https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Urethane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyurethane
Urethane may refer to:

Ethyl carbamate, a chemical compound which is an ester of carbamic acid

Polyurethane, a polymer composed of a chain of organic units joined by carbamate
(urethane) links
Carbamate, an organic compound derived from carbamic acid

Polyurethane
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Polyurethane synthesis, wherein the urethane groups NH(C=O)O link the molecular units.

Polyurethane (PUR and PU) is a polymer composed of organic units joined

by carbamate (urethane) links. While most polyurethanes are thermosetting polymers that do not
melt when heated, thermoplastic polyurethanes are also available.
Polyurethane polymers are traditionally and most commonly formed by reacting a di- or
polyisocyanatewith a polyol. Both the isocyanates and polyols used to make polyurethanes
contain, on average, two or more functional groups per molecule.
Some noteworthy recent efforts have been dedicated to minimizing the use of isocyanates to
synthesize polyurethanes, because the isocyanates raise severe toxicity issues. Non-isocyanate
based polyurethanes (NIPUs) have recently been developed as a new class of polyurethane
polymers to mitigate health and environmental concerns. [1][2][3][4][5]
Polyurethane products often are simply called urethanes, but should not be confused with ethyl
carbamate, which is also called urethane. Polyurethanes neither contain nor are produced from
ethyl carbamate.
Polyurethanes are used in the manufacture of high-resilience foam seating, rigid foam insulation
panels, microcellular foam seals and gaskets, durable elastomeric wheels and tires (such
as roller coaster, escalator, shopping cart, elevator, and skateboard wheels), automotive
suspension bushings, electrical potting compounds, high performance adhesives, surface
coatings and surface sealants, synthetic fibers (e.g., Spandex), carpet underlay, hard-plastic
parts (e.g., for electronic instruments), condoms, [6] and hoses.
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Chemistry

3Raw materials
o

3.1Isocyanates

3.2Polyols

3.3Bio-derived materials

3.4Chain extenders and cross linkers

3.5Catalysts

3.6Surfactants

4Production

5Health and safety

6Manufacturing
o

6.1Dispensing equipment

6.2Tooling

7Applications

8Effects of visible light

9Biodegradation

10See also

11References

12External links

History[edit]
Otto Bayer and his coworkers at IG Farben in Leverkusen, Germany, first made polyurethanes in
1937.[7][8] The new polymers had some advantages over existing plastics that were made by
polymerizing olefins or by polycondensation, and were not covered by patents obtained
by Wallace Carothers on polyesters.[9] Early work focused on the production of fibres and flexible
foams and PUs were applied on a limited scale as aircraft coating during World War II.
[9]
Polyisocyanates became commercially available in 1952, and production of flexible
polyurethane foam began in 1954 using toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and polyester polyols. These
materials were also used to produce rigid foams, gum rubber, and elastomers. Linear fibers were
produced from hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) and 1,4-butanediol (BDO).
In 1956 DuPont introduced polyether polyols, specifically poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol,
and BASF and Dow Chemical started selling polyalkylene glycols in 1957. Polyether polyols were
cheaper, easier to handle and more water-resistant than polyester polyols, and became more
popular. Union Carbide and Mobay, a U.S.Monsanto/Bayer joint venture, also began making
polyurethane chemicals.[9] In 1960 more than 45,000 metric tons of flexible polyurethane foams
were produced. The availability of chlorofluoroalkane blowing agents, inexpensive polyether

polyols, and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) allowed polyurethane rigid foams to be used
as high-performance insulation materials. In 1967, urethane-modified polyisocyanurate rigid
foams were introduced, offering even better thermal stability andflammability resistance. During
the 1960s, automotive interior safety components, such as instrument and door panels, were
produced by back-filling thermoplasticskins with semi-rigid foam.
In 1969, Bayer exhibited an all-plastic car in Dsseldorf, Germany. Parts of this car, such as
the fascia and body panels, were manufactured using a new process calledreaction injection
molding (RIM), in which the reactants were mixed and then injected into a mold. The addition of
fillers, such as milled glass, mica, and processed mineral fibres, gave rise to reinforced RIM
(RRIM), which provided improvements in flexural modulus (stiffness), reduction in coefficient
of thermal expansion and better thermal stability.This technology was used to make the first
plastic-body automobile in the United States, the Pontiac Fiero, in 1983. Further increases in
stiffness were obtained by incorporating pre-placed glass mats into the RIM mold cavity, also
known broadly as resin injection molding, or structural RIM.
Starting in the early 1980s, water-blown microcellular flexible foams were used to mold gaskets
for automotive panels and air filter seals, replacing PVC plastisol from automotive applications
have greatly increased market share.[clarification needed] Polyurethane foams are now used in hightemperature oil filter applications.
Polyurethane foam (including foam rubber) is sometimes made using small amounts of blowing
agents to give less dense foam, better cushioning/energy absorption or thermal insulation. In the
early 1990s, because of their impact on ozone depletion, the Montreal Protocol restricted the use
of many chlorine-containing blowing agents, such as trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11). By the
late 1990s, blowing agents such as carbon dioxide, pentane, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC134a) and 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane (HFC-245fa) were widely used in North America and the
EU, although chlorinated blowing agents remained in use in many developing countries. [10]

