Orion What Is Carbon Black

What is Carbon Black?
Fo c u s e d. I n n o v a t i v e. R e s p o n s i v e.
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 About Orion Engineered Carbons
1.2 What is Carbon Black
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4
7
2 Manufacturing Process
2.1 Raw Materials
2.2 Thermal-Oxidative Processes
2.2.1 Furnace Black Process
2.2.2 Degussa Gas Black Process
2.2.3 Lamp Black Process
2.2.4 Channel Black Process (historical)
2.3 Thermal Decomposition Processes
2.3.1 Thermal Black Process
2.3.2 Acetylene Black Process
2.4 Carbon Black Dispersions, Compounds,
Plastic and Rubber Masterbatches
10
12
14
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20
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3 Properties of Carbon Black

3.1 General Physical and Chemical Properties
3.2 Definition of Carbon Black
3.3 Test Methods, Chemical and Physical Data
3.3.1 Determination of Surface Area
3.3.2 Determination of Structure
3.3.3 Colorimetric Characterization
3.3.4 Chemical and Physical Measurements
3.3.5 Physical Appearance and Handling Properties
3.4 Specifications and Quality Assurance
3.5 Characteristic Data of various Production Processes
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4 Handling
38
5 Product Safety
5.1 Toxicology
5.2 Safety-Related Properties
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6 Applications
6.1 Rubber Carbon Blacks
6.2 Specialty Carbon Blacks
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3 3
1 Introduction
1.1 About Orion Engineered Carbons
Who We Are?
Orion Engineered Carbons (OEC) is one of the worlds
leading suppliers of Carbon Black. We offer standard
and high-performance products for coatings, printing
inks, polymers, rubber and other applications. Our
high-quality Gas Blacks, Furnace Blacks and Specialty
Carbon Blacks tint, colorize and enhance the performance of plastics, paints and coatings, inks and toners,
adhesives and sealants, tires, and manufactured rubber
goods such as automotive belts and hoses.
With 1,360 employees worldwide, Orion Engineered
Carbons runs 14 global production sites and 4 Applied
Technology Centers, focusing on quality supply and
collaborative partnerships with customers. Common
shares of Orion Engineered Carbons are traded on the
New York Stock Exchange under the symbol OEC.
Our Vision
We are the premium supplier of Carbon Black.
We generate long-term benefits for stakeholders while remaining committed to responsible
business practices with a focus on team culture, reliability and sustainability.
Strategic Elements of our Mission

Operational Excellence
Market and TechnologyDriven Product Portfolio
Reliable Partner
Key Figures
Sales 2014
1.3 billion Euro
Number of Production Sites
14
Number of Technical Innovation Centers
Employees
1,360
Active in
over 100 countries
Production Capacitiy p.a.
1.4 million t
Grow with Customers
Locations
1) USA, Borger
Orion Engineered Carbons LLC
9440 FM 1559, Hwy 136
Borger, TX 79007, USA
2) USA, Kingwood (Regional Headquarters)
4501 Magnolia Cove Drive
Suite 106
Kingwood, TX 77345, USA
3) USA, Orange
1513 Echo Road
Orange, TX 77632, USA
4) USA, Belpre (Plant)
11135 State Route 7
Belpre, OH 45714-9496, USA
4) USA, Belpre (Technical Center)
2730 Washington Blvd. Suite 2
Belpre, OH 45714, USA
5) USA, Ivanhoe
7095 Highway 83
Franklin, LA 70538, USA
6) Brazil, Paulnia
Orion Engineered Carbons Ltda.
Av. Antonio Fadin, 1300
Paulnia, SP, CEP 13147-030, Brazil
7) Brazil, So Paulo
Orion Engineered Carbons Ltda.
R. Maestro Cardin, 1293
So Paulo, SP, 01323-001, Brazil
8) Luxembourg
(Global Corporate Headquarters)
Orion Engineered Carbons S.A.
6 Route de Trves
2633 Senningerberg, Luxembourg
16) South Africa, Port Elizabeth

Orion Engineered Carbons PTY (LTD)
John Tallant Road
6000 Port Elizabeth, South Africa
9) France, Ambs
Orion Engineered Carbons SAS
Lieu Dit Saint Vincent
BP 3, 33810 Ambs, France
17) Korea, Bupyeong

(Plant and Technical Center)
Orion Engineered Carbons Co., Ltd.
94, Galsan 1-Dong, Bupyeong-gu
Incheon, 403-081, South Korea
10) Germany, Frankfurt (Global Operational

and Administrative Headquarters)
Orion Engineered Carbons GmbH
Hahnstrae 49
60528 Frankfurt a.M., Germany
18) Korea, Yeosu

Orion Engineered Carbons Korea Co., Ltd.
350, Wollae-dong
Yeosu-si, Jeollanam-do, 555-260,
South Korea
11) Germany, Cologne

(Plant and Technical Center)
Harry-Kloepfer-Strae 1
50997 Cologne, Germany
19) Japan, Tokyo

Orion Engineered Carbons KK
Holland Hills Mori Tower 16F
5-11-2, Toranomon, Minato-Ku,
Tokyo 105-0001, Japan
12) Germany, Dortmund

Deutsche Gasruwerke GmbH & Co KG
Weidenstrae 70-72
44147 Dortmund, Germany
20) China, Shanghai

(Regional Headquarters)
Orion Engineered Carbons Trading
(Shanghai) Co., Ltd.
Room 3701-3702
BM Intercontinental Business Centre
100 Yutong Road
200070 Shanghai, China
13) Sweden, Malm

Norcarb Engineered Carbons AB
Kusthamnsgatan 1
211 24 Malm, Sweden
14) Poland, Jaslo
Orion Engineered Carbons Sp. z o.o.
83 3-go Maja Street
38-200 Jaslo, Poland
15) Italy, Ravenna
Orion Engineered Carbons S.r.l.
Via Baiona 170
48123 Ravenna, Italy
20) China, Shanghai (Technical Center)

Orion Engineered Carbons Material
Technology (Shanghai) Co., Ltd.
Room 501-503
Building 1, Shanghai Juke Biotech Park
No. 466 Yindu Road, Xuhui District
1 Introduction
History of Orion Engineered Carbons
July 2014
July 2014
Common shares of Orion Engineered

Carbons are traded on the New York Stock
Exchange under the symbol OEC
Conversion of line at Borger (Texas, USA) to

Specialty Carbon Black production
2013
Orion ceases production in Sins (Portugal)

to concentrate European production into
fewer, more efficient facilities
Orion completes conversion of lines at

Malm (Sweden) and Belpre (Ohio, USA) to
Specialty Carbon Black production
2013
Orion installs a new Rubber Carbon Black
production line in Yeosu (South Korea)
December 2013
2011 - 2014
Orion Engineered
Carbons
Operates as
Standalone
Business
September 2012
May 2013
Orion begins reorganization and refocusing

of R & D and product development to expand its position as a leader in innovation
Orion completes rollout of single instance

SAP platform worldwide to improve efficiency and standardize processes
2011
Evonik aquires full ownership of Algorax
Port Elizabeth (South Africa) Joint Venture
2010
Evonik converts rubber lines into mainly
Specialty Carbon Black production at
Belpre (Ohio, USA) and Malm (Sweden)
2009
Evonik converts rubber line into Specialty
Carbon Black
2007
2011 - 2014
Established as
Standalone
Business
1998 - 2010
Repositioning
Towards
Specialty Carbon
Black
Evonik buys out Engineered Carbons Joint

Venture partner in North America
2008
Evonik installs two oxidation units for Specialty Gas Black at Cologne (Germany)
2002
2000
Degussa forms a Joint Venture with

Engineered Carbons in the USA, adding
three plants in Texas, USA (Baytown,
Borger and Orange).
Paulinia plant (greenfield) in Brazil starts
operations
1986 - 2002
1994
International
Expansion
Degussa forms the first Western/Chinese

Joint venture in the field of Carbon Black
in Jiaozhou (China)
July 2011
Separation of Evonik`s Carbon Black business into a new standalone business called
Orion Engineered Carbons
Evonik installs new Specialty Gas Black unit

at the German Joint Venture
2002
Degussa acquires plant in Jaslo (Poland)
1999
Degussa acquires plants in Bupyeong
(Korea) and Yeosu (Korea)
1997
Degussa aquires plant in Sines (Portugal)
1988
1986
Plants acquired in Ivanhoe (Louisiana,

USA), Aransas Pass (Texas, USA) and Belpre
(Ohio, USA)
Plants acquired in Ambs (France), Botlek

(Netherlands), Malm (Sweden), Ravenna
(Italy) and Port Elizabeth (South Africa)
1958
1938
Start of Furnace Black process in Cologne

(Germany)
Degussa acquires the remaining shares in

August Wegelin AG. German Joint Venture
starts using the Gas Black process
1956
1932 - 1958
German Joint Venture starts using the

Furnace Black process
Historical
Backdrop
1932
Degussa enters the Carbon Black business
through the acquisition of a significant
share in August Wegelin AG
December 2013
Orion consolidates all German R & D activities in a single facility (Cologne), thereby
creating a global center of excellence
Acquisitions
1936
Degussa forms a Joint Venture with Deutsche Gasruwerke GmbH & Co. KG (the
German Joint Venture) with German tire
producers
Management
Initiatives /
Joint Ventures
Capacity
Expansions /
Conversions
1.2 What is Carbon Black?

