Introduction to

Process Control
Table of Contents

Lesson One

The Nature of Process Control.........................................................3

Lesson Two

Elements of Process Control..........................................................19

Lesson Three

Process Control Signals..................................................................35

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Lesson Four

Process Control Drawings..............................................................51

Lesson Five

Using Symbols and Diagrams in Process Control.........................69

Lesson Six

Process Control Loop Operations..................................................85

Copyright 1992, 1997, 1999, 2001 by TPC Training Systems, a division of Telemedia, Inc.
All rights reserved, including those of translation.
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INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL

Lesson Five

Using Symbols and

Diagrams in
Process Control

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27105

70

Lesson

Using Symbols and Diagrams

in Process Control

TOPICS
Sequence of Operation
Flowchart
Switches
Relays
Motor Starters

Electrical Elementary Diagram

Pump System Schematic Diagram
Programmable Controller Diagram
Electronic Symbols

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OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to

Convert sequence-of-operation text to a

flowchart.
Read electrical and electronic control diagrams
and drawings.

Recognize symbols used on electrical and

electronic diagrams, including those for
PLCs and SAMA logic.
Convert electrical diagrams to PLC diagrams.
Discuss the role of computers in process control.

KEY TECHNICAL TERMS

Flowchart 5.03 a graphical description of the
sequence of operation
SAMA 5.09 Scientific Apparatus Makers
Association
Schematic 5.25 an electrical diagram showing
the relationship of the components of a control
system in the order that each should be
energized

Run circuit 5.31 the line in the schematic that

provides information about starting and stopping
the motor

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71

In todays complex process control systems, understanding what is happening

and what should be happening is of primary importance to everyone involved in
the process. Process designers prepare a sequence of operation to perform the
tasks required to produce a high-quality finished product. Engineers then convert this sequence of operation to standard industrial symbols and diagrams in
order to present the sequence in a logical form. To understand and work with
the process, you must know how to read the symbols and diagrams.
This lesson will help you understand any process by showing you how to read
electrical and electronic symbols and diagrams in particular. It will help you
interpret schematics for SAMA logic, including that used for programmable
logic controllers (PLCs) and other computers.

Sequence of Operation

Flowchart

5.01
The sequence of operation is a description in
sentence form of how the controls in a process work.
It is one of several methods for describing a process.
The sequence of operation describes in detail what
happens in what order in the process.

5.03
The flowchart is a graphical description of the
sequence of operation. Figure 5-1 shows standard
flowchart symbols. Once you become familiar with
the shapes, you will be able to read flowcharts quite
easily and rapidly.

5.02
For example, the steps below might be part of
the sequence of operation for a domestic water system. The system supplies water from a storage tank
and pumps replacement water to the tank as the
demand requires.

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If the pressure in the storage tank falls to a

low level of 20 psi, and the pump is not running, start the pump.

5.04 Figure 5-2 on the following page shows a

partial sequence of operation in flowchart form for
the domestic water system discussed above.
Flowcharts are arranged to be read from top to bottom or from left to right. Notice that each of the
diamonds asks a question that can be answered with
a Yes or a No. A complete flowchart would
show actions or further decisions for the alternate
path from each decision diamond.

If the tank pressure reaches a high level of

60 psi, and the pump is running, stop the
pump.

5.05 Following the sequence given above for the

water-supply system, the first diamond asks the status of the pressure. You can trace the flow by fol-

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Fig. 5-1. American standard flowchart symbols

Manual start

Data link

Manual operation

Start/stop

Process

Input/output

Document

On-line storage

Magnetic tape

Decision

Connection

Auxiliary process

Punched tape

Display output

Off-line storage

Punched card

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72 Lesson Five

Fig. 5-2. Flowchart for pump sequence

Start

Pressure
high

No

asks if the pump is running. If the pump is running

(Yes), you are instructed to start the second timer.
The last diamond asks if the timer has timed out. If
the timer has timed out, you are instructed to shut
off the pump. Now the second part of the sequence
of operation has been satisfied.

