production of electric
power at coal-red thermal electric power stations. Photo credit: Lu Guang (Greenpeace)
Photo 6.39 In Canada, the

water transfer is used mainly
for hydropower purposes. For
example, 60 % of the
Churchill River flow (water
flow was 1270 m3/s) was
transferred to the Nelson
River in 1977 for the purpose
of electric power generation.
The photo shows Churchill
Falls as it appeared in 2008,
four decades after the water
was redirected. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Churchill_Falls by
infernocow
264
6.6
Housing and Communal Services
Housing and communal services, apart from the built-up area, include the complex
of enterprises and organizations of public services. These include sanitary enterprises (public water supplies, sewage facilities, saunas, laundries), services that
remove and dispose of household wastes, energy facilities, communal construction
(roads, bridges, etc.), hotels, chemical clothes cleaning enterprises, funeral bureaus,
and others (Fig. 6.6).
Fig. 6.6 Urban areas in the world (http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/gpw/index.jsp4; http://en.

wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density; http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/gotmaps/)
Cities currently occupy 3 % of the land on Earth (Modern global changes 2006,
V. 1). The proportion of built-up area is the greatest in small and densely populated
countries of Western Europe. For instance, a third of Malta is covered with built-up
and other articial areas, followed by Belgium (13 %), and Luxembourg and the
Netherlands (both 12 %) (Malta 2013). For the European Union, built-up areas
occupy 7 % of the total land area (Prieler 2006).
The problem of waste is very complicated. About 1.3 billion tons of solid waste
is produced globally every year (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata 2012). Its volume is
proportional to the economic development level of a country. In the developed
world, for example, the amounts per capita are as follows (in kilograms in 2010):
the United States, 720; Switzerland, 700; Luxembourg, 680; Denmark, 670; and
Ireland, 660. In the developing countries the amount of waste produced is much
less; for instance, in Indonesia it was 40 kg in 2010 (OECD factbook 2011).
Housing and communal services influence the following natural components:
(1) atmosphere; (2) surface waters; (3) groundwater; (4) animal world; (5) geomorphologic environment; and (6) geological environment.
6.6 Housing and Communal Services
265
One-third of food production gets lost or wasted, totaling 1.3 billion tons. It adds
3.3 billion tons of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere each year (UNEP 2014).
Signicant air pollution also results from burning waste; when 1 ton of domestic
waste is burnt, emissions contain 23 g of lead, 4 g of mercury, and 1.3 g of
cadmium. Waste decay at landlls releases methane, an estimated 2070 million
tons a year globally (Modern global changes 2006, V. 1).
Every country has its own sources of emissions. In India, for example, cremation res contribute considerably to atmospheric pollution, because 10 million
dead people are burnt annually. For each cremation, funeral bureaus use 450 kg of
wood. Annually, in India 50 million trees are felled for this purpose. As a result,
50,000 t of solid particles and 8000 t of carbon dioxide are emitted (Agarval 2008).
The most serious pollutants of surface waters are sewage and storm collection
run-off. In the cities of the developing countries, human feces are the most dangerous pollutant (Fig. 6.7).
Legend:
Coverage is 91-100%;
Coverage is 76-90%;
Coverage is 51-75%;
Insufficient data
Fig. 6.7 Sanitation coverage in the world, 2004 (Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment
2000; Global Environment Outlook 2007)
In the least developed countries, only one-third of the houses have sewage
systems, and water treatment plants are also absent (Environmental assessment
sourcebook 1994). Only 209 out of 3119 Indian cities have facilities for partial
effluent treatment of sewage waters, and only 8 have full processing plants
(Avvannavar and Mani 2008).
The impact of water supplies is mostly in the withdrawal of great amounts of
water. Water loss due to leakage, run-off from watering streets and lawns, air
conditioning, and other reasons is also serious. In housing and communal services
of Canada, water loss amounts to 13.3 % (Renzetti and Dupont 2013).
266
Groundwater is also affected. For example, chemical clothes cleaning enterprises often emit perchloroethylene, a chlorocarbon solvent (Mitashova 1998).
Cemeteries pollute groundwater, especially in warm and humid regions; e.g.,
Republic of South Africa and Brazil. Ammonia, and nitrogen- and
phosphorus-containing ions, as well as bacteria and viruses, are the greatest threats
posed by cemeteries (ychowski 2012, 2014).
Changes in phreatic levels are typical. In some regions, they drop due to
declines in water penetration capacity of the ground (soil thickening; waterproof
coverings such as asphalt and concrete). In other cases, phreatic levels increase
because of sewage waters and leakage from water pipes (Kovalevsky 1994).
One factor that influences the animal world is skyscrapers that are lit at night.
Migrating birds head toward the light and crash into the glass facades of the
buildings. The daily death toll peaks early in the morning, when birds see trees and
clouds reflected in glass facades. For instance, New York is a major stopover for
migratory birds on the Atlantic flyway, and an estimated 90,000 birds are killed by
flying into buildings each year (Foderaro 2011).
Impacts on the geomorphologic environment mainly include relief changes
caused by construction, landlls, etc. Buildings and construction directly influence
the geological environment through their sheer weight and warming of the soil
(e.g., thickening, thermal sagging, thermokarst, and thixotropic dilution).
Build-up of an area changes the climate considerably; for example, the levels of
solar radiation drop; humidity, wind speed, and precipitation regimes change; and
temperatures increase.
The environmental impacts of housing and communal services are illustrated by
Photos 6.406.50.
Photo 6.40 Since ancient
times, humans have used
underground space for living.
At the earliest stage, they
settled in the natural hollows,
caves, and, later, they began
to actively transform the
geological environment. Petra
is a historical and
archeological city in southern
Jordan that is famous for its
rock-cut architecture. The
Khazneh, or the Treasury, was
originally built as a
mausoleum and crypt at the
beginning of the rst century
AD. It is hewn into a
sandstone cliff and has a
height of about 40 m. Photo
credit: S.M. Govorushko
(Pacic Geographical
Institute, Vladivostok,
Russia), August 2010
267
Photo 6.41 Humans also impact the geomorphologic environment during the construction of
dwellings. These impacts consist more often in the cutting of relief in connection with grading and
leveling for the purposes of construction. In such cases, the impacts on the geomorphologic
environment are different. The photo shows troglodyte (indigenous Berber inhabitant) dwellings in
southern Tunisia. Their underground dwellings allow the people to escape from the heat. Photo
Photo 6.42 The presence of buildings and structures in itself impacts the geologic and
geomorphologic environment. The pressure of their mass and heating effects result in changes in
the underlying soils (compaction, thermokarst, thixotropic liquefaction, and others). Such impacts
are particularly strong in big cities with high-density multi-storied development. The photo shows
a view of Paris from the Eiffel Tower. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical
268
Photo 6.43 Sky-scrapers are

a cause of the deaths of birds.
At night, they collide with the
luminous faces of the
buildings; by day, they
attempt to rest in the
reflections of trees. In
particular, a large number of
birds are killed in spring and
in autumn during migrations.
According to various data,
from 100 million to 1 billion
birds perish yearly in North
America. The photo shows a
sky-scraper with reflective
glass in Tampa, Florida,
United States. Photo credit:
S.M. Govorushko (Pacic
Vladivostok, Russia),
12 April 2014
Photo 6.44 In many developing countries, surface waters are polluted with detergentssynthetic
surface-active agentsused for washing. Detergents are severe toxins that are difcult to remove,
and they are almost nonbiodegradable. The photo shows laundry in a river in Abidjan, Ivory Coast.
Photo credit: Ferdinand Reus (Arnhem, Holland), 27 August 2006
269
Photo 6.45 About 400450 million tons of solid domestic waste is produced globally every year.
The dumps of domestic garbage are sources of food for synanthropes, particularly rats. Cans,
bottles, and other vessels with residues of organic matter can play the part of traps for wild animals
and insects. The photo shows a garbage dump in Pskov, Russia. Photo credit: E. Marakanova
(Ecoline EA Centre, Moscow, Russia), 17 September 2010
Photo 6.46 Incineration is used more often as a method of waste disposal. This method has the
serious disadvantage of formation of highly toxic chemical compounds; for example, dioxins and
furans. From the environmental viewpoint, low-temperature combustion is the most dangerous.
The photo shows burning of waste in Sudan. Photo credit: U.N. Environment Program, from
UNEP Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment Report
270
Photo 6.47 The most serious pollutants of surface waters are sewage and storm collection run-off.
In the cities of the developing countries, human feces are the most dangerous pollutant. In the least
developed countries, only one-third of the houses have sewage systems, and water treatment plants
are also absent. Raw sewage flowing to the White Nile is shown. Though there is a sewage
network in Khartoum, it does not cover the entire city and no longer works properly, as it is
stretched well beyond capacity. Photo credit: U.N. Environment Program, from UNEP Sudan
Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment Report, 22 June 2007
Photo 6.48 Environmental impacts of dry-cleaning include toxic waste and pollution of natural
components. Chemical clothes cleaning enterprises often emit perchloroethylene, a chlorocarbon
solvent. This compound is considered to be carcinogenic to humans, and it should be handled as a
hazardous waste. Dry-cleaners that use perchloroethylene must take steps to ensure that it does not
enter drinking water. Perchloroethylene can also contribute to smog when it enters the atmosphere
and reacts with other volatile organic compounds. The compound is retained in dry-cleaned
clothes, and levels increase with successive cleanings. A Serier 3 P300 dry-cleaning machine in
Germany is shown. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_cleaning by Los3 (Own work)
[GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons, 9 January 2007
271
Photo 6.49 The greatest hazard associated with housing and utilities infrastructure is the threat of
ruptures of steam and high-pressure gas pipelines. Pipeline breakages can result in explosions due to
gas leakage and burns with steam condensate. The photo shows a steam explosion in New York
City, United States. The explosion sent a geyser of hot steam and other material up 40 storeys, and
mud and flying debris rained down on the crowded streets. The incident was caused by the failure of
a 24-in. (0.61 m) underground steam pipe installed in 1924. The towering cloud of billowing steam
rose higher than the nearby 1047-ft (319 m)-tall Chrysler Building and persisted for at least 2 h,
leaving a crater about 35 ft (10 m) wide and 15 ft (4 m) deep. Photo credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/2007_New_York_City_steam_explosion by Zazienyc; touched up and cropped by User:
BlastOButter42 (Smoke/Steam) [CC BY 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via
Wikimedia Commons, 18 July 2007
Photo 6.50 Maintenance of

the safe condition of
residential buildings requires
the use of considerable
manual labor; various
building materials are used
during this work, including
organic solvents and resin
compounds that can be
harmful to the health of the
workers. Emphasizing low
cost over worker safety leads
to high injury rates among
workers. The photo shows
nishing operations on a
building with the use of
bamboo staging in Jaipur,
India. Photo credit: S.M.
Govorushko (Pacic
November 2007
272
6.7
Power Transmission and Communication Lines
A power transmission line (PTL) is a system of wires (or cables) and auxiliary
devices that are designed to transmit electric power from a power station to consumers. A communication line is an assembly of engineering devices for transmitting electric signals from the transmitter to the receiver (Fig. 6.8).
Legend:
Bandwidth (gigabytes per second):
<250;
250-1000;
1000-2000;
2000-3000;
> 3000
Fig. 6.8 Undersea Internet cables (http://www.cablemap.info; http://www.geezam.com/underseainternet-cables/; http://ansonalex.com/technology/the-world-map-of-internet-connections/)
The effects of power transmission and communication lines on the environment

are observed during construction and operation; these effects generally grow with
increases in their lengths and voltages. Influences at the construction stage are
related to activities such as slashing; laying of access roads; excavation works for
setting of poles, towers, and transformer stations; and wiring work (Ecology
guidelines 2012). All of these activities are accompanied by noise impacts.
During operation, impacts are caused by things such as the presence of the ride
itself and the power transmission line (towers, wires, transformer stations, and
outdoor switchgears), application of physical or mechanical methods of vegetation
destruction within the right of way, and the action of electromagnetic elds.
273
Power transmission and communication lines affect the following environmental