Carbon Black is a commercial form of solid carbon
that is manufactured in highly controlled processes to
produce specifically engineered aggregates of carbon
particles that vary in particle size, aggregate size, shape,
porosity and surface chemistry. Carbon Black typically
contains more than 95 % pure carbon with minimal
quantities of oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. In the
manufacturing process, Carbon Black particles are formed that range from 10 nm to approximately 500 nm
in size. These fuse into chain-like aggregates, which
define the structure of individual Carbon Black grades.
Carbon Black is used in a diverse group of materials in
order to enhance their physical, electrical and optical
properties. Its largest volume use is as a reinforcement and performance additive in rubber products.
In rubber compounding, natural and synthetic elastomers are blended with Carbon Black, elemental
sulfur, processing oils and various organic processing
chemicals, and then heated to produce a wide range
of vulcanized rubber products. In these applications,
Carbon Black provides reinforcement and improves
resilience, tear-strength, conductivity and other physical properties. Carbon Black is the most widely used
and cost-effective rubber reinforcing agent (typically
called Rubber Carbon Black) in tire components (such
as treads, sidewalls and inner liners), in mechanical rubber goods (MRG), including industrial rubber goods,
membrane roofing, automotive rubber parts (such as
sealing systems, hoses and anti-vibration parts) and
in general rubber goods (such as hoses, belts, gaskets
and seals).
Besides rubber reinforcement, Carbon Black is used as
black pigment and as an additive to enhance material
performance, including conductivity, viscosity, static
charge control and UV protection. This type of Carbon
Black (typically called Specialty Carbon Black) is used in
a variety of applications in the coatings, polymers and
printing industries, as well as in various other special
applications.
In the coatings industry, treated fine particle Carbon
Black is the key to deep jet black paints. The automotive industry requires the highest jetness of black pigments and a bluish undertones.
Small particle size Carbon Blacks fulfill these requirements. Coarser Carbon Blacks, which offer a more
brownish undertone, are commonly used for tinting
and are indispensable for obtaining a desired gray
shade or color hue.
In the polymer industry, fine particle Carbon Black is
used to obtain a deep jet black color. A major attribute
of Carbon Black is its ability to absorb detrimental UV
light and convert it into heat, thereby making polymers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, more
resistant to degradation by UV radiation from sunlight.
Specialty Carbon Black is also used in polymer insulation for wires and cables. Specialty Carbon Black also
improves the insulation properties of polystyrene,
which is widely used in construction.
In the printing industry, Carbon Black is not only used
as pigment but also to achieve the required viscosity
for optimum print quality. Post-treating Carbon Black
permits effective use of binding agents in ink for optimum system properties. New Specialty Carbon Blacks
are being developed on an ongoing basis and contribute to the pace of innovation in non-impact printing.
1 Introduction
With a yearly production volume exceeding ten million metric tons, the most important Carbon Black
manufacturing process is the Furnace Black method.
More than 98 % of the worlds annual Carbon Black
production is manufactured through this process.
Nevertheless, other manufacturing methods are also
used in the commercial production of Carbon Black,
e.g., for fabrication of Gas Blacks, Lamp Blacks, Thermal
Blacks and Acetylene Blacks.
The variety of Carbon Blacks, its production methods

and possible applications show that soot has come a
long way. Much has been published about the subject
in technical journals, textbooks, reference works and
product brochures. This brochure will reveal the many
interesting facets of Carbon Black - a product that is
both simple and sophisticated. Indeed, many of the
things we take for granted in our everyday lives would
not be possible without Carbon Black.
History of Carbon Black

Ancient civilizations in China and Egypt mixed soot into resins,
vegetable oils or tar to create colors and inks. Allowing a flame,
usually from an oil lamp, to come in contact with a cooled
surface causes soot to accumulate on the cooled surface. The
soot could then be scraped off and collected as a powder. This
process, referred to as the impingement process, that involves
using the flame from an oil lamp was a precursor to todays
Lamp Black process. However it is also the basis of the Channel
and Gas Black processes, which utilize gas flames impinging on
cool cast iron channels or rotating cooled cylinders.
Later on, both the Greeks and the Romans had a predilection
for black to decorate walls, resulting in a great need for soot
(Figure 1). In what has become a standard work of antiquity,
De Architectura, Roman master builder Vitruvius describes in
painstaking detail a technical method in which resin is fired in
a brick-lined furnace and Carbon Black is precipitated in large
quantities in a special chamber (Figure 2).
Figure 1:
Roman Fresco, Pompeii
2a)
Area
Application
Rubber
Reinforcing filler in tires and mechanical rubber components, conductivity
Printing Inks
Pigmentation, rheology, tinting
Coatings
Black and grey pigmentation, tinting
Plastics
Black and grey pigmentation, tinting, UV protection, conductivity, conductor coating
Fibers
Pigmentation
Paper
Black and grey pigmentation, conductivity, decorative and photo-protective papers
Construction
Cement and concrete pigmentation, conductivity
Power
Carbon brushes, electrodes, battery cells
Metal Reduction Compounds
Metal smelting, friction compound
Metal Carbide
Reduction compound, carbon source
Fireproofing
Reduction of mineral porosity
Insulation
Graphite furnaces, polystyrene and PU foam
Table 1:
Major Carbon Black
applications
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio Ten Books on Architecture

(Volume VII, Chapter 10)Black Pigments
Now I come to the pigments, which are converted in such a way that they take on the characteristics of color
pigments only when mixed correctly with other materials and when certain (chemical) processes are employed.
First, I want to present the black pigment, the use of which is indispensable in construction. The techniques
required to produce the correct mixtures must be known so that these mixtures can be prepared by skilled
workers under appropriate conditions.
First, a vaulted chamber is built in the form of a (Roman) steam bath, lined carefully on the inside with marble
stucco, and smooth. In front of this chamber a small combustion chamber, and with the inlet opening closed
exactly far enough so that the flame does not shoot out.
Pine resin is now placed in the furnace. During burning, carbon black develops from the resin because of the
great heat: this carbon black, passes through the outlet openings into the separation chamber, and is precipitated on the rounded sections of the chamber and of the vaulted ceiling. The carbon black is then collected,
with the largest amount of it incorporated into gum Arabic in order to produce black ink. The remainder is mixed
with glue by stucco workers, and is used as wall coating.
However, when there is no supply on hand, another procedure must be employed if the work is not to be
postponed due to the delay that must be expected. In such a case, pine brushwood and pine chips must be fed
into the fire; when the brushwood and chips have been converted to charcoal and extinguished, they can be
ground with glue in the mortar. In this way, a black color is derived which is highly esteemed by stucco workers.
In addition, a black coloring agent is produced from wine yeast when this yeast is dried, heated in the furnace,
and when the charcoal developed is then ground with glue; when applied to the wall, this coloring agent results
in an unsurpassed, pleasant coloration. Finally, when yeast from finer types of wine is used, it is not only possible
to produce a black pigment, but also the blue color of the indigo can even be imitated.
2c)
2b)
Figure 2:
Description of Carbon Black production process in De Architectura by Vitruvius
a) Medieval manuscript
b) Latin text
c) English translation
In answering the question What is Carbon Black? the

impact of the production method on the properties of
the end product suggests that we should first focus on
the available methods before describing the various
properties of the resulting products.
That is because the properties are defined at the earliest stage of the manufacturing process, regardless of
whether the Carbon Black is intended for use in the
rubber and plastics industry, the printing industry or
for conductivity applications.

The process has essentially remained the same since Vitruvius
first described it. Centuries later, the invention of the letter
press would create an even greater demand for Carbon Black,
as writing inks, having water like consistencies, had to be
replaced with more viscous printing inks (Figure 3). As a result,
manufacturing Carbon Black became a trade, with many entrepreneurs setting up shops with a furnace to produce Lamp
Black. Figure 4 shows a furnace such as those in use during the
18th century.
Figure 3:
Excerpt from CORNUPIAE,
a Latin-German dictionary published in 1780
Pine resin proved an ideal raw material for Carbon Black used in
printing inks, and Germanys Black Forest region soon became
the epicenter of a thriving industry. Special settling chambers
made it possible to conveniently produce large quantities of
Carbon Black (Figure 5).
Figure 4:
Ancient Lamp Black process
as described in Diderots
Encyclopdie (Paris 1770/80)
10
The basic raw material for the production of Carbon

Black consists of hydrocarbons that are split into their
constituent elements, carbon and hydrogen, by either
a thermal or thermal-oxidative (partial combustion)
process. Economically, the thermal-oxidative decomposition has become the predominant method, with
the hydrocarbons taking on a double role since they
serve both as a source of heat and of carbon.
This in turn generates the heat required to melt and

vaporize the wax. The dark area surrounding the burning wick is in fact wax being transformed into vapor.
In the inner, luminous zone, there is a deficiency of
oxygen and it is in this region that soot forms, visible
as the thin black trail that floats up from the tip of the
flame. It can be collected by bringing the reacting
gases into contact with a cooled surface.
A burning candle easily demonstrates how this works.

The outermost zone of the flame is where some of the
hydrocarbons can burn as there is ample supply of
oxygen nearby to feed the combustion process.
Every Carbon Black production method is based on

the two fundamental elements of heat and decomposition; how these stages are arranged is what defines
the difference between the production processes.
Chemical Process
Manufacturing Method
Main Raw Materials
Thermal-Oxidative
Decomposition
Furnace Black process

Degussa Gas Black process
Lamp Black process
Aromatic oils on coal tar basis or mineral oil, natural gas
Thermal Decomposition
Thermal Black process

Acetylene Black process
Natural gas (or mineral oils)

Acetylene
Coal tar distillates

Aromatic oils on coal tar basis or mineral oil
Table 2:
Production methods
and raw materials
Figure 5:
Processing pine resin to create pitch, tar and Carbon Black
11
2.1 Raw Materials
The preferred feedstock for most Carbon Black
production processes, especially the Furnace Black
process, is heavy oil with a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons. The aromatic form of carbon
gives the greatest carbon-to-hydrogen ratio, thus
maximizing the available carbon, and is the most
efficient in terms of Carbon Black yields. Theoretically, the greater the aromaticity the more efficient
the process is. Unfortunately, as the number of
combined rings increases the substances move from
viscous liquids to solid pitches.
Therefore, in reality the most suitable oils are those

in which the majority of the carbon is in the form
of substances comprising three- or four-membered
rings.
Distillates from coal tar (carbo-chemical oils) or
residual oils that are created by catalytic cracking
of mineral oil fractions and olefines manufactured
by the thermal cracking of naphta or gasoil (petrochemical oil) also qualify as a source of raw material.