Yes
No

Pressure
low
Yes

Pump
running

No

Yes
Yes

Pump
running
No
Start
timer
one

Start
timer
two

Timer
timed out

No

Yes
No

Timer
timed out
Yes
Start
pump

5.09
Figure 5-3 shows the flow for a combustion
control system. This system is more complicated than
the one just discussed, because it covers more kinds
of information. This illustration shows a combination
of pneumatic, liquid, steam, and electrical signals.
The symbols are those of the Scientific Apparatus
Makers Association (SAMA). Figure 5-4 lists and
defines the SAMA symbols that are used for logic
diagramming.

Stop
pump

5.10 The purpose of the combustion control

system is to provide the heat needed to maintain
steam pressure. To accomplish this, fuel and air
must be applied in the proper mixture. Note that
the fuel transmitter and the air transmitter sense
flow, while the steam transmitter senses pressure.
Flow components include square root extractors
and selector devices. The diagram shows you that
all three controllers provide proportional and integral control.

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Stop

lowing the lines from the Yes or the No. If the pressure is not low, the No path leads you to corrective
action. If the pressure is low, the Yes line directs
you to the second diamond.
5.06
The second diamond asks for the status of the
pump. If the pump is running, you follow the Yes path.
If the pump is not running, the arrowed No line directs
you to the first square. A square is an instruction box. It
indicates that an action of some kind is needed. In this
case, the instruction is to start the first timer.

5.07
The third diamond asks for the status of the
timer. If the timer has not timed out, you follow the
No path. If the timer has timed out, the arrowed Yes
line directs you to the second square. The second
square is an instruction that tells you to start the
pump. The first part of the sequence of operation
above has now been satisfied.
5.08 The fourth diamond asks the pressure status.
If the pressure is high (Yes), then the next diamond

5.11
The low selector at A and the high selector
at B detect steam pressure and send the information
to comparators in the fuel line (C) and in the air line
(D). Comparators are devices that compare the signals from two inputs and send a signal based on the
difference (). If steam pressure is low, the system
acts to increase it. If steam pressure is high, the system acts to reduce pressure.
5.12 Suppose the device at A in Fig. 5-3 sends
a signal to the comparator at C indicating low
steam pressure. The arrow from the comparator
leads to the fuel controller, which sends a signal
to the fuel valve, causing it to open. The comparator at D sends a signal to the air flow controller,
which sends a signal to the dampers, causing them
to open. The increase in fuel and air provide the
heat needed to increase the steam pressure.
Conversely, the device at B in Fig. 5-3 sends a
signal to the comparator at D indicating high
steam pressure, causing the system to reduce the
flow fuel and close the air dampers, thus reducing
steam pressure.

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Using Symbols and Diagrams in Process Control 73

Fig. 5-3. A typical combustion control system

Fuel gas

FT

PT

K
+

Steam

Air

FT

Master
controller
f(x)

C
A
K
+

Fuel flow
controller

Air flow
controller

K
f(x)

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A

Fuel valve

K
+

K
f(x)

I.D. fan damper

K
f(x)

F.D. fan damper

Switches

5.13 Many kinds of switches are available to perform control functions. Figure 5-5 on the following
page shows the most common kinds of switches

used in control circuits. Notice that each is shown as

a normally open (N.O.) or a normally closed (N.C.)
device. N.O. and N.C. indicate the state of the
switch when it is de-energizedthat is, when no
pressure is applied to the switch arm.

Fig. 5-4. SAMA symbols

Symbols

/ n

K or P
or I
du/dx or D
X

Xn
f (x)

Functions
Summing
Averaging
Difference
Proportional
Integral
Derivative
Multiplying
Dividing
Root extracting
Exponential
Nonlinear or
unspecified function

Symbols

f (t)
>
<
>
<
-K or -P
V>
+ or - or
A
T
H/L or H//L

Functions

Symbols

Time function
High selecting
Low selecting
High limiting
Low limiting
Reverse proportional
Velocity limiter
Bias
Analog signal generator
Transfer
Signal monitor

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Enclosures
Measuring or
readout
Automatic signal
processing
Manual signal
processing
Final
controlling

74

Lesson Five

Fig. 5-5. Common switch symbols

Pushbutton switches
Disconnect

Circuit interrupter

N.O.

