English Notes

There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.
* They are
as follows:
S-V
Subject-Verb
John sleeps.
Jill is eating.
Jack will arrive next week.
S-V-O
Subject-Verb-Object
I like rice.
She loves her job.
He's eating an orange.
S-V-Adj
Subject-Verb-Adjective
He is funny.
The workers are lazy.
Kiran seems angry.
S-V-Adv
Subject-Verb-Adverb
Jim is here.
Flowers are everywhere.
No one was there.
S-V-N
Subject-Verb-Noun
She is my mom.
The men are doctors.
Mr. Rajesh is the teacher.

At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be
added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.
She sleeps.
Core sentence
She sleeps soundly.
An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.
She sleeps on the sofa.
A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.
She sleeps every afternoon.
A time expression (an adverb phrase) is added to tell when

she sleeps.
Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the
same.
Subject is named and another tense is used.
She is sleeping right now.

Mary will sleep later.
The dogs are sleeping in the

New subject may require a different form of the verb.
garage.
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.

They like rice.
Core sentence
The people like rice.
Specific subject
The friendly people like rice.
Subject modified with an adjective
The people in the restaurant like

rice.
The people like boiled rice.
Subject modified with an adjective phrase.
The people like hot, white rice.
Object modified with more than one adjective
Object modified with an adjective
Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj pattern.
He is fine.
Basic sentence with "be" verb
He seems happy.
Basic sentence with another linking verb
Jordan is tall, dark and handsome.
Series of adjectives
He appears very comfortable.
Adverb or intensifier added
George became sick last night.
Different tense and linking verb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern.
The teacher is here.
Basic sentence
The teacher is over there.
Using an adverb phrase
Teachers are everywhere.
Plural noun and verb used, adverb.
The teachers are in the lobby.
Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.
The man is a doctor.
Basic sentence
The women are doctors.
Using plural noun and verb
My father is a nice guy.
Modified subject and complement
My grandparents are senior

Modified plural subject and complement
citizens.
*Other, less common structures are dealt with in another unit.
Remember, the S - V relationship is at the "heart" of every sentence. All sentences are built
around this core.
To give a sentence more substance, you may enhance the subject or verb:
(VERB enhancements)
1. Change the verb in tense or aspect or a combination of the two.
He eats.
(simple present)
He will eat.
(future/modal)
He is eating.
(continuous)
He has eaten.
(perfect)
He has been eating.
(combination)
He should have been eating. (combination)
2. Add an adverb or adverb phrase, or prepositional phrase.
He should have eaten already/ by now. He was eating in the kitchen.
3. Add an adverbial clause.
He was eating when the bus arrived.
4. Add a participial phrase.
Having finished his homework, he ate.
(SUBJECT enhancements)
5. Change the noun to a pronoun or vice versa.
He eats.
John eats.
6. Add an article, demonstrative, or possessive.
The man eats.
This man eats.
His father eats.
Note: Subjects and Objects may be enhanced in similar ways.
7. Add an object.
Subject
Object
John eats rice.
The man eats an apple.
8. Add an adjective or adjectives.
The handsome man eats.
The man eats the big, red apple.
9. Add a prepositional phrase.
The man in the kitchen eats.
The man eats an apple from the bowl.
10. Add a relative (adjective) clause.
The man who lives next door eats.
The man ate the apple that I bought.
11. Use quantifiers.
Some of the men eat.
They eat some of the apples.
12. Use a noun clause.
Whoever gets here first can eat.
He eats whichever apple he chooses.
Enhance both the subject and the verb to make sentences more interesting.
The man who lives on the corner is eating his lunch now.
The men from the health club eat every day after working out.
The tall, green men from Mars are eating tuna sandwiches.
Some of the men ate the apples (that) I left on the table.
Whenever he feels like exercising, the fat man eats a huge meal instead.
Basic Sentence Structures
S-V
He sleeps.
S-LV-N
He is a doctor.
S-V-O
She eats rice.
S-LV-Adj
The doctor is sick.
S-V-IO-DO
She told him a lie.
S-LV-Adv
The doctor is here.
Coordinators
Coordinators connect elements of equal importance.
S + V , but S + V
(and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet)
S + V and V
S and S + V
N and N
Adj. and Adj.
Phrase and Phrase
Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D
Subordinators
Subordinators connect elements of unequal importance. One clause is not as strong as the
other.
S + V although S + V
(although, even though, because, since*,
when, while, before*, after*, whenever,
wherever*, if, unless, whether?[or not]
as, as [adjective] as, so that, whereas
anywhere*, anytime*)
Although S + V , S + V
Sentence Connectors
Sentence Connectors connect paragraphs or show relationship between very different ideas.
S + V . However, S + V (however, therefore, thus, moreover,
nevertheless, first*, then*, next*, still*
S + V ; however, S + V besides, consequently, furthermore)
Prepositions
Prepositions show relationship among elements of a sentence. They are followed by noun
phrases only and cannot take on a S + V.
S + V (prep. phrase)
(during, after*, before*, in, on, at
despite, in spite of, for*, since*, by
(Prep. phrase), S + V
like, except, but*, about, to*, from
between [A and B], among, with
(Prep. phrase) V + S (unusual) within, without, beside, near, next to)
* These words have more than one function
What can be the subject of a sentence?
A noun:
Jonathan loves chocolates.
Mrs. Smith lives next door to the barber shop.
The yellow dog makes me nervous.
Crocodiles are very dangerous.
A pronoun:
It isn't time yet.
They went to sleep at 9:00.
Are you coming to the dance?
Words like everyone, everybody, everything, something, anybody, nothing, no one
Everything is ready.
Is everyone here?
Is anybody home?
Quantifiers with nouns/pronouns
Without nouns/pronouns.
Some of the pie was gone.
Some of the pies were gone.
Both of them are in the foyer.
Neither of them is in the foyer.
Some (count) are here. Some (non-count) is not.

All is well. All are watching.
Both are correct. (as a group)
Neither is correct. (separately)
None of those people are nice.

(all of them are not nice)
None of those people is my friend.
(not any individual)
Noun clauses
Whoever left the food on the table is in trouble.
What you say is not important.
How you do it is up to you.
"Dummy" subjects
There are five people in the room.
There is some milk in the refrigerator.
Be careful
In most cases, the words before the verb are the subject of the sentence.
It is just the three of us.
The three of us are going to be there.
Prepositional phrases cannot be subjects, even if they come at the beginning of a
sentence.
On the table was a red hat.
On the table were a red hat, white gloves and a blue scarf.
Some words look plural but are actually singular:
Physics is my favorite subject.
The news was good.
Scotch and soda is my favorite drink. (This is very uncommon usage.)
My faithful friend and companion is Terry.
Mass or "group" nouns may be singular or plural, depending on focus.
The family is more important than the individual.
The family are going in separate directions.
With either/neither...or/nor, the subject closest to the verb determines agreement.
Neither John nor Jane was the winner.
Either the men or the women are going to take the cake.
Neither Mr. Jones nor his sons have a car.
Neither the boys nor their father has a car.
Some can sometimes be used to indicate an unidentified person.
Some woman was here to see you.
Some guy keeps calling you.
Relative clauses do not affect the main subject-verb relationship; however, S-V
agreement within the relative clause may be different, depending on the meaning.
The people who live there are my friends.
The house that the Jacksons built needs to be remodeled.
One of the men who live there is deranged. He is the only one who lives there
Noun Phrases
Noun Phrases are groups of words that can function as subjects or objects in sentences. They
may take on various forms:
Moneyis important for survival.
(Single words)
Lalith spoke to DrRamya.
(Proper names)
The boy ate fruit..
(Nouns and articles)
My friend works with her uncle.
(Nouns and possessives)
The young girl wore a long, white dress.
(Nouns and adjectives)
Some of the kids ate all of the cake.
(Nouns and quantifiers)
The man with the gun frightened the people in the bank.
(Nouns and prep. phrases)
The woman who lives here is my aunt.