The industrial revolution eventually
took Carbon Black production to higher
volumes by making coal tar available in
large quantities. The Lamp Black process
was also perfected to include a labyrinth
collection chamber. Even though yield
was substantially increased, Carbon Black
was only incompletely precipitated.
Lamp Black chambers based on this
design remained in operation until the
middle of the 19th century before they
were gradually replaced by more environmentally-friendly filter systems.
Figure 6:
Gas Black manufacturing apparatus as depicted
in German patent application DRP 29261
12
Towards the end of the 19th century, the

Carbon Black industry on the other side
of the Atlantic had developed a process
with natural gas as the feedstock. The
main reason was the ample supply of this
inexpensive resource and the realization that the firing process produced a
special type of Carbon Black. The firing
plants were designed in such a way that
they could easily be moved to another

site once a well was depleted. This socalled Channel Black quickly experienced
growing demand when its reinforcing
properties became clear to the rubber
industry properties which Lamp Black
did not offer. The finer particles obtained
from Channel Black made it possible to
increase tire longevity to several tens
of thousands of miles. In retrospect, the
automobile industry owes much of its
rapid growth to the discovery and refinement of Channel Black production.
In Europe, the scarcity of natural gas led
to the development of an analogous
method based on coal tar. By 1935,
Degussas Gas Black system (Figure 6)
proved a viable alternative to the American Channel Black method. Until after
World War II the whole tire industry was
dominated by the Channel Black method
in the US and the Gas Black method in
Germany.
The yield of Carbon Black depends on the aromaticity of the feedstock. It was commonly measured
by BMCI (Bureau of Mines Correlation Index) value.
However, BMCI is only applicable to feedstocks
derived from petroleum. In the case of carbochemicaloils the BMCI may not reflect the true aromaticity of
the product. For this reason the carbon-to-hydrogen
ratio is favored for carbochemical products. However,
as this measurement is also superior to BMCI, even
for petrochemical products, the carbon-to-hydrogen
ratio and the carbon content are becoming the preferred criteria for all Carbon Black feedstocks.
Additional quality requirements involve impurities

from foreign matter. Alkaline metals, for instance,
are important because they have a direct effect on a
specific Carbon Black property. The sulfur content of
the oil can also play a significant role in production
operations since in many countries production sites
have to meet strict environmental standards. Sulfur
emissions from combustion processes are restricted
by law. Furthermore, Carbon Blacks with high sulfur
contents might be prohibitive for certain applications.
As we look at the various production methods, we will
also address the different raw materials that can be
used to produce Carbon Black.
a)
As early as the 19th century (Figure 7 a,

b), and more intensively from the 1920s
onwards, attempts were made to produce Carbon Black in a completely closed
system with mineral oil as the feedstock.
Alhough the gas furnace process played
a role in the US, the oil furnace method
first commercialized in 1943 eventually
became the method of choice.
b)
Figure 7:
a) Furnace Black reactor, German patent DRP 50605 of 1899
b) Furnace Black reactor, US patent 1,438,032 of 1922
13
Figure 8:
Scheme of a Furnace Black
reactor
2.2 Thermal-Oxidative Processes

2.2.1 Furnace Black Process
The most recently developed process, the Furnace
Black method (Figure 8) has become the most common in large scale Carbon Black manufacturing. The
Furnace Black method is continuous and uses liquid
and gaseous hydrocarbons as feedstock and as heat
source respectively. When natural gas is available, the
liquid feedstock is sprayed into a heat source that is
generated by the combustion of the natural gas and
pre-heated air. Because it occurs at a very high temperature, the reaction is confined to a refractory-lined
furnace, hence the name (Figure 10). After the Carbon
Black is formed, the process mixture is quenched by
injecting water. This also prevents any unwanted secondary reactions. The Carbon Black loaded gas then
passes through a heat exchanger for further cooling,
while simultaneously heating up the required process
air. A bag filter system separates the Carbon Black
particles from the gas stream. The gases produced by
the reaction are combustible and, in most cases, are
fed into an afterburning stage where the heat is used
to dry the Carbon Black, or are burnt in a boiler to generate steam. The Carbon Black collected by the filter
has a very low bulk density and, depending on the
application, is usually pelletized or further densified to
facilitate onward handling.
The wet-pelletizing process uses water and a binding
agent in a specially designed wet pellet or pin mixer,
which transforms the Carbon Black into spherical pellets. The Carbon Black pellets are then dried in rotary
dryers. The binding agent ensures that the product is
resistant to attrition and is easy to process and transport (Figure 9).
14
The incorporation of these pellets in a polymer matrix

requires substantial shear forces, mostly applied by
internal mixers in the rubber industry.
Specialty Carbon Blacks that are produced by the
Furnace Black process are either loosely densified and
packaged as powder Carbon Blacks or are transformed
to easily dispersible pellets by application of the drypelletizing process (Figure 11).
Oil-pelletized Carbon Blacks, used primarily in the pigment industry, are an additional variant that utilizes
mineral oils in the pelletization process. Because of the
light oil coating, these Carbon Blacks are characterized by even easier dispersion and virtually dust-free
handling.
The Furnace Black method offers environmental and
work safety benefits. The fully closed installation keeps
the emission of process gases and dust to a minimum.
Besides its environmental, economic and technical
advantages it also allows greater flexibility because it
is capable of manufacturing more different grades of
Carbon Black than any other process currently being
used. All raw materials are precisely specified in terms
of quality, type and quantity. This makes it possible to
produce a broad range of Carbon Blacks, which are
suitable for use in various applications without fundamentally changing the process for each product variant.
For instance, particle size or specific surface area can
easily be defined at the outset by setting the appropriate process parameters. The Furnace Black process
Figure 9:
Furnace Black production
installation
also permits the manufacturer to control particle

aggregation, the so-called Carbon Black structure, by
adding small quantities of an alkaline metal salt.
Figure 10:
Furnace Black reactor
(section)
The Furnace Black method creates Carbon Black with

primary particle sizes ranging from 10 to 80 nm. The
primary particle size is mentioned to indicate the application properties of a given product. Free primary particles do not exist as they are strongly fused together
and form so-called aggregates. Examples of Furnace
Blacks with different particle sizes and structures are
illustrated by the electron microscopic images that are
presented on the next page (Figure 12).
However, it has not yet been possible to replicate the
unique properties of Gas and Lamp Blacks with the
Furnace Black method.
Furnace Black production installation:

Carbon Black created from gas and oil in a reactor with pre-heated
combustion air is passed through a filtering stage and separated from
other emissions. The product is then wet-pelletized, dried in a rotary
drier and fed into a storage silo. The gaseous emissions and heat
resulting from the process are used to generate steam in a boiler.
15
Figure 11:
1) Powder Carbon Black
16
2) Dry-Pelletized Carbon Black
3) Wet-Pelletized Carbon Black
Figure 12: Furnace Blacks of varying particle size and structure.
* see 3.1
1) Furnace Black, fine primary particle size
2) Furnace Black, coarse primary particle

size
3) High-structure Furnace Black
4) Low-structure Furnace Black
Figure 13:
OEC Carbon Black plant
in Cologne (Kalscheuren)
17
Figure 14:
Scheme of Gas Black
production process
2.2.2 Degussa Gas Black Process

The Gas Black method developed by Degussa in the
mid-1930s is closely related to the Channel Black process
developed in the US based on natural gas as the feedstock. As this resource was much scarcer in Europe, the
Degussa Gas Black method was developed to use coal
tar distillates as raw material instead.
In contrast to the Channel Black process, which poses
a substantial burden on the environment, gas black
plants are at the cutting edge of environmental technology. The facilities are continuously vacuum-cleaned
and the Carbon Black is collected in sealed filter systems
that exceed official emission standards by a significant
margin.
The Gas Black process uses oil instead of natural gas
as the feedstock. The oil is heated in a vaporizer and
the resultant vapors are carried by a hydrogen-rich gas
into a gas tube that is fitted with a multiplicity of burners. The individual flames impinge on the surface of a
water-cooled drum (Figure 14). A portion of the Carbon Black that is generated is deposited on the roller
while the rest enters the filter system. In the next stage
the two Carbon Black streams are combined. Onward
processing is then similar to the Furnace Black process.
While it is possible to control the raw material fed by
the carrier gas stream, the air has free access. However,
despite this restriction, the Gas Black method allows
the production of Carbon Black with primary particle
sizes ranging from 10 to 30 nm. The tradeoff is less
flexibility in defining the structure. However, this is not
necessarily a disadvantage as Gas Blacks are inherently
characterized by a loose structure and exceptional
dispersibility.
18
While in the past these types of Carbon Black were

used predominantly in tire tread formulations, they
are now used almost exclusively in pigment applications where the fine-particle Gas Blacks are of particular importance (Figure 15).
As a result of contact with oxygen at high temperatures,
acidic oxides form on the surface of the Carbon Black
particles. In contrast to Furnace Blacks, Gas Blacks
undergo an acidic reaction when suspended in water.
Oxidative post-treatment using nitrogen dioxide, ozone
or other oxidants also make it possible to further increase the acidic surface groups significantly. These
treated Carbon Blacks are used mostly in the Specialty
Carbon Black sector, e.g. in the coating and ink industries.
The majority of Gas Blacks are re-treated oxidatively.
Figure 15:
Electron microscope view
of Gas Black particles
(COLOUR BLACK FW 285)
Figure 16:
Scheme of Lamp Black
production process
2.2.3 Lamp Black Process