Normally
open

Normally
closed

N.C.

Held closed

Held open

Temperatureactuated switches

N.C.

N.O.

Foot switches

N.O.

Circuit breaker
with thermal O.L.

Liquid level switches

Limit switches

N.O.

5.14
Here is a way to tell if a switch is N.O. or
N.C., assuming the switch is drawn in the usual horizontal manner:

N.C.

N.O.

N.C.

Selector switches
2 position
3 position
A1 X
A1 X
A2
X
A2
X
Hand Off Auto
A1
A2
A1
A2

Flow switches
(air, water, etc.)

N.C.

N.O.

Pressure and
vacuum switches

N.C.

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for pushbutton and foot switchesdownward movement closes the N.O. pushbutton switch and opens the
N.C. pushbutton switch.

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Switches designated as N.C. are shown with the

movable part of the switch above the contact.

Switches designated as N.O. are shown with

the movable part below the contact.

When the force holding the switch energized is

removed, the movable part falls. The movable element of the N.O. switch falls downward away from
the contact, opening the circuit. The movable element
of the N.C. switch falls downward onto the contact,
closing the circuit. Note that the opposite holds true

5.15
Starting at the upper left in Fig. 5-5, the first
two boxes show kinds of main switches. The dotted
line indicates a mechanical linkage. Each drawing
indicates a three-phase switch.

The first box shows a manual disconnect

switch at the top. The circuit breaker (interrupter) shown at the bottom, disconnects
when the current exceeds the rated value.

The second box shows a circuit breaker with

thermal overloads, which also disconnects
when the current exceeds the rated value.
This device includes heaters that heat up and
open the contacts if the circuit current is
excessive.

Fig. 5-6. Relay symbols

Make SPSTNO

Break SPSTNC

Break, make
(transfer) SPDT

Double make,
contact on arm

Double break,
contact on arm

Double make,
double break,
contact on arm

5.16
The third drawing shows switches that require
manual operation and are mounted on the control
panel. These can be pushbutton switches or rotary
selector switches. All of the other switches depend on
some kind of mechanical motion to change the state
of the switchthat is, to open or close the contacts.
Relays

Multiple section (N.O.)

5.17 Many relays are used in control circuits.

The control relay is an electromagnetic device.

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Using Symbols and Diagrams in Process Control 75

That is, a magnetic field is created as voltage is

applied to the coil. When power is applied to the
coil, the relays magnetic system causes the contacts to open (break) or close (make). The contacts
are wired in an electrical circuit to perform the
control action.
5.18
Figure 5-6 shows several basic relay contact
configurations, although there are many others.
Multiple-contact relays are very common. The most
common is the single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) relay.
This relay is normally shown as in Fig. 5-7 under the

heading of Standard Instant-Operating Contacts. Figure

5-7 also shows the symbol for a control relay coil
under the Coils heading, as well as many other symbols you will often see on drawings.
5.19
Relay contacts operate somewhat differently
from switch contacts. Because electromagnetic action
pulls the movable part of a direct-acting relay switch
down when the relay is energized, normally closed contacts would move up when the relay is de-energized.
Springs are used in relays to provide a counter force to
the magnetic pull.

Fig. 5-7. Standard elementary wiring diagram symbols

Pilot lights
Indicate color by letter
Non push-to-test

Coils
Relay

Push-to-test

N.O.

Instant operating
Standard

N.C.

Inductors
Iron core
Air core

N.O.

N.C.

Thermal

Magnetic

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Contacts

Special

Overload relays

Solenoid

Timed contactscontact action retarded after coil is

Energized
De-energized

N.O.T.C.

N.C.T.O.

N.O.T.O.

N.C.T.C.