components: (1) land resources; (2) vegetation; (3) animal world; (4) atmospheric
air; (5) soils; and (6) geomorphology.
The construction of power transmission and communication lines has the
strongest effect on land resources. An area 2 m in radius around towers is permanently allotted for use by a PTL. This situation affects agriculture to the greatest
extent. The disordered arrangement of power transmission and telephone lines
breaks the integrity of elds and natural meadows. Problems arise in using farming
equipment, and towers and poles prevent aerial activities.
Vegetation is affected by its large-scale destruction due to cuttings. Later on,
during operation, cuttings are repeatedly carried out and herbicides are applied for
maintenance of rides.
An increase in the ride width when small sections of forest are crossed by lines
(rst of all, under conditions of forest-tundra and forest-steppe), results not infrequently in disappearance of the whole forested area due to water imbalance and
dying-off of woody vegetation on the edge of the ride as a result of windfalls
(Popov 1986).
The effects on the animal world are ambiguous. For example, the presence of a
ride, on the one hand, results in the forest border effect, increases in the diversity
of the living environment and fast growth of the number of bird and animal species
(Ecology guidelines 2012). On the other hand, a ride can be an insurmountable
obstacle for movement of animals.
Birds are also affected by the construction of PTLs, their presence, and transmission of electric energy by wire. For instance, construction of transmission lines
likely impacted 2,588,494 nests, and transmission line maintenance can possibly
affect 388,274 nests each year (Savard and Rioux 2013). The presence of PTLs
leads to collisions; 857 million birds are killed each year at the United States
power lines due to collisions (Loss et al. 2014).
Birds are killed by electric shock more rarely. For instance, in the United States
between 0.9 and 11.6 million birds are killed by electrocution per year (Loss et al.
2014). Estimates of avian mortality due to electrocution for Canada ranged from
160,836 to 801,962 birds annually (Savard and Rioux 2013). Generally, when such
deaths do occur, they happen with large birds due to wire closure by opened wings,
and more often in rain or snowstorms.
In France, the hollow poles of telephone lines are mortal traps for animals living
in holes. Such animals (e.g., owls, bats, squirrels, and small birds) penetrate through
holes into the interior of the poles, and they cannot escape and therefore starve. In
France, there are millions of such poles, and inspection showed that some of them
were lled with the bodies of such animals to heights of 2 m (Noblet 2004).
The effects on ichthyofauna are mainly related to electric power transmission.
For example, if electric and magnetic eld strengths exceed permissible values in
274
functioning submarine cables, a zone where sh are frightened is created (so the
cable becomes an obstacle for the migration of sh), or the sh are immobilized
with paralysis of muscles and breathing (Kadomskaya et al. 2006).
Air pollution occurs when electric energy is transmitted by wire (gas flows in the
course of corona discharges). Ozone formed in the operation of PTLs is believed to
contribute to the destruction of forests (Ecology guidelines 2012).
Soil contamination occurs during the laying of underground lead-sheathed
communication cables. In Denmark, for example, lead from cable sheaths was
found to accumulate in soil and reach concentrations of 85 mg/kg (Jaspers et al.
2001). Power transmission and communication lines impact the geomorphologic
environment through extraction of ground.
The environmental effects of power transmission and communication lines are
illustrated by Photos 6.516.56.
Photo 6.51 An area with a radius of 2 m around power transmission towers is permanently
allotted for use for PTLs. This situation affects agriculture to the greatest extent. The disordered
arrangement of power transmission and telephone lines breaks the integrity of elds and natural
meadows. Problems arise in using farming equipment, and towers and poles prevent aerial
activities. The photo shows towers of PTLs at an agricultural eld in Brandenburg, Germany.
Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 3 August
2014
275
Photo 6.52 The effects of electric power transmission on the animal world are ambiguous and are
caused by different factors. For example, the presence of a ride, on the one hand, results in the
forest border effect, increases in the diversity of the living environment, and fast growth of a
number of bird and animal species. On the other hand, a ride can be an insurmountable obstacle for
movement of animals. To a considerable degree, the tendency of the impacts (positive or negative)
depends on the ride width. A power transmission line in Primorsky Krai (Russia) is shown. Photo
Photo 6.53 Effects of electric power transmission on birds are caused by the presence of power
and communication transmission lines and transmission of electric energy by wire. The major
reasons of deaths of birds are traumas caused by collisions with towers and wires and electric
shock, which usually happens with large birds when their opened wings touch more than one wire.
This photo shows insulated communication lines that resulted in the death of a young redstart
(Phoenicurus phoenicurus), either because of impact with the wires or because the bird
accidentally clutched at the wires with its beak, rather than as a result of electric shock. Photo
credit: A.P. Levashkin (Russian Bird Conservation Union, Nizhniy Novgorod Branch, Russia),
4 August 2010
276
Photo 6.54 The greatest danger of power transmission lines to birds is lines with voltages of
610 kV on reinforced concrete poles with pin-type insulators. The hazard of these lines lies in the
short distance between the pole or its traverse and wires or other live assemblies. When taking
wing and approaching, the birds can simultaneously touch to the grounded traverse and a hot wire,
causing a lethal short circuit. These lines are particularly dangerous, where birds are present at high
densities, where woody vegetation is absent, and at the intersections of bird migration paths.
A dead common buzzard (Buteo buteo) in Samarskaya Oblast (Russia) is shown. When taking
wing from the pole, the bird short-circuited and hung there (for the most part, birds fall). Photo
credit: A.P. Levashkin (Russian Bird Conservation Union, Nizhniy Novgorod Branch, Russia),
4 September 2011
Photo 6.55 Birds commonly construct nests on overhead transmission lines, where the risk of
their death as a result of electric shock increases many times. Ornithologists propose to equip
electric transmission lines with accessories to protect birds; for example, plastic housings mounted
on bare wires where they attach to insulators, which prevents short circuits caused by birds. The
photo shows cranes nesting on the metal poles of a 110 kV power transmission line in the Khanka
District (Primorsky Krai, Russia). Photo credit: V.V. Paletsky, 3 September 2014
277
Photo 6.56 Ichthyofauna are also affected by electric power transmission. If a power transmission
line crosses a river, it creates an electromagnetic dam that can be obstacle for the migration of sh.
The photo shows a PTL crossing the Angara River in Russia. Photo credit: P. Kurnakov (Ecoline
EA Centre, Moscow, Russia), 17 July 2006
278
6.8
Recreational Activity
Recreational activity is usually dened as an activity aimed at rest and recovery of

physical and mental resources. Tourism accounts for 3.2 % of the world GDP
(Ivanov et al. 2014) (Figs. 6.9 and 6.10).
Legend:
Touristic utilization and infrastructure:
High rate of resource utilization;
High provision of material and technical basis;
Low rate of resource utilization;
Low provision of material and technical basis;
Medium to low rate of resource utilization;

High provision of material and technical basis;
No resource utilization;
No material and technical basis;
High rate of resource utilization;

Medium to low provision of material and technical basis;
No use of resources, for political reasons;
Main coastal recreation areas;
Fig. 6.9 Global recreation and tourism (Resources and environment 1998). Reproduced with
permission of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Recreational activities include (1) medical, based at stationary facilities having

medicinal purposes (sanatoria, health resorts, etc.); (2) health-improving, engaged
in at stationary facilities designed for recreation (preventative clinics, rest homes,
campsites, etc.); (3) sports, combined sports activities, hunting, and shing;
(4) tourism; and (5) educational tourism to valuable natural, cultural, and historical
objects (Geography of tourism 2009; Mirzekhanova 2011).
To engage in these activities, people need recreational resources, categorized
as follows (Rydsky and Sturman 2014): (1) natural (e.g., hydrological, climatic,
forest, landscape, geological, hydrogeological, specially protected natural complexes); (2) balneological (mineral waters, therapeutic muds, etc.); and
(3) architectural-historic (e.g., monuments of culture, history, archeology).
Recreational activities affect the following natural components: (1) geological
environment; (2) soils; (3) vegetation; (4) animal world; and (5) surface and ground
waters. They also influence the social environment of a region.
Searching for and collecting minerals, crystal formations, and fossils impact the
geological environment. One of the most dramatic examples of such activity is the
6.8 Recreational Activity
279
Legend:
Resort towns;
Countries with a predominance of domestic medical tourism. Basic medical resources countries:
Mud;
Brine of estuaries;
Elements of flora and fauna:
Favorable climate (mountain, sea);

Herbal therapy;
Mineral waters;
Marine waters;
Karst caves.
Kymyz.
Fig. 6.10 Medical and health tourism in the world (Mirzekhanova 2011)
Petried Forest National Park in Arizona (United States), where souvenir hunters
completely destroyed the cover of some fossil trees. The destruction of stalactites
and stalagmites by speleologists is also typical.
Impacts on the soil include its thickening due to pedestrian, horse, or vehicle
trafc (e.g., at campsites). Horse transport has especially devastating effects on
soils (Monz et al. 2013). Thickening of soils results in drainage distortions (provoking erosion) and insufcient aeration of plant roots and soil organisms.
Pedestrian movement also destroys grass, bushes, and undergrowth. The consequences of the pressure on vegetation include (1) damage to plants; (2) stunting
of growth; (3) thinning of leaf cover; and (4) vanishing of species with low productivity (Wolf and Croft 2014). Some species disappear when collected for
herbariums and bouquets.
Recreational activity has especially strong impacts on forests. There are ve
stages of recreational effects on forests: (1) forest litter is not disturbed, species
composition is typical for the studied forest type, and the damage of undergrowth
and shrubs is not more than 5 %; (2) tracks have appeared, but they do not occupy
more than 8 % of the area; (3) routes cover 17 % of the area, forest stand thinning is
up to 10 %, and meadow grass is appearing; (4) 40 % of the forest has been
trampled, only 50 % of the tree stand has been saved, and turf cover has formed;
and (5) 70 % of the forest area has been trampled and some sick trees are still
growing. At stages 4 and 5, the forest is no longer capable of self-restoration
(Kuskov et al. 2005).
280
The influences of recreation on wild animals are different (e.g., anxiety factor,
elimination of some animals due to hunting and shing, habitat deterioration). The
very presence of people can have very negative impacts on animals, especially at
times of feeding, migration, breeding, and nesting. For example, in the Alps,
chamois (Schnidrig-Petrig 1998), and partridges (Ingold et al. 1993) experience
stress due to paragliding.
When they encounter people, animals run away, spending 10 times more energy
in comparison to the rest stage. As a result of this excessive tension, animals are
often killed by predacious animals and birds (Balandin and Bondarev 1988). Scaring
nestlings only two or three times is enough to cause them to die (Manush 1990).
Motor vehicles and sailing boats affect aquatic birds through noise and petrol
spills (Gladstone et al. 2013). Mooring on reefs and anchoring disturbs seabed
fauna (Hilmi et al. 2012). Tourism often promotes souvenir sales (corals, shells,
turtle carapace, etc.). Though many animals suffer from direct impacts of recreational activity, indirect habitat deterioration is much more important.
Recreational activity negatively impacts water quality. Sewage pollution takes
place next to coastal hotels. Many hotels use chemicals (chlorine or hydrate of
sodium) to control sewage odours or to make oils and fats soluble.
Recreational activity may have serious social impacts. For instance, some
activities (e.g., excursions to archaeological sites) can be seen as blasphemous by
local residents (Buckley 2000).
Visual pollution of landscapes by tourism infrastructure also is created. It is
especially noticeable for natural objects, which are appreciated for their esthetics
(waterfalls, gorges, etc.).
Uncontrolled tourism can damage those natural elements that are the target
objects of the recreation. It is very important to preserve balance between scale and
types of recreational activity, on one hand, and sensitivity and stability of the
natural objects, on the other.
The environmental impacts of recreational activity are illustrated by Photos
6.576.62.
Photo 6.57 A distinctive feature of places of public amusement is often the gathering of a large
number of people in a small area. The photo shows holiday-makers in Dorset, United Kingdom.
Photo credit: I. Kelman, http://www.ilankelman.org/aircraft.html, 19 September 2010
281
Photo 6.58 The environmental impacts of motor-boats result from the following factors:
(1) propeller action (turbulence, disturbance of sediments, increase in nutrients, increase in
phytoplankton, cutting of macrophytes); (2) wash (washing out of roots of macrophytes and
riparian vegetation); and (3) direct contact (bank erosion, decrease in submerged macrophytes,
decrease in emergent and floating macrophytes, dispersal of macrophytes/phytoplankton between
different water bodies). The photo shows a power-boat New Zealand. Photo credit: I. Kelman,
http://www.ilankelman.org/aircraft.html, 26 April 2014
Photo 6.59 In many developing countries, the withdrawal of hydrobionts for sale to collectors has
reached large proportions. The photo shows portable stalls with shells in a gift shop in Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania. The shop sells seashells that have been taken from the sea alive, killing the
animal inside. Photo credit: Richard Ling, 22 March 2000
282
Photo 6.60 The influences of recreation on wild animals are different (e.g., cause anxiety,
elimination of some animals due to hunting and shing, habitat deterioration). The very presence
of people can have very negative impacts on animals, especially at times of feeding, migration,
breeding, and nesting. For example, in the Alps, partridges experience stress during hatching
because of hang-gliders and paragliders. The photo shows paragliding in Interlaken, Switzerland.
Photo credit: I. Kelman, http://www.ilankelman.org/aircraft.html, April 2014
283
Photo 6.61 Caves not infrequently are damaged by visitors. The Cave Victory (Kinderlinsky), in
the Gafurijsky area of Bashkiria, is 9 km long and is one of the most beautiful caves in the Ural
Mountains. Tourists visit the cave continually, and many act as though they own it. The visitors
draw on walls, dig out and carry away remains of ancient animals, burn res, pass the time
drinking alcoholic beverages, and even create a public toilet. The photo shows garbage collection
in the cave. Photo credit: N.I. Rychagova, 14 July 2013
Photo 6.62 Debris often accumulates in areas where people spend their leisure time. The photo
shows garbage at the forest opening before the descent to the Cherny Shaman waterfall in the
Amgu River valley (Primorsky Krai, Russia). A group of tourists recently had thrown all their
garbage at the site where a bonre had taken place. Photo credit: A.V. Golik (Pacic
Oceanological Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 20 August 2012
284
6.9
Sports Activity
Sports complexes and competition areas sometimes occupy large areas of land. For
example, golf courses occupy 0.6 % of the United Kingdom; on average, each
course is 5060 ha in size (Gange et al. 2003). In Switzerland, pistes cover 1 % of
the country (Rixen et al. 2004) (Fig. 6.11).
Fig. 6.11 Ski areas and resorts. Prepared by author based on data from numerous Internet sources
The influences of sports activities on the environment occur during construction