The Lamp Black process is the oldest commercial
Carbon Black production process. However, todays
Lamp Black production units have very little in common with the ancient Carbon Black ovens. Smoking
chimneys and settlement chambers have long since
given way to highly sophisticated filtering systems.
The Lamp Black apparatus consists of a cast-iron pan
that holds the liquid feedstock, which is surmounted
by a fire-proof flue hood that is lined with refractory
bricks. The air gap between the pan and the hood, as
well as the vacuum present in the system, help regulate the air supply and thus enable the manufacturer
to fine tune the Carbon Blacks ultimate properties.
Although the radiated heat from the hood causes the
raw material to vaporize and partially combust, most
of it is converted to Carbon Black (Figure 16).
In order to separate the solids, process gases containing Carbon Black are passed through a filter after the
cooling stage. Onward processing is similar to that of
the Furnace Black method described in section 2.2.1.
Although different types of Lamp Blacks were produced
in the past, the method was eventually standardized
to yield only one type of Specialty Carbon Black and
one type of Rubber Carbon Black. These Carbon Blacks
are characterized by a broad primary particle size
distribution ranging from approximately 60 to over
200 nm (Figure 17) and are widely used in special
applications.
Figure 17:
of Lamp Black particles
19
Figure 18:
Scheme of Channel Black
production process
2.2.4 Channel Black Process (historical)

Developed in the United States in the middle of the
last century, this Carbon Black production process is
based on the incomplete combustion of natural gas.
Similar to the Degussa Gas Black process, natural gas
flames from a vast number of small burners impinge
on water cooled channels (Figure 18).
The reasons were the limited yield of the raw material

(3 6 %) and the environmental hazard posed by the
emission of very fine Carbon Black particles. The thick
black smoke billowing from Channel Black plants,
called hot houses, could be spotted miles away.
Since the 1950s, however, the Channel Black method

continuously lost ground in the rubber industry. Following the oil crisis in the 1970s the process was discontinued in the US.
Figure 19:
Historic view of a Channel
Black production
20
Figure 20:
Scheme of Thermal Black
production process
2.3 Thermal Decomposition Processes

2.3.1 Thermal Black Process
This method of producing Carbon Black is a noncontinuous or cyclic process, with natural gas as the
most commonly used feedstock, although higher
grade hydrocarbon oils are also used. A Thermal Black
plant delivers maximum efficiency when operated in
a tandem mode. It consists of two reactors operating
alternately in cycles lasting five to eight minutes. One
of which is heated with a natural gas or oil/air mixture while the other is fed with pure feedstock which
undergoes thermal decomposition (Figure 20).
Thermal Blacks form relatively slowly, resulting in coarse

primary particle sizes ranging from 300 to 500 nm
(Figure 21), referred to as medium thermal. However,
formerly when using only natural gas as feedstock it
was possible to dilute it with inert gases which would
produce a Thermal Black composed of primary particles in the range from 120 to 200 nm. This was referred
to as fine thermal, the latter has virtually disappeared
from the market.
One could also include the Thermal Black method in

the group of thermal-oxidative processes, with the
distinction that the energy generation and the decomposition reaction are not simultaneous. However, the
fact that the actual Carbon Black formation occurs in
the absence of oxygen and at decreasing temperature,
results in Carbon Black properties that are markedly
different from those achieved by thermal-oxidative
processes.
Figure 21:
Electron microscopeview
of Thermal Black particles
21
2.3.2 Acetylene Black Process
At higher temperatures, exothermic decomposition
of acetylene yields carbon and hydrogen, forming the
basis of the Acetylene Black process. Hydrocarbons are
usually added to acetylene in order to prevent reactor
temperatures from rising due to the exothermic reaction. Once the reaction mixture has cooled down, the
Carbon Black is separated from the hydrogen.
The way Acetylene Blacks are created markedly

distinguishes them from thermal-oxidative Carbon
Blacks. Although the median primary particle size of
Acetylene Black is in the same range as that of some
Furnace Blacks (30 to 40 nm), the structure diverges
noticeably from the spherical form (Figure 22).
Figure 22:
of Acetylene Black particles
22
2.4 Carbon Black Dispersions, Compounds, Plastic

and Rubber Masterbatches
Carbon Blacks can also be delivered to the customer
in the form of dispersions, which are used to address
special dispersibility issues at the customers site and
also keep pollution levels as low as possible during
onward processing. Here a Carbon Black is dispersed
in a variety of liquid and solid media in a wide range
of concentrations. The type of Carbon Black and base

media are usually specified by the customer leading
to a variety of products referred to as Carbon Black
preparations. These compounds are classified based
on their external appearance (Table 3).
Carbon Black Compounds
Properties
Aqueous Dispersions
Liquid to paste-like products
Pre-Dispersions
Powdery products containing water, solvents, wetting agents or softeners
Pastes
Paste-like products containing resins, softeners, wetting agents, etc.
Chips
Solids, e. g. Carbon Black/nitrocellulose compounds
Plastic Masterbatches
Granulated concentrates with up to 50 % Carbon Black content
Rubber Masterbatches
Carbon black-filled rubber, also in powder form
Oil Pellets
Oil-containing granules for printing inks
Table 3:
Carbon Black compounds
23
The obvious property of Carbon Black is the

deep black color, which is included in the
designation in many languages. Carbon
Black is classified as a solid and is initially
formed as an aerosol or free-floating particles. This is why just-formed Carbon Black
has a flaky appearance and is referred to as
fluffy Carbon Black at this stage.
As shown by chemical analysis, non-treated Carbon

Black consists of almost pure carbon. Nevertheless,
using the periodic table designator C to describe the
product would be misleading and therefore not particularly helpful.
To characterize Carbon Black, several physical and

chemical properties have to be taken into account.
Further insights are only possible after incorporating
the various types of Carbon Black into the mediums
chosen for its possible applications.
Particle Surface
Ether
Carboxyl
O
O
O
OH
Peroxide
O
HO
Phenol
Lactone
Hemiacetal
OH
Quinone
acidic
24
O
O
O
Ketone
O
Anhydride
alkaline
Figure 23:
The surface of Carbon Black
can bind oxygen in the
form of acidic or alkaline
functional groups.
3.1 General Physical and Chemical Properties

The composition described below refers to all Carbon
Black grades, regardless of the production method
used. Process-related variations have already been
addressed in the description of the various methods in
use today for obtaining Carbon Black. Without the use
of photographic image analysis the primary particles
of Carbon Black cannot be seen with the naked eye.
It takes the tremendous magnifying power of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to show that Carbon
Black consists of chain-like clusters composed of
spherical particles, the so-called primary particles. The
product is not supplied in the form of isolated primary
particles, but as larger, tightly bonded aggregates
which form the primary building blocks. The primary
particles vary in size and shape to impart specific
application properties. The primary particle size is
mentioned to indicate the application properties of a
given product. The aggregates typically form microscale agglomerates during production, present in the
supplied powders or pellets.
Figure 24 depicts an SEM view of a single particle. The
formation of spherical, branched aggregates, where
the primary particle can have diameters between 10
and 500 nm, is typical of products that develop from
the gaseous phase. As we cannot see and measure
primary particles without involving expensive equipment and time consuming methods this form of Carbon Black has led to the definition of two properties
that are of primary significance when it comes to characterizing Carbon Blacks and defining their suitability
for specific applications:
The specific surface area (m2/g) of Carbon Black is
a function of primary particle size. Looking at geometric proportions, we can determine that smaller
Carbon Black primary particles have a higher specific
surface area.
The structure designates the three-dimensional
arrangement of primary particles in the aggregate.
Extensive interlinking or branching characterizes
a high structure, whereas less pronounced interlinking or branching indicates a low structure.
Electron microscopy combined with X-ray structural
micro-analysis, shows that these primary particles
consist of concentrically arranged, graphite-like crystallites. By partially fusing together, the graphite layers
are often twisted into each other, exhibiting a disordered state. A single primary particle can contain up
to 1,500 of such crystallites.
Element
Content (% of wt.)
Carbon
96 99.5
Hydrogen
0.2 1.3
Oxygen
0.2 0.5
Nitrogen
0 0.7
Sulfur
0.1 1.0
Residual Ash
<1
Table 4:
Typical elemental Carbon
Black composition
Figure 24:
Scanning electron microscope view of a Carbon Black aggregate consisting of fused primary particles
(magnification: x 120,000)
25

Carbon Black can thus be considered as a highly disordered form of graphitic carbon. By heating the substance to 3,000C under inert conditions it develops
into an ordered graphitic formation.
1018
1016
1014
1012
Turning back to chemical analysis, we see that, besides

carbon the elementary analysis of normal Carbon
Black also yields minute quantities of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur (Table 4). Most of these elements are concentrated on the surface of the Carbon
Black. The removal of traces of organic elements is
possible with the use of special solvents. The Carbon
Black extraction based on toluene mostly results in
values less than 0.1 %.
Partially, the element of hydrogen is directly fused to
the carbon element. However, together with oxygen,
another portion forms surface-bound functional
groups that can be identified by analysis, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Carbonyl, carboxyl, pyrone,
phenol, quinone, lactol and ether groups have been
identified as the oxygen-containing groups that may
be bound to the surface of the Carbon Black particle.
Heating the substance up to 950C, in the absence of
oxygen, results in separation. This explains their designation as volatile matter.
Oxygen containing functional groups on the Carbon
Black surface can also be created through specific oxidative post-treatment. Oxygen content levels of 15 %
and higher are possible. These Carbon Black types are
especially suitable for treatment with polar binders.
Sulfur is present in a variety of forms: in its elementary
form, as a bound molecule and in an oxidized state.
High sulfur contents import a certain acidity to the
Carbon Black.
Among the physical properties of Carbon Black, the
following two are important:
Density: According to literature and depending on
the method used, it may vary from 1.7 to 1.9 g/cm3.
Electrical Conductivity: This aspect is usually not
measured in the Carbon Black itself but in the compound containing the Carbon Black, i.e., a polymer or
binding agent. Conductivity of a filled polymer
increases with the specific surface area and the structure of the incorporated Carbon Black. It is also dependent on the Carbon Black concentration and dispersion as well as on the type of polymer or binding
agent used (Figure 25).
26
1010
108
106
104
102
100
01
01
52
Carbon Black Content [% by wt.]