Transformers

Auto

Iron core

Air core

Current

Dual voltage

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76 Programmed Exercises

5-1.

5-2.

The
is a description in
sentence form of how the controls
in a process work.

5-1.

is a graphical description
A(n)
of the steps in a sequence of operation.

5-2.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
Ref: 5.01

FLOWCHART
Ref: 5.03

5-3.

5-4.

The shape that indicates a decision in

, and a(n)
a flowchart is a(n)
indicates an instruction.

5-3.

SAMA symbols are those developed by

.
the

5-4.

DIAMOND; SQUARE
Ref: 5.04, 5.06

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ASSOCIATION

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Ref: 5.09

5-5.

N.O. and N.C. indicate the state of a

.
switch when it is

5-5.

DE-ENERGIZED

Ref: 5.13

5-6.

5-7.

5-8.

Switches designated as N.C. are

shown with the movable part of the
the contact.
switch

5-6.

A circuit breaker with thermal overloads

that open the circuit
includes
if current exceeds a specified value.

5-7.

The control relay is a(n)

device.

5-8.

ABOVE

Ref: 5.14

HEATERS
Ref: 5.15

ELECTROMAGNETIC
Ref: 5.17

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Using Symbols and Diagrams in Process Control 77

Motor Starters

Fig. 5-8. Motor starter wiring diagram

5.20
Magnetic motor starters may be considered a
special kind of relay. A typical three-phase motor
starter includes contacts and overload heater elements,
as well as a pushbutton station that contains an N.O.
pushbutton START switch and an N.C. STOP switch.

L1
2

L3

Stop
A

5.21
Figure 5-8 shows the wiring for a magnetic
starter. The heavy black lines show the three-phase
power circuit. L1, L2, and L3 are the lines of supply.
T1, T2, and T3 are motor leads. The control circuit is
shown in light lines and consists of the START/STOP
pushbuttons, the holding interlock, magnetic starter
coil (M), and the overload relay contacts (OL) with a
terminal of X2.
5.22
Pushing the START button energizes the coil
(M). The magnetic action closes all four contacts and
the motor starts. The interlock contact keeps the
motor running, because it is in parallel with the START
button. Pushing the STOP button de-energizes the circuit. The coil drops out, opening all four contacts, and
the motor stops. Because the interlocking contact
dropped out when the coil dropped out, the motor is
prevented from restarting until the START button is
pressed again.

L2

Start

Interlock

X2

Overload
contacts

T1

T2

T3
T2

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T1

Motor

T3

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5.23
The overload heater elements are protective
devices. Excessive current in the motor leads will cause
the overload elements to heat up. If a certain temperature is reached, the overload relay contacts will open,
de-energizing the coil and stopping the motor.

Pump System Schematic Diagram

5.26
Figure 5-10 on the following page shows the
electrical schematic diagram for the pump system discussed at the beginning of this lesson. The following
paragraphs will analyze this drawing line by line.
5.27
In general, power circuits are not covered in
this course. The power circuit is shown at the top of

Electrical Elementary Diagram

5.24
Electrical and electronic symbols show the
devices in a de-energized statethat is, no voltage is
applied to the circuit. A circuit consists of a combination of devices that work together to accomplish a
specific task. A control circuit, then, is a combination
of devices that work together to control one or more
specific tasks.
5.25
Figure 5-9 shows the elementary wiring diagram, also referred to as the schematic, for the motor
starter circuit just discussed. The schematic shows
you that the control circuit is a series circuit.
Therefore, if any device changes state from open to
closed or closed to open, the state of the entire circuit
will be affected.