Chemistry[edit]
Polyurethanes are in the class of compounds called reaction polymers, which include epoxies,
unsaturated polyesters, and phenolics.[11][12][13][14][15] Polyurethanes are produced by reacting an
isocyanate containing two or more isocyanate groups per molecule (R(N=C=O)n[16]) with
a polyol containing on average two or more hydroxyl groups per molecule (R(OH) n[16]) in the
presence of a catalyst or by activation with ultraviolet light.[17]
The properties of a polyurethane are greatly influenced by the types of isocyanates and polyols
used to make it. Long, flexible segments, contributed by the polyol, give soft, elastic polymer.
High amounts of crosslinking give tough or rigid polymers. Long chains and low crosslinking give
a polymer that is very stretchy, short chains with lots of crosslinks produce a hard polymer while
long chains and intermediate crosslinking give a polymer useful for making foam. The
crosslinking present in polyurethanes means that the polymer consists of a three-dimensional
network and molecular weight is very high. In some respects a piece of polyurethane can be
regarded as one giant molecule. One consequence of this is that typical polyurethanes do not
soften or melt when they are heated; they are thermosetting polymers. The choices available for
the isocyanates and polyols, in addition to other additives and processing conditions allow
polyurethanes to have the very wide range of properties that make them such widely used
polymers.
Isocyanates are very reactive materials. This makes them useful in making polymers but also
requires special care in handling and use. The aromatic isocyanates,diphenylmethane
diisocyanate (MDI) or toluene diisocyanate (TDI) are more reactive than aliphatic isocyanates,
such as hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) orisophorone diisocyanate (IPDI). Most of the
isocyanates are difunctional, that is they have exactly two isocyanate groups per molecule. An
important exception to this is polymeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate, which is a mixture of
molecules with two, three, and four or more isocyanate groups. In cases like this the material has
an average functionality greater than two, commonly 2.7.

Polyols are polymers in their own right and have on average two or more hydroxyl groups per
molecule. Polyether polyols are mostly made by co-polymerizing ethylene oxide and propylene
oxide with a suitable polyol precursor.[18] Polyester polyols are made similarly
to polyester polymers. The polyols used to make polyurethanes are not "pure" compounds since
they are often mixtures of similar molecules with different molecular weights and mixtures of
molecules that contain different numbers of hydroxyl groups, which is why the "average
functionality" is often mentioned. Despite them being complex mixtures, industrial grade polyols
have their composition sufficiently well controlled to produce polyurethanes having consistent
properties. As mentioned earlier, it is the length of the polyol chain and the functionality that
contribute much to the properties of the final polymer. Polyols used to make rigid polyurethanes
have molecular weights in the hundreds, while those used to make flexible polyurethanes have
molecular weights up to ten thousand or more.

PU reaction mechanism catalyzed by a tertiary amine

Generalized urethane reaction

The polymerization reaction makes a polymer containing the urethane linkage, RNHCOOR
and is catalyzed by tertiary amines, such as 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (also called DABCO),
and metallic compounds, such asdibutyltin dilaurate or bismuth octanoate. Alternatively, it can be
promoted by ultraviolet light.[17] This is often referred to as the gellation reaction or simply gelling.
If water is present in the reaction mixture (it is often added intentionally to make foams), the
isocyanate reacts with water to form a urea linkage and carbon dioxidegas and the resulting
polymer contains both urethane and urea linkages. This reaction is referred to as the blowing
reaction and is catalyzed by tertiary amines like bis-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)ether.
A third reaction, particularly important in making insulating rigid foams is the
isocyanate trimerization reaction, which is catalyzed by potassium octoate, for example.
One of the most desirable attributes of polyurethanes is their ability to be turned into foam.
Making a foam requires the formation of a gas at the same time as the urethane polymerization
(gellation) is occurring. The gas can be carbon dioxide, either generated by reacting isocyanate
with water or added as a gas; it also be produced by boiling volatile liquids. In the latter case heat
generated by the polymerization causes the liquids to vaporize. The liquids can be HFC-245fa
(1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane) and HFC-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane), and hydrocarbons
such as n-pentane.
Carbon dioxide gas formed by reacting water and isocyanate