and exploitation of sports facilities, during training and competitions. In addition,
not only the participants have impacts on the environment, but also the audience.
At the construction stage, the environmental impacts of sports facilities are
equivalent to those of many industries (e.g., vegetation destruction as a result of
logging and machinery work, relief changes during excavation and shaping work,
soil consolidation and erosion, local drainage increases, and noise pollution).
During exploitation of sports facilities, their impacts on the environment differ.
Many sports events affect soils and vegetation. For example, to increase how long
ski slopes can be used, different chemicals are used (calcium and sodium chlorides,
ammonia sulfate and nitrate), which degrade soils and vegetation (Geography of
tourism 2009).
Consolidation of snow cover decreases its heat-insulating properties and leads
to freezing of the deeper layers of the soil (Schlochtern et al. 2014). Snow on skiing
pistes melts 24 weeks later than normal (Eagleston and Rubin 2013). In turn, that
delay leads to shorter periods of plant growth (Bradbury 2006). On the sites of
skiing pistes, productivity and biodiversity are dropping (Zeidler et al. 2014). On
extreme spots where the snow cover is thin (tops, hills, steep slopes), ski edges
damage nival vegetation and soil (Heinrich and Hergt 2003).
6.9 Sports Activity
285
During sports orienteering competitions, the use of sprint shoes can cause soil
erosion. During mass starts, trampling of grass and damage to shrubs are
unavoidable. The maximum press is at the checkpoint areas (approximately 50
100 m) and especially in areas of 1.75 m radius around them. Near the worst
affected control points, 5075 % of the vegetation within an area of 10 m2
(equivalent to 1.75 m radius) suffered damage. Similar damage was reported for the
start and nish areas (Review of research 2005).
Golf courses affect soils and vegetation, usually connected with the use of
fertilizers and pesticides (Krcmar et al. 2014). Shooting sport leads to lead poisoning of soils. Research performed at two shooting ranges in Finland showed
extremely high concentrations of lead (reaching 50,000 mg/kg) in the organic soil
layer. Elevated lead concentrations were also found in leachate waters and in the
biota (Selonen et al. 2012).
Some sports affect surface waters. For example, water discharges from swimming pools lead to chlorine poisoning of water bodies (Saari et al. 2004). Watermotor sport competitions lead to petrol pollution (Heinrich and Hergt 2003).
Some sports activities have negative influences on the animal world. During
mass sports orienteering competitions, for example, large birds and animals
experience considerable stress. Research conducted in Sweden showed that when a
sportsman approached, elk (Alces alces) took flight at a flushing distance of about
200300 m and slowed down for another 13001500 m before stopping. The
animals returned to their habitats over a period of 24 h, and some of them had signs
of stress (Cederlund et al. 1981). Ski pistes are ecological barriers to forest small
mammals (Negro et al. 2013).
Effects on birds are especially serious during nesting and hatching. For example,
during the Scottish Orienteering Championships in June 1987, concern was
expressed about the disturbance at a critical period for certain ground-nesting birds.
Ornithological research done prior to the date helped to minimize the damage
(Brackenridge 1988). The noise impacts on aquatic birds are considered to be
strong during water-motor sports competitions (Environment 1999, V. 2).
The atmosphere is polluted with dust and exhaust during motor vehicle competitions, explosive gas emissions during shooting competitions, and emissions at
other events. Refrigerators needed for some sports (hockey, skating, gure skating,
curling) contribute to ozone layer depletion.
Sports activity has impacts on resources depletion, waste production, and other
degradation of the environment. In sports like mountaineering, rock climbing, and
sports tourism, competitions often take place in areas untouched by human activitiessportsmen are the rst polluters there. For example, in the 1950s, when the
rst attempts to climb Mt. Everest were undertaken, one or two expeditions were
conducted annually. In the 2000s, their number had reached 50 expeditions a year.
At present, degradation of the natural environment there (deforestation and waste
pollution) is visible (Nyaupane et al. 2014).
In general, sports activities have insignicant impacts on the environment. The
influences on natural components can be seen in Photos 6.636.71.
286
Photo 6.63 Sports complexes and areas where sports competitions take place sometimes occupy
large areas of land. For example, golf courses occupy 0.6 % of the United Kingdom; on average,
each course is 5060 ha in size. The Palmetto Golf Course in Miami, Florida, United States, is
shown. The 18-hole course was built on 121 acres (49 ha) in 1959. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko
(Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 13 April 2014
Photo 6.64 During sports orienteering competitions, the use of sprint shoes sometimes leads to
soil erosion. Trampling of grass and damage to shrubs are unavoidable. The maximum stress on
soils and vegetation occurs in areas of 1.75 m radius around control points. Around the control
points with the greatest effects, 5075 % of the vegetation within an area of 10 m2 suffered
damage. The photo shows checking on a control point during a sports orienteering championship
in Kyshtym (Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia). Photo credit: V.N. Popov, 27 August 2010
6.9 Sports Activity
287
Photo 6.65 Motor sport competitions often intensify soil erosion. Various motor rallies held
where there is a lack of proper roads are especially signicant in this context. Car racing near the
town of Spassk-Dalny (Primorsky Krai, Russia) is shown. Photo credit: A.V. Golik (Pacic
Oceanological Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 10 October 2010
Photo 6.66 Competitions in many sports (e.g., motor-boating, trail orienteering, golf, mountain
skiing) have a marked effect on vegetation. This photo shows damage to bodies of trees as a result
of the Trophy Raid running competition in Croatia. Photo credit: A.V. Golik (Pacic
Oceanological Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 6 May 2013
288
Photo 6.67 Skiing has some environmental impact. Compaction of snow cover decreases its
heat-insulating properties and leads to freezing of the deeper layers of the soil. Snow on skiing pistes melts
24 weeks later than normal. In turn, that delay leads to shorter periods of plant growth. On the sites of
skiing pistes, productivity and biodiversity are dropping. On extreme spots where the snow cover is thin
(tops, hills, steep slopes), ski edges damage nival vegetation and soil. The photo shows skiing pistes at the
Blue Mountain Ski Resort, the largest mountain resort in Ontario, Canada. Photo credit: http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Mountain_(ski_resort), Chensiyuan at the English language Wikipedia [CCBY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/), GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.
html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons
Photo 6.68 Some sports have impacts on surface waters. For example, water discharges from
swimming pools lead to chlorine poisoning of water bodies. The photo shows a water polo match
between Greece and Hungary (World Junior Championship 2004, Naples, Italy). Photo credit:
Massimo Finizio
6.9 Sports Activity
289
Photo 6.69 Some sports activities have negative influences on the animal world. During mass
sports orienteering competitions, for example, large birds and animals experience considerable
stress. On meeting the sportsmen, the deer and elk ran away to distances of up to 1 km. The
animals returned to their habitats over a period of 24 h, and some of them had signs of stress. The
photo shows the beginning of relay competitions in Finland. Photo credit: A.M. Mikhailov, 2005
Photo 6.70 Impacts of
shooting on the environment
connected with pollution of
atmosphere by explosive gas
emissions and poisoning of
soils by heavy metals. The
biathlon complex in
Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky
(Russia) is depicted. The local
Childrens Sports School
expends annually 2.5 million
cartridges. At bullet mass of
2.56 g (except lead, the bullet
contains also antimony,
arsenic and nickel), 6 t of
lead, 308 kg of antimony,
134 kg of arsenic, and 33 kg
of nickel are found within
area of targets. The
atmospheric fallouts wash
away these heavy metals from
the soil and they enter the
nearby brook. Photo credit: A.
A. Nikolayeva, 21 July 2013
290
Photo 6.71 Refrigeration systems needed for some sports (hockey, skating, gure skating,
curling) make their contribution to ozone-layer depletion. This photo was taken during an ice
hockey match between the Tampa Bay Lightning and the Toronto Maple Leafs. Photo credit: S.M.
Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 8 April 2014
6.10
6.10
Military Activity
291
Military Activity
The impacts of military activity on the environment occur during both wars and
times of peace (e.g., play-wars; manoeuvres; routine military services; production
or disposal of weapons, ammunition, and other equipment) (Figs. 6.12 and 6.13).
Legend:
Atomic proving grounds with numbers of tests:
Countries possessing nuclear weapons
1-2
5-30
3-4
31-200
>200
Fig. 6.12 Global distribution of nuclear weapons (adapted from www.nationalsecurity.ru; www.
pbs.org)
Legend:
>10%
5-10
4-5
3-4
2-3
1-2
<1%
Fig. 6.13 Military expenditures as percent of GDP (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military)
292
Many wars had large environmental impacts. For example, the armies of
Genghis Khan and Timur-i-lang destroyed irrigation systems in Middle Asia,
Mesopotamia, India, and the Caucasus, which led to desertication and salinization
of the soils (Mazur and Ivanov 2004). The Romans covered soils in Carthage with
salt in order to disrupt its agriculture (Adushkin and Kozlov 2011). Other wars that
devastated the environment include the Peloponnesian War (431404 BC) between
Sparta and Athens and the Thirty Years War (161848) in Bohemia (Mamin
2011)).
In the twentieth century, World War II (193945), the Vietnam War (196175),
and the Gulf War (199091) had the most serious effects on the environment.
During peaceful times, military training activity affects at least 50 million ha
globally, an area roughly the size of France (Zentelis and Lindenmayer 2015).
Two more aspects of military activity include (1) environmental ways to conduct war and (2) ecocide.
Elements of the environment have been used for energy release and to inflict
the maximal damage to the enemy. The energy of forest res, the water energy
released when dams are broken, provocation of avalanches and rockfalls, and inland
water contamination has been used.
The rst well-known example is the war between the Persians and the
Scythians in 512 BC. To prevent attack by the Persian king Darius, the Scythians
used the tactic of scorched earth, destroying all vegetation and houses while
retreating (Pearson 2012).
During the Taiping movement in China (185064), the ruling Manchu dynasty
used res against the revolutionists. The flow of the lower Yangtze River was
devastated (Westing 2000). Other examples include the bombing of two big dams
in the Ruhr valley by the English in 1943 (Accidents and catastrophes 1995) and the
demolition of dams in the Netherlands by the Germans in 1944, when seawater
flooded 200,000 ha (Prokhorov 1998).
Ecocide is usually dened as intentional destruction of the natural environment
of the enemy. During the Vietnam War, Americans disseminated 57,000 t of herbicidesAgent Orangeand around 23,000 t of defoliants (13 recipes), destroying
17 million ha of vegetation (Sofronov et al. 2004). About 7.9 million bombs were
dropped (Petrenko 2014). To extend the rainy season, planes disseminated iodine
compounds of silver and lead (Mironenko 2002).
Some of the results of the Gulf War, a second example, included the following:
12 million barrels of oil were spilt into the water (Omar et al. 2009), more than 600
oil well sites were burnt and emitted 125,000 t of oil combustion products over a
period of several months (Sidel et al. 2009), and oil spills covered 2500 km2 of
land. Huge numbers of birds died, and the populations of ichthyofauna dropped
sharply (Oksengendler 1992).
The impacts on the geological environment include disturbances of rock formation integrity (fragmentation, disintegration, mixing, dissemination) due to
explosions, land use engineering, and other activities. Bombing and underground
nuclear tests initiate earthquakes (Balassanian 2005; Nikolaeyv and Vereschagina
6.10
Military Activity
293
2006). Military services typically use underground spaces due to the need for
maintaining secrecy, protecting from bombing, and other reasons.
The impacts on the geomorphologic environment include considerable relief
transformation, due to explosions of weapons such as bombs, grenades, and mines.
Trenches, pits, communication trenches, and blindages are dug during military
operations. The fortications of the First World War were 3000 km long, and
during trench construction, more than 240 million m3 of ground were excavated
(Mironenko 2007). In 1943, on the Voronezh front (Russia) alone, 244 km in
length, 83,912 rifle and machine-gun pits, and 17,505 doovers and dug-outs were
excavated. The length of trenches and communication trenches reached 4240 km
(Petrenko 2014).
The impacts on soil include consolidation during troop movements, pollution
after industries are destroyed, and other effects (Certini et al. 2013). Vegetation
disappears due to res, blasts, ammunition fragmentation, etc.
Military activity leads to animal deaths and habitat deterioration. For example,
when a 100 kg marine mine explodes, all aquatic animals die within a 44 m radius
(Mironenko 2002). During the Second World War, many whales were killed
because they were mistaken for submarines (Mamin 2011).
Atmospheric emissions released as a result of military activity comprise 610 %
of total air pollution (Twentieth century 1992); these emissions are connected with
unavoidable res, as well as with releases of dust, gases, and poisonous chemicals
due to demolition of storage and industrial facilities.
The environmental impacts of military activity are illustrated by Photos
6.726.78.
Photo 6.72 The impact of atomic weapons on nature is colossal because all components of
natural landscapes collapse or are simply annihilated. Since 1945, 2049 atomic explosions have
been carried out. The largest number of them were performed by the United States (1032), the
USSR (715), and France (210). The atomic bombings of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 (left) and
Nagasaki on 9 August 1945 (right) are shown here. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki
294
Photo 6.73 The use of underground space is typical for the military services, due to the need for
maintaining secrecy, protection from bombing, and other purposes. For the construction of fortied
structures, huge amounts of rocky materials are extracted. For example, Fort Douaumont (Verdun
fortications in France) has total area of 30,000 m2 and is approximately 400 m long. One of the
forts of the Verdun fortications is shown. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical
Photo 6.74 The Great Wall of China (shown in the photo) was constructed of stone, brick, tamped
earth, wood, and other materials, extending from east to west across the historical northern borders of
China. The wall was built to protect the Chinese Empire against invasions by nomadic groups and
military forces. It is 21,196 km (13,171 mi) long. One of the ecological consequences of the wall is
that it acts as a barrier to the migration of wild animals. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Great_Wall_of_China, Severin.stalder [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/
3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
6.10
Military Activity
295
Photo 6.75 During human history, some elements of the environment have been used to inflict
maximal damage to the enemy. Elements such as the release of energy through forest res, the
release of water energy when dams are broken, the provocation of avalanches and rock-falls, and
inland water contamination have been used. The photo shows consequences of bombing the
Mhne Dam (1617 May 1943). It was breached, and catastrophic flooding resulted. An estimated
1600 people drowned. Photo credit: Jerry Fray, 17 May 1943
Photo 6.76 Use of gas as a weapon began in 1915 during World War I. The rst killing agent
employed by the German military was chlorine. It is a powerful irritant that can inflict damage to
the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. At high concentrations and prolonged exposure chlorine can
cause death by asphyxiation. By 22 April 1915, the German army had 168 tons of chlorine
deployed in 5730 cylinders near Ypres (Belgium). At 17:30, in a slight easterly breeze, the gas was
released, forming a gray-green cloud that drifted across positions held by French colonial troops
from Martinique, who broke ranks, abandoning their trenches and creating an 8000-yard (7 km)
gap in the Allied line. The photo shows dispersion of chlorine gas in World War I. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare
296
Photo 6.77 Ecocide is usually dened as the intentional destruction of the natural environment of
the enemy. A primary case of ecocide occurred during the Vietnam War. Americans disseminated
57,000 t of herbicidesAgent Orangeand around 23,000 t of defoliants (13 recipes), destroying
17 million ha of vegetation. Fourteen million bombs were dropped. To extend the rainy season,
planes disseminated iodine compounds of silver and lead. The photo shows a defoliant spray run
during the Vietnam War by a UC-123B Provider aircraft. Photo credit: U.S. Air Force, 1960s
Photo 6.78 The Gulf War was a second large-scale example of ecocide. In Kuwait, 550 oil well
sites were burned and emitted 125,000 t of oil combustion products over a period of several
months, and oil spills covered 2500 km2 of land. Huge numbers of birds died, and the populations
of ichthyofauna dropped sharply. The photo shows burning oil wells in Kuwait, 1991 Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War, 21 March 1991
6.11
6.11
Space Exploration
297
Space Exploration
There are currently about 30 spaceports in the world (see Fig. 6.14). Every one of
them is a complicated engineering facility. During launch and placement of
spacecraft into orbit, the environmental impacts are mainly due to the descent of
carrier rocket parts.
First stages detach at altitudes of 6090 km. When a stage hits the ground, the
remaining fuel usually explodes and leaves a crater of 5 m radius; fragments scatter
for 100200 m.
Second stages of carrier rockets separate at altitudes of 140160 km. Due to
heating in the atmosphere, the fuel explodes when the stage is 2530 km above sea
level. Fragments fall to the ground over a large area (Kondratyev et al. 2007).
When the nose fairing and missile tail (which do not contain fuel) fall, environmental impacts are small: only the upper layer of the soil and vegetation are
damaged, and the area is littered with fragments (Kretchetov et al. 2008).
The fragments of the stages fall over a large area. For all active launching sites,
millions of square kilometers are affected (Engineering ecology 2003). The total
area for Russia and other countries of the former USSR is 200,000 km2, and the
area polluted because of space activity is 1 million km2 (Vronsky 2009).
The most dangerous matter in the carrier rocket is the components of its fuel
unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (heptyl) and plutonium-238. Global production of
heptyl in 1981 was 35,000 t (Roshchin and Frindland 2004).
Plesetsk
Dombarovsky
Kapustin Yar
Vandenberg
Wallops
KSC
Cape Canaveral
Svobodny
Kodiak
Baikonur
Taiyuan Musudan-ri
Jiuquan
Semnan
Uchinoura
Palmachim
Naro
Xichang Tanegashima
Hammaguir
Al Anbar
Wenchang
Sriharikota
Kourou
Alcantara
Kwajalein
San Marco
Woomera
Legend:
Spaceports
Launching complexes and pads not attaining space launch facility status
Abandoned spaceports italicized.
Fig. 6.14 Global distribution of spaceports. Prepared by author based on data from numerous
Internet sources
298
Space activity influences the following environmental components and parameters: (1) atmosphere, (2) near-Earth space; (3) soils; (4) vegetation; (5) animal
world; (6) surface waters; (7) geological environment; and (8) background radiation.
Pollution and ozone-layer depletion occur in the atmosphere. For every launch
of a Proton missile, about 265 t of nitrogen dioxide is emitted (Piven 2006).
Chlorine exhaust from the Shuttle and Energia spacecraft also leads to ozone
depletion. One launch of a Shuttle results in the loss of 1 million tons of ozone
(Prokhorov 1998).
Near-Earth space is affected by heat pollution, pollution with solid fragments,
electromagnetic radiation from transmission systems, and radiation from nuclear
power sources on satellites (Environmental problems and risks 2000).
The problem of space waste becomes more and more serious every year. Ten
thousand objects in Earth orbit are tracked. There are hundreds of thousands of
objects several centimeters in size and sometimes smaller (Korniyenko 2008). Earth
orbit is the most polluted at altitudes of 8501200 km, where meteorological and
remote sensing satellites are placed (Vronsky 2009).
Soils are impacted mainly by fuel. For instance, the rst stages of the Proton
carrier rocket, which detach at altitudes of 3545 km, still carry 500 kg of heptyl in
their tanks. The fuel left in the propulsion packs and conduit of pipes is usually
spilled on the Earth surface (Kasimov et al. 2006). Half of this pollutant is removed
by run-off within the rst 7 years, and after 50 years only 5 % of the heptyl remains
(Popov and Yudakhin 2008).
Soil pollution affects flora and fauna. The smell of liquid fuel attracts birds and
other animals. Tests on sheep that are grazed in areas where carrier rocket parts fall
have shown the presence of heptyl in their tissues (Social-ecological consequences
2000).
Seawaters are usually affected to a far greater degree than freshwater bodies.
Areas where detached rocket parts fall are located in the sea for most spacefaring
nations. Even Russia has 12 sea regions like this, with a total area of 9 million ha.
On average, 4200 kg of heptyl, 6820 kg of azotic acid, and 1300 kg of azotic
tetroxide fall in the Arctic Ocean every year (Vlasov and Krichevsky 1999).
Impacts on the geological environment include increases in earthquake activity,
noted particularly after launches of heavy rockets carrying the Apollo and Soyuz
spacecraft (Nikolayev and Vereshchagina 2006). In addition, rocket launches at
Cape Canaveral (Florida, United States) have been connected with earthquakes in
California (United States) and Mexico (Vlasov and Krichevsky 1999).
Radioactive pollution is especially dangerous in emergency situations. For
example, in 1978, after the accident with the Soviet satellite Kosmos-954, 37.1 kg
of spent nuclear fuel were disseminated in the atmosphere, and fragments of the
reactor fell in northern Canada (Vlasov and Krichevsky 1999).
Falling parts endanger people. For instance, in 1969, a fragment lost by a Soviet
space vehicle fell on a Japanese trade ship and injured ve sailors (Prokhorov
1998). On 5 July 1997, a second stage fell in the Altai region (Russia) and caused a
short circuit in a power line and a transformer box to burn (Social-ecological
consequences 2000).
6.11
Space Exploration
299
The environmental impacts of space activity are illustrated by Photos 6.796.82.