(Nouns and relative clauses)
The dogs sleeping on the floor should be left alone.
(Nouns and phrases)
Whoever wrote this is in trouble.
(Noun clauses)
Pronouns and similar words can also function as subjects and objects:
He gave the money to us.
Someone left this.
Give me one of each.
Verb Phrases
Verb phrases are groups of words that express action or state of being. They take on
various forms.
The men live in the dormitory.
(Single verbs)
He stayed at the Hi Hat Hotel.
(Past tense verbs)
I am learning many new things.
(Progressive verbs)
She has been there before.
(Perfect verbs)
They have been working here five years.
(Perfect progressive verbs)
I could use some assistance.
(Verbs and modals)
The trip was approved by the professor.
(Passive verbs)
Do you want some more pie?
(Verbs in questions)
Other words can be added to enhance verb phrases:
The mayor works here.
(adverbs)
Neil is not a candidate.
(negatives)
They live in the suburbs.
(prepositional phrases)
She'll leave whenever she wants.
(adverbial clauses)
Don't talk while eating.
(phrases)
Adjectives are used to describe nouns. They give more details or information about the nouns
they are associated with.
A: Tell me about your boyfriend
B: Well, he is tall, dark, and handsome.
A: Sounds like mine.
Adjectives can be used to answer the questions What kind (of) or Which one?
A: Hi. I'm calling about the car you're selling?
B: It's a great car. (It's) in excellent condition.
A: What kind of seats does it have?
B: They're very comfortable seats, (soft, plush, just like a sofa.)
A: Uh. I think I'll sleep on it.
A: Hand me a book.
B: Which one do you want?
A: The red book. The red one.
Adjectives come before the nouns they modify (not after).
Three happy hippies lived in the Taj Hotel.
WRONG: Three hippies happy lived in the Taj Hotel.
Adjectives can also be used with linking verbs to describe the subject of a sentence.
When used in this manner, the adjective(s) come after the linking verb.
My mother is tall and slender.
WRONG: My mother tall and slender. (No linking verb.)
Adverbs are used to describe actions. They may come before or after a verb, but not
between a verb and its object.
Mrs.Jenner softly sang. (Most common word order.)
Mrs. Jenner softly sang. (Also possible.)
Mrs. Jenner softly sang a lullaby.

Mrs. Jenner sang a lullaby softly.
Mrs. Jenner sang softly a lullaby. (Not correct.)
Adverbs may come between a main verb and its auxiliaries.
Mrs. Jenner is softly singing a lullaby.
Mrs. Jenner softly is singing a lullaby. (Not correct.)
Mrs. Jenner has been softly singing that lullaby for a long time.
Some time and frequency adverbs are "movable." That is, they can be placed at various
points in a sentence.
Yesterday I visited the dentist.
I visited the dentist yesterday.
Jack Prompt is here already.
Jack Prompt is already here.
Caution: Even though some adverbs can be used in certain sentence positions, others
can not.
I yesterday visited the dentist. (Not okay.)
I already visited the dentist. (Okay.)
Already I visited the dentist. (Not okay.)
Adverbs such as quite, very, really, extremely, and absolutely are used to modify
adjectives and other adverbs.
They come directly before the words they describe.
Greg is quite happy with his new boss.
Sue eats very slowly.
You're absolutely right!
Many adverbs can be formed by adding ly to adjectives:
Carl is a quick runner.
Carl runs quickly.
Some adverbs are identical to adjectives in form. Others are completely different.
Carl is a fast runner. (Adjective)
Jill is a good student. (Adjective)
Carl runs fast. (Adverb)
Jill studies well. (Adverb)
Adverbs are words or groups of words which tell time, place, frequency or manner.
I ate my lunch yesterday.
She went there.
I ate at that restaurant last week.

She went downtown.
Prepositions are usually followed by objects in prepositional phrases. They can also be used
to indicate time, place, frequency, duration, reason, manner, or to show contrast.
I ate my lunch at noon.
She went to the store.
I ate in the cafeteria.

She walked into the house.
*Do not use adverbs as objects of prepositions.
Incorrect:
Correct:
I went to somewhere.
I went somewhere.
I was busy at last night.
I was busy last night.
John works in downtown.
John works downtown.
She came to home on yesterday.
She came home yesterday
The Prepositional Phrase

Recognize a prepositional phrase when you see one.
At the minimum, a prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with
a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause, the "object" of the preposition.
The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to describe it. These are the
patterns for a prepositional phrase:
preposition + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause
preposition + modifier(s) + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause
Here are some examples of the most basic prepositional phrase:
At home
At = preposition; home = noun.
In time
In = preposition; time = noun.
From Richie
From = preposition; Richie = noun.
With me
With = preposition; me = pronoun.
By singing
By = preposition; singing = gerund.
About what we need
About = preposition; what we need = noun clause.
Most prepositional phrases are longer, like these:
From my grandmother
From = preposition; my = modifier; grandmother = noun.
Under the warm blanket
Under = preposition; the, warm = modifiers; blanket = noun.
In the weedy, overgrown garden
In = preposition; the, weedy, overgrown = modifiers; garden = noun.
Along the busy, six-lane highway

Along = preposition; the, busy, six-lane = modifiers; highway = noun.
Without excessively worrying
Without = preposition; excessively = modifier; worrying = gerund.
Understand what prepositional phrases do in a sentence.
A prepositional phrase will function as an adjective or adverb. As an adjective, the prepositional
phrase will answer the question Which one?
Read these examples:
The book on the bathroom floor is swollen from shower steam.
Which book? The one on the bathroom floor!
The sweet potatoes in the vegetable bin are green with mold.
Which sweet potatoes? The ones forgotten in the vegetable bin!
The note from Beverly confessed that she had eaten the leftover pizza.
Which note? The one from Beverly!
As an adverb, a prepositional phrase will answer questions such as How? When?orWhere?
Freddy is stiff from yesterday's long football practice.
How did Freddy get stiff? From yesterday's long football practice!
Before class, Josh begged his friends for a pencil.
When did Josh do his begging? Before class!
Feeling brave, we tried the Dragon Breath Burritos at Tito's Taco Palace.
Where did we eat the spicy food? At Tito's Taco Palace!
Remember that a prepositional phrase will never contain the subject of a sentence.
Directions: Locate the prepositional phrases in each sentence
1. On the fifth day of each month, Mr. Brown collects all of the reports from his students in
every class except the last one.
2. Take the child to the store on 5th Avenue for some new clothes.
3. As the snow gradually melted near that neighborhood, people with snow shovels in their
hands emerged from their homes.
4. Throughout his life, Henry slept soundly on a twin bed by the front window.
5. Meg answered the telephone within a minute of the first ring.
6. Under normal circumstances, we keep all records in the file cabinet until the next semester.
7. The play about the brave hero was considered a success by everyone but the nasty critic at
the local paper.
8. After two false starts, the referee warned the athletes about the penalties for such actions.
9. Without you at my side, I cannot do much of anything before ten o'clock on the first day of
each week.
10. Like any stranger on her way to the next town, the traveler from Barcelona lifted her
suitcase and headed toward the bus station near 42nd Street.
Prepositional Phrases - Answers
1. (On the fifth day) (of each month), Mr. Brown collects all (of the reports) (from his students)
(in every class) (except the last one).
2. Take the child (to the store) (on 5th Avenue) (for some new clothes).
3. As the snow gradually melted (near that neighborhood). people (with snow shovels) (in their
hands) emerged (from their homes).
4. (Throughout his life), Henry slept soundly (on a twin bed) (by the front window).
5. Meg answered the telephone (within a minute) (of the first ring).
6. (Under normal circumstances), we keep all records (in the file cabinet) (until the next
semester).
7. The play (about the brave hero) was considered a success (by everyone) (but the nasty critic)
(at the local paper).
8. (After two false starts), the referee warned the athletes (about the penalties) (for such
actions).
9. (Without you) (at my side), I cannot do much (of anything) (before ten o'clock) (on the first
day) (of each week).
10. (Like any stranger) (on her way) (to the next town), the traveler (from Barcelona) lifted her
suitcase and headed (toward the bus station) (near 42nd Street)
Find out the noun clauses in the following sentences and state what purpose they serve.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death.