The balance between gellation and blowing is sensitive to operating parameters including the
concentrations of water and catalyst. The reaction to generate carbon dioxide involves water
reacting with an isocyanate first forming an unstable carbamic acid, which then decomposes into
carbon dioxide and an amine. The amine reacts with more isocyanate to give a substituted urea.
Water has a very low molecular weight, so even though the weight percent of water may be
small, the molar proportion of water may be high and considerable amounts of urea produced.
The urea is not very soluble in the reaction mixture and tends to form separate "hard segment"

phases consisting mostly of polyurea. The concentration and organization of these polyurea
phases can have a significant impact on the properties of the polyurethane foam. [19]
High-density microcellular foams can be formed without the addition of blowing agents by
mechanically frothing or nucleating the polyol component prior to use.
Surfactants are used in polyurethane foams to emulsify the liquid components, regulate cell size,
and stabilize the cell structure to prevent collapse and surface defects. Rigid foam surfactants
are designed to produce very fine cells and a very high closed cell content. Flexible foam
surfactants are designed to stabilize the reaction mass while at the same time maximizing open
cell content to prevent the foam from shrinking.
An even more rigid foam can be made with the use of specialty trimerization catalysts which
create cyclic structures within the foam matrix, giving a harder, more thermally stable structure,
designated as polyisocyanurate foams. Such properties are desired in rigid foam products used
in the construction sector.
Careful control of viscoelastic properties by modifying the catalysts and polyols used can lead
to memory foam, which is much softer at skin temperature than at room temperature.
Foams can be either "closed-cell", where most of the original bubbles or cells remain intact, or
"open-cell", where the bubbles have broken but the edges of the bubbles are stiff enough to
retain their shape. Open-cell foams feel soft and allow air to flow through, so they are
comfortable when used in seat cushions or mattresses. Closed-cell rigid foams are used
as thermal insulation, for example in refrigerators.
Microcellular foams are tough elastomeric materials used in coverings of car steering
wheels or shoe soles.

Raw materials[edit]
The main ingredients to make a polyurethane are di- and triisocyanates and polyols. Other
materials are added to aid processing the polymer or to modify the properties of the polymer.

Isocyanates[edit]
Isocyanates used to make polyurethane have two or more isocyanate groups on each molecule.
The most commonly used isocyanates are the aromatic diisocyantes,toluene diisocyanate (TDI)
and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, MDI.
TDI and MDI are generally less expensive and more reactive than other isocyanates. Industrial
grade TDI and MDI are mixtures of isomers and MDI often contains polymeric materials. They
are used to make flexible foam (for example slabstock foam for mattresses or molded foams for
car seats),[20] rigid foam (for example insulating foam in refrigerators) elastomers (shoe soles, for
example), and so on. The isocyanates may be modified by partially reacting them with polyols or
introducing some other materials to reduce volatility (and hence toxicity) of the isocyanates,
decrease their freezing points to make handling easier or to improve the properties of the final
polymers.

Aliphatic and cycloaliphatic isocyanates are used in smaller quantities, most often in coatings
and other applications where color and transparency are important since polyurethanes made
with aromatic isocyanates tend to darken on exposure to light.[21] The most important aliphatic and
cycloaliphatic isocyanates are 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), 1-isocyanato-3isocyanatomethyl-3,5,5-trimethyl-cyclohexane (isophorone diisocyanate, IPDI), and 4,4diisocyanato dicyclohexylmethane, (H12MDI or hydrogenated MDI).