PRINTEX XE 2
PRINTEXL
PRINTEX45
Figure 25:
Specific volume resistance
curves for filled HD polyethylene samples relative
to Carbon Black content
Nitrogen, when present, is usually contained in the

graphite grid. Sulfur and nitrogen contents are contingent upon feedstock type and quality.
Carbon Black also contains traces of metals. The
amounts and types depend on the feedstock used.
Table 5 provides an overview of the metals and their
relative content based on OEC`s Rubber and Specialty
Carbon Blacks.
Metals Present in Carbon Black

Element
Content in ppm
Antimony
< 10
Arsenic
< 10
Barium
< 10
Cadmium
<1
Chrome
<5
Cobalt
<5
Copper
<5
Lead
< 10
Nickel
< 10
Mercury
<1
Selenium
< 10
Zinc
< 10
Table 5:
Typical concentrations of
trace metals
3.2 Definition of Carbon Black

Having described the various processes for obtaining
Carbon Black and the resulting product properties,
we can summarize the definition of Carbon Black as
follows:
Carbon Blacks are chemically and physically

defined products obtained under controlled
conditions. Insofar as they are not treated
oxidatively, they consist of more than 96 %
pure carbon particles and minute quantities
of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur.
The negligible amount of organic substances
on the surface of the Carbon Black particle
(mostly less than 0.1 %) can be extracted
using toluene. Metal concentrations are likewise negligible. Primary Carbon Black particles, ranging from 10 to approx. 500 nm, fuse
into chain like aggregates. This defines the
structure of individual Carbon Blacks.
Carbon Blacks that are treated oxidatively
differ from those that are not, in the sense
that they may contain up to, and sometimes
exceeding, 15 % oxygen.
On the other hand, soot (chimney soot and diesel

exhaust soot) is a by-product of the uncontrolled
combustion of hydrocarbons. Obtaining precise data
on the composition of soot is virtually impossible
because the conditions under which it is created are
fluctuating, precluding any consistency in terms of
quality and properties. Soot can be differentiated from

Carbon Black based on inorganic and organic impurity contents. Chimney soot, for instance, may have a
carbon content of less than 50 %, an extract content of
more than 15 % and an ash content of more than 20 %.
27

3.3 Test Methods, Chemical and Physical Data
For a long time, characterizing Carbon Blacks was a
question of determining different shades of black with
the human eye. Precise data on reinforcing effects was
available only to a limited degree. What exactly the
characteristics of a particular Carbon Black were and
what it could be used for were questions that could
not easily be answered. In many cases, the development of new Carbon Black grades happened before
the characterization of their properties, very much a
hit-and-miss-situation.
Following a series of comparative tests, DBP (dibutyl

phthalate) absorption ultimately became the preferred tool for determining Carbon Black structure.
Difficulties arose in the early 1970s when advances

in technology led to a new category of reinforcing
Carbon Blacks in Furnace Black production. Compared
to the standard grades available at the time these
so-called new technology or improved blacks showed
improved abrasion resistance without any apparent
change in the iodine number. The differences between
Following the introduction of the Furnace Black meth- these new technology blacks and standard Carbon
od, initially there were only a few basic grades listed.
Blacks were not easily detectable with the methods
In the mid-1960s it was discovered that the addition
available at the time. Therefore, physical and chemiof alkaline metal salts during the production process
cal characterization methods had to be developed
could be used to influence the Carbon Black structure. in order to establish production parameters, which
This was the first major advancement which led to a
ensured that the correct Carbon Black characteristics
broader typology of Furnace Blacks.
were achieved. One of these new methods focused
on the determination of the Carbon Black surface area
For the application to tire treads, high-structure Carbon (CTAB adsorption cf. p. 32).
Blacks were introduced in the rubber industry in the
1960s to improve abrasion resistance. To determine
their structure a quick test method had to be developed.
Furnace Black Performance
Furnace Black History
ECORAX Blacks
4th stage
New technology Blacks
DBP
absorptionstructure
Iodine number
specific
surface area
2nd stage
1st stage
1950
28
3rd stage
1960
1970
2000
Figure 26a:
Furnace Black history
Further development and refinement of Orions Carbon

Blacks for the rubber industry has led to specifically
surface structured blacks (ECORAX grades), which
were first introduced at the beginning of the millennium. These Carbon Blacks feature a rougher microsurface in the nanometer range and deliver improved
dynamic properties in vulcanized rubber compounds
versus comparable ASTM Carbon Blacks.
The development of PUREX Carbon Blacks was
another step towards more sophisticated and product
orientated Carbon Blacks. These Carbon Blacks address
the needs of the rubber industry for clean and easily
dispersible soft blacks, especially those used in the
production of mechanical rubber goods for the automotive industry.
With hindsight, we can say that the development of

the electron microscope in the 1940s proved a major
milestone in terms of analyzing Carbon Black and
specifying different grades for different applications.
Where empirical methods used to be the only option
for characterizing Carbon Blacks, this new technology
made it possible to conduct scientific analyses based
on particle diameter, particle aggregation and even
particle classification in terms of shape and surface
details. The research showed that virtually no two
Carbon Black particles are exactly alike.
Figure 26b:
Scanning tunneling
microscopy (STM)
Higher surface roughness for ECORAX black due to smaller crystallites and more disordered arrangement of crystallites
Conventional Furnace Blacks
29

All Carbon Black characterization methods existing
today are used to define collective properties, which
are based on the sum of properties determined for the
individual particles. This means that we are dealing
with a maximum variation of particle properties in a
range with statistical maximum. It is up to the skilled
technician to adjust the peak of the distribution curve
at a specific value and define the width of the curve.
As long as geometric data is what is being processed
and analyzed, the electron microscope is a helpful tool
in determining the distribution curve. Other parameters, like conductivity, cannot be determined for the
individual particles.
As already pointed out, the average primary particle
size and the average aggregate size form the primary
characteristic data. However, the particle size distribution and the aggregate size distribution are at least
as important. As an alternative to lengthy electron
microscope analysis a number of methods have been
developed to enable a quicker characterization and
allow conclusions to be drawn for subsequent Carbon
Black applications. While various surface characterization
methods have gradually replaced those for particle
size determination, the aggregate size distribution is
now determined via specialized methods such as sedimentation, ultra-centrifugation and light refraction.
De facto there are various characterization methods in
use today, which indicate that a general characterization of Carbon Black is impossible. It is necessary to
specifically adapt identifying methodologies to the
various areas of application.
Most Carbon Black properties are determined based

on industry standards, which have been developed by
the German Institute of Standardization (Deutsches
Institut fr Normung e.V. - DIN), the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the ASTM
International (formerly known as the American Society
for Testing and Materials). These standards are not
only used as a measure by which Carbon Blacks are
characterized, but also as a quality assurance tool for
the production process (Table 6).
In addition to these Carbon Black reference profiles,
a number of more practical testing methods are used
today, especially for testing Rubber Carbon Blacks in
relation to their end use segments. These tests may be
conducted in standard rubber formulations and are
used to establish characteristic and consistent profile
data on the impact of the Carbon Black in the rubber
compound.
Obviously, these methods offer only a glimpse of the
comprehensive systems available for testing and evaluating Rubber Carbon Blacks. Special testing methods
also exist for Carbon Black applications in the plastics,
coatings and printing inks industries. However, we will
not expand on them any further here.
In the following chapters the main measurement
methods are described in more detail.
Figure 27:
Test methods
1) Determination of toluene extract
30
2) Measurement of nitrogen surface area/STSA
Standardized Carbon Black Test Methods

Description
ISO
ASTM
DIN
Surface Area
Iodine Adsorption
Nitrogen Surface Area/STSA
1304
4652/18852
D 1510
D 6556
66132
Structure/Rheology
OAN
COAN
Oil Absorption
4656
4656
787/5
D 2414
D 3493
Colorimetry
Jetness
Tint Strength
5435
D 3265
1125
787/2
787/18
D 1506
D 1509
D 1514
D 7724
D 4527
D 1618
D 1512
Chemical Analyses
Volatile Components
Ash Residue
Moisture
Sieve Residue
Non-Dispersible Matter
Toluene Extract
Transmittance of Toluene Extract
pH
External Appearance/Texture and Handling
Properties
Pour Density
Individual Pellet Hardness
Pellet Size Distribution
*)
55979
6209
3858
787/9
1306
8511
D 1513
D 3313/D 5230
D 1511
53552
53586
*)
*)
*)
**)
Table 6:
Carbon Black test methods.
*) DIN EN ISO method
**) DIN ISO method
Figure 27:
Test methods
3) Measurement of oil absorption capability (OAN)
4) Measurement of iodine adsorption
31