He said that he would not go.
That he is not interested in the offer is known to us.
He said that he was not feeling well.
I cannot rely on what he says.
I dont know where he has gone.
He asked whether the servant had polished his shoes.
That he is alive has been confirmed.
that the soul is immortal is almost universal.
Answers
1. Here the noun clause that the traitor should be put to death is that object of the verb
ordered.
2. Here the noun clause that he would not go is the object of the verb said.
3. Here the noun clause that he is not interested in the offer is the subject of the verb is.
4. Here the noun clause that he was not feeling well is the object of the verb said.
5. Here the noun clause what he says is the object of the preposition on.
6. Here the noun clause where he has gone is the object of the verb know.
7. Here the noun clause whether the servant had polished his shoes is the object of the verb
asked.
8. Here the noun clause that he is alive is the subject of the verbhas been confirmed
9. Here the noun clause that the soul is immortal is the subject of is
10. Here the noun clause that we will have to admit defeat is in apposition to the pronoun it.
Practice in Identifying Adjective Clauses.
1. I bought a car from Merdine, and it turned out to be a lemon.
2. The car that I bought from Merdine turned out to be a lemon.
3. Pandora, who had recently celebrated a birthday, opened the box of gifts.
4. Lila, who has been the fire warden for 30 years, lives in a trailer with some scrappy dogs
and cats.
5. Lila, who lives in a trailer with some scrappy dogs and cats, has been the fire warden for
30 years.
6. People who smoke cigarettes should be considerate of nonsmokers.
7. Jacob, who smokes cigarettes, is considerate of nonsmokers.
8. Mr. Mann has small, dark eyes, which peer inquisitively from behind metal-rimmed
glasses.
9. My wedding ring is worth at least ten dollars, and now I have lost it.
10. I have lost my wedding ring, which is worth at least ten dollars.
Practice in Identifying Adjective Clauses.

1. (no adjective clause)
2. that I bought from Merdine
3. who had recently celebrated a birthday
4. who has been the town fire warden for nearly 30 years
5. who lives in a trailer with some scrappy dogs and cats
6. who smoke cigarettes
7. who smokes cigarettes
8. which peer inquisitively from behind metal-rimmed glasses
9. (no adjective clause)
10.which is worth at least ten dollars
Identifying adverb clauses.

1. While the cat's away, the mice will play.
2. A lie travels around the world while truth is putting her boots on.
3. If you don't know where you are going, any road will get you there.
4. Memory is deceptive because it is colored by today's events.
5. Never look down on anybody unless you're helping him up.
6. You have to kiss a lot of toads before you find a handsome prince.
7. Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect.
8. Life is what happens when you are making other plans.
9. As soon as you forbid something, you make it extraordinarily appealing.
10. Everything is funny, as long as it's happening to somebody else.

In the following sentences, the adverb clauses are in bold print.
1. While the cat's away, the mice will play.
2. A lie travels around the world while truth is putting her boots on.
3. If you don't know where you are going, any road will get you there.
4. Memory is deceptive because it is colored by today's events.
5. Never look down on anybody unless you're helping him up.
6. You have to kiss a lot of toads before you find a handsome prince.
7. Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and
reflect.
8. Life is what happens when you are making other plans.
9. As soon as you forbid something, you make it extraordinarily appealing.
10. Everything is funny, as long as it's happening to somebody else.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
Sequence of Tenses is the principle in accordance with which the tense of the verb in a
subordinate clause follows the tense of the verb in the main clause.
1. When verb in Principal clause is in Present or Future tense, the verb in the
dependent clause may be in any tense (according to sense).
1. He says that he likes music. Or He will say that he likes music.
2. He says that he liked music. Or He will say that he liked music.
3. He says that he will work hard. Or He will say that he will work hard.
2. When the verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense, the verb in the Dependent
clause must also be in one or other of the four forms of the past Tense.
1. He said that he was late.
2. You said that you would help him.
3. He worked hard so that he might pass.
4. He said that you were working hard.
EXCEPTIONS :
3. If the Dependent clause states a universal truth or a habitual truth, a Past Tense in
the Principal clause is followed by Present Tense in the Dependent clause.
1. He said that the sun rises in the east.
2. You said that you are a vegetarian.
4. A Past Tense in the Principal Clause is followed by any tense in the Adverbial clause
beginning with than as :
1. He liked you more than I do(like you).
2. He liked you more than I did ( like you).
3. He liked you more than I shall (like you).
4. I valued your friendship more than( I value) his.
5. I then saw him oftener than I see him now.
5. A Past tense in the Principal Clause may be followed by any tense in the adjectival
clause as:
1. I visited the place where he lives.
2. I visited the place where he lived.
3. I visited the place where he will live
6. Some other Exceptions :
1. He works hard lest he should fail.
2. He talks as if he were mad.
3. I eat that I may live.
4. I shall nurse him that he may live.
(Purpose)
(Manner)
(Purpose)
(Purpose)
Exercise for Practice.

Insert the correct tense of the verb (given in bracket) in the following blanks.
1. I told him that I.................. (be) late for school.
2. He walked fast so that he....................(may) catch the train.
3. She told her child that two and two.............( make) four.
4. Little did I know that he................. (be) an early bird.
5. Take medicine lest you................. (suffer) from fever.
6. We shall not visit the zoo if .............it (rain).
7. He worked harder than you................. (do).
8. I believe that all ..........(be) well that............. (end) well.
9. I fear that all................ (fail) in the examination.

10. I shall ask him whether he.................. (steal) the book.
ANSWERS
1.was 2.might 3.make 4.is 5.should
suffer 6.rains 7.do
(or
did) 8.is,ends 9.will
Exercise for Practice.

Insert the correct tense of the verb (given in bracket) in the following blanks.
1. He remained silent when he.( hear) that.

2. He feels sad whenever he..( think) of his friends.
3. He never understood why he.( act) so.
4. We find flowers wherever we..( wander).
5. He did not tell us whence he.( come).
6. Let me ask you how you.( do) this.
7. He wished to know whether I..(be) ready to start.
8. Ten o clock is the hour when we must( start).
9. Ten o clock is the hour at which we must..( start).
10 Let me ask you how you.(be) today.
ANSWERS
1.heard 2. thinks 3.acted 4.wander 5.had come 6.did 7.was 8. start 9.start 10.are
How to Spot an Error ?
fail 10.stole
Finding an error in a sentence is a step-by-step process. Checking errors randomly is always so

confusing that you can never go close to accuracy. Therefore, we have adopted an EIGHTPOINT STRATEGY to probe a sentence for an error and pin-point it with accuracy. You have to
ask these eight questions while solving a sentence correction problem :
1. Is the verb in accordance with the subject?
This is the rule no. ONE
2. Is the tense of the verb correct?
This is the rule no. TWO
3. Is the subject or doer close to the participle?
This is the rule no. THREE
4. Are the nouns and verbs in their proper forms confirming the parallelism?
This is the rule no. FOUR
5. Are the articles, determiners and adjectives correctly used?
This is the rule no. FIVE
6. Are the forms of pronoun correct and do they agree with the related nouns and other
pronouns?
This is the rule no. SIX
7. Are the prepositions correctly used?
This is the rule no. SEVEN
8. Are the spelling and punctuation in place?
This is the rule no. EIGHT
Before you should be able to ask these questions meaningfully, you will have to understand
these different
grammar usages one by one and do some exercises on each.
At the end of the chapter, you will find mixed exercises in the manner they usually appear in the
entrance
examinations. These assorted exercises are the test of your understanding the chapter. While
doing them you
are supposed to identify the kinds of problem you find difficult and go back to the relevant part of
the chapter for
revision.
A few more problems related to grammar and usages are discussed in some other chapters as
the questions
related to them are usually other than the sentence correction questions. (Modals, Jumbled
sentences, Idioms)
1
Spotting the Error & Sentence Correction
Type 1 : Error of Subject-Verb Agreement
The very first thing that we need to check in a sentence correction exercise is the verb.
Consider the following sentences :
Set I Taking her basket she goes to the sea shore to collect shells.
She is happy with what she earns.
Set II Taking their baskets the women go to the sea shore to collect shells.
They are happy with what they earn.
Did you notice how the verbs change with the change in subject in the two sets? If we change
the subject
she into the women or she into they the verbs lose their s and es. She goes but they go,
she is but they
are and she earns but they earn.
Notice what happens when we change these verbs into past :