Photo 6.79 The impacts of
space travel on the
atmosphere include pollution
and ozone-layer depletion.
When 1 t of heptyl is burnt,
1.6 t of nitrogen dioxide is
emitted. Every launch of a
Proton missile requires 160 t
of fuel. Thus, at every launch,
about 265 t of nitrogen
dioxide is emitted. The photo
shows the space shuttle
Atlantis launch on 14 May
2010, at the Kennedy Space
Center, Florida, United States.
Photo credit: http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-132
Photo 6.80 Second stages of carrier rockets separate at altitudes of 140160 km. Due to heating
in the atmosphere, the fuel explodes when the stage is 2530 km above sea level. Fragments fall to
the ground, covering a large area. The fuel tank of the second stage of a Proton rocket that fell in
the Altai reserve (Russia) is shown. Photo credit: A.M. Panichev (Pacic Geographical Institute,
300
Photo 6.81 With every passing year, the problem of space waste becomes more and more serious.
Space waste includes things such as space vehicles that are no longer active, stages of carrier
rockets and upper stage rockets, and fragments of demolished missiles. Ten thousand objects in
Earth orbit are tracked. There are hundreds of thousands of objects several centimeters in size and
sometimes smaller. Earth orbit is the most polluted at altitudes of 8501200 km, where
meteorological and remote sensing satellites are placed. This is an image of the entry hole created
on the space shuttle Endeavors radiator panel by the impact of unknown space debris. Photo
credit: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Photo 6.82 Radioactive pollution from space vehicles is especially dangerous in emergency
situations. For example, in 1978, after an accident with the Soviet satellite Kosmos-954, 37.1 kg of
spent nuclear fuel were disseminated in the atmosphere, and fragments of the reactor fell in
northern Canada. On 21 April 1964, the navigation satellite Transit 5BN-3 (United States) did not
enter the intended orbit, fell apart, and burnt in the atmosphere north of Madagascar; 950 g of
plutonium-238 were dumped. A replica of Sputnik 1, the rst articial satellite in the world, is
shown here. Photo credit: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
6.12
6.12
Health and Veterinary Services
301
Health and veterinary services are activities aimed at preventing and treating
diseases of humans and animals, respectively. These activities impact the environment mainly through wastes, 20 % of which involve risks of infection, trauma,
or chemical or radiation exposure (Medical waste management 2011).
Human and animal amputated limbs, blood and other body fluids (e.g., mucus,
lymph), used bandages, disposable syringes, scalpels, gloves, expired drugs, X-ray
lm, and broken mercury thermometers are among the types of dangerous medical
waste. There are two groups that produce this waste: (1) health and veterinary
facilities and (2) the general population.
Health and veterinary facilities produce the full spectrum of medical waste; the
associated dangers (e.g., toxicity, contamination, concentration) are much higher in
comparison to the waste of the general population.
Medical waste of the general population comprises mainly expired drugs and
broken thermometers. It is believed that one-third of drugs are not used; when it
expires, it is reprocessed or thrown away. Nevertheless, drugs are rarely reprocessed; most people just flush them into the sewage system or throw them away
with household waste (Jones et al. 2001); in the same way, mercury thermometers
are thrown into landlls.
Mercury thermometers represent serious environmental danger. The number of
medical thermometers in Russia is about 100 million; each contains 2 g of mercury.
In 19982000, 9 million thermometers (containing 18 t of mercury) were broken
every year (Yanin 2004).
Still, the most serious problem is contamination of the environment with drugs.
Many are transformed insignicantly in humans or do not change at all.
Furthermore, they enter the sewage system with urine and can be still found after
sewage water treatment. Some substances of pharmaceutical origin even can be
found in drinking water (Schaider et al. 2014; Postigo and Barcelo 2015).
Veterinary pharmaceutical drugs used in animal feed get into the environment
as a result of manure storage overlling or leakage, or when dung is put into soils
(Kolpin et al. 2002). The yearly consumption to treat human and animal diseases
was estimated to be hundreds of thousands of tons per year, leading to high concentrations in surface water of developed countries (Zenker et al. 2014).
Health and veterinary services mostly influence the following environmental
components: (1) surface waters; (2) groundwater; (3) soils; and (4) the animal world.
In the early 1990s, drugs were rst found in the surface waters of Germany. Now
human pharmaceuticals have been found in the aquatic environment of many
countries (Al-Odaini et al. 2013; Jarvis et al. 2014; Carmona et al. 2014). At present,
more than 200 drugs are found in the environment (Dong et al. 2013). The most
common are popular drugs such as diclofenac and ibuprofen (Ribas et al. 2014).
Drugs usually enter surface waters through sewage systems. Most of these drugs
are analgesics, antibiotics, anti-epileptics, -blockers, 2-sympathomimetics, and
lipid regulators (Jones et al. 2001; Manzetti and Ghisi 2014).
Groundwater becomes polluted through processes such as ltration of contaminated waters at landlls containing household and industrial wastes, and
302
manure drainage inltration through soils. For instance, in near-surface groundwater in Germany heightened concentrations of sulfadimidine, sulfadiazine, and
sulfamethoxazole were detected (Hannappel et al. 2014). Also, 17 veterinary
pharmaceuticals were found in groundwater adjacent to operating swine and beef
cattle facilities in the United States (Bartelt-Hunt et al. 2011). Groundwater can also
contain iodinated contrast agents (Zemann et al. 2014).
Of all representatives of the animal world, drugs influence mostly hydrobionts.
In many rivers in Great Britain, for example, the numbers of hermaphroditic sh
have increased considerably. This development is believed to be connected with
estrogen (including EE2) emissions from water purication facilities (Christensen
1998). A worldwide decline of amphibian populations can be explained by adverse
effects on sexual differentiation; evidence for EE2 affecting amphibian mating
behavior is lacking (Hoffmann and Kloas 2012). The presence of this drug in Lakes
Erie and Ontario resulted in male perch having not just male genitalia, but also
rudimentary female organs. Their sexual behavior changed, and they became
infertile (Kolpin et al. 2002).
Other drugsfor instance, analgesics and sedativesare also of interest.
Barbiturates reportedly influence DDT metabolism in sh. They also may modulate
behavior and predator-prey relationships by lowering swimming velocity and
influencing reaction times (Kummerer 2001).
Thus, the influences of health and veterinary services on the environment are
cause for deep concern. Many problems still need to be investigated. It is obvious
that the presence of some drugs in drinking water can lead to genetic mutations in
people.
The environmental impacts of health and veterinary services are illustrated by
Photos 6.836.85.
Photo 6.83 Estrogen emissions from water purication facilities considerably increase numbers
of hermaphroditic sh. The photo shows milt and hard-roe of hermaphroditic Siberian salmon in
Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. Photo credit: I.I. Bubovich (Department of Fish Conservation, Okhotsk
District, Khabarovsk Krai, Russia)
6.12
Photo 6.84 Health and

veterinary services impact the
environment mainly through
waste. Human and animal
amputated limbs, blood and
other body fluids (e.g., mucus,
lymph), used bandages,
disposable syringes, scalpels,
gloves, expired drugs, X-ray
lm, and broken mercury
thermometers are among the
types of dangerous medical
waste. The photo shows used
syringes for sale in a market
in Bumba, Democratic
Republic of the Congo. Photo
credit: Thomas Einberger
(Greenpeace), 16 March 2008
Photo 6.85 Medical

diagnostic methods provide
the major contribution to the
radiation dose sustained by
the majority of men from
articial sources. The digital
photofluorographic unit in
one of the policlinics of
Vladivostok is illustrated.
Photo credit: S.M.
Govorushko (Pacic
Vladivostok, Russia), 9 June
2007
303
304
6.13
Ritual Activity
A rite is a complex of ritualistic, traditional actions, without apparent practical

value, but serving to express certain social relations. In most cases, rites have a
religious background.
The following are some types of rites that influence the environment: (1) sacrice; (2) re; (3) ritual construction; (4) making and destruction of puppets; and
(5) pilgrimages to holy sites (Figs. 6.15 and 6.16).
Legend:
Christianity:
Hindu;
predominantly Roman Catholicism;

Judaism;
Buddhism;
predominantly Protestant;
Chinese religion;
Aboriginal beliefs and Christianity;
Orthodox Islam;
Shinto and Buddhism;
Sunni branch;
Shiite branch;
Traditional and indigenous beliefs;
Aboriginal beliefs, Christianity, and Islam.
Fig. 6.15 Distribution of world religions (http://www.worldreligions.psu.edu/maps-introduction.