3.3.1 Determination of Surface Area
The specific surface area of a Carbon Black is mainly
derived from the particle geometry using adsorption
methods. Iodine adsorption, measured in mg/g, is the
most common technique.
Iodine adsorption is a quick test method for dry Carbon Black. Surface groups and adsorbed substances
influence this specification method. For the iodine
number to reflect the real surface area, it is important
that neither increased amounts of volatile matter nor
higher toluene extracts disturb the measurement. This
in turn limits this method to Furnace Blacks with low
toluene extractions and Lamp Blacks. Furnace Blacks
with high contents of solvent extractable material, Gas
Blacks and treated Carbon Blacks cannot be analyzed
using this method. That is mainly why this parameter
is usually not stated when dealing with Specialty Carbon Blacks.
CTAB adsorption, introduced primarily for the characterization of improved Carbon Blacks, comes closest
to an accurate determination of the geometric surface,
i.e., not including the pores. That is because cetyl
trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) has a greater
space requirement than nitrogen. This is also why the
CTAB number correlates well with particle size, allowing for meaningful predictions on Carbon Black properties and behavior in the application environment.
32
More modern methods to measure the surface area

are the BET multipoint nitrogen absorption and the
associated STSA (Statistical Thickness Surface Area).
It has always been recognized that the multipoint
nitrogen surface area was the most accurate way of
measuring the total surface area of the primary particle. However, limitations in equipment, did not allow
this to become a standard. With the introduction of
new automated test equipment it became possible
to receive the results of the BET multipoint and the
STSA with minimum efforts and in a much shorter
testing time. It is generally accepted that a combination of these two measurements more clearly defines
the surface area of a Carbon Black. This allows better
process control and gives values, which relate to the
Carbon Blacks performance potential. Today STSA has
basically replaced CTAB surface area.
Conversely, the particle size itself can be used to determine the geometric surface. This value is obtained
from electron microscope photographs, which make
it possible to measure the particle size, determine
the distribution curves and calculate the surface area
values. Although it is a very important tool in the Carbon Black industry, the method is too time-consuming
and complex and the equipment is too expensive for
obtaining profile data for everyday use.
3.3.2 Determination of Structure
3.3.3 Colorimetric Characterization
The structure of Carbon Black aggregates can only be

determined indirectly.
Jetness refers to the intensity of blackness that is

achievable. The most accurate instrument for measuring what are often very minute differences is the
trained eye which can differentiate between up to 100
different shades of black. A method for measuring
residual reflection (<0.5 %), invented by OEC, became
a standard known as DIN Norm 55979. A Carbon Black
sample mixed with linseed oil and measured with a
spectral photometer results in an MY value. The finer
the Carbon Black particle is, the higher the MY value
would be (Figure 28).
The most commonly accepted method is based on oil

absorption. In this test, paraffin oil (formerly dibutyl
phthalate, DBP) is added by means of a constant-rate
burette to a sample of the Carbon Black in the mixer
chamber of an absorptometer. As the sample absorbs
the oil the mixture changes from a free-flowing powder to a semi-plastic continuous mass. This leads to a
sharp increase in viscosity, which is transmitted to the
torque-sensing system of the absorptometer. The endpoint of the test is given by a pre-defined torque level.
The result is expressed as the oil absorption number
(OAN), in ml/100 g. A high OAN number corresponds
to a high structure, i.e. a high degree of branching and
clustering of the aggregates.
Mechanical stress can be applied to destroy agglomerates. This effect is used for determining the structure
based on the oil absorption of a compressed sample
(COAN). Following four repeated applications of pressure at predefined levels, the oil absorption of the
mechanically stressed Carbon Black is measured by
the conventional oil absorption method. As a general
rule, COAN values are lower than OAN values.
A refined version of the paste method described

above consists of determining the MY factor in an
alkyde/melamine resin lacquer. The jetness achieved
is mapped against various group standards and is
indicated as a relative blackness value figure MYr for
optimum reproducibility and consistency.
Blackness value MY
290
280
270
260
250
240
10
Another parameter, Carbon Black oil absorption

according to ISO 787/5, is measured using the socalled flowpoint method. The flowpoint registers the
maximum quantity of oil (usually linseed oil) that can
be added to Carbon Black and still allow for a non-deliquescent cone to form from the mixture. Although the
method is not the most accurate, oil absorption is an
important indicator in coating applications because
a high oil absorption level points to a high binding
agent requirement. The Carbon Black structure and
particle size, but most of all density and surface chemistry, all have an effect on oil absorption.
15
20
25
Primary particle size [nm]

Gas Black
Gas Black treated
Figure 28:
Primary particle size and
jetness
Tint strength refers to a colorimetric parameter:

it is the coloring ability of a Carbon Black as measured
against a white pigment (zinc oxide). However, tint
strength is influenced by the particle size and structure but also, to some extent, by the particle size
distribution. The finer the Carbon Black particles are,
the greater the tint strength is, an indirect indicator
of surface or particle size specification. On the other
hand, a lower structure causes greater tint strength.
Thus, tint strength by itself can often lead to a serious
misinterpretation of the reinforcing capability of a
Carbon Black and should therefore always be viewed
in relation to both structure and surface area.
The tint strength as well as the relative Grey Value GYr
(based on a polymer-coating system) will be given as
a percentage relative to a standard of Specialty Carbon
Black.
33

3.3.4 Chemical and Physical Measurements
The volatile matter content gives an indication of
the Carbon Blacks oxygen concentration and is determined by heating the Carbon Black up to 950C. This
parameter is especially important for testing Carbon
Blacks that have been post-treated.
The ash content points to the level of inorganic
impurities coming primarily from the feedstock - iron,
calcium and silicon are among the most common. Gas
and Acetylene Blacks are characterized by a very low
ash content due to their production process.
The sieve residue provides information on particulate
impurities which may contain metal or ceramic particles
originating from the production unit or coke particles
formed during the production process.
As a result of their high adsorbency, moisture is an
issue when storing Carbon Black. High-structure Carbon Blacks, and in particular oxidatively post-treated
Carbon Blacks, are more likely to have elevated moisture content levels.
3.3.5 Physical Appearance and Handling

Properties
To determine the space requirement of powder and
pelletized Carbon Blacks either the bulk or pour density, or the compacted or tapped density, is measured.
The structure is reflected by pour density. High-structure Carbon Blacks show a lower bulk density than
low-structure Carbon Blacks.
In the case of pelletized Carbon Blacks, the pellet
hardness is a significant quality parameter as it gives
an indication of pellet fragility and hence of the resistance to attrition rate. This resistance is characterized
by pellets being destroyed and ultimately ground to
dust by friction. While softer pellets make for better
dispersion, their inherent propensity towards finesse
may create handling issues. The pellet size distribution is a parameter that affects the flow characteristics
of pelletized Carbon Blacks. A uniform pellet size
means a lower bulk density, hence ensuring optimum
flow behavior.
The pH of a Carbon Black is measured in an aqueous

suspension. Untreated Carbon Blacks have a different
pH depending on the process used: Gas Blacks are
always acidic because of their oxidized surface. Furnace Blacks, on the other hand, are generally alkaline
because small quantities of basic oxides are present
on the surface. Lamp Blacks, Thermal Blacks and in
some cases also Acetylene Blacks are characterized by
alkaline to neutral reactions.
Figure 29:
Control room of a
Carbon Black plant
34
3.4 Specifications and Quality Assurance

Some of the parameters described above are part
of the Carbon Black specifications decided on
jointly between the customer and the manufacturer.
Although these mainly concern surface and structure
specifications, they may also address specific requirements as they relate to the Carbon Black application.
Most manufacturers therefore incorporate statistical

process control (SPC) in the Carbon Black production
process. SPC is a system that builds on universally
accepted specifications and guidelines for quality
assurance.
The most important target values for individual rubber

Key parameters are checked at regular intervals during blacks, to ensure optimum production processes, were
the production process as part of production control
laid down by ASTM International (ASTM D 1765), e.g.,
activities.
parameters for iodine adsorption and OAN absorption
(Figure 30).
One aspect which is important to both manufacturers
and users of Carbon Black is the continued consistency These parameters are determined at regular intervals
throughout the production process. They not only
in type and quality. This is a direct function of the
ensure a smooth production process, but also help
production process and process control (Figure 29).
Quality assurance, in terms of product uniformity and achieve optimum consistency in terms of end product
quality. The Capability lndices, Cp and Cpk, give an
reproducibility, is as important as meeting the customers individual specifications.
indication of parameter variances and their deviation
from target values.
105
OAN [ml/100g]
102
99
96
93
Time
Figure 30:
Process control chart
35

3.5 Characteristic Data of various Production Processes
The various production processes for obtaining Carbon Black have their advantages and each process
is characterized by a certain product range. The key
parameters, as shown in Table 7, provide an overview
of the characteristic data for the main Carbon Black
production processes.
Each process shows a characteristic primary particle
diameter distribution curve. An electron microscope
image of the individual Carbon Black type is used to
determine the quantity and size of the primary particles, which then yields the number of specific diameter clusters.
Figure 31 shows the primary particle size distribution
curve for each of the main production methods. Fine
Carbon Blacks (Gas Blacks) for instance are clustered in
a relatively narrow primary particle size range. Coarser
Carbon Blacks exhibit flatter curves.
Carbon Blacks/Production Processes

Thermal-Oxidative Decomposition
Thermal Decomposition
Lamp Black
Gas Black
Furnace Black
Thermal Black
Acetylene Black*
Nitrogen Surface Area
m /g
16 24
90 500
15 450
6 15
approx. 65
Iodine Adsorption
mg/g
23 33
n. a.
15 450
6 10
approx. 100
Primary Particle Size