Taking her basket she went to the sea shore to collect shells.
They were happy with what they earned.
While go changes into went, are into were and earn into earned, taking and to collect
remain
unchanged. We need to change these main or finite verbs (go, are, earn) to make the sentence
present, past or
future while the non-finites (taking, to collect) remain unchanged.
Therefore, we need to check the main verbs in a sentence correction exercise.
l We need to ask, Is the verb singular with a singular subject? eg,
A boy helps the old woman cross the road.
He does not know her.
He is quite selfless.
A boy and he are singular; therefore, they take singular verbs with s or es at the end.
l Or, Is the verb plural with a plural subject? eg,
Some boys play here in the evening.
They bring their own bats and balls.
They are quite self-sufficient.
A plural subject takes a verb without s or es at its end.
You must have noticed that the singular verbsgoes, plays, is, was, hasend with an s.
Therefore, the first ever question in a sentence correction exercise to be asked is :
Is the verb in accordance with the subject?
This is the rule no. ONE
Target Exercise 1
Directions Make a choice of the correct verb for the subject in the following sentences.
1. It is so rainy in this region that it rain/rains very frequently even in winters.
2. Whenever he meet/meets me he talk/talks about his illness.
3. In a mature democracy like India, the voters know/knows whom to vote.
4. A good teacher not only teach/teaches, but he is/are also a good guide.
5. The Rajdhani Express usually run/runs on time; and is /are one of the fastest trains in India.
Answers 1. rains 2. meets, talks 3. know 4. teaches, is 5. runs, is
Sometimes the nouns used as subject might be confusing. It may be difficult to decide whether
they are
singular or plural. Therefore, identifying such nouns is important before deciding whether the
verb is in
accordance with the subject.
l Cattle is a plural noun which can neither be written as cattles nor used as singular. eg,
Cattle are grazing
beside the lake.
Other such nouns, that are always used as plural without any change in them, are : People,
police, poultry,
gentry, peasantry
4 English Language & Comprehension : Spotting the Error & Sentence Correction
l Scissors, binoculars, spectacles, pincers, pliers, trousers, jeans, oats, outskirts,
premises, quarters,
stairs, spirits, surroundings, thanks are used as plural. eg, Where are my spectacles? I
cant see without
them.
l Some nouns are used both ways without any change in them, such as : A sheep, many
sheep, a deer, many
deer, a fish, many fish, also many fishes meaning groups or species of fishes, a
spacecraft, many
spacecraft, an aircraft, many aircraft.
These are used singular as well as plural without any change in them.
l All uncountable nouns like milk, furniture, bread, food, ice, salt, butter, grass, hair, wheat,
rubbish, coffee,
chalk, paper, sugar, dust, chocolate, soap are always used as singular.
l All abstract nouns like applause, homework, advice, wealth, happiness, research, money,
evidence,
hospitality, music, pollution, trash, waste, statistics, AIDS, disease, measles, information,
knowledge, refuge,
rubbish are always used as singular.
l You must also be aware of some agencies such as jury, committee, government which are
used both ways.
A jury or a committee or a government is consisted of some members and these members
sometimes take a
unanimous decision and act like one agency; but at times the members are divided in their
opinion
and act separately and not as one agency. In the first case, a jury will be treated as singular
while in the
second case, it will be plural. eg,
(i) The committee have been consulting among themselves and are now ready to take their
seats.
(ii) A committee has been constituted to look into the matter.
In sentence,
(i) the committee refers to the members and not the organization as one entity.
(ii) one agencycommittee is referred and not a divided committee or its members.
Other such nouns are : Association, audience, board, commission, company, council,
crew,
department, government, jury, party, public, staff, family
l Words with ware suffix are singular : Software, hardware, silverware, streetware,
chinaware,
brassware, glassware, middleware, embeddedware.
l The following, although appear plural, are used as singular : Mathematics, economics,
measles,
apparatus, wages, species, politics.
Target Exercise 2
Directions Identify the subjects in the following and choose the correct singular or plural
verb.
1. The committee is/are seriously considering the matter.
2. During recession, not even the Mumbai public has/have enough money to meet its needs.
3. The public is/are dispersing away from the monotonous show.
4. The majority wins/win what the minority loses/lose.
5. The government has/have fallen after the trust vote.
6. The government wants/want to keep the plan to themselves.
7. Two deer/deers were killed by the poachers.
8. The army has/have besieged the city and is poised to launch further attacks.
9. The police has/have arrived and are investigating the matter.
10. The issue remained unresolved as the committee was/were divided on the subject.
11. The scissorswas/weretherebut the tailor couldnot see themas his

spectacleswas/werenotonhis nose.
12. Brazil is/are the winning team.
Answers 1. arethe members and not the agency 2. hasone entityits need 3. aredifferent
members of public in different directions 4. wins, losesone entity 5. hasthe entire one
government 6. wantto themselves means members of the government 7. deerno use of deers
exists 8 hasarmy is used as singularis poised 9. havepolice is used as pluralare
investigating 10. wereas divided 11. were, werescissors and spectacles are used as plural
could not
see them 12. area team here refers to players as in India are on the ground.
Structure Rule
Some nouns never change into a plural form even if used as pluralapparatus, scenery,
jewellery, machinery, offspring, information,
stationery, aircraft, dozen, hundred, furniture.
IP MBASuccess Master 5
l The pronouns each and one make the subject singular. eg,
(i) Each of the Chief Ministers of the states was present in the meeting.
It means each one of the ministers of states.
(ii) One of the boys is to be blamed.
Who is to be blamed one boy or all the boys?
l Somebody, nobody are singular but every and none can be used both as singular and
plural.
l The conjunction and makes the subject plural when combining two or more nouns or
pronouns. eg,
(i) Jack, John and Jill are coming to meet me.
(ii) He and I are going to welcome them.
l If the conjunctionor, norcombines the nouns or pronouns, then the number of the last noun
or pronoun is
decisive. eg,
(i) Two bikes or a car is enough to carry us all.
(ii) The coach or the players are responsible for the defeat.
(iii) She, they or I am supposed to look after the people here.
l Sometimes the subject is a non-finite verb which is always singular. eg,
(i) Smoking is injurious to health. Non-finite (Gerund)
(ii) To err is human, to forgive is divine. Non-finite (Infinitive)
Therefore, the subject of a sentence is either a noun or a pronoun or sometimes a non-finite.
Target Exercise 3
Directions Identify the subject whether it is singular or plural and then make a better choice of
the given
verbs.
1. Each of the candidates was/were awarded a certificate for participation.
2. Either of those dresses is/are suitable for the party.
3. Either the student or his parents has/have to be present in the function.
4. Everybody or anybody is/are able to answer these questions.
5. Neither of them is/are an expert of the subject.
6. The ones who is/are found guilty must be punished.
7. You or she has/have to be blamed for the accident.
8. They and I was/were present there last night.
9. Jessica is absent, but some of her class is/are present.
10. No one know/knows what happens after death.
Answers 1. wasmeans each one 2. isone of the dresses 3. havethe last noun
parents 4. is 5. isnot one of them 6. areones is plural 7. hasthe last subject she 8. wereand
makes the subject plural 9. areclass means classmates here 10. knowsno one is singular.
Type 2 : Error of Tense
Checking the tense of the verb in a sentence is another very important thing in sentence
correction exercise.
You need to know, Is the tense of the verb correct?
(i) Yesterday I met him. (ii) She said she would meet him.
Yesterday and said fixes the time of the verb to be past. Therefore, we have used the past
forms of meet
and will.
However, for the present time, we say :
(i) I always meet him at the station. (ii) She says she will meet him.
Always and says refer to the present and meet and will are the present forms of the verbs.
l Is, am and are are the present forms and their past forms are was and were.
l Has and have are the present forms and their past form is had.
l Does and do are the present forms and their past form is did.
l Will, shall, can and may are the present form modals and their past forms are would,
should, could and
might respectively.
It is important to know the correct past and past participle forms of the verbs. Broadly the verbs
are
conjugated in four different ways :
1. Those which take ed in their past and past participle forms such as work-worked-worked,
enquire-enquired-enquired, lie- lied-lied or try-tried-tried. Some more such verbs areplay,
request, flow, die, please.
2. Those which remain same in all their forms such as cast-cast-cast, burst-burst-burst, cutcut-cut or
shut-shut-shut. Some more such verbs areput, hit, spread, let, set.
3. Those which take same past and past participle forms such as buy-bought- bought,
say-said-said,
hold-held-held or win-won-won. Some more such verbs areteach-taught-taught,
catchcaughtcaught, make-made-made, bleed-bled-bled, keep-kept- kept, dig-dug-dug.
4. Those which are different in all the three forms such as see-saw-seen, sing-sang-sung;
bear-bore-borne, write-wrote-written. Some more such verbs areeat-ate-eaten, drink-drankdrunk,
break-broke-broken, bite-bit-bitten, take-took- taken, begin-began-begun.
The second forms of the verb are the simple past forms and the third forms of the verb (or the
past
participle) are the past perfect forms used with has, have or had. The third forms are also used
in the passive
voice sentences.
Perfect Tenses
The woman has done her household work.