htm; http://mapcollection.wordpress.com/2012/06/28/modern-distribution-of-world-religions/)
Sacrice is a widespread rite, typical for the majority of religions. History has
preserved many descriptions of such rites. For example, ancient Germans traditionally sacriced captives and their horses to the war god. Some tribes that lived in
the rst century AD on the territory of modern Denmark used to sacrice people to
the goddess Nerthus; Roman authors associated her with Earth Mother (Todd
2005).
At the dawn of recorded history, people practiced ritual killing during burial
rituals. Those traditions were practiced for a long time in the nations of tropical
latitudes. In some areas, ritual killings are still performed.
6.13
Ritual Activity
305
Legend:
Holy cities:
Buddhism;
Hinduism;
Islam;
Judaism;
Christianity;
Other objects of pilgrimage
Fig. 6.16 The most important objects of religious pilgrimages. Prepared by author based on data
from the following websites: http://kagyu-sa.org/lamas-on-pilgrimage/; http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Christian_pilgrimage; www.alunajoy.com/pilgrimages.html; and http://www.mapsondia.
com/tourism/buddhist-pilgrimage-locations.html
Rites of sacrice, blood, and death were typical of the Aztecs. They were
practiced less by the Maya (Scherer et al. 2011). Every year, 20,000 people were
sacriced on the flat roofs of pyramids. In 1486, when a new temple was hallowed
in the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan, 70,000 people were murdered in just one
day. During their invasion into Mexico, Hernn Corts and his companions counted
136,000 skulls of sacriced people in one of the biggest temples there
(Golubchikov 2005; Johnson et al. 2012; Pennock 2012).
After a time, most nations began to sacrice different animals (OConnor 2013;
Alves et al. 2012). In the Harz Mountains (Germany), squirrels were burned on
Easter; in the department of Ardennes (France), cats were burned on the rst
Sunday of fasting. In some regions of Greece, oxen were sacriced; in south India,
goats; and in the southern part of Celebes (Sulawesi) island, swine.
Sacrice often has certain objectives. For example, to invoke rain in Bohemia
(Czechia), frogs were noosed; in the mountains of Japan, a black dog was sacriced; in India, a black goat; and on Timor island, black swine (Frazer 2006).
306
Burial rituals often involved the erection of special structures. Ancient Egyptian
monumental tombs (pyramids), the Scythians tumuli (round mound on top of a
burial chamber), and dolmens (vertical slabs with another slab laid on top) are
widely known (Lozano et al. 2014).
Many countries customarily have res during certain times of the year to dance
around or jump over. The numbers of res can be great. For instance, during the
Easter re celebration in central and northern Germany, res were burned simultaneously on the tops of hills, and sometimes 40 could be seen at once (Frazer
2006).
Rituals using different trees have been widespread. The classic example is
Christmas trees; nevertheless, they are not only cut for the New Year. In many parts
of Europe (England, Germany, France, Switzerland), pines were installed in May.
The Gypsies of Transylvania and Romania at the eve of St. Georges Day (23 April)
used young willows; in Boeotia (Greece), the biggest oak was taken (Frazer 2006).
Puppets are traditionally thrown into water in many countries. For instance, in
Bohemia, on the fourth Sunday of Lent, a doll called Death was thrown into the
water (Frazer 2006); the Eastern Slavs, during the celebration of St. John the Baptist
Day, drowned a puppet (Levkiyevskaya 2004).
In India, the rite of drowning puppets is very common; there it is called the
immersion of idols. In Bhopal (center of the Madhya Pradesh state) in September
through October, for example, the rite of the idols Lord Ganesha and the goddess
Durga is conducted. Sixteen hundred idols were immersed in the suburban lakes of
Bhopal alone (Avvannavar et al. 2009).
This custom introduces pollution into water bodies. Though the idols themselves are made of inert materials, their paint contains considerable amounts of
toxic metals such as lead, arsenic, chrome, and mercury (Bajpaiz et al. 2008;
Sharma 2014). Also, during every rite, large amounts of oil and fat, flower garlands,
and food waste get into the water (Vyas et al. 2008). Serious damage is caused to
the workers health. Noise pollution also is important. During such festivals the
noise levels reach 104 db (Vyas et al. 2006).
Pilgrimages play an important role in many religions, with millions of people
participating annually. During pilgrimages serious damage to the environment is
unavoidable, caused by the presence of considerable numbers of people concentrated in small areas.
Thus rites make signicant contributions to environmental degradation, and
many natural components (e.g., vegetation, the animal world, soils, surface
waters, the geomorphologic environment) are affected.
The environmental impacts of rites are illustrated by Photos 6.866.93.
6.13
Ritual Activity
307
Photo 6.86 The following are some of the types of rites that influence the environment:
(1) sacrice; (2) re; (3) ritual construction; (4) making and destruction of puppets; and
(5) pilgrimages to holy sites. Sacrice is a very widespread rite, typical for the majority of religions.
At the dawn of recorded history, people practiced ritual killing during burial rituals. The photo shows
a pig being killed as a sacrice during a burial ceremony in the town of Gasa, Xinping County,
Yunnan Province, China. Photo credit: Bai Yunxian (Greenpeace), 1 January 2005
Photo 6.87 Burial rituals very often involved the erection of special structures. Ancient Egyptian
monumental tombs (pyramids), the Scythians tumuli (round mound on top of a burial chamber),
and dolmens (vertical slabs with another slab laid on top) are widely known. A Poulnabrone
dolmen in Burren, County Clare, Ireland, is shown. It is a portal tomb, dating probably between
4200 and 2900 BC. The dolmen consists of a 12-foot, thin, slab-like, tabular capstone supported
by two slender portal stones, which support the capstone 1.8 m (6 ft) from the ground, creating a
chamber in a 9 m (30 ft) low cairn. Photo credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poulnabrone_dolmen
308
Photo 6.88 Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world. For thousands
of years, the largest structures on Earth were pyramids. The Great Pyramid of Khufu in Giza is the
only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still remaining. Khufus Pyramid is built
mainly of limestone (with large red granite blocks used in some interior chambers), and is
considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains around 1.3 million blocks ranging in weight
from 2.5 tons (5500 lb) to 15 tons (33,000 lb) and is built on a square base with sides measuring
about 230 m (755 ft), covering 13 acres. Pyramids in Giza, Egypt, are shown. Photo credit:
Ricardo Liberato, 19 June 2006
Photo 6.89 There is a tradition of throwing puppets into water in many countries. In India this rite
is very common; there it is called the immersion of idols. This custom introduces a lot of
pollution into water bodies. Though the idols themselves are made of inert materials, their paint
contains considerable amounts of toxic metals such as lead, arsenic, chromium, and mercury.
Devotees immerse an idol of Lord Ganesh at Girgaum Chowpatty, Mumbai, India. Photo credit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anant_Chaturdashi by Chris (Flickr: Ganesh) [CC BY 2.0 (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons, 25 September 2007
6.13
Ritual Activity
309
Photo 6.90 A typical ceremonial burial requires 600880 pounds of wood. However, wood in
India is not cheap, and there are thousands more who cannot afford cremation and whose bodies
are simply placed into the Ganges. A dead body in Manikarnika Ghat, Ganges River, Varanasi,
India, is shown. Photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20110825_dead_body_
Ganges_river_Manikarnika_Ghat_Varanasi_India.JPG by User:Ggia (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
Photo 6.91 A cremation in Varanasi on a bank of the Ganges River is shown. About 40,000
cremations are performed each year here, most on wood pyres that do not completely consume the
body. Wherever, a re is burning (smoke), someone is being cremated; this happen day and night.
Cremation takes place shortly after death; the body is dipped into the Ganges after it dries.
Consequently, this rite results in contamination of the atmosphere and surface waters as well as
having an impact on forests. Photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cremation_in_
Varanasi.jpg
310
Photo 6.92 Rituals associated with the use of different trees have been widespread. A classic
example is Christmas trees. The photo shows a lorry with rs for sale in Vladivostok (Russia).
Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute, Vladivostok, Russia), 26
December 2010
Photo 6.93 Pilgrimages play an important role in many religions. Millions of people participate in
pilgrimages annually. When pilgrims visit holy places, serious damage to the environment caused
by high concentrations of people within limited areas is inevitable. Mount Fuji in Japan is a
functioning Shinto holy place, and cultic structures of the Japanese traditional religion of Shinto
are situated on its slopes. The mount has attracted pilgrims for many centuries. Pilgrims ascending
Mount Fuji are shown. Photo credit: S.M. Govorushko (Pacic Geographical Institute,
Vladivostok, Russia), 13 August 2013
References
311
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Appendix 1
List of Maps
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
Fig. 1.12
Fig.
Fig.
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Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
1.13
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
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Fig.
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
3.1
3.2
The world in 1000 BCE

Largest hydropower stations in the world
Reservoirs of the world
Thermal power stations
Nuclear power plants of the world
Average annual amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth surface in
watts per square metre
Global wind power potential
Wind farms
World high-temperature geothermal provinces
Wave energy flux in kilowatts per metre wave front
Global tide range
Areas of the world ocean most favorable for ocean current electricity
generation
Differences in temperature between the ocean surface and water a
kilometre down
Share of wood fuels in national energy consumption
Industrial regions of the world
Main petrochemical companies
Largest Fertilizer Producers
Pesticide pollution from pesticide manufacturing facilities
Sulphuric acid output in 2000 shown as percentage of that of the top
producer
Main pharmaceutical companies in the world
Main aluminium smelters in the world
Helicopter plants in the world
Lead pollution from used lead-acid accumulator recycling
Main pulp and paper mills
Chromium pollution from tanneries
Main sugar mills
Mineral resources of the world (not including fuels)
Areas of alluvial gold deposits in the world

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5
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322
Appendix 1: List of Maps
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
6.16
Mercury pollution from gold mining and ore processing

Global distribution of oil resources
Global gas elds
Regions of oil and gas development in the world ocean
Location of worlds shale plays, volume of technically recoverable
shale gas (billion cubic metres) in the 20 countries with the largest
resources, and the level of baseline water stress
The share of agriculture in GDP (percent)
Cultivated land percentage of total land area, 1992
Map of wheat yield growth and stagnation
Pesticide pollution from agricultural production
Global livestock density
Global density of chickens
Global distribution of timber resources
Global forest status
Global road network
Main railways of the world
Cities with metro systems
Total length of pipelines in countries of the world
Main air routes and largest airports in the world
Global air routes map
Intensity of navigation in the world
Inland water routes in the world
Areas of world sheries
Number of species threatened by hunting, shing, or trapping
Global distribution of brown trout (Salmo trutta)
Distribution of areas under irrigation in the world, 2000
Global irrigation efciencies, 2000
Urban areas in the world
Sanitation coverage in the world, 2004
Undersea Internet cables
Global recreation and tourism
Medical and health tourism in the world
Ski areas and resorts
Global distribution of nuclear weapons
Military expenditures as percent of GDP
Global distribution of spaceports
Distribution of world religions
The most important objects of religious pilgrimages
Appendix 2
List of Copyright Holders for Maps
Blacksmith Institute for a Pure Earth: 2.4, 2.9, 2.11, 3.3, 4.4
Bureau of Meteorology, Australia: 1.10
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: 6.4
Gerten D.: 6.5
Govorushko S.M.: 1.1, 1.3, 1.7, 1.11, 2.2, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.10, 5.3, 6.11, 6.14, 6.16
Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences: 1.2, 1.5, 4.2, 4.7, 5.4,
6.9
IUCN Red List Unit: 6.2
Kholina V.N.: 3.1, 4.1
Maksakovsky V.P.: 1.4, 1.8, 2.1, 3.6, 6.1
Mirzekhanova Z.G.: 6.10
Nature Publishing Group: 4.3
2.1
Maps That Are in Public Domain
Fig. 1
Fig. 3.2
Fig. 6.13
2.2
Maps Compiled Using Two and More Sources
Fig. 1.6
Fig. 1.12
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
The world in 1000 BCE

Areas of alluvial gold deposits in the world
Military expenditures as percent of GDP
1.13
2.3
3.4
3.5
Global wind power potential

Differences in temperature between the ocean surface and water a
kilometre down
Share of wood fuels in national energy consumption
Largest Fertilizer Producers
Global distribution of oil resources
Global gas elds

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Appendix 2: List of Copyright Holders for Maps
Fig. 3.7
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
4.5
4.8
5.1
5.2
5.5
5.6
5.7
6.3
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.12
6.15
Location of worlds shale plays, volume of technically recoverable

shale gas (billion cubic metres) in the 20 countries with the largest
resources, and the level of baseline water stress
Global livestock density
Global forest status
Global road network
Main railways of the world
Global air routes map
Intensity of navigation in the world
Inland water routes in the world
Global distribution of brown trout (Salmo trutta)
Urban areas in the world
Sanitation coverage in the world, 2004
Undersea Internet cables
Global distribution of nuclear weapons
Distribution of world religions
Appendix 3
List of Photos and Their Copyright

Holders
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
FAO Aquaculture Photo Library

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall
Govorushko S.M
Panichev A.M
Anderson P.-O
Zabulonov A
Ragozin A.L
Makhinov A.N
Russian Space Agency
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_ladder
Panichev A.M
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toppila_Power_Station
Greenpeace, Stone Les
Tennessee Valley Authority
Govorushko S.M
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onagawa_Nuclear_Power_Plant
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_pollution
Greenpeace Russia, Kantor V
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repository
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster_effects
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_thermal_power_stations
U.S. Air Force, Barclay N.Y
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Sponheim T
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_New_Zealand
Govorushko S.M
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Rudsky V.V
Govorushko S.M
Sienicki T
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sterna_paradisaea
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larderello

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Appendix 3: List of Photos and Their Copyright Holders
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
1.34
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.46
1.47
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.28
2.29
2.30
Greenpeace, Morgan S
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Electricity
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBuoy
Greenpeace, Morgan S
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaGen
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kislaya_Guba_Tidal_Power_Station
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OTEC_in_Hawaii.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Otec2.jpg
da Fonseca J.R
FAO, Gallagher S
Panichev A.M
Panichev A.M
Greenpeace, Dorreboom L
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass
Siegmund W
UNEP
Greenpeace, Thomas M
Kovalev E.V
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_renery
Russian Space Agency
Govorushko S.M
Greenpeace, Wen W
Greenpeace
Greenpeace, Heflin R
Greenpeace, Balia R
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_
pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products
Govorushko S.M
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slag_heap
Gorshkov S.P
Gorshkov S.P
Gorshkov S.P
NASA Earth Observatory, Allen J
Siemens Pressebild
Govorushko A.S
Ali S.Z
Braun B
Greenpeace, Cunningham J
Govorushko S.M
Schnepf C
Greenpeace, Parracho L
Greenpeace
U.S. EPA Great Lakes Program Ofce
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
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Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
2.31
2.32
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.36
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.40
2.41
2.42
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
3.27
3.28
3.29
3.30
3.31
3.32
3.33