Fig. 5-9. Motor starter schematic

L1

L2

T1

Heater elements

T2

Motor
T3

L3

M
Start

L1

Stop
M

M
V
Motor
starter coil

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L2
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OL relay
contacts

78 Lesson Five

Fig. 5-10. Pump system schematic

MCB

OL

L1
M

T1
T2

L2

Motor

M
T3
L3
480
1

X1

M
2

X2
120

Stop
2

CR-1

CR-2

HOA
5

TR-1

10

CR-2

CR-1
5
High pressure
12

TR-2

M1

11

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14

the page to help explain the relationship between the

starter (M1) and the power connection for the motor.
5.28 Closing the circuit breaker energizes L1,
L2, and L3. When the starter coil (M1) is energized,
the M1 contacts close, thus energizing T1, T2, and
T3 and allowing the motor to start. The transformer
provides the control voltage for this system.
However, control voltage could be provided by a
separate power supply.
5.29
All control drawings show line numbers on
the far left. These numbers are used as references in
troubleshooting. The numbers on the far right refer to
the control line where the contacts of the output

2, 3, 6

M1

Auto

Low pressure
M1

OL

7
M1

Hand

Start
6

TR-1

CR-1

TR-2

CR-2

2, 4

device are located. For example, the numbers 2, 3,

and 6 in line 2 refer to the contacts of coil M1. A line
under the number on the far right indicates a N.C.
contact. You see that the M1 contacts in lines 2 and 6
are N.O., but the contact in line 3 is N.C.
5.30 Line 1 in Fig. 5-10 is the beginning of the
control part of the drawing and provides control
power information. In this example, the control
voltage is 120 V ac. The numbers on each side of
each device are wire numbers, essential information for troubleshooting or wiring the circuit.
5.31 Line 2 in this example is referred to as the
run circuit. It provides information about starting

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Using Symbols and Diagrams in Process Control 79

and stopping the motor. The STOP button, CR-2, the

switch (marked HOA), and OL are all N.C. devices
and are shown in the normally closed position. You
see that CR-1 and the S TA RT button are N.O.
devices. Therefore, for the motor to startthat is,
for M1 to be energized, first the START pushbutton
must be depressed, energizing the circuit. CR-1
must be energized, and all devices except the
START pushbutton and CR-1 must be closed (deenergized).
5.32 Line 4 tells you that control relay CR-1
must be energized to close contact CR-1 in line 2.
Line 4 also shows that the start timer (TR-1) N.O.
switch must be closed to energize relay CR-1. Line
3 shows that the low-pressure switch must be energized to close the circuit and start TR-1 timing.
When TR-1 times out, switch TR-1 will close,
energizing relay CR-1 and lighting the amber (A)
ready-to-start light. Depressing the START button
will then start the motor and light the green (G)
pump-on light.

Fig. 5-11. Pump system PLC ladder diagram

Rung: 001
PB-1
STOP
001
] [

CR-1
START
012
] [

Programmable Controller Diagram

5.34 Programmable controllers (PLCs) are actually computers that were originally developed to
replace electromechanical relays. Symbols for indicating the control circuit program that resides in a
PLC memory were developed from standard electrical symbols to enable electricians to follow the circuitry. Basically, a PLC consists of a rack holding
the computer and the input/output boards needed to
perform the control.

5.35
The PLC control diagram is referred to as a
ladder diagram. Figure 5-11 shows the circuitry of
Fig. 5-10 in ladder diagram form. You will notice
many similarities between the two drawings.
5.36
Different kinds of PLCs use different numbering systems. The one used here is typical but by no

PB-2
START
004
] [

SS-1A
HAND
002
] [

MAN
MODE
014
( )

MAN
MODE
014
] [

Rung: 002
CR-1
START
012
] [

CR-2
STOP
013
] [

AUTO
MODE
015
( )

SS-1B
AUTO
003
] [

Rung: 003
MAN
MODE
014
] [

PUMP
MOTOR
011
( )

AUTO
MODE
015
] [

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Rung: 004

START
TIMER
901
(RTO)
PR 0010

LOW
PRESS
005
] [

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5.33 The motor can be stopped manually by

depressing the STOP button or turning the selector
switch to the OFF position. The motor will stop
automatically if the OLs open due to an overload
condition. When the pressure is high, relay CR-2
will be energized and open the CR-2 contacts.
Lines 6 and 7 show the sequence to energize the
CR-2 relay.