I have written five letters to him so far.
The train had gone before we reached the station.
Passive Voice
All household work in this house is done by the servants.
Five novels have been written by the new writer so far.
The train will be caught by us if we hurry.
Table of Tenses
Tense Present Past Future
SIMPLE Active She + writes (VI) + slogans.
I/We/You/They write slogans.
She + wrote (V2) + slogans. She + will write (VI) + slogans.
SIMPLE Passive Slogans + are written (V3) + by
+ her.
Slogans + were written (V3) +
by + her.
Slogans + will be written (V3) +
by her.
USAGE For habit, repetitive action and
permanent situation; usually
with words like daily, always,
never, sometimes.
past events unconnected with
the Present; or with past-time
reference such as yesterday, in
1954, last week, five months
ago, in the ancient times.
Information about the Future
with or without future
reference such as tomorrow,
after two days, in fifteen
minutes.
CONTINUOUS Active She + is writing + slogans. She + was writing + slogans. She + will be
writing + slogans.
CONTINUOUS Passive Slogans + are being written
(V3) + by her.
Slogans + were being written
(V3) + by her.
Slogans + will be being written
(V3) + by her.
USAGE Continuing action at the time of
speaking, these days in general
or changing developments on
the earth with or without the
use of now, at present, at the
moment, these days, look, still
Continuing action at a
particular past time with the
time words, phrases or clauses
such as at this time yesterday,
when you came etc. referred or
implied.
Continuing situation at a future
time with a reference to this
time next year/tomorrow.
PERFECT Active She + has written (V3) +
slogans.
She + had written (V3) +
slogans.
She + will have written (V3) +
slogans.
PERFECT Passive Slogans + have been written
(V3) + be her.
Slogans + had been written (V3)
+ by her.
Slogans + will have been
written (V3) + by her.
Tense Present Past Future
USAGE Past action with some present
connection usually completed
in the past with or without the
words already, never, yet, just
now, till now etc. with the time
reference using for or since.
Action before a particular past
time usually with before, after,
when etc.
completion by a particular
future time such as by this time
tomorrow/next year/next week.
PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Active
She + has been writing +
slogans.
She + had been writing +
slogans.
She + will have been writing +
slogans.
PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Passive
Slogans + have been being
writing (V3) + by her.
Slogans + had been being
written (V3) by her.
Slogans + will have been being
written (V3) by her.
USAGE Past action continued up to the
present (uncompleted) usually
with the time reference using
for or since.
Continuation up to a particular past time.
Continued up toj a particularfuture time.