(arithm. mean)
nm
110 120
10 30
10 80
120 500
32 42
OAN
ml/100 g
100 120
n. a.
40 200
37 43
150 200
200 220
230 300
210 300
170 190
225
Jetness MY
Tint Strength
20 35
90 150
50 160
approx. 20
n. a.
Volatile Matter
1 2.5
4 24
0.5 6
0.5 1.0
0.5 2,0
69
46
6 10
79
5 8*
pH **
Table 7:
Carbon Black variances for different production processes
* Pressureless process
** Treated Carbon Blacks may have a pH as low as 2
Frequency (% by wt.)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
02
10
03
Gas Black
COLOUR BLACK FW 1
36
04
05
06
07
08
09
0
Primary Particle Diameter (nm)
Furnace Black
CORAX N 339
Lamp Black
LAMP BLACK 101
100
110
120
130
140
Figure 31:
Distribution curves for primary
particle diameters
37
4 Handling
Significant advances have been made in the area

of handling and shipping granulated and powdery
goods in recent years. New systems for perfectly
sealed storage and transportation in particular have
greatly benefitted the Carbon Black industry. Carbon
Blacks are marketed in the form of powder Carbon
Black (Specialty Carbon Blacks) and pelletized Carbon Black (Specialty Carbon Blacks and Rubber Carbon Blacks). The handling systems differ substantially
depending on the type of Carbon Black for which
they are designed.
Depending on their type, powder Carbon Blacks can

more or less easily be fluidized pneumatically. This
makes it possible to convey them in large quantities
over relatively long distances using high air volumes.
Screw conveyors are used mainly for shorter distances.
Due to their low bulk density and relatively poor flow
characteristics, powder Carbon Blacks are not usually
shipped in rigid vessels or silos, but rather packaged in
bags or FIBCs (Flexible Intermediate Bulk Container) as
shown in Figure 32.
Figure 32:
Carbon Black packaging
1) FIBC
38
2) Paper bags
Pelletized Carbon Blacks, on the other hand, are

much easier to handle. Despite their significantly better flow and conveying properties, the pellet forms
require special precautions to prevent the pellets from
being crushed during transport. Otherwise, flow characteristics and onward handling may be significantly
degraded, which could possibly lead to production
downtime and equipment failure due to clogging.
That is why conveyor belts and bucket elevators are
still commonly used for intra-plant Carbon Black transfers. When pneumatic systems are used it is important
to employ low velocity conveying systems (Figure 33).
Dense-phase conveying systems offer the gentlest

conveying of such materials while dilute-phase
conveying and even dune-phase conveying are not
recommended because the resulting damage to the
pellets during transportation is too high. Short distances are best bridged using screw conveyors, fluid
channels or vibratory feeders.
The transportation of Carbon Black in 25 kg bags is by
far the least common. About 85 % of the global Carbon
Black is delivered in bulk (road and rail cars) and semibulk containers such as FIBCs or customer owned IBCs
(Intermediate Bulk Containers, so-called bins).
One aspect to keep in mind is that wet-pelletized Carbon Black is usually characterized by a greater pellet
hardness than dry-pelletized or oil-pelletized Carbon
Black. The appropriate conveying system must be
chosen depending on the pellet hardness, considering
the strength of the pellets against the applied forces.
Figure 33:
Carbon Black handling
and shipping
1) Pneumatic conveyor system for Carbon Blacks
2) Truck containers
39
5 Product Safety
5.1 Toxicology
Human Experience
In decades of Carbon Black production and processing
using a variety of methods, no significant hazardous
effects have been registered.
Acute Toxicity
Carbon Black has an acute (oral) toxicity LD50 of
> 8000 mg/kg bw. Carbon Black applied on the intact
skin and to the eye of the rabbit does not cause irritating or corrosive effects. Carbon Black did not induce
skin sensitisation effects in guinea pigs (OECD guideline 406). In humans, no cases of skin or respiratory
allergies have been reported.
Repeated Dose Toxicity

Carbon Black has a NOAEL of 1 mg/m3 (respirable)
after repeated inhalation of rats for 13 weeks. Based
on human data, a NOAEL can be estimated at 2 mg/m3
(inhalable).
Chronic Toxicity
In the early 1990s, extended long-term inhalation
studies with rats showed lung fibrosis and tumor
development in the case where the lungs were overloaded with Carbon Black particles. Mice and hamsters
did not develop lung tumors under similar testing
conditions. Although the significance of effects seen in
rats under overload conditions for human risk assessment is today still controversially discussed.
40
In October 1995, the International Agency for

Research on Cancer (IARC) had evaluated available
data on Carbon Black and amended its initial overall
rating of Carbon Black from Category 3 to Category
2B (possible human carcinogen) based on two longterm inhalation studies performed in rats under conditions of lung overload. Based on human (epidemiological) data, IARC concluded that there was inadequate
evidence linking exposure to Carbon Black to cancer
development in humans. In subsequent evaluations of
Carbon Black in 2006 and 2010, IARC upheld its previous rating. As a consequence of the IARC evaluation,
Carbon Black is now included in the Danish cancer
list and classified as a D2 A substance (poisonous and
infectious material) and in the Canadian Workplace
Hazardous Materials Identification System (WHMIS)
under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act
(CEPA). The German MAK Commission reviewed Carbon
Black in 1998. The overall rating of this commission is
Category 3B (possible human carcinogen) also based
on the long-term inhalation studies on rats under
conditions of lung overload.
Based on findings by the National Toxicology Program
(NTP/USA) as well as the European (excluding Denmark) and American legislation regarding chemicals
(OSHA), Rubber Carbon Blacks and Specialty Carbon
Blacks do not exhibit Carbon a mutagenic, teratogenic
or carcinogenic risk.
Ecotoxicology
Carbon Black is an inorganic water insoluble substance. For this reason its bioavailability for aquatic
organisms is very low. In acute tests according to
OECD test guidelines with fish, daphnia and algae,
nominal concentrations of 1.00 mg/l showed no
effects. Based on the physicochemical and acute
toxicological data, no chronic effects and no bioaccumulation are to be expected in aquatic organisms. The
general guidelines for the examination of the biodegradability of substances (OECD, EEC-guidelines) can
be used only for organic substances. Carbon Black is
an inert inorganic substance with the structural formula C and is not biodegradable by microorganisms.
The German commission for the evaluation of water
polluting substances has classified Carbon Black as a
not water endangering substance (KBwS-No: 1742).
5.2 Safety-Related Properties

Under normal application conditions Carbon Black
does not pose a potential explosive hazard. However, in the presence of significant igniting energy,
e.g., a welding torch, Carbon Black/air mixtures may
explode. For this reason, Carbon Black sources must
be removed or hermetically sealed prior to equipment
repairs in the vicinity of welding processes or equipment generating high operating temperatures.
Carbon monoxide build-up is possible in sealed containers such as silos or in unventilated storage facilities.
Due to the toxic and extremely flammable properties of
carbon monoxide, ignition sources should be removed
and self-contained air supply systems should be used.
Carbon Black should be stored under dry conditions.

During activities where the workplace limit value valid
for Carbon Black are exceeded, an air suction system
should be in operation or work personnel be required
to wear protective dust masks. For most countries
the general dust exposure limit applies for Carbon
Black. The country-specific OEL for Carbon Black can
be obtained from our safety data sheets which are
obtainable from our website. To prevent Carbon Black
emissions and dust build-up, implementation of good
engineering and housekeeping practices as well as
effective dust removal systems are recommended.
Further details regarding safe handling of Carbon Blacks
are described in the relevant safety data sheet (SDS).
Special Requirements
Many Carbon Blacks fulfill the governmental standards for additives that are used in articles that
come into contact with food, drinking water and
toys. For more detailed information, please contact
the Product Stewardship and Health Department:
Hahnstrae 49
60528 Frankfurt am Main
Germany
phone +49 69 36 50 54 - 165
fax
+49 69 36 50 54 - 784
[email protected]
41
6 Applications
Once you consider its possible uses you will find that
there are many answers to the question
What is Carbon Black?.
Indeed, the physical and chemical properties discussed so far hint at a broad spectrum of applications.
The high degree of light absorption, for instance, is
one aspect that makes Carbon Black so useful in the
coatings, plastics and printing industries.
6.1 Rubber Carbon Blacks

The primary particle size, the aggregate formation and
the surface activity have all led to the important application of Carbon Black as a reinforcing agent in rubber
applications. These Carbon Blacks are most commonly
referred to as Rubber Carbon Blacks.
The reinforcing effect of Carbon Black was discovered
by accident rather than intentionally shortly after the
turn of the 19th century. Until then zinc oxide was the
substance of choice for eliminating the inherent stickiness of rubber. The discovery of the reinforcing properties of Carbon Black represented a new dawn for
the Carbon Black, tire and automotive industries. Now
tires with improved textile cord could be produced to
last longer if Carbon Black is used as a filler in the rubber compound instead of zinc oxide.
However, it took until the early 1920s before Carbon
Black was generally used to reinforce tire rubber and
other rubber products. Soon it also became clear that
42
there were significant differences between the various

types of Carbon Black, and that these distinctions
evolved from processing characteristics and their effect
on rubber properties. As a result, new typologies, such
as MPC = Medium Processing Channel Black or HAF =
High Abrasion Furnace Black, were established.
The demand for reduced rolling resistance and subsequently the labeling of tires steered the industry
toward a solution for the truck and passenger car
sector. The idea to use a suitable filler to achieve a
lower rolling resistance inspired OEC to develop a new
generation of Rubber Carbon Blacks under the brand
name ECORAX.
In the area of technical rubber components, the
main criteria for modern Carbon Blacks are excellent
dispersibility, processing reliability and quality consistency. The PUREX family of Carbon Blacks developed
by OEC for the MRG industry addresses these needs.
The following widely acknowledged typology of Carbon Blacks based on reinforcing properties has stood
the test of time:
Hard Blacks:
High reinforcing capability, fine Carbon Blacks, tire
tread blacks (primary particle size: 1 30 nm)
Soft Blacks:
Semi-reinforcing capability, carcass Carbon Blacks
(primary particle size: 31 200 nm)
Thermal Blacks:
Minor reinforcing capability, high filling rates (primary
particle size: >200 nm)
effectively reduce the curing rate of rubber. Channel