CR-2
STOP
013
] [

Rung: 005
START
TIMER
901
] [

CR-2
STOP
013
] [

CR-1
START
012
( )

PUMP
MOTOR
011
] [

STOP
TIMER
902
(RTO)
PR 0010

Rung: 006
HIGH
PRESS
006
] [

Rung: 007
STOP
TIMER
902
] [

CR-2
STOP
013
( )

End of Ladder

Words used = 00030

means the only possible system. Each device in the

circuit is assigned a specific number that is used in
the programming of the PLC. This number represents
the input or the output according to the particular
board to which the device is wired.
5.37 Inputs, indicated by reversed brackets, are
shown on the left side of the ladder. Outputs, indicated by parentheses, are shown on the right side of
the ladder. A diagonal line within the reversed
brackets indicates normally closed contacts, and the
absence of a diagonal line indicates normally open
contacts. For example, in Fig. 5-11 contacts of CR1 (device 012), located on rungs 001 and 002, are
shown normally open, but contacts of CR-2 (device

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80 Lesson Five

Fig. 5-12. PLC ladder inputs and outputs

OUTPUT
Address Element Rung Number(s)

Typical output board

programmable controller
120 VAC POWER
120 VAC POWER

+
-

OUTPUT NUMBER
OUTPUT NUMBER
OUTPUT NUMBER

011
012
013

OUTPUT NUMBER
OUTPUT NUMBER

014
015

OUTPUT NUMBER
OUTPUT NUMBER
OUTPUT NUMBER

016
017
018

011
+
-

011
012

M1
CR-1

012

CR-2
CR-M

013

CR-A

013
014
014
015
015

-] [-(

)-

-] [-(

)-

-] [-(

)-

-] [-(

)-

-] [-(

)-

Instruction Comment

006

PUMP MOTOR: MOTOR STARTER TO START

PUMP MOTOR M1
PUMP MOTOR: MOTOR STARTER TO START
PUMP MOTOR M1
CR-1 START: RELAY TO START PUMP WHEN
PRESSURE IS LOW
CR-1 START: RELAY TO START PUMP WHEN
PRESSURE IS LOW
CR-2
STOP: RELAY TO STOP PUMP WHEN
PRESSURE IS HIGH
CR-2
STOP: RELAY TO STOP PUMP WHEN
PRESSURE IS HIGH
MAN
MODE: RELAY TO ASSURE MANUAL
MODE RUN CONDITION
MAN
MODE: RELAY TO ASSURE MANUAL
MODE RUN CONDITION
AUTO MODE: RELAY TO ASSURE AUTOMATIC
RUN CONDITION
AUTO MODE: RELAY TO ASSURE AUTOMATIC
RUN CONDITION

003
001, 002
005
001, 002, 005
007
001, 003
001
003
002

TIMER/COUNTER/SEQUENCER/RESET
Address Element Rung Number(s)
901

-] [-

005

901

-(RTO)-

004

902

-] [-

007

902

-(RTO)-

006

Instruction Comment
START TIMER: TIMER DELAYS THE START OF
PUMP MOTOR, PREVENTS SHORT CYCLING
START TIMER: TIMER DELAYS THE START OF
PUMP MOTOR, PREVENTS SHORT CYCLING
STOP TIMER: TIMER DELAYS STOPPING OF THE
PUMP, PREVENTS SHORT CYCLING
STOP TIMER: TIMER DELAYS STOPPING OF THE
PUMP, PREVENTS SHORT CYCLING

INPUT
Address Element Rung Number(s)
001
002

-] [-] [-

001
001

003

-] [-

002

004

-] [-

001

005

-] [-

004

006

-] [-

006

Typical input board

programmable controller
+

PB-1
SS-1A
SS-1B
PB -2
L.P.
H.P.