Target Exercise 4
Directions Choose the correct forms of the verbs in the following.
1. He was choose/ chose/chosen leader of the group.
2. I have do/did/done my work.
3. The letter was write/wrote/written by the clerk.
4. You have break/broke/broken the window pane.
5. Who has take/took/taken my pen?
6. The bananas have been eat/ate/eaten by the cow.
7. A beautiful song in this movie has been sing/sang/sung by the new singer.
8. He has catch/catched/caught cough.
9. The magician cast/casted a spell and turned the rat into a horse.
10. A lot has been say/says/said about life and death.
Answers 1. chosen passive 2. done 3. written passive 4. broken 5. taken 6. eaten 7. sung
8. caught 9. castthe past of cast is cast 10. said
Target Exercise 5
Direction A. Check what is correct-simple present or present continuous.
Is it habitually done or is a repeated action? Choose simple present.
Is it longer or continued action? Choose present continuous.
1. Look! They talk and while away/are talking and whiling away their time.
2. An apple a day keeps/is keeping the doctor away.
3. By profession an author writes/is writing a book whereas an artist creates/is creating a
picture.
4. The projects that the government takes up/is taking up these days are all dominated by
modern
technologies.
5. The river flows/is flowing down the mountain and goes/is going to the ocean.
Answers 1. are talking and whiling awaylook indicates it is happening before our eyes at the
moment
2. keepseating healthy diet always keeps diseases away, not just at the moment 3. writes,
createsprofession-wise activities are timeless, not temporary, at the moment or time-bound 4.
is taking
upthese days only, not always 5. flows, goesnot just now they are flowing or going
Structure Rule
The verbs that cannot be used in continuous tense
Some verbs express not actions, or happenings but sense perceptions such as see, hear,
smell, taste, feel or possession such as own,
possess, have, hold or some insight or idea such as believe, realize, obsess etc. Such verbs
are usually not used in the continuous tense.
Sometimes when they are used in the continuous tense they lose their usual meaning. eg, The
judge is hearing the case at the moment.
Direction B. Check what is correctsimple past or present perfect.
Is the past time mentioned or indicated? Choose simple past.
Is the past time connected or related with the present time somehow? Choose present
perfect.
1. I feel proud of my team as it performed/has performed quite well.
2. The Prime Minister observed/has observed many changes in the rural areas when he last
visited the
countryside.
3. Since, he changed job he found/has found more time to relax and enjoy his hobby.
4. Paul may lose his car because he did not pay/has not paid his instalments for three
months.
5. The report was tabled/has been tabled in the parliament yesterday.
Answers 1. has performedfeel proud is present, therefore the past performance gets related to
the
present 2. observed when? When he last visitedit mentions the past time 3. has found since
means
from then till now; therefore since/for take perfect tenses only 4. has not paid 5. was tablednot
related
with now, but isolated past that is yesterday.
Direction C. Check what is correctsimple past or past continuous.
If out of the two actions in the past one is longer than the other, the shorter will take simple
past and the
longer past continuous. The actions might be either both short or both long; and in such a
case either both
will be simple past or both past continuous.
1. While I waited/was waiting for my bus she was running after hers.
2. We saw a bus fallen when we went/were going to Haridwar.
3. She burnt/was burning her finger while she was cooking.
4. A boy fell/was falling from a train when it was moving at full speed.
5. Everyone had already gone but she still worked/was still working in the office.
Answers 1. was waitingwaiting and running both longer actions 2. were goingcontinued,
longer
action 3. burnt burning is short and quick 4. fellfalling is relatively very short action 5. was still
workingcontinued action.
Direction D. Check what is correctsimple past or past perfect.
What happened before the other? The earlier action takes past perfect and the later action
takes simple past.
Do you intend to mention two past actions one after the other? If no, use simple past.
If yes, use past perfect.
1. The train went/had gone before we reached the station.
2. The rival countries fretted and fumed/had fretted and fumed before the war finally broke
out.
3. He went/had gone out after he had eaten his lunch.
4. The farmer sold the crop after he harvested/had harvested it.
5. The Indians had fought a long struggle before they attained/had attained independence.
Answers 1. had gonehappened first, then reached station 2. had fretted and fumedhappened
first,
before the war 3. wentate lunch first, then went 4. had harvestedharvested first, then sold
5. attainedfirst fought, then attained independence.
Direction E. Check what is correctsimple future, future continuous or future perfect.
1. I will complete/will have completed this project tomorrow.
2. I will be completing/will have completed this project at this time tomorrow.
3. I will be completing/will have completed this project by this time tomorrow.
4. I will be passing/will have passed my MBA by the time your return from abroad.
5. She will repay/will have repaid her loan by the period for the same expires.
Answers 1. will completejust future intention 2. will be completing at a particular point of time
in
future is used for continued action in future 3. will have completedtill or by a particular time in
future is
used for completion of work 4. will have passedsimilar to 3 5. will have repaidsimilar to 4.
Type 3 : Error of Conditional Sentences
Pattern I
If + Subject + Verb (in the first form)Subject + Will + Verb (in the first form)
If + you + allow -I +will + go.
If + it + rains -he +will + not come.
If + one + promises -one + must + keep it.
If + you + work hard -you + can + succeed.
These sentences express what is probable to happen in future under particular conditions. The
first parts
of the sentences beginning with if are the conditions and the second parts are the intentions
or the likely
happenings in future. The first takes the simple present form and the second simple future.
They can be stated reversing the order :
I will go if you allow.
He will not come if it rains.
One must keep it if one promises.
You can succeed if you work hard.
Pattern II
If + Subject + Verb (in the second form)
Subject + Would + Verb (in the first form)
If + I + knew - I + would + tell you
If + the office + had money - it + would + give away the salary.
If + I + were the President - I + would + honour the learned.
If + women + had power - they + would + rule better.
These sentences express some hypothetical probability or supposition or just an assumption.
They mean
I dont know so I cant tell you; the office doesnt have money so it cannot pay salary; I am not
the President
otherwise I would honour the learned; women dont have power otherwise they would rule
better.
These sentences can also state the second part first.
Pattern III
If + Subject + Verb (had + the third form)
Subject + Would have + 3rd form of Verb
If + it + had rained - the farmers + would have + grown crops.
If + they + had worked - they + would have + succeeded.
If + we + had reached on time + would have + caught the train.
If + the doctor + had come on time - the patient + would not have + died
These sentences express something that could not happen in the past because of the lack
of some
required condition. It expresses some sort of regret. It did not rain so farmers could not grow
crops; they did
not work hard so they could not succeed; we did not reach on time and so we could not catch
the train; the doctor
did not come on time and so the patient could not be saved.
You must have noticed that the verb in
Pattern I is the first form (the present) and the first form of future (will) indicating some future
intentions.
Pattern II is the second form (the past) and the second form of future (would) indicating
hypothesis or
supposition in present meaning.
Pattern III is had + third form (the past perfect) and would have + third form (future perfect)
some
conditional regret about the past.
Target Exercise 6
Direction A. Choose the better option in the following conditional sentences.
1. If the recession continues, the industry will not grow/would not grow.
2. The Prime Minister announces/will announce the project if the parliament approves it.
3. If the fire-brigade had reached on time, the property would be saved/would have been
saved from
destruction.
4. If I knew the answers, I would pass/would have passed the examination.
5. If there is /will be a sudden rain, the city drowns under water-logging.
Answers 1. will not growcontinues is present 2. will announceapproves is present, P.M.s
decision
depends on approval 3. would have been savedhad reached is past perfect, talks about the
past
4. would passknew is simple past, second form of the verb 5. isif part of the sentence does
not take
will, would or would have.
Direction B. Wish and the subjunctive case.
I wish I knew. I wish you came. present meaning
I wish I would know. I wish you would come. future meaning
I wish I had known. I wish you had come. past meaning
Choose the better option in the following conditional sentences.
1. They cheated me. I wish I knew/had known them.
2. The party was such a fun. I wish you would come/had come.
3. The star is in the town and she is entertaining her guests. She wishes she were free/would
be free.
4. They reached late to the funeral. They wish they reached/had reached on time.
5. Tomorrow everybody would enjoy. You wish you would join/would have joined the party.
The second most important question that one must ask in the sentence correction
exercise is Is the tense
of the verb correct? This is the rule no. TWO
Answers 1. had knownpast meaning because cheated is past 2. had comepast meaning as
was is
past 3. were freepresent meaning as is is present 4. had reachedreached is past 5. would
joinfuture meaning as tomorrow is used.
Direction C. Make a choice of the correct verb form.
1. Thank God! We reached on time. If there had been jam on the highway, we would be/would
have been
late for reception.
2. If you woke/had woken me up earlier, we would have gone there together.
3. Last night the residents assembled/had assembled to discussion the occurrence of theft in
the locality.
4. The students decided to donate blood after they saw/had seen the plight of the injured in
various
accidents in a documentary film.
5. The newspaper reported/has reported seven cases of gruesome crime in the city yesterday.
6. An enquiry committee has been formed as devastating poverty and indebtedness
forced/have forced
farmers in the country to commit suicide.
7. Since I changed job I found/have found no time to relax and enjoy my hobby.
8. If Dave doesnt/wont drive carefully, he will cause an accident.
9. Unless the striking workers and the management talk/dont talk, the matter cannot be
resolved.
10. The ministers have sworn/had sworn that they will maintain the secrecy of their
departments.
Answers 1. would have been 2. had woken 3. assem-bled 4. had seen 5. reported 6. have
forced
7. have found 8. doesnt 9. talkunless means if not 10. have sworn
Structure Rule
Have and hold are used in the continuous form as in He is having bath or She is holding
a flower. But have here means take and
hold means wield, take or keep in hand. We, however, CANNOT say They are having or
holding some property in this town. We
should, instead, say, They have or hold some property in this town. The verb have is used in
three different ways :
1. I am having my lunch at the moment. It means I am taking.
2. He has some industry in this town. It means He possess or own.
3. We have done our work. It means work is completed and have denotes the perfect tense.
Type 4 : Error of Participles

What function do the ing verbs do in the following sentences?
(i) Smoking is injurious to health.
(ii) Swimming is a good exercise.
(iii) He has given up smoking.
(iv) She has started swimming.
(v) They are taking lesson in swimming.
They function as the subject or object in the sentence. If you ask the question what is injurious
or a good
exercise or what has he given up or started or is taking lesson in you will get the ing words as
answer.
You should ask what questions before the verb to know the subject and after the verb to know
the object in
the sentence.
Now look at the following sentences. How are the ing word different from those used above?
(i) Smoking he entered the hall.
(ii) Swimming they crossed the flooded river.
In the sentences above the words smoking and swimming dont answer the question what
entered or who
crossed but tell how he entered or how they crossed.
We can also say :
(i) While smoking he entered the hall.
(ii) While he was smoking he entered the hall.
(iii) He entered the hall when he was smoking.
These are different ways of combining two sentences.
Smoking is a participle and the main function of a participle is to combine two sentences.
The two sentences, in this case, are :
He was smoking. At that very same time he entered the hall. Or,
He entered the hall. At that very same time he was smoking.
Consider the other sentence :
Swimming they crossed the flooded river.
If we split the same, we can say :
They swam. This is how they crossed the river. Or,
They crossed they river by swimming. Or,
By swimming they crossed the river.
However, we cant say the above sentences in the following manner :
Smoking the hall was entered by him. Or,
Swimming the flooded river was crossed by them.
Why? Because the one who smoke was he and not the hall; or, those who swam were they and
not the
flooded river.
(i) Writing a novel, his name became famous.
(ii) Having been a very good scientist, they made him the president.
Ask who wrote the novel his name or some person? It was some person. The sentence,
therefore, should be
Writing a novel, he became famous.
In the second sentence, who was a scientistthey or the president? It was the president.
Therefore, the
sentence should be Having been a very good scientist, he was made president by them.
It is clear from the above discussion that the doer of the participle verb should not be distanced
from it or
interrupted by any other subject, noun or verb.
If a sentence starts with a participle, ask : Is the subject or doer close to the participle?
This is the rule no. THREE
Target Exercise 7
Directions Underline the subjects that are misplaced.
1. Being a great king, people respected Akbar.
2. Taking all his bag and baggage, a distant relative was visited by him.
3. Making some beautiful movies, the Filmfare awarded him with the most prestigious honour.
4. Having checked the engine and petrol in their car, their journey was resumed.
5. Looking through the view-finder, some strangers were seen standing at the door.
6. Calling him on phone, he was informed of the news by me.
7. Singing sweetly and walking smoothly, the bride was taken home by the palanquin bearers.
8. Eating too much his health was spoiled.
9. Being a famous actor, the school invited him to be the chief guest on the Annual Day
function.
10. Finding some talent in him, they employed him in the key position of the organization.
Answers 1. Akbar was respected by people 2. he visited a distant relative 3. he bagged the
Filmfare
award 4. they resumed their journey 5. I/he/she saw some strangers 6. I informed him 7. the
palanquin bearers took the bride 8. he spoilt his health 9. he was invited 10. he was employed.
Type 5 : Error of Nouns
In a sentence when a few nouns or verbs occur in a group or list, they are supposed to be in the
same
formeither all infinitive (to go), all participle (going) or all noun (gait).
Look at this :
(i) Measures have been taken to generate energy, to conserve it and for its equitable
distribution.
The above sentence can be corrected in the following possible ways :
Measures have been taken to generate energy, to conserve it and to distribute it equitably.
Measures have been taken for generating energy, conserving it and distributing it equitably.
Measures have been taken for the generation of energy, its conservation and equitable
distribution.
Consider the following :
(ii) Infant is the first stage of life, boyhood the second and adolescent the third.
The stages are infancy, boyhood and adolescence; infant and adolescent are persons in
these stages.
Therefore, the sentence should read :
Infancy is the first stage, boyhood the second and adolescence is the third.
(iii) The breadth was five centimetre, the length ten and it was three centimetre high.
The breadth and length are alright but instead of it was three centimetre high it should be the
height
was three centimetre.
In order to be able to check this kind of error in a sentence, knowing different forms of the same
word is
useful. Look at a few formations of words here.
Structure Rule
There is big list of such words. Therefore, a higher proficiency word-formation is advisable.
Refer to the relevant word-formation chapter
in this book.
A few of the nouns and adjectives are given here :
Mother, motherhood, maternity; poor, poverty; patriot, patriotism; hero, heroism;
bankrupt, bankruptcy; vacant, vacancy; diligent, diligence; garrulous, garrulity.
Target Exercise 8
Directions Choose the correct noun form.
1. What apparatus/apparatuses do you use for performing this experiment?
2. There are no machinery/machineries to resolve the matter.
3. The two hundred/hundreds of hens lay about thirty dozen/dozens of eggs every week.
4. The scenery/sceneries of the Himalayas keep beckoning us.
5. The offspring/offsprings of this species leave their parents as soon as they mature.
6. These pieces of jewellery/jewelleries are designed by a highly acclaimed expert.
7. All kinds of stationary/stationeries are sold here.