Polyols[edit]
Polyols can be polyether polyols, which are made by the reaction of epoxides with an active
hydrogen containing compounds Polyester polyols are made by the polycondensation of
multifunctional carboxylic acids and polyhydroxyl compounds. They can be further classified
according to their end use. Higher molecular weight polyols (molecular weights from 2,000 to
10,000) are used to make more flexible polyurethanes while lower molecular weight polyols
make more rigid products.
Polyols for flexible applications use low functionality initiators such as dipropylene
glycol (f = 2), glycerine (f = 3), or a sorbitol/water solution (f = 2.75).[22] Polyols for rigid
applications use high functionality initiators such
as sucrose (f = 8), sorbitol (f = 6), toluenediamine (f = 4), and Mannich bases (f = 4). Propylene
oxide and/orethylene oxide is added to the initiators until the desired molecular weight is
achieved. The order of addition and the amounts of each oxide affect many polyol properties,
such as compatibility, water-solubility, and reactivity. Polyols made with only propylene oxide are
terminated with secondary hydroxyl groups and are less reactive than polyols capped with
ethylene oxide, which contain primary hydroxyl groups. Graft polyols (also called filled polyols or
polymer polyols) contain finely dispersed styreneacrylonitrile, acrylonitrile, or polyurea (PHD)
polymer solids chemically grafted to a high molecular weight polyether backbone. They are used
to increase the load-bearing properties of low-density high-resiliency (HR) foam, as well as add
toughness to microcellular foams and cast elastomers. Initiators such
asethylenediamine and triethanolamine are used to make low molecular weight rigid foam
polyols that have built-in catalytic activity due to the presence of nitrogen atoms in the backbone.
A special class of polyether polyols, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycols, which are made by
polymerizing tetrahydrofuran, are used in high performance coating, wetting and elastomer
applications.
Conventional polyester polyols are based on virgin raw materials and are manufactured by the
direct polyesterification of high-purity diacids and glycols, such as adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol.
Polyester polyols are usually more expensive and more viscous than polyether polyols, but they
make polyurethanes with better solvent, abrasion, and cut resistance. Other polyester polyols are
based on reclaimed raw materials. They are manufactured by transesterification (glycolysis) of
recycledpoly(ethyleneterephthalate) (PET) or dimethylterephthalate (DMT) distillation bottoms
with glycols such as diethylene glycol. These low molecular weight, aromatic polyester polyols
are used in rigid foam, and bring low cost and excellent flammability characteristics
to polyisocyanurate (PIR) boardstock and polyurethane spray foam insulation.

Specialty polyols include polycarbonate polyols, polycaprolactone polyols, polybutadiene polyols,

and polysulfide polyols. The materials are used in elastomer, sealant, and adhesive applications
that require superior weatherability, and resistance to chemical and environmental attack. Natural
oil polyols derived from castor oil and othervegetable oils are used to make elastomers, flexible
bunstock, and flexible molded foam.
Co-polymerizing chlorotrifluoroethylene or tetrafluoroethylene with vinyl ethers containing
hydroxyalkyl vinyl ether produces fluorinated (FEVE) polyols. Two-component fluorinated
polyurethanes prepared by reacting FEVE fluorinated polyols with polyisocyanate have been
used to make ambient cure paints and coatings. Since fluorinated polyurethanes contain a high
percentage of fluorinecarbon bonds, which are the strongest bonds among all chemical bonds,
fluorinated polyurethanes exhibit resistance to UV, acids, alkali, salts, chemicals, solvents,
weathering, corrosion, fungi and microbial attack. These have been used for high performance
coatings and paints.
Phosphorus-containing polyols are available that become chemically bonded to the polyurethane
matrix for the use as flame retardants. This covalent linkage prevents migration and leaching of
the organophosphorus compound.
Even polyols prepared from renewable sources like vegetable oils, derivatives of vegetable oil,
sorbitol, cellulose, etc. are also reported for preparing polyurethane coatings. [23] [24]

Bio-derived materials[edit]
Interest in sustainable "green" products raised some interest in polyols derived from vegetable
oils.[25][26] Many polyols are derived from renewable raw materials like vegetable oils. These oils
include soybean, cotton seed and castor. Renewable source used to prepare polyols may be
dimer fatty acid [27] or fatty acid.
Some biobased and isocyanate-free polyurethanes exploit the reaction between polyamines and
cyclic carbonates to produce polyhydroxurethanes.[28]

Chain extenders and cross linkers[edit]