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Instruction Comment

PB -1 STOP: MANUAL STOP BUTTON

SS-1A HAND: SELECTOR SWITCH IN HAND
(MANUAL) MODE
SS-1B AUTO: SELECTOR SWITCH IN
AUTOMATIC MODE
PB-2 START: MANUAL START PUSHBUTTON
SWITCH
LOW PRESS: STORAGE TANK PRESSURE
IS LOW
HIGH PRESS: HIGH PRESSURE SWITCH IN
STORAGE TANK SET AT 60 PSI

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001 - INPUT
002 - INPUT
003 - INPUT
004 - INPUT
005 - INPUT
006 - INPUT
007 - INPUT
008 - INPUT
COMMON A
COMMON B

Fig. 5-13. Electronic schematic symbols

Ground
Wiring
connection
No
connection
No
connection

Multi-cell or
"B" battery
Loudspeaker,
P M dynamic
Cathode
ray tube

P-N-P
transistor

Iron core
choke coil

Fuse

R.F.
transformer
(air core)

Pilot lamp

+
-

Switch
(rotary or
selector)

Power switch
SPST

Resistor
Switch
SPDT

Potentiometer
(volume control)

Fixed
capacitor
(mica or paper)

One cell or
"A" battery

Lightning
arrestor

A. F.
transformer
(iron core)

Terminal
+

Air core
choke coil

Switch
DPST

Tapped resistor
or voltage
divider

Fixed
capacitor
(electrolytic)
Adjustable
or variable
capacitor

Switch
DPDT

Rheostat

Crystal
detector

N-P-N
transistor

Microphone
(carbon)

Microphone
(crystal)

Microphone
(moving coil)

Relay

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Using Symbols and Diagrams in Process Control 81

013), located on rungs 001, 002, and rung 005, are

shown normally closed.
5.38 Figure 5-12 shows an input board with numbers from 001 to 008 and an output board with
numbers from 011 to 018. Information in Fig. 5-12
acts as a reference to provide an explanation of each
device represented by a numbered contact in Fig. 511. One of the advantages of using a PLC for control is that all of the information relating to the
ladder diagram can be stored in the memory.

Fig. 5-14. Comparison of electronic symbols

Usual
electronic
circuit symbols

Electronic Symbols

5.42 You may notice a considerable lack of

consistency in electronic symbols. Figure 5-14
shows examples of different ways electronic

R
or

Potentiometer

Capacitor
x
L

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or
x

Inductor

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5.41 Figure 5-13 shows many of the more common electronic symbols. Some of them are identical to those you have studied for electrical
circuitsfor example, transformers and switches.
Electronic symbols are also an attempt to show
graphically what the device does or how it is put
together.

R
or

Resistor

5.39
The instructions referring to inputs, outputs,
and timers shown in the drawings are just a few of the
instructions available for use in programming. As
with numbering systems, instructions for PLC control
vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
5.40 Computers are being used more and more to
provide automatic control of industrial processes.
One use is in computer-integrated manufacturing
(CIM), in which the computer acts as the main controller for PLCs, microprocessors, recorders, and
other control instruments. The symbols used for
computer-controlled devices follow the guidelines
for PLCs.

Industrial
electronic
symbols

Battery

Fuse

Relay coil

Relay contacts
normally open
(N.O.)
Relay contacts
normally
closed (N.C.)

devices may be shown on drawings. Until standard symbols are in use throughout industry, you
may have to rely on a legend defining the symbols
for each drawing.

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82 Programmed Exercises

5-9.

The elementary wiring diagram is also

.
referred to as the

5-9.

SCHEMATIC
Ref: 5.25

5-10.

The control circuit for a magnetic motor

circuit.
starter is a(n)

5-10.

SERIES
Ref: 5.25

5-11.

5-12.

5-13.

Line power is available to a typical pump

system when the circuit beaker is
.

5-11.

If a number in the right-hand margin

of
a schematic is underlined, the referenced
.
contacts are

5-12.

The numbers on each side of each device

numbers.
are

5-13.

ENERGIZED
Ref: 5.28

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NORMALLY CLOSED

Ref: 5.29

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WIRE

Ref: 5.30

5-14.

5-15.

The line in the schematic that provides

information about starting and stopping the
.
motor is referred to as the

5-14.