8. We get a lot of information/informations from the internet.
9. Beautiful furniture/funitures made the house elegant.
10. Many sophisticated aircraft/aircrafts have been purchased by the Indian Air Force recently.
After checking the subject-verb agreement, tense and participle, you need to ask,
Are the nouns and verbs in their proper forms confirming the parallelism?
This is the rule no. FOUR
Answers 1. apparatus 2. machinery 3. hundred, dozen 4. scenery 5. offspring 6. jewellery
7. stationary 8. information 9. furniture 10. aircraft
Type 6 : Error of Articles
There is a man waiting for you outside the gate. The man is holding some files.
In the first time reference, we say a man that is any man and when we refer to the same man
again we use
the before man. The makes it a definite or particular man.
eg, The girl whom we met yesterday has come again.
In the above sentence also we talk about a definite girl, the one whom we met yesterday;
therefore, we use
the before girl.
Consider this :
Please give me a pen to write; not the one you gave me earlier but another.
A pen means any pen; the one is for a particular pen or the earlier one; and another
means any other.
When we mean any, we use a or an; but when we mean a particular one, we use the.
Target Exercise 9
Directions Choose the right article in the following sentences.
1. Have your seen a/the movie playing at Satyam?
2. Is this a/the book that you gave me last week?
3. A/The good leader leads the country to prosperity.
4. A/The people of America are more liberal than a/the people of Europe.
5. Where is Mother? She is working in a/the kitchen.
Answers 1. the 2. the 3. a 4. the, the 5. the
Structure Rule
Sometimes this, that, these or those can be used in place of the and so can help in making
sure whether the use of the is required
or not.
Give me the pen can be also said as Give me this/that pen.
The candidates interested can apply soon can also be said as Those candidates who are
interested can apply soon.
Many a time replacing the with one of the four words can prove to be a litmus test for the
correctness of the in the sentence.
But No article is used with man, nature or God.
Man proposes, God disposes.
What man has done to nature!
BUT
The gods of pantheons were worshipped by the Greeks.
For genetic or class references :
The dog (kind of animal) is a faithful animal.
Dogs are faithful animals.
The elephant is a sensible creature.
Elephants are sensible creatures.
NOT
Dog is a faithful creature.

The dogs are faithful creatures.
Elephant is a sensible creature.
The elephants are sensible creatures.
When we mean the entire species or the community or the group and not any specific dog or
dogs and elephant or elephants we
dont use the with their plural forms.
These also indicate groups or community of people:
The poor (people) are the most neglected lot.
The rich in this city are quite arrogant.
The injured are taken to the hospital.
Target Exercise 10
Directions Choose the correct option.
1. Elephants/the elephants can swim very well.
2. She is very fond of horses/the horses.
3. Man/the man is mortal.
4. Injured/the injured were taken to the hospital.
5. Rich/the rich have always ridiculed poor/the poor.
6. Nature/the nature has bestowed with opulence.
7. Gods/the gods the Hindus worship are not the same the Greeks used to worship.
8. There has always been a fight between devil/the devil and divine/the divine.
9. The reformers have come forward for the emancipation of down-trodden/the downtrodden.
10. Unemployed/the unemployed are more concerned to get an employment than to know the
number ofthe unemployed in the country.
Answers 1. elephants 2. horses 3. man 4. the injured 5. the rich, the poor 6. nature 7. the
gods 8. the devil, the divine 9. the down-trodden 10. the unemployed
Some Conventional Usage of the
l Before a geographical entityThe continent but NOT the Asia, the Europe
l The oceanthe Indian Ocean, the Atlantic, the Pacific
l The riverthe Yamuna, the Thames, the Tiber, the Nile
l The islandthe Andman and Nicobar, the Lakshdweep
l The mountainthe Himalayas, the Andes
l The bay or gulfthe Bay of Bengal, the Persian Gulf
l The archipelagothe Indonesian Archipelago
l The desertsthe Sahara, the Kalahari, the Arabian Sands
l But NOT with
l Mountain peaksMt Everest, Mt Kilimanjaro
l LakesDal Lake, Chilka Lake, Lake Michigan
l Names of places beginning with proper nounsDelhi University, Indira Gandhi International
Airport,
Mahatma Gandhi Road
l Before the celestial bodiesthe planetthe earth; the starthe sun; the satellitethe moon, the
titan.
l But NOT with the remaining planets such as Mars, Jupiter.
l Before the names of religious groups and religious and famous booksthe Hindu, the
Christian, the Quran,
the Bible, the Iliad, the Mahabharat, the Ramayan
l But NOT with the names of religionsHinduism, Christianity, Islam
l The republic, the kingdom, the unionThe Peoples Republic of China, the United Kingdom,
the United States
of America
l The nationalitiesthe British, the Indian, the American, the Japanese
l With superlative the best, the rich
l The ordinalsthe first, the last, the next
l Some comparativesthe better of the two; the more you try, the more you succeed
l For the head of a groupthe President, the Prime Minister, the Head Boy.
l But he was elected President, appointed Head Boy
The President of the country but just President Pratibha Patil.
l Time expressionsin the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening but at noon, at night, by
day etc
l When names used as adjectiveKalidas is the Shakespeare of India. Mumbai is the
Manchester of India.
Target Exercise 11
Directions Insert the where required.
1. Who is considered Bradman of India?
2. Martin Luther King, who led Gandhian Movement against racial discrimination, brought
considerable
amount of justice and equality for the blacks in the US.
3. The government failed because of its lack of understanding of economics of the situation.
4. The Christians who go to church everyday are rather more pious than those who go
occasionally.
5. Nilgiris are the most productive mountains of the south.
6. Obama has been elected President of United States of America.
7. What kind of person he is?
8. Great poet and writer, K. Abraham, is no more.
9. He is not comfortable in eating the dish with knife and fork.
10. He left school when he was thirteen and started going to college.
Answers 1. the Bradman 2. the Gandhian 3. the economics 4. not required 5. the Nilgiris 6. the
United States 7. not required 8. the great 9. not required 10. not required
The usage of indefinite articlea/an
The countable singular noun takes a or an.
eg, A man is waiting for you. A sovereign state needs a government of its own. An apple a
day keeps
the doctor away.
The only difference between a and an is that a noun or adjective beginning with a vowel sound
the sound
of a, ai, aa, e, ei, ee, ai, ia, o, ou etcsuch as apple, iodine, end, air, heir, exact, eye,
oriental, owl takes
an in order to keep the two vowel sounds (a and the first sound of the word) from getting
mingled.
For example, if we say a orange, a office, a umbrella, a honest man, a MP, it may create a
phonetic problem
in speaking and listening. Therefore, we should say an orange, an office, an umbrella, an
honest man, an MP, an
NRI, an heir, an hour.
However, a university, a one eyed man, a one rupee note are correct although the start with a
vowel but
produce a consonant soundyu, wa, etc.
Target Exercise 12
Directions Correct the following sentences :
1. Is there the post office near here?
2. An stitch on time saves nine.
3. It requires an energy.
4. She has got a cold and cough.
5. You need very good knowledge of the subject and deep understanding of the problem to get
through
this examination.
6. He helped a honest one eyed man.
7. He is a doctor but his wife is a MLA.
8. There is a time to work and the time to play.
9. Where there is the will, there is the way.
10. A umbrella is useless in a stormy weather.
Answers 1. a post office 2. a stitch 3. requires energy 4. got cold and 5. a very good
knowledge,
a deep understanding 6. an honest 7. an MLA 8. and a time 9. a will, a way 10. an umbrella.
Type 7 : Error of Determiners
I. Some, any = indefinite number or quantity
l Some is used with positive sentences and any with negative sentences and questions.
eg,
l There is some good news for you. Uncountable positive
Some books are lying on the table. Countable positive
l There is not any water left in the bottle. Uncountable negative
l Are there any letters in the letter-box? Countable question
l Some is sometimes used in questions.
eg,
Could you lend me some money? Are there some boys in the next room? Where is the noise
coming
from?
Here some stress is on the positive quantity and number.
II. Much, many = big quantity (uncountable) or big number (countable)
eg,
(i) There is not much water left in the pond.
(ii) There are not many followers of Gandhiji these days.
(iii) Too much milk will be required to make these sweets.
(iv) Many parliamentarians were absent on the fist day of the session.
(v) How much money do you want?
(vi) Your can take as many currency notes as you want.
III. A little = small quantityuncountable
A few = small numbercountable
eg,
(i) Only a little rice is left. We will have to manage with it.small amount
(ii) Only a few people came in the party.small number