Blacks characteristically impart a slower curing rate to
rubber compounds. Thus, the letter S designates a
slow cure rate. Carbon Blacks may vary considerably in
curing rate within each of the two letter classifications.
A 3-digit number follows the first character in the
nomenclature system. The first digit designates the
average surface area of the Carbon Black as measured
by nitrogen surface area. The surface area range of
Carbon Black has been divided into 6 arbitrary groups.
Each has been assigned a digit to describe that group
(Table 8). The digits 2 and 3 have no connotative
meaning.
The N300 series is characterized by a wide

variety of Rubber Carbon Blacks, covering no
fewer than 10 different types. As mentioned above,
fine-particle Carbon Blacks are used for rubber components that need to withstand significant levels of
The first character in the nomenclature system for
Rubber Carbon Blacks indicates the effect of the Carbon mechanical stress, e.g. tire treads.
Black on the cure rate of a typical rubber compound
containing the Carbon Black. The letter N is used to
Soft blacks, on the other hand, are used in the tire
indicate a normal curing rate of typical Furnace Blacks carcass but also in technical rubber components,
that have received no special modification to alter
from windscreen seals to door seals and floor
their influence on the curing rate of rubber. The letter
mats. More than 90 % of the worlds Carbon Black
S is used for Channel Blacks or for Furnace Blacks that output is used in the rubber industry, hence
have been usually modified by oxydative methods, to the dominant role of Rubber Carbon Blacks.
Today a classification according to ASTM D 1765 is
widely used.
Rubber Carbon Blacks

Designation
Nitrogen Surface Area (m2/g)
N100
121 150
N200
100 120
N300
70 99
N500
40 49
N600
33 39
N700
21 32
N900
< 10
Table 8:
ASTM Rubber Carbon Black
typology (excerpt)
43
6 Applications
6.2 Specialty Carbon Blacks
Specialty Carbon Blacks have a number of advantages
compared to black organic dyes:
Color stability
Solvent resistance
Acid and alkaline resistance
Thermal stability
High hiding power
These Carbon Blacks are used for a variety of applications in the printing, paints, coatings, plastics, fiber,
paper and construction industries. Here also the
industry works with a widely accepted typology based
on particle size. Although not considered an international standard, it serves as the main reference for
most manufacturers.
The classification system identifies four groups:
High Color (HC), Medium Color (MC), Regular Color
(RC) and Low Color (LC). The third letter refers to the
manufacturing process: (F) for Furnace Black and (G)
for Channel or Gas Black. Treatment is indicated by the
suffix (o).
New Specialty Carbon Blacks developed on an ongoing basis, are sustaining and driving the pace of innovation in the area of non-impact printing methods.
Today, the Specialty Carbon Black manufactured
according to the Degussa Gas Black method is at the
forefront of the industry.
Specialty Carbon Blacks

Designation
Gas Blacks
Furnace Blacks
Range of Median
Primary Particle Size*
(nm)
HCG
HCF
10 15
MCG
MCF
16 24
RCG
RCF
25 35
LCF
> 36
Gas Blacks (treated)

HCG (o)
10 17
MCG (o)
18 24
RCG (o)
> 25
Table 9:
Specialty Carbon Black classification
44
In the coatings sector, treated, fine particle Carbon

Blacks are the key to deep jet black paints. On the
other hand, coarse Carbon Blacks, the so-called tinting
blacks, are indispensable for obtaining a desired grey
shade or color hue.
Carbon Black applications abound in the plastics
industry. As in the coatings industry, fine-particle
types are used for obtaining a deep jet black color.
Its ability to absorb detrimental UV light and convert it into heat, makes plastics such as polyolefines,
and especially polyethylene, more resistant to UV
radiation. Anti-static treatment is also an important
application area, as the related field of compounds for
power cables. The plastics sector also covers the black
pigmentation of synthetic fibers.
The paper industry uses Carbon Blacks with mediumsized particles mainly for decorative and photo-protective products. Relatively coarse particles characterize the Carbon Blacks utilized in the construction
industry.
Other special application areas, though not focused
on the pigmentation properties of these Carbon
Blacks, are also included here e.g., the production of
carbon brushes and electrodes, as well as metal, metal
oxide reduction and molten metal covering systems.
All of these are most suitable for Lamp Blacks.
Though the list of applications is far from being
exhausted, the uses described here give a good idea
of the impact of Carbon Black in the world around us.
Carbon Black is one of the basic substances that is
indispensable to industry and technology. It comes
in many varieties, each tailored to applications in the
most diverse areas. Indeed, Carbon Black has come a
long way and who would have thought that Carbon
Black would have such a bright future?
Without Carbon Black ...

... the tires on your car would not provide that extra measure of durability and safety.
... your morning newspaper would never make it to the breakfast table on time.
... photocopiers might still be mimeograph machines.
... books would simply fade away.
... fashion would miss out on the elegance of a touch of black.
... grand pianos would only come in lighter shades.
... stretch limos would all be white.
... your car would miss the sealings which protect you from getting wet inside.
... there would be no anti-vibration measures and car rides could be quite bumpy.
45
6 Applications
46
Fo c u s e d. I n n o v a t i v e. R e s p o n s i v e.
The Americas
Europe/ Middle East/ Africa
Asia Pacific

4501 Magnolia Cove Drive, Suite 106
Kingwood, TX 77345
USA
Phone +1 832 445 3300

Hahnstrae 49
60528 Frankfurt am Main
Germany
Phone +49 69 36 50 54 100
Orion Engineered Carbons Trading (Shanghai) Co., Ltd.

BM Intercontinental Business Centre, Room 3701-3702
100 Yutong Road
Phone +86 21 6107 0895
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Global Corporate Headquarters

Orion Engineered Carbons S.A., 6 Route de Trves, L-2633 Senningerberg, Luxembourg, Phone +352 27 04 80 60
www.orioncarbons.com
All information and statements contained herein are believed to be accurate, however Orion Engineered Carbons GmbH (as well as all other Orion Engineered
Carbons group companies including Orion Engineered Carbons SA), its agents and/or affiliates give no warranty with respect thereto, including but not limited
to any results to be obtained or the non-infringement of any proprietary right. Use or application of such information or statements or the material or systems
described herein is at users sole discretion and risk, and consequently user acknowledges that Orion Engineered Carbons GmbH (as well as all other Orion
Engineered Carbons group companies including Orion Engineered Carbons SA), its agents and/or affiliates shall bear no responsibility or liability for same.
Nothing herein shall be construed as a license of or recommendation for use, especially with concern to the potential infringement of any proprietary right.
All sales are subject to the respective Standard Terms & Conditions of Sale issued by Orion Engineered Carbons GmbH or - as the case may be - another Orion
Engineered Carbons group company, including but not limited to the Limited Warranty clauses contained therein.
2015 Orion Engineered Carbons GmbH
OEC-06/2015

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What is Carbon Black?

3 Properties of Carbon Black

Strategic Elements of our Mission

Market and TechnologyDriven Product Portfolio

1.3 billion Euro

Number of Production Sites

Number of Technical Innovation Centers

over 100 countries

Production Capacitiy p.a.

Grow with Customers

16) South Africa, Port Elizabeth

17) Korea, Bupyeong

10) Germany, Frankfurt (Global Operational

18) Korea, Yeosu

11) Germany, Cologne

19) Japan, Tokyo

12) Germany, Dortmund

20) China, Shanghai

13) Sweden, Malm

20) China, Shanghai (Technical Center)

Common shares of Orion Engineered

Conversion of line at Borger (Texas, USA) to

Orion ceases production in Sins (Portugal)

Orion completes conversion of lines at

Orion begins reorganization and refocusing

Orion completes rollout of single instance

Evonik buys out Engineered Carbons Joint

Degussa forms a Joint Venture with

Degussa forms the first Western/Chinese

Evonik installs new Specialty Gas Black unit

Degussa acquires plant in Jaslo (Poland)

Plants acquired in Ivanhoe (Louisiana,

Plants acquired in Ambs (France), Botlek

Start of Furnace Black process in Cologne

Degussa acquires the remaining shares in

German Joint Venture starts using the

1.2 What is Carbon Black?

The variety of Carbon Blacks, its production methods

History of Carbon Black

Reinforcing filler in tires and mechanical rubber components, conductivity

Pigmentation, rheology, tinting

Black and grey pigmentation, tinting

Black and grey pigmentation, tinting, UV protection, conductivity, conductor coating

Black and grey pigmentation, conductivity, decorative and photo-protective papers

Cement and concrete pigmentation, conductivity

Carbon brushes, electrodes, battery cells

Metal Reduction Compounds

Metal smelting, friction compound

Reduction compound, carbon source

Reduction of mineral porosity

Graphite furnaces, polystyrene and PU foam

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio Ten Books on Architecture

In answering the question What is Carbon Black? the

History of Carbon Black

The basic raw material for the production of Carbon

This in turn generates the heat required to melt and

A burning candle easily demonstrates how this works.

Every Carbon Black production method is based on

Main Raw Materials