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep_shearing
Lineair/Greenpeace, Funari R
Braun B
Braun B
FAO, Gandol A
Greenpeace, Caton P
FAO, Faidutti R
UNEP
Friedrich B
U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pu%CA%BBunene
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerrej%C3%B3n
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingham_Canyon_Mine
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko V.M
Greenpeace, Wen W
Greenpeace, Hodson J
Debelaya I.D
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_mining
Kelman I
Stoker C
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)
Govorushko S.M
Sederholm J.J
Garrett D
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_extraction
Gorshkov S.P
Debelaya I.D
Makhinov A.N
Greenpeace, Barclay B
http://www.metallurgium.com/projects.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_situ_leach
Greenpeace Russia, Sinyakov D
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach_Oil_Field
Greenpeace Russia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder_Horse_PDQ
NOAA
Greenpeace, Beltr D
Stumberg J
NOAA
Greenpeace Russia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale_gas
327
328
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
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3.34
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
4.25
4.26
4.27
4.28
4.29
4.30
4.31
4.32
4.33
4.34
4.35
4.36
4.37
4.38
4.39
4.40
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Cunningham B
Dwyer J
FAO, dOnofrio G
Govorushko S.M
FAO, Johnson P
Hammond K
UNEP
Guichard G
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
U.S. Department of Agriculture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silo
Govorushko S.M
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Vanuga J
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cochrane C
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cochrane C
Govorushko S.M
Batotsyrenov E
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Batotsyrenov E
Panichev A.M
CSIRO, van Aken W
CSIRO
State Library of Queensland
Seleznev I.S
Panichev A.M
Ecoline EA Centre, Kurnakov P
Dupquier J
Greenpeace, Napchan L
Mattila M
Lockwood L
Lapin A.A
Underwater Logging Ltd
Stephens D
Swedish Match, Dezgeniski E
Solkin V.A
Waddy M
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution
Behmen A
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
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Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
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5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.23
5.24
5.25
5.26
5.27
5.28
5.29
5.30
5.31
5.32
5.33
5.34
5.35
5.36
5.37
5.38
5.39
5.40
5.41
5.42
5.43
5.44
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
329
Govorushko S.M
ONeill J
Govorushko S.M
Kelman I
Corsi S
LaForest J
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikan_Tunnel
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Callum Black, 23 May 2007
Govorushko S.M
Greenpeace, Miller A.A
Greenpeace Russia, Pavlov V
Houseknecht D
Greenpeace Russia
Rivkin F.M
Shebs S
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_San_Bruno_pipeline_explosion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport, 24 April 2005
Govorushko S.M
Kelman I
Kelman I
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution
Pingstone A
NOAA
Greenpeace, Vaccari P
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution
CSIRO
Govorushko S.M
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Kovalev E.V
Kovalev E.V
Govorushko S.M
Newcomb J
NOAA
Rojas C.O
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_shing
NOAA
Greenpeace, Aslund C
330
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
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Photo
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Photo
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Photo
Photo
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Photo
Photo
Photo
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.17
6.18
6.19
6.20
6.21
6.22
6.23
6.24
6.25
6.26
6.27
6.28
6.29
6.30
6.31
6.32
6.33
6.34
6.35
6.36
6.37
6.38
6.39
6.40
6.41
6.42
6.43
6.44
6.45
6.46
6.47
6.48
6.49
6.50
Greenpeace, Grace R
Greenpeace, Davison K
Aramilev V.A
NOAA
Ryan P
Olmos F
Projeto Tamar Brazil Image Bank, Marcovaldi G
New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries
Thrush S
Thrush S
Greenpeace, Beltr D
FAO Aquaculture Photo Library, Hasan M
Gorgoglione B
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_louse
FAO Aquaculture Photo Library
Kelman I
Greenpeace, Shirley C
Hammond K
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falconry
Govorushko V.M
Panichev A.M
Greenpeace, Stirton B
Kudryavtseva L.O
Eugene F
Aquarius Systems Inc., Robertson N.R
Smith G.P
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_perch
Hansen T
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)
Govorushko S.M
FAO, Botts F
Greenpeace, Guang L
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill_Falls
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Reus F
Ecoline EA Centre, Marakanova E
UNEP
UNEP
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_cleaning
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_New_York_City_steam_explosion
Govorushko S.M
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
6.51
6.52
6.53
6.54
6.55
6.56
6.57
6.58
6.59
6.60
6.61
6.62
6.63
6.64
6.65
6.66
6.67
6.68
6.69
6.70
6.71
6.72
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
Photo
6.73
6.74
6.75
6.76
6.77
6.78
6.79
6.80
6.81
6.82
6.83
6.84
6.85
6.86
6.87
6.88
6.89
6.90
Photo 6.91
Photo 6.92
Photo 6.93
331
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Levashkin A.P
Levashkin A.P
Paletsky V.V
Kelman I
Kelman I
Ling R
Kelman I
Rychagova N.I
Golik A.V
Govorushko S.M
Popov V.N
Golik A.V
Golik A.V
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Mountain_(ski_resort)
Finizio M
Mikhailov A.M
Nikolayeva A.A
Govorushko S.M
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_
Nagasaki
Govorushko S.M
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China
Fray J
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare
U.S. Air Force
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-132
Panichev A.M
NASA
NASA
Bubovich I.I
Greenpeace, Einberger T
Govorushko S.M
Greenpeace, Yunxian B
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poulnabrone_dolmen
Liberato R
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anant_Chaturdashi
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20110825_dead_body_
Ganges_river_Manikarnika_Ghat_Varanasi_India.JPG
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cremation_in_Varanasi.jpg
Govorushko S.M
Govorushko S.M
Appendix 4
List of Copyright Holders for Photos
Ali S. Z. 2.23
Anderson P.-O. 1.5
Aquarius Systems Inc. 6.31
Aramilev V.A. 6.8
Batotsyrenov E. 4.18; 4.21
Behmen A. 5.4
Black C. 5.17
Braun B. 2.25; 2.34; 2.35
Bubovich I.I. 6.84
CSIRO 4.23; 4.24; 5.38
Cunningham B. 3.34
da Fonseca J.R. 1.42
Debelaya I.D. 3.7; 3.17;
Dupquier J. 4.32
Dwyer J. 4.1
Ecoline EA Centre 4.31; 4.36; 6.45; 6.56
Eugene F. 6.30
FAO 1.43; 2.36; 2.38; 4.2; 4.4; 6.37
FAO Aquaculture Photo Library 1.1; 6.18; 6.21
Finizio M. 6.68
Fray J. 6.75
Friedrich B. 2.40
Garrett D. 3.14
Golik A.V. 6.62; 6.65; 6.66
Gorgoglione B. 6.19
Gorshkov S.P. 2.17; 2.18; 2.19; 3.16
Govorushko A.S. 2.22
Govorushko S.M. 1.3; 1.15; 1.23; 1.24; 1.27; 1.30; 2.7; 2.14; 2.26; 3.3; 3.12; 4.3;
4.8; 4.9; 4.10; 4.13; 4.17; 4.19; 4.20; 5.5; 5.7; 5.11; 5.12; 5.14; 5.15; 5.16; 5.18;
5.30; 5.39; 5.43; 6.36; 6.40; 6.41; 6.42; 6.43; 6.50; 6.51; 6.52; 6.63; 6.71; 6.73;
6.85; 6.92; 6.93
Govorushko V.M. 3.4; 6.26
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334
Appendix 4: List of Copyright Holders for Photos
Greenpeace 1.13; 1.34; 1.39; 1.46; 2.3; 2.8; 2.9; 2.10; 2.11; 2.24; 2.28; 2.29; 2.33;
2.37; 3.5; 3.6; 3.19; 3.29; 4.33; 5.19; 5.36; 6.5; 6.6; 6.7; 6.17; 6.23; 6.28; 6.38;
6.83; 6.86
Greenpeace Russia 1.18; 2.15; 2.31; 3.22; 3.24; 3.25; 3.26; 3.32; 4.27; 4.29; 5.20;
5.21; 5.23; 5.26; 5.27; 6.11
Guichard G. 4.7
Hammond K. 4.5; 6.24
Hansen T. 6.34
Houseknecht D. 5.22
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Electricity 1.37
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20110825_dead_body_Ganges_river_
Manikarnika_Ghat_Varanasi_India.JPG 6.90
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cremation_in_Varanasi.jpg 6.91
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OTEC_in_Hawaii.jpg 1.40
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Otec2.jpg 1.41
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sterna_paradisaea 1.32
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_New_York_City_steam_explosion 6.49
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_San_Bruno_pipeline_explosion 5.28
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport 5.29
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anant_Chaturdashi 6.89
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply) 6.35
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki 6.72
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingham_Canyon_Mine 3.2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass 1.47
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_shing 6.3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Mountain_(ski_resort) 6.67
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerrej%C3%B3n 3.1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare 6.76
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster_effects 1.20
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill_Falls 6.39
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repository 1.19
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_cleaning 6.48
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_
personal_care_products 2.13
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China 6.74
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War 6.78
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_situ_leach 3.21
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kislaya_Guba_Tidal_Power_Station 1.36
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larderello 1.33
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_thermal_power_stations 1.21
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach_Oil_Field 3.23
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution 5.3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution 5.33
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_perch 6.33
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_renery 2.5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onagawa_Nuclear_Power_Plant 1.16
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poulnabrone_dolmen 6.87
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBuoy 1.38
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pu%CA%BBunene 2.42
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_louse 6.20
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaGen 1.35
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale_gas 3.33
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep_shearing 2.32
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silo 4.12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slag_heap 2.16
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_New_Zealand 1.26
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-132 6.79
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_mining 3.8
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_pollution 1.17
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder_Horse_PDQ 3.27
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toppila_Power_Station 1.12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock) 3.11
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution 5.37
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall Photo 1.2
http://www.metallurgium.com/projects.html 3.20
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falconry 6.25
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_ladder 1.10
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_extraction 3.15
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikan_Tunnel 5.13
Kelman I. 3.9; 5.8; 5.31; 5.32; 6.22; 6.57; 6.58; 6.60
Kovalev E.V. 2.4; 5.41; 5.42
Kudryavtseva L.O. 6.29
LaForest J. 5.10
Lapin A.A. 4.37
Levashkin A.P. 6.53; 6.54
Liberato R. 6.88
Ling R. 6.59
Lockwood L. 4.35
Makhinov A.N. 1.8; 3.18
Mattila M. 4.34
Mikhailov A.M. 6.69
NASA 3.28; 3.31; 6.81; 6.82
NASA Earth Observatory 2.20
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 2.12
New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries 6.14
Newcomb J. 5.44
Nikolayeva A.A. 6.70
NOAA 5.35; 6.1; 6.4; 6.9
ONeill J. 5.6
Olmos F. 6.12
335
336
Paletsky V.V. 6.55

Panichev A.M. 1.4; 1.11; 1.44; 1.45; 4.22; 4.30; 6.27; 6.80
Pingstone A. 5.34
Popov V.N. 6.64
Projeto Tamar Brazil Image Bank 6.13
Ragozin A.L. 1.7
Reus F. 6.44
Rivkin F.M. 5.24
Rojas C.O. 6.2
Rudsky V.V. 1.29
Russian Space Agency 1.9; 2.6
Ryan P. 6.10
Rychagova N.I. 6.61
Schnepf C. 2.27
Sederholm J.J. 3.13
Seleznev I.S. 4.26
Shebs S. 5.25
Siegmund W. 2.1
Siemens Pressebild 2.21
Sienicki T. 1.31
Smith G.P. 6.32
Solkin V.A. 5.1
Sponheim T. 1.25
State Library of Queensland 4.25
Stephens D. 4.39
Stoker C. 3.10
Stumberg J. 3.30
Swedish Match 4.40
Tennessee Valley Authority 1.14
Thrush S. 6.15; 6.16
U.S. Air Force 1.22; 6.77
U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board 2
U.S. Department of Agriculture 1.28; 4.15; 4.11; 4.16
U.S. EPA Great Lakes Program Ofce 2.30
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 5.40
Underwater Logging Ltd. 4.38
UNEP 2.2; 2.39; 4.6; 6.46; 6.47
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service 4.14
Waddy M. 5.2
Zabulonov A. 1.6
Index
Note:
1. All geographical names (countries, cities, rivers, seas, lakes, and mountains) are
indicated in bold with capital letter.
2. Latin names of species (animals, plants, and microorganisms) are indicated in
italic.
3. Common names of plant and animal species and names of taxa are indicated in
bold italic.
4. Terms (technological processes, names of end products and raw materials, and
types of enterprises) are indicated in regular type with lowercase letter.
5. Other names (nationalities, factories, and so on) are indicated in regular type with
capital letter.
A
Abidjan, Ivory Coast, 268
Africa, x
Agent Orange (herbicide), 292, 296
agricultural chemicals, 154
agricultural equipment, 153
agricultural land, 151
agriculture
animal husbandry, 162167
livestock grazing, 168173
stall feed, 163167
plant growing, 151161
Agua Caliente Solar Project, Arizona, 20
Aguadoura Wave Park, Portugal, 36
air pollutants, 32, 7576
air pollution, see also atmosphere, effects on
by automobile transport, 194, 196, 197
air routes map, 216
air transport, 216221
effects on
soil, 217, 218
surface water, 217
environmental effects of, 218221

intensity of pollution, 217, 219
noise pollution by, 217, 218
Ajka, Hungary, 79
Alaska, 223
Alsace, France, 160
alluvial gold deposits, 124
Alta Wind Energy Center, 28
aluminum industry, 76
America, ix
American passenger pigeon (Ectopistes
migratorius), 251
Amu Darya River, 260
Amur Oblast, Russia, 128
Angara River, 183
Amgu River valley, Russia, 283
animal husbandry, 162173
stall feed, 163167
animal inhabitants, 4
animal world, effects on
communication line, 272275