Chain extenders (f = 2) and cross linkers (f 3) are low molecular weight hydroxyl and amine
terminated compounds that play an important role in the polymer morphology of polyurethane
fibers, elastomers, adhesives, and certain integral skin and microcellular foams. The elastomeric
properties of these materials are derived from the phase separation of the hard and soft
copolymer segments of the polymer, such that the urethane hard segment domains serve as
cross-links between the amorphous polyether (or polyester) soft segment domains. This phase
separation occurs because the mainly nonpolar, low melting soft segments are incompatible with
the polar, high melting hard segments. The soft segments, which are formed from high molecular
weight polyols, are mobile and are normally present in coiled formation, while the hard segments,
which are formed from the isocyanate and chain extenders, are stiff and immobile. Because the
hard segments are covalently coupled to the soft segments, they inhibit plastic flow of the
polymer chains, thus creating elastomeric resiliency. Upon mechanical deformation, a portion of
the soft segments are stressed by uncoiling, and the hard segments become aligned in the
stress direction. This reorientation of the hard segments and consequent powerful hydrogen
bonding contributes to high tensile strength, elongation, and tear resistance values. [13][29][30][31][32] The
choice of chain extender also determines flexural, heat, and chemical resistance properties. The
most important chain extenders are ethylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BDO or BDO), 1,6hexanediol, cyclohexane dimethanol and hydroquinone bis(2-hydroxyethyl) ether (HQEE). All of
these glycols form polyurethanes that phase separate well and form well defined hard segment
domains, and are melt processable. They are all suitable for thermoplastic polyurethanes with
the exception of ethylene glycol, since its derived bis-phenyl urethane undergoes unfavorable
degradation at high hard segment levels.[11] Diethanolamine and triethanolamine are used in flex
molded foams to build firmness and add catalytic activity. Diethyltoluenediamine is used
extensively in RIM, and in polyurethane and polyurea elastomer formulations.
Table of chain extenders and cross linkers[33]

Hydroxyl compounds difunctional molecules

Mol. wt

Density (g/cm3)

m.p. (C)

b.p. (C)

Ethylene glycol

62.1

1.110

13.4

197.4

Diethylene glycol

106.1

1.111

8.7

245.5

Triethylene glycol

150.2

1.120

7.2

287.8

Tetraethylene glycol

194.2

1.123

9.4

325.6

Propylene glycol

76.1

1.032

Supercools

187.4

Dipropylene glycol

134.2

1.022

Supercools

232.2

Tripropylene glycol

192.3

1.110

Supercools

265.1

1,3-Propanediol

76.1

1.060

28

210

1,3-Butanediol

92.1

1.005

207.5

1,4-Butanediol

92.1

1.017

20.1

235

Neopentyl glycol

104.2

130

206

1,6-Hexanediol

118.2

1.017

43

250

1,4-Cyclohexanedimethanol

HQEE

Ethanolamine

61.1

1.018

10.3

170

Diethanolamine

105.1

1.097

28

271

Methyldiethanolamine

119.1

1.043

21

242

Phenyldiethanolamine

181.2

58

228

Hydroxyl compounds trifunctional molecules

Mol. wt

Density (g/cm3)

m.p. (C)

b.p. (C)

Glycerol

92.1

1.261

18.0

290

Trimethylolpropane

1,2,6-Hexanetriol

Triethanolamine

149.2

1.124

21

Hydroxyl compounds tetrafunctional molecules

Mol. wt

Density (g/cm3)

m.p. (C)

b.p. (C)

Pentaerythritol

136.2

260.5

N,N,N,N-Tetrakis
(2-hydroxypropyl)
ethylenediamine

Amine compounds difunctional molecules

Mol. wt

Density (g/cm3)

m.p. (C)

b.p. (C)

Diethyltoluenediamine

178.3

1.022

308

Dimethylthiotoluenediamine

214.0

1.208

Catalysts[edit]
Polyurethane catalysts can be classified into two broad categories, basic and
acidic amine. Tertiary amine catalysts function by enhancing the nucleophilicity of the diol
component. Alkyl tin carboxylates, oxides and mercaptides oxides function as mild Lewis acids in
accelerating the formation of polyurethane. As bases, traditional amine catalysts include
triethylenediamine (TEDA, also called DABCO, 1,4diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane), dimethylcyclohexylamine (DMCHA),
and dimethylethanolamine(DMEA). A typical Lewis acidic catalyst is dibutyltin dilaurate. The
process is highly sensitive to the nature of the catalyst and is also known to be autocatalytic.[34]
Factors affecting catalyst selection include balancing three reactions: urethane
(polyol+isocyanate, or gel) formation, the urea (water+isocyanate, or "blow") formation, or the
isocyanate trimerization reaction (e.g., using potassium acetate, to form isocyanurate rings). A
variety of specialized catalysts have been developed.[35][36][37]