A PLC control diagram is referred to as

.
a(n)

5-15.

RUN CIRCUIT
Ref: 5.31

LADDER DIAGRAM
Ref: 5.35

5-16.

PLC ladder diagrams show

on the left and
on the right.

5-16.

INPUTS; OUTPUTS
Ref: 5.37

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Self-Check Quiz 83

Answer the following questions by marking an X

in the box next to the best answer.
5-1.

Which of the following provides a sentenceby-sentence description of the controls in a

process?





5-2.

5-7.

a.
b.
c.
d.

includes only electronic symbols

indicates the flow of liquids only
is used for logic diagramming
is used with digital devices only

In electrical schematics, numbers

5-8.

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In relays, a counter force to the magnetic pull

is provided by a(n)
a.
b.
c.
d.

Which of the following best describes where

to find wire numbers on an electrical
schematic?

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If a switch is shown with the movable arm

above the contact, it is






a. interlock pole
b. OL heater elements
c. START button
d. terminal leads

 a. next to devices are schematic line

references
 b. on the far left are wire numbers
 c. on the far right show where relay
contacts appear
 d. that are underlined refer to N.O.
contacts

Flowchart
SAMA logic
Schematic
Sequence of operation

 a. N.C. and opens on being

de-energized
 b. N.C. and opens on being energized
 c. N.O. and closes on being
de-energized
 d. N.O. and closes on being energized
5-5.






A SAMA flowchart





5-4.

a.
b.
c.
d.

A motor starter may be de-energized

manually by the STOP button or automatically by the

Flowchart
Ladder diagram
Schematic
Sequence of operation

Which of the following uses a diamond with a

Y and N to indicate decisions?





5-3.

a.
b.
c.
d.

5-6.

bellows
diaphragm
opposing magnet
spring

5-9.

On each side of each device

On the left of each device
On the right of each device
On the run circuit

In PLC ladder diagrams, inputs are shown






5-10.

a.
b.
c.
d.

a.
b.
c.
d.

on the left, as parentheses

on the left, as reversed brackets
on the right, as parentheses
on the right, as reversed brackets

Instructions for PLC control






a.
b.
c.
d.

are read from left to right

are standardized by ISA
are standardized by SAMA
vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer

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84 Lesson Five

SUMMARY
The sequence of operation describes in sentence
form how the controls in a process work. The
flowchart presents the circuit logic of the
sequence of operation in graphical form.

de-energized state. Line numbers are shown on

the left and line references for relay contacts are
shown on the right. An underlined contact
number is N.C.

Three common kinds of electrical control devices

are switches, relays, and motor starters. If the
movable part of a switch is shown above the
contact, the switch is N.C.otherwise it is N.O.
The control relay is an electromagnetic device.
The motor starter is a special kind of relay.

SAMA symbols are used for logic diagramming

involving PLCs and other computers. PLCs
provide automatic control of the system. The
computer is becoming the main controller for
process control systems. The PLC control
diagram is referred to as a ladder diagram. Each
device is assigned a number that represents a
specific input or output. Inputs are shown on the
left and outputs on the right. Some electronic
devices may be indicated in more than one way.

The elementary wiring diagram, also referred to

as a schematic, shows the relationships between
electrical devices. All devices are shown in a

Answers to Self-Check Quiz

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5-1.

d. Sequence of operation. Ref: 5.01

5-6.

b. OL heater elements. Ref: 5.23

5-2.

a. Flowchart. Ref: 5.04

5-7.

c.

5-3.

c.

5-8.

a. On each side of each device.

Ref: 5.30

5-9.

b. On the left, as reversed brackets.

Ref: 5.37

5-10.

d. Vary from manufacturer to

manufacturer. Ref: 5.39

5-4.

5-5.

Is used for logic diagramming.

Ref: 5.09

b. N.C. and opens on being energized.

Ref: 5.13, 5.14

On the far right show where relay

contacts appear. Ref: 5.29

d. Spring. Ref: 5.19

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