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24957-5
337
338
animal world, effects on (cont.)
food processing industry, 102
housing and communal services, 266
hunting, 250251
land oil and gas development, 135
light industry, 97
military activity, 293
mining, 65
non-ferrous metal manufacturing, 76
opencast mines, 114
pipeline transport, 214
power transmission line, 272, 275276
recreational activity, 278281
sports activity, 284
timber processing, 175
wood pulp and paper industry, 93
Annapolis tidal power plant, 39
anthropogenic physical actions, 73
antibiotics, 244, 248
Antwerp, Belgium, 228
aquaculture, 244249
effects on
atmosphere, 245
surface water, 244245
vegetation, 245
emission of chemicals from construction
materials, 244
environmental impacts of, 246249
on aquatic environment, 244, 247
eutrophication, 244
impacts on fauna, 245
invasions, 245, 247
resources consumption, 244
social impacts of, 245
aquatic birds, 280
Aral Sea, 260
arboricides, 186
Arenzano, Italy, 225
Arkansas, United States, 146
Artumey settlement, 9
Asian tiger mosquito (Aedesalbopictus), 195
Asiatic grass frog (Rana chensinensis), 254
asphalt production, 85
assembling, types of, 80
Aswan High Dam, 3
Aswan Hydropower Station, 8
Atlantis space shuttle, 300
atmosphere, effects on
aquaculture, 245
building materials industry, 85
electric power plants, 13
Index
iron and steel manufacturing industry,
7274
light industry, 97
mechanical engineering, 82
nuclear power plants, 15
opencast mines, 114
power transmission and communication
lines, 274
railway transport, 202, 206
shale oil and gas extraction, 144
stall feed, 163
storage reservoir, 5
underground mines, 121
woodworking industry, 8891
atmospheric pollution, 134
atomic weapons, 294
Augrabies Falls National Park, South Africa,
71
Australia, x, 37
automobile transport, 193200
air pollution, 194, 196, 197
barriers to animal migration, 195, 198
bioinvasions and, 195
condemnation of land, 194
effects on
geological environment, 195
geomorphologic environment, 195
groundwater conditions, 194
soil, 194
surface flow, 194
surface water, 194, 199
influences on fauna, 194
noise pollution, 195
underground space, use of, 204
aviation, 218
Aztecs, 305
B
Baia Mare Aurul gold mine, Romania, 118
Baja California peninsula, Mexico, 239
Baltic Sea, 240
Bangladesh, 99, 246
banks, transformation of, 4
Banqiao Dam, 5
Bar, Montenegro, 228
Bashkiria, 283
Index
Baykal pulp-and-paper plant, 94
Baykalsky wood pulp and paper works, 95
Bay of Fundy, 39
Bay of Guayaquil, Ecuador, 249
benthic organisms, 28
benzol, 206
Bering Island, Russia, 240
Bingham Canyon Mine, 116
biodiversity, 186, 284
biogas, 46
biogenic substances, 3
bioinvasions, and automobile transport, 195
biomass
decomposition of, 46
electricity production from, 4549
thermal pollution by, 47
fermentation, 46
transformation of, 45
birds, 273
marine bird fatalities, 234, 240241
sea birds, 126, 139, 142, 223
effects of
electric shock, 273
wind power plants effect on, 2829, 30
black-browed albatross (Thalassarche
melanophris), 241
black dog, 305
black goat, 305
black swine, 305
Blue Ribbon placer gold mine, 127
Bratsk Reservoir, 9
Brazil, 47, 58, 70
Brooks Range, Alaska, 212
brown trout (Salmo trutta), 255
Brittany, France, 225
Buck Steam Station, North Carolina, 14
effects on
atmosphere, 85
soils, 86
surface waters, 86
radioactive contamination by, 86
Burke County, Georgia, 187
burial rituals, 304, 309
Burntwood River, 261
Buy, Russia, 181
339
buzzard (Buteo buteo), 276
by-catch, 234235, 237, 239, 242
byssinosis, 100
C
cadmium telluride solar cells, 24
California Valley Solar Ranch, 20
camels, 170
Campeche Bay, Mexico, 139, 140
Canada, 39, 58, 261
car racing, 287
carbon dioxide, 163
emission, 197
Carisanne II (Scottish trawler), 237
catadromous sh, 5
cats, 307
Cattenom, France, 17
cave, garbage collection in, 283
cellulose production, methods of, 9293
Central Arizona Project, 261
ceramics, 85
ceremonial burial, 309
Cerrejn coal mine, 115
cetaceans, 239
channel catsh (Ictalurus punctatus), 249
channel dredging, 224, 229
charcoal, 70
Chechessee River, 198
chemical industry, 5671
complexity of, 56
effects on surface water, 56
mining and, 6367
noise pollution by, 57
petrochemical industry, 5762
pharmaceutical industry, 6871
resin industry, 68, 69
solid waste, 57
chemical plant protectors, 155
cheese production, 104
Cherny Shaman waterfall, Russia, 283
chickens, 169
global density of, 162
China, 63, 68, 261
chlorine, 155
Christmas trees, 306, 310
chromium pollution, 96, 99, 100
Churchill River, 263
clay brick, 85
climate change, 256
Clinch River, 14
coastal-marine placers, 124, 125
340
coastal wind power plants, 28
Colorado River, 5, 260, 261
Commander Islands, Russia, 239
communal services, 264271
changes in phreatic levels, 266
effects on
atmosphere, 265
geomorphologic environment, 266, 267
ground water, 266
surface water, 265
impact on water supplies, 265
influences on animal world, 266
problem of waste, 264
effects on
animal world, 273, 275278
atmosphere, 274
ichthyofauna, 273274, 277
land resources, 273
soil, 274
vegetation, 273
influence at construction stage, 272
condemnation of land
automobile transport, effects of, 194
condemnation
by food processing industry, 102
by opencast mines, 114
by underground mines, 120
coniferous trees, 92
Connecticut River, 17
continentality, climate, 5
contrails, 220
Croatia, 288
Croix River, 183
crop husbandry, 157
crustaceans, 234, 242
cultivated plants, 152
cyanide leaching, 130
Czech Republic, 132
D
Dhaka, Bangladesh, 87
Dams, see also individual dams
categories of, 6
failure of, 5
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 281
Dead Sea, 65, 66
Deepwater Horizon well, 141
de-icing salts, 200
density of wave energy, 3435
Index
deposit movement dynamics, wind power
effects on, 35
destruction of plants, 168
detergents, 268
deterioration of wood quality, 168169
dewatering of quarries, 118
diadromous sh, migration paths of, 5
digestive system, 223
dimethylhydrazine (heptyl), unsymmetrical,
297, 299
ditch backlling, 210
dolphins, 238
domestic waste, 269
Don River, 10
drag extraction of deposits, 124129
effects on
atmospheric air, 126
soil, 126
vegetation, 126
drift floating, 181
drift-net shing, 240
drilling operations, 117
drop in water exchange, 4
dry-cleaning, environmental impacts of, 270
dust, 72
emissions, in food processing industry, 102
suspended, 73
total volume of, 114
E
earthquakes, 5
earthworms, 153
echinoderms, 234, 242
ecocide, 292, 296
El Fao, Sudan, 159
electrical manufacturing, 80
electric power industry, 149
biomass, electricity production from, 4549
nuclear power plants, 1519
solar power structures, 2026
wind power structures, 2730
geothermal power structures, 3133
hydropower structures, 210
oceanic energy, use of
other sources, 4144
tidal power stations, 3840
wave power structures, 3437
thermal power structures, 1114
electromagnetic elds, 218
electronic waste, 84
electroplating, 80
elk (Alces alces), 285
Index
Emory River, 14
Endeavor space shuttle, 301
Energia spacecraft, 299
ensilage harvesting and storage, 165
epizootic disease, 169
Ergalakh River, 78
Escherichia coli, 256
Elura lead-zinc underground mine, 123
Euphrates River, xi
Eurasia, ixx
European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), 256, 258
eutrophication, 244
F
failure of dams, 5
fauna, 4
effects on
aquaculture, 245
space exploration, 297
water transport, 224
ichthyofauna, 35, 28, 115, 180, 261,
273274
Fayetteville shale gas, 146
felling, 176
fertilizers, 63, 154
nitrogen, 64, 154155
phosphate, 155
phosphoric, 63
potash, 64
ltering mollusks, 126
re, 250, 307
in forest burning, 251
sh, 234
sh ladders, 10
sh spawning, 126
sheries, 233243
by-catch, 234235, 237, 239, 242
habitat deterioration, 235, 242
indirect impacts of, 235
shing gear, 235
float or buoy systems, 35
flooding of land, 8
flora, space exploration effects on, 299
effects on
animal world, 102
forestry
draining, negative impacts of, 186
forest border effect, 275
341
melioration, 186
plantation development, 185187
recreational activity, effects of, 278
reforestation, 185187
systematic burning, 251
timber rafting, 179185
formaldehyde, 206
France, 39, 49
freshwater flora, 224
freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera
margaritifera), 180
frogs, 305
frost swelling, 211
G
Gafsa Phosphates Company (CPG), 116
galvanizing, 82
Galveston, Texas, 139
Ganges River, Varanasi, 309
garbage dump, 269
gas elds, 134
gas processing, 58
gas yield, 46
gas weapon, 295
gaseous pollutants, 56, 85
iron and steel manufacturing industry, 72,
74
Genoa, Italy, 225
geological environment, effects on
iron and steel manufacturing industry, 73
storage reservoir, 5
transport
geomorphological environment, effects on
housing and communal services, 266, 267
power transmission lines, 274
transport
railway transport, 202
geothermal power structures, 3133
adverse effects of, 32
342
geothermal power structures (cont.)
condemnation of land by, 32
effects on
surface water, 32
noise impact of, 3233
operation of, 31
types of, 3132
Germany, 83, 119
gill-net shing, 239
gold, 126
gold rush, 128
golden eagle, 252
Golmud Solar Park, 20
Great Pyramid of Khufu, 310
Great Wall of China, 294
Grand Central Terminal, New York, 205
grass, 285
grassland farming, 171
green icebergs, 257
green plaque, 255
greenhouse gases, 5
grinding, 88
ground water, effects on, see also surface
water, effects on
stall feed, 164
growth stimulators, 244, 248
Gulf of Mexico, 141
Gulf War, 292, 296
gull, 237
gums, 179
H
habitats
deterioration, 235, 242
disappearance of, 4
hardening agents, 179
Harz Mountains, Germany, 305
haying, 165
heap leaching, 130132
effects on
soil, 131
surface water, 131
underground water, 131
Heathrow airdrome, 219, 221
health services, 301302
estrogen emissions, 302
impact on environment, 302
radiation dose, 303
herbicides, 186
hormones, 244, 248
Index
horse transport, 279
housing services, 264271
changes in phreatic levels, 266
effects on
atmosphere, 265
ground water, 266
surface water, 265
impact on water supplies, 265
influences on animal world, 266
problem of waste, 264
hunting, 250254
active, 250
effects on
animal world, 250251
vegetation, 250, 251
species extinction, 251
hydraulic extraction of deposits, 124129
effects on
soil, 126
vegetation, 126
hydrobionts, 16, 39, 59, 125, 139
water pollution, 104
hydrocarbon pollution, 142, 223224
hydrochloric acid, 69
hydrocoles, 226
hydroelectric power plants (HPPs)
damages associated with, 2
effects on atmosphere, 5
influence on
surface water, 34
vegetation, 4
soil affected by, 4
structure of, 2
hydropower engineering, 2
hydropower structures, 210
hydrospheric pollution
by chemical industry, 5657
of nuclear power plants, 1516
I
ichthyofauna, 35, 28, 115, 261
aquaculture, 245
lines, effects of, 273274, 277
Index
immersion of idols, 306, 308
ignition, 121
Imperial Sugar Renery, 105
in situ leaching, 130132
effects on
soil, 131
surface water, 131
Incheon International Airport Jung-gu, South
Korea, 218
incineration, 269
Indah Kiat Perawang pulp mill, 94
India, 63, 261
Indian redwood, 88
Indus River valley, x
industry, 55105
mining and, 6367
denition of, 55
light industry, 96100
metallurgy
iron and steel manufacturing, 7274
Interlaken, Switzerland, 282
intrasoil oil contamination, 134
introductions, 255258
of European starling (Sturnus vulgaris),
256, 258
of kudzu (Pueraria lobata), 256, 257
of Nile perch (Lates niloticus), 256, 258
of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes),
255256
iron and steel manufacturing, 7274
effects on
atmospheric air, 72
soils, 7273
surface water, 72
vegetation, 73
worldwide production of, 72
343
irrigation, 259
Istanbul FSM Bridge, 197
Ivalojoki Placer Mining District, Finland,
126
J
Jacuecanga, Rio de Janeiro, 226
Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russia, 118
Jiangxia tidal power plant, 39
Jiuquan Wind Power Base, 28
K
Karaidel River, 184
Karakol, Kyrgyzstan, 252
Kariba Dam, 6
Khabarovsk Krai, Russia, 117, 252
Khanka rice irrigation system, 262
Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area, 135, 137
Khargistai-Bayanburd Forest, 47
Kingston Fossil Plant, 14
Kisumu port, Kenya, 257
Kislaya Guba Tidal Power Station, 40
Kola Nuclear Power Plant, 16
Komi Republic, Russia, 136, 137
Kona coast of Hawaii, 43
Kopylkov hydroelectric power station, 8
Kostroma River, 181
Kot Lakhpat, Lahore, 84
Krasnoyarsk aluminum plant, 78
Krasny Yar, 48
kudzu (Pueraria lobata), 256, 257
L
Lacandon Jungle, 156
Lake Baykal, 94
Lake Erie, 227
Lake Huron, 227
Lake Kariba, 6
Lake Khanka, 262
Lake Michigan, 227
Lake Murray, 253
Lake Ontario, 227
Lake Superior, 227
Lake Victoria, 257, 258
lampreys, 227
landll gas, 46
effects on
animal world, 135
soils, 134, 136
surface water, 133
vegetation, 134
344
land reclamation, 154
landslides, 210
land withdrawal, 135, 144
and pipeline transport, 210
and railway transport, 203
La Rance tidal power plant, 39
Larderello geothermal power station, 33
lateral erosion, 9
leaching
cyanide, 130
heap, 130132
in situ, 130132
lead, 92, 206
compounds, 194
lead-acid accumulator recycling, 81
leather production, 96, 98
Lebanese Chemical Company, 67
Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant, 18
light industry, 96100
effects on
animal world, 97
atmosphere, 97
soil, 97
surface water, 97
occupational diseases caused by, 97
technological processes, 96
water pollution by, 97
Lillgrund offshore wind farm, 30
lime sand brick, 85
Lycoming County, Pennsylvania, 145
Lisbjerg, Denmark, 61
effects on
animal world, 169
soil, 169
vegetation, 168169
influence on geomorphology, 169
intensity of, 169
overgrazing, 168, 171
livestock intensity, global, 162
locomotives, 203
logging
of forests, 168
trade, 91
log ponds, 183
London Heathrow Airport, 219, 221
M
machining, 80
Maksimovka River, 178
mammals, 234, 239
Index
Mandalgovi, Mongolia, 172
mangroves, 249
manure storage, 166, 167
Marcellus Shale Formation, 145
margarine production, 101
mariculture, 246
marine birds, 234, 240241
marine mammals, 39, 223, 239
marine organisms, water pollution effects on,
223
assembling, types of, 80
effects on
atmospheric air, 82
soils, 82
surface water, 82
environmental effects of, 81, 8384
mercury pollution, from gold mining and ore
processing, 125, 129
Mesquite Solar project, Arizona, 20
Messoyakha-Norilsk gas pipeline, 210
metallic cadmium, 24
metallurgy
iron and steel manufacturing, 7274,
See also iron and steel
manufacturing
non-ferrous metal manufacturing, 7579,
See also non-ferrous metal
manufacturing
methane, 173
emission, 155, 161
production, 163
metrosystems, 201
Mexico, 58
microorganisms, 153
effects on
animal world, 293
atmosphere, 293
geomorphological environment, 293
soil, 293
mineral salts, 12
mining, 6367, 113146
atmospheric air affected by, 64
drag and hydraulic extraction of deposits,
124129
effects on
animal world, 65
soils, 65
surface water, 65
vegetation, 65
Index
in situ and heap leaching, 130132
oil and gas development
land, 133137
sea bottom, 138142
opencast mines, 113119
Minnesota, 95
missile tail, 297
Mississippi River, 156
Mohenjo Daro, xxi
Mhne Dam, 295
mollusks, 234, 242
Mongolia, 47, 170
morbidity of plants, 168
motor boats, 281
Mount Fuji, 310
mountaineering, 285
Mponeng gold mine, 120
musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), 253
N
Narita International Airport, 219
native cavity-nesting birds, 256
near-earth space, space exploration effects on,
298
Nellis Solar Power Plant, Nevada, 23
Nelson River, 261, 263
the Netherlands, 170, 292
New York City, 271
New Zealand, 49
niobium, 127
Niagara Falls, 6, 7, 227
Nile perch (Lates niloticus), 256, 258
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China, 263
nitric acid, 69
nitrogen fertilizers, 64, 154155
nitrous oxide, 163
noise pollution
by air transport, 217, 218
by automobile transport, 195
by chemical industry, 57
by iron and steel manufacturing industry,
73
by mechanical engineering, 82
by railway transport, 203
effects on
animal world, 76
natural resources, 77
345
soils, 76
surface water, 76
vegetation, 76
polluters in, 75
Norilsk Nickel, 77, 78
North Carolina, 237
North Sea, 139, 240
Northern Ireland, 40
Norway, 248
nose fairing, 297
nuclear power plants (NPPs), 1519
chemical pollution of, 16
dismantling of, 16
effects on
atmosphere, 15
soils, 16
vegetation, 16
hydrospheric pollution of, 1516
radioactive wastes of, 16, 18
thermal pollution of, 16, 17
nutrients, withdrawal of, 156
O
oaks, 306
occupational diseases, caused by light industry,
97
ocean currents, 41
Oceania, x
oceanic energy, use of
other sources, 4144
ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC),
4244
impact on water circulation, 43
types of, 43
offshore wind power plants, 28
oil and gas development
land, 133137
sea bottom, 138142
oil-red thermal power plants, 12
oil processing, 58
oil products, 12
oil sources, 133
oil transportation, 223
Old Cambus, Scottish Borders, Scotland,
206
olive processing plants, 102
Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, 17
346
onshore wind power plants, 28
opencast mines, 113119, 124
area of condemned land, 114
effects on
animal world, 114
soil, 114
in relief transformation, 115, 119
OPTs PB150, 37
Oregon, 254
Ortiz Gold Mine, new Mexico, 131
oscillating water column devices, 35
Oslo airport, Norway, 220
osmotic energy, 4142
osmotic power plant
impact on salt power plants, 42
sources of energy, 42
Otago Harbor, New Zealand, 25
Otama Beach, New Zealand, 242
overgrazing, 168, 171
oxen, 307
oxygen, 256
stratication, 10
ozone layer depletion, 298
P
Palmetto Golf Course, 286
Pakistan, 260
Pa-Mong Dam, 3
Par, Brazil, 182
paragliding, 282
Paris, 267
pastures, 170
pathogens, 245
Pelamis machines, bursting of, 36
Peloponnesian War, 292
perch, 261
permafrost, 211
pesticides, 158, 159, 245, 248
intoxication, 155
pollution, 154
Petra, Jordon, 266
Petried Forest National Park, Arizona, 279
difference in raw materials, 58
effects on
soil, 59
surface water, 59
vegetation, 59
explosion of, 59, 62
Index
groups of, 57
technological processes, 57
petroleum gas, effects on vegetation, 59
Pharaoh Ramses II temple, 8
effects on
surface water, 70
vegetation, 70
phosphate fertilizers, 155
phosphoric acid, 69
phosphoric fertilizers, 63
phosphoric ores, 6364
photosynthesis, 47
photovoltaics (PV), 20
phytoplankton, 4, 39
pilgrimages, 305, 306, 307, 310
pine (Pinus taeda), 187
pines, 308
pinnipeds, 239
accidental spills on land, 210, 214
breakage in, 271
building, 209210, 215
effects on
animals, 214
wildlife, 213
heat impacts of, 211, 213
infrastructure of, 209
land withdrawal and, 210
slope loading and, 210
Piper Alpha, offshore platform, 139
placer deposits, 124125
planktons, 223
plantation development, 185187
plant community successions, 168
plant growing, 151161
fertilization, 154156
land reclamation, 154
process losses and, 153
soil degradation and, 153
soil erosion and, 156
platinum Conder, 129
plutonium-238, 297
polo match, 289
polychaetes, 234, 242
Porcupine Hill, see Signal Hill
potash fertilizers, 64
Port Gibson, Mississippi, 257
Portugal, 36
power-base SPPs, 22
Index
power transmission lines (PTLs), 272277
effects on
animal world, 273
atmosphere, 274
ichthyofauna, 273274
land resources, 273
soil, 274
vegetation, 273
influence at construction stage, 272
Primorsky Krai, Russia, 172, 176, 197
porpoises, 238
Proton missile, 298, 299
Pskov, Russia, 269
pufn, 240
purication, 4
purse seine net, 236
Q
Queensland, Australia, 176
R
radiation, background, 135, 145
radioactive irradiation, 19
radioactive pollution
by building materials industry, 86
by space exploration, 297, 399
radioactive wastes, 16, 18
Rahad Irrigation scheme, 159
effects on
atmosphere, 202, 206
geological environment, 202, 204
soil, 202
enterprises, 202, 203
impacts on surface water, 202, 208
land withdrawal and, 203
leaders, 201
as source of vibrations, 205
effects on
forests, 279
soil, 279
vegetation, 279
wild animals, 280
347
social impacts of, 280
sources of, 278
visual pollution by, 280
redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus), 275
reforestation, 185187
refrigeration systems, for sports activity, 291
renewable energy capacity production, 20
reptiles, 234, 239
Republic Steel Corporation steel mill, Ohio, 74
reservoirs, 3
Revivim, Israel, 165
Reykjanes Power Station, 33
Riau, Sumatra, 94
Rio Tinto, Spain, 122
ritual activity, 304306
river placers, 124, 128
road network, global, 193
Roberts Bank Superport, North America, 229
rock bursts, 121
rock climbing, 285
ruff, 261
Russia, 40, 48, 63, 77, 78, 95
S
sable (Martes zibellina), 252
sacrice, 304
Sakhalin Island (Russia), 211
St. Lawrence Seaway, 227
salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis), 245,
247
salt power plants, osmotic power plants impact
on, 42
Salton Sea, California, 32
San Bruno, California, 215
sanitation, 265
Santa Catarina, Brazil, 187, 241
Santiago Metro, Chile, 204
So Paulo, 47
Saudi Arabia, 58
Schengen, Luxembourg, 171
seabed biota, 234, 242
sea birds, 126, 139, 142, 223, 240, 241
sea bottom oil and gas development, 138142
drilling impact on, 138139
sea lamprey, 227
sea turtles, 239
SeaGen tidal stream power station, 38, 40
seal, 239
sedimentation, of timber waste, 180
348
seeds sprout, 168
seismicity, 135
self-activating tools, for hunting, 250, 252
Selaata, Lebanon, 67
semiaquatic animals, 4
sewage run-off, 270
sex-age structure, of animal populations, 251
in background radiation, 145
effects on
geologic environment, 144
soil, 144
surface water, 143
vegetation, 144
wildlife, 144
sheep hair, 98
Shell Puget Sound Renery, 60
shooting sport, 285, 289
shrimp
farming, 249
sheries, 234
Shuttle spacecraft, 298
Siberian salmon, 302
Sichuan, China, 117
Signal Hill, 136
Sihwa tidal power plant, 39
Skikda, Algeria, 61
silkworm moth, 97
silver bream, 261
siphon irrigation, 262
skiing, 287, 288
sky-scrapers, 268
Slite, Gotland, 87
sludge pumps, 124
smelted metals, 75
soil
carbon, 256
degradation, 153, 186
effects on
air transport, 217, 218
communication lines, 274
heap leaching, 131
7273
land oil and gas development, 134, 136
light industry, 97
Index
mining and chemical industry, 65
opencast mines, 114
power transmission lines, 274
radioactive contamination, 16
stall feed, 164
thermal power engineering, 12
timber rafting, 180
erosion, 47, 156, 175, 178, 186, 285287
impaction, 169
removal of, 160
solar panel cooker, 24
solar power plant (SPP), 2026
cadmium emissions of, 24
construction of, 23
large-scale generation, 20
negative effects of, 2122
solar pump, 26
solar radiation, 21
methods of conversion, 21
soluble salts, 12
Soma mine disaster, 121
soot, 206
South Africa, 71
South Island, New Zealand, 199
South Korea, 39
South-North Water Transfer Project, 259
effects on
fauna, 298
flora, 298
near-earth space, 298
seawater, 298
soil, 298
radioactive pollution by, 298
space waste, 298
spaceports, 297
spatial homogeneity, 34
spawning grounds, 126
mechanical damage to, 180
species extinction, 251
Index
Spirits Bay, New Zealand, 242
sponges, 234, 242
construction stage, 284
effects on
animal world, 285
atmosphere, 285
birds, 285
resource depletion, 285
soil, 284285
vegetation, 284, 285, 287, 288
exploitation of, 284
sports tourism, 285
sprinkling irrigation, 160
sprint shoes, 285, 286
squirrels, 305
stalactites, 279
stalagmites, 279
stall feed, 163167
effects on
atmospheric pollution, 163
groundwater, 164
soil, 164
surface water, 163
vegetation, 164
steam explosion, 271
stove heating, 202
Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, 229
striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba), 142
Sudan, 60
suffocation, 155
sugar industry, 101102
sulfate method, of cellulose production, 93
sulde minerals, 114
sulte method, of cellulose production, 92
sulfur dioxide, 76
sulfuric acid, 68, 69, 70
sunsh, 238
superheated steam, 31
surface water, effects on
air transport, 217
aquaculture, 244245
automobile transport, 194, 199
geothermal power plants, 32
heap leaching, 131
iron and steel manufacturing industry, 72
349
light industry, 97
opencast mines, 114115
sports activity, 284, 289
stall feed, 163
storage reservoir, 3, 5
thermal power, 12
timber rafting, 179, 182
Surgut, West Siberia, Russia, 212, 214
suspended solid particles, 4
Svalbard archipelago, Norway, 122
swamping, 210
swine, 305
Syr Darya River, 260
Szzhalombatta, Hungary, 248
T
tanning industry, 97, 100
tapered channel (tapchan) systems, 35
TauTona gold mine, 120
tench, 261
terrestrial animals, stall feed effects on, 163
Texas City renery explosion, 62
textile industry, 96
thermal pollution, 12
by biomass, 47
by building materials industry, 86
by iron and steel manufacturing industry,
73
by nuclear power plants, 16
by wood pulp and paper industry, 94
thermal power station, 1114
components of, 11
effects on
atmosphere, 11
natural components, 1314
soils, 12
surface waters, 12
vegetation, 12
elements discharged into atmosphere, 11
quantitative effects of, 12
thermal stratication, 10
thermic regime, 3
thermokarst, 211, 213
350
Thirty Years War, 292
Three Gorges Dam, 3, 9
Thunder Horse PDQ semisubmersible
platform, 140
double-acting, 39
effects on
Bay of Fundy, 39
natural water exchange, 39
types of, 3839
Tigris River, xi
timber-based materials, chemical treatment of,
88
accidents and, 175
categories of, 174
effects on
soil, 175
surface water, 175
animals, 175
vegetation, 175
timber rafting, 179185
effects on
ichthyofauna, 180
soil, 180
losses, 179
types of, 179, 181
Tisza River, 118
titanium dioxide, 70
toluol, 206
Toppila Power Station, Finland, 13
tractional load, 4
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 212, 213
transport
air, 216221
automobile, 193200
pipeline, 209215
railway, 201208
water, 222229
transuranic waste, 19
trash compactor, solar-powered, 25
Tristan albatross (Diomedea dabbenena), 241
troglodyte dwellings, 267
Tsimlansky storage reservoir, 4
Tsimlyansk Reservoir, 10
Tsugaru Strait, 204
Tunisia, 116, 171, 198, 267
Index
turbidity of dredge flows, 125
turkey meat production, 164
Turkmenistan, 261
Tver Oblast, Russia, 208
U
Uglich Hydroelectric Station dam, 7
Uglich Reservoir, 7
under flooding, 4
effects on
surface water, 120
techniques of, 120
underground water, effects on
heap leaching, 131
opencast mines, 115
United States, 37, 58, 63, 261
Upper Normandy, France, 157, 165
uranium, 120, 130
Uruguay, 239
used syringes, 303
Ust-Ilimsky hydropower station, 4
V
Vakhshskaya Valley, Tajikistan, 261
Varazze, Italy, 225
vegetation
aquatic, 4
diversity, 175
effects on
aquaculture, 245
hunting, 250, 251
73
lines, 273
radioactive contamination, 16
Index
reservoirs, 8
sports activity, 284, 285, 287
stall feed, 164
thermal power engineering, 12
vegetative ground, 4
Venezuela, 58
Verdun fortications, France, 294
Vermont Yankee, 17
veterinary services, 301302
impact on environment, 302
Vienna, 205
Vietnam War, 292
visual pollution, by recreational activity, 280
Vladivostok, Russia, 160
Vologda Oblast, Russia, 177, 178
W
wading birds, 4
Wairakei eld, New Zealand, 32
wales, 238
Washington, United States, 60
waste
domestic, 269
space, 298
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, 19
waterfowl, 4
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes),
255256
impact on water flow, 255256
water losses, 260261, 265
water pollution, by light industry, 97
water quality, 4, 10
water transfers, 259263
ground leakage, 260
zone of
transportation, 260
water usage, 260, 261
withdrawal, 260
effects on
atmospheric air, 223, 225
marine organisms, 223
soil, 224
watermills, 29
conversion to electricity, methods of, 35
density of, 3435
effects on
351
animals, 35
deposit movement dynamics, 35
impacts on surface water, 35
inhomogeneity over time, 34
spatial homogeneity, 34
visual impacts of, 3536
weeds, 261
Welland Canal, 227
Wello penguin, 37
Welspun Energy Neemuch Project, 20
West Siberia, Russia, 137
wheat yield, 153
White Nile, 104
Wieliczka Salt Mine, 123
wildlife, effects on
willows, 306
Winam Bay, Kenya, 257
wind power structures, 2730
categories of, 28
effect on birds, 2829, 30
farms, 27
global potential, 27
impacts of
noise, 29
visual, 29
interference, 28, 29
leaders of, 28
windmills, 29, See also wind power structures
withdrawal of land, 108
wood chip factory, 49
wood fuels in national energy consumption,
share of, 45
cellulose production, methods of, 9293
effects on
animal world, 93
atmospheric air, 93
soil, 93
surface water, 93
technological process, 92
effects on
atmospheric air, 88
human health, 89
soils, 89
352
gaseous emissions, 89
operations, 88
wastes, 89
woodworking machines, kinds of, 88
Wooster, Ohio, 200
World War II, 292
X
xylol, 206
Y
Yadkin River, 14
Index
Yangtze River, 259
Yellow River, 263
Yenisei River, 210
Yingfeng Chemical Plant, China, 66
Youngstown, Ohio, 75
Yuma, Arizona, 166
Z
Zambezi River, 6
Zambia, 158
zircon, 127
zooplankton, 223