Surfactants[edit]
Surfactants are used to modify the characteristics of both foam and non-foam polyurethane
polymers. They take the form of polydimethylsiloxane-polyoxyalkylene block
copolymers, silicone oils, nonylphenol ethoxylates, and other organic compounds. In foams, they
are used to emulsify the liquid components, regulate cell size, and stabilize the cell structure to
prevent collapse and sub-surface voids. In non-foam applications they are used as air release
and antifoaming agents, as wetting agents, and are used to eliminate surface defects such as pin
holes, orange peel, and sink marks.

Production[edit]
Polyurethanes are produced by mixing two or more liquid streams. The polyol stream contains
catalysts, surfactants, blowing agents and so on. The two components are referred to as a
polyurethane system, or simply a system. The isocyanate is commonly referred to in North
America as the 'B-side' or just the 'iso'. The blend of polyols and other additives is commonly
referred to as the 'A-side' or as the 'poly'. This mixture might also be called a 'resin' or 'resin
blend'. In Europe the meanings for 'A-side' and 'B-side' are reversed. Resin blend additives may
include chain extenders, cross linkers, surfactants, flame retardants, blowing agents, pigments,
andfillers. Polyurethane can be made in a variety of densities and hardnesses by varying the
isocyanate, polyol or additives.

Health and safety[edit]

Fully reacted polyurethane polymer is chemically inert.[38] No exposure limits have been
established in the U.S. by OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) or ACGIH
(American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). It is not regulated by OSHA for
carcinogenicity.
Polyurethane polymer is a combustible solid and can be ignited if exposed to an open flame.
[39]
Decomposition from fire can produce mainly carbon monoxide, and trace nitrogen oxides
and hydrogen cyanide. Because of the flammability of the material, it has to be treated with flame
retardants (at least in case of furniture), almost all of which are considered harmful. [40][41]

Liquid resin blends and isocyanates may contain hazardous or regulated components.
Isocyanates are known skin and respiratory sensitizers. Additionally, amines, glycols, and
phosphate present in spray polyurethane foams present risks.[42]
Exposure to chemicals that may be emitted during or after application of polyurethane spray
foam (such as isocyanates) are harmful to human health and therefore special precautions are
required during and after this process.[43]
In the United States, additional health and safety information can be found through organizations
such as the Polyurethane Manufacturers Association (PMA) and the Center for the
Polyurethanes Industry (CPI), as well as from polyurethane system and raw material
manufacturers. Regulatory information can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations Title 21
(Food and Drugs) and Title 40 (Protection of the Environment). In Europe, health and safety
information is available from ISOPA,[44] the European Diisocyanate and Polyol Producers
Association.

Manufacturing[edit]
The methods of manufacturing polyurethane finished goods range from small, hand pour piecepart operations to large, high-volume bunstock and boardstock production lines. Regardless of
the end-product, the manufacturing principle is the same: to meter the liquid isocyanate and resin
blend at a specified stoichiometric ratio, mix them together until a homogeneous blend is
obtained, dispense the reacting liquid into a mold or on to a surface, wait until it cures, then
demold the finished part.

Dispensing equipment[edit]
Although the capital outlay can be high, it is desirable to use a meter-mix or dispense unit for
even low-volume production operations that require a steady output of finished parts. Dispense
equipment consists of material holding (day) tanks, metering pumps, a mix head, and a control
unit. Often, a conditioning or heater-chiller unit is added to control material temperature in order
to improve mix efficiency, cure rate, and to reduce process variability. Choice of dispense
equipment components depends on shot size, throughput, material characteristics such as
viscosity and filler content, and process control. Material day tanks may be single to hundreds of
gallons in size, and may be supplied directly from drums, IBCs (intermediate bulk containers,
such as totes), or bulk storage tanks. They may incorporate level sensors, conditioning jackets,
and mixers. Pumps can be sized to meter in single grams per second up to hundreds of pounds
per minute. They can be rotary, gear, or piston pumps, or can be specially hardened lance
pumps to meter liquids containing highly abrasive fillers such as chopped or hammer milled glass
fibres and wollastonite.

A high pressure polyurethane dispense unit, showing control panel, high pressure pump, integral day
tanks, and hydraulic drive unit.

A high pressure mix head, showing simple controls. Front view.

A high pressure mix head, showing material supply and hydraulic actuator lines. Rear view.

The pumps can drive low-pressure (10 to 30 bar, 1 to 3 MPa) or high-pressure (125 to 250 bar,
12.5 to 25.0 MPa) dispense systems. Mix heads can be simple static mix tubes, rotary element
mixers, low-pressure dynamic mixers, or high-pressure hydraulically actuated direct impingement
mixers. Control units may have basic on/off and dispense/stop switches, and analogue pressure
and temperature gauges, or may be computer controlled with flow meters to electronically
calibrate mix ratio, digital temperature and level sensors, and a full suite of statistical process
control software. Add-ons to dispense equipment include nucleation or gas injection units, and
third or fourth stream capability for adding pigments or metering in supplemental additive
packages.

A low pressure mix head with calibration chamber installed, showing material supply and air actuator
lines.

Low pressure mix head components, including mix chambers, conical mixers, and mounting plates.

5-gallon (20-liter) material day tanks for supplying a low pressure dispense unit.

Tooling[edit]
Distinct from pour-in-place, bun and boardstock, and coating applications, the production of piece
parts requires tooling to contain and form the reacting liquid. The choice of mold-making material
is dependent on the expected number of uses to end-of-life (EOL), molding pressure, flexibility,
and heat transfer characteristics.
RTV silicone is used for tooling that has an EOL in the thousands of parts. It is typically used for
molding rigid foam parts, where the ability to stretch and peel the mold around undercuts is
needed. The heat transfer characteristic of RTV silicone tooling is poor. High-performance,
flexible polyurethane elastomers are also used in this way.
Epoxy, metal-filled epoxy, and metal-coated epoxy is used for tooling that has an EOL in the tens
of thousands of parts. It is typically used for molding flexible foam cushions and seating, integral
skin and microcellular foam padding, and shallow-draft RIM bezels and fascia. The heat transfer
characteristic of epoxy tooling is fair; the heat transfer characteristic of metal-filled and metalcoated epoxy is good. Copper tubing can be incorporated into the body of the tool, allowing hot
water to circulate and heat the mold surface.
Aluminum is used for tooling that has an EOL in the hundreds of thousands of parts. It is typically
used for molding microcellular foam gasketing and cast elastomer parts, and is milled or
extruded into shape.
Mirror-finish stainless steel is used for tooling that imparts a glossy appearance to the finished
part. The heat transfer characteristic of metal tooling is excellent.
Finally, molded or milled polypropylene is used to create low-volume tooling for molded gasket
applications. Instead of many expensive metal molds, low-cost plastic tooling can be formed from
a single metal master, which also allows greater design flexibility. The heat transfer characteristic
of polypropylene tooling is poor, which must be taken into consideration during the formulation
process.

Applications[edit]
Main articles: List of polyurethane applications and Polyurethane varnish
In 2007, the global consumption of polyurethane raw materials was above 12 million metric tons,
the average annual growth rate is about 5%.[45] Revenues generated with PUR on the global
market are expected to rise to approximately US$80 billion by 2020. [46]

Effects of visible light[edit]

Polyurethanes, especially those made using aromatic isocyanates, contain chromophores that
interact with light. This is of particular interest in the area of polyurethane coatings,
where light stability is a critical factor and is the main reason that aliphatic isocyanates are used
in making polyurethane coatings. When PU foam, which is made using aromatic isocyanates, is
exposed to visible light, it discolors, turning from off-white to yellow to reddish brown. It has been
generally accepted that apart from yellowing, visible light has little effect on foam properties. [47]
[48]
This is especially the case if the yellowing happens on the outer portions of a large foam, as
the deterioration of properties in the outer portion has little effect on the overall bulk properties of
the foam itself.

It has been reported that exposure to visible light can affect the variability of some physical
property test results.[49]
Higher-energy UV radiation promotes chemical reactions in foam, some of which are detrimental
to the foam structure.[50]

Biodegradation[edit]
Two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis are capable of biodegrading polyurethane
in aerobic and anaerobic conditions such as found at the bottom of landfills. [51] Degradation of
polyurethane items at museums has been reported.[52] Polyester-type polyurethanes are more
easily biodegraded by fungus than polyether-type.[53]