Human Impact On The Environment, An Illustrated World Atlas (2016)

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Human Impact On The Environment, An Illustrated World Atlas (2016)

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Sergey Govorushko

Human Impact on the Environment

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015951778

Electric Power Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mining and Mineral Processing . . . . . . . . . . .

In Situ and Heap Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Agriculture and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other Kinds of Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 1: List of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 2: List of Copyright Holders for Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 3: List of Photos and Their Copyright Holders . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 4: List of Copyright Holders for Photos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

About the Author

Sergey Govorushko is a chief research scholar at the Pacic Geographical

Simple farming societies

Complex farming societies/chiefdoms

Area of bronze working, ca. 1000 BCE

Fig. 1 The world in 1000 BCE (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_1000_BCE.png) [CC

Electric Power Industry

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

1 Electric Power Industry

Hydropower engineering is a power industry based on the use of hydraulic power

Currently operational power stations

Installed capacity (MW):

1.1 Hydropower Structures

No data available or reservoirs are absent

1 Electric Power Industry

1.1 Hydropower Structures

valuable diadromous and catadromous sh (sturgeon, salmon, herring). Their

1 Electric Power Industry

1.1 Hydropower Structures

1 Electric Power Industry

1.1 Hydropower Structures

1 Electric Power Industry

1.2 Thermal Power Structures

Thermal Power Structures

Natural gas power stations

Fuel oil power stations

Oil shale power stations

Peat power stations

Thermal power stations influence the following environmental components

1 Electric Power Industry

1.2 Thermal Power Structures

1 Electric Power Industry

1.3 Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear Power Plants

1 Electric Power Industry

1.3 Nuclear Power Plants

1 Electric Power Industry

1.3 Nuclear Power Plants

1 Electric Power Industry

Non-traditional or Alternative Power Structures

Non-traditional or alternative power structures include power plants that use

Solar Power Structures

A solar power plant (SPP) is an engineering structure used to convert solar

1.4 Non-traditional or Alternative Power Structures

Solar thermal power stations;

1 Electric Power Industry

1.4 Non-traditional or Alternative Power Structures