eg,
l Little = (without a) hardly any or not anyuncountable
l Few = (without a) hardly any or not anycountable
(i) There is little sense in crying over the spilt milk.no sense
(ii) Few know what happens after death.nobody
IV. More = comparative of much and many
Less = comparative of little;
l Both more and less are used with than.
eg,
(i) I dont have more money today. It is incorrect. More than what or whom?
It should be much money or enough money.
(ii) I want more money than what I have.
(iii) I want more money than you have.
(iv) There is less sense in talking with such a rude person. Less than what?
It should be little sense or no sense.
(v) An idle talk is much less important than work.
(vi) He earns less than a peon.
V. Several = several is small number (countable) but more definite than some or a few
Enough = sufficient number and quantity
eg,
(i) Dont worry. There are several policemen to guard the place.
(ii) Dont give me more. I have eaten enough.
Target Exercise 13
Directions Choose the correct determiner.
1. Could you lend me some/any of your books today?
2. You cannot buy anything with such a little/less amount of money.
3. He has much/more sense than you have.
4. There is not much/more scope in the conventional jobs these days.
5. Did you see some/any good movies during your visit to the town?
6. Very few/a few people true to their intentions.
7. Little/a little elegance is left in those arrogant youth.
8. An average Indian earns much/enough to maintain an honourable life.
9. If you are looking for some nice magazines, there are already some/several in the stall.
10. Help came but too late and too little/less.
Answers 1. some 2. a little 3. more 4. much 5. any 6. few 7. little 8. enough 9. several
10. little
Type 8 : Error of Adjectives
l Earlierlater : on an earlier date or a later date; used for time.
l Formerlatter : out of two names or things mentioned, the first is former and the second is
later.
l Fartherfurther :
(i) What will be his further strategy? Further means next in sequence here.
(ii) He mended his ways without any further delays. Further here means additional.
(iii) I come from a farther place than you do.
(iv) The USA is further from here than the UK.
In both (iii) & (iv) farther and further indicate longer distances. Both the words can be used for
distance.
For addition or next, only further can be used.
l Olderelder : There are two brothers elder to me; the second one is two years older than
me. Elder indicates
seniority in relation, older seniority in age. eg,
(i) How can I use insulting words for him? He is an elder to me. Senior in relation.
Persons not in relation cannot be compared by using elder. Only their ages can be compared :
(ii) The Prime Minister of the country is much older than the President.
The order of the adverb
l MPT = MannerPlaceTime
Manner = slowly, steadily
Place = here, there, up, down
Time = before, ago, now, today
The next question to be asked is
Are the articles, determiners and adjectives correctly used?
This is the rule no. FIVE
Target Exercise 14
Directions Choose the correct adjective and adverb.
1. After killing Caesar, the conspirators farther/further wanted to kill Antony.
2. The enemy attacked many places in the night aggressively/aggressively many places in
the night.
3. Out of Milton and Byron, the earlier/former is the better poet.
4. Although he studies in my class, he is three years older/elder than me.
5. Later/latter when he grew older, he realized his mistake.
Answers 1. further 2. aggressively many places in the night 3. former 4. older 5. later
Type 9 : Error of Pronouns

The forms of pronoun
Subjective forms : I, we, you, he, she, they, it.
Objective forms : me, us, you, him, her, them, it.
Possessive forms : my/of mine, our/of ours, your/of yours, his/of his, her/of hers, their/of theirs,
its /of it.
(i) His accomplishments are greater than my accomplishments.
(ii) His accomplishments are greater than mine. Accomplishments are compared.
(iii) He is greater than me. He and I are compared.
(iv) He did it better than I. (than I did) The two subjects doings are compared.
Notice the difference the above sentences. The first two mean same. Third and fourth compare
two different
things and so use different forms of personal pronoun.
The usage of it, its, its, there, their
l It is used for a thing, idea, animal, baby, child, kid etc. Sometimes I,we, you, he, she, they are
also used for them.
l It and there as dummy subject or object.
eg,
(i) It is true. I knew it. Damn it. It rains. Its late. What time is it by your watch? Its useless to
try once again.
Its O.K. Is it you? It was I who was knocking on the door. It is foolish to talk in that way.
In the above sentences it does not mean anything but just fill the gap of a subject or an object.
(ii) There was a king. Where there is a will, there is a way. How many friends of ours were
there in the
party? What time is there by your watch?

There does the same function as it does. It fills the gap.
(iii) The dog wags its tail on seeing its master.
Its tail means dogs tail or the tail of the dog.
(iv) Lets hurry. Its getting late.
Its is the short or contracted form of it is. It is getting late.
(v) They did their work and we ours.
Give their money back to them.
Their means belonging to them or possessed by them.
(vi) Its they who know all about this.
Its she who needs your help.
Its I who prefer to listen to your music.
After its or it is the subjective form of the personal pronoun is used and not the objectivethem,
her or me.
Target Exercise 15
Directions Choose the correct pronoun in the context.
1. One of the students did not submit his /their/ones assignment as per the instruction.
2. The baby flung his /its toy and lost him/it somewhere.
3. Passengers are advised to look after there/their luggage himself/themselves.
4. There/their were thousands of new articles there/their.
5. The elephant salutes by using its /its trunk.
6. Please hurry. Its /its getting late.
7. It is I/me who is knocking at the door.
8. What is there/their that shines?
9. I have done the painting better than she/her.
10. He is a very good friend of my/mine.
Answers 1. hisone student 2. its, itused for baby and toy respectively 3. their,
themselvesbelonging to them; hehimself but they or passengersthemselves 4. there, there
used for
place 5. itsbelonging to it and not it is 6. its it is 7. Isubjective form for the doer of the
actionknocking 8. thereused for place 9. shebetter than she did is curtailed here 10. mine
my
friend but friend of mine.
Structure Rule
The Order of the Personal Pronoun
You first is a good manner in all cultures, and so it is in English.
Say you, he and I for the good things these three do; and say I, you and he for all the bad
things they do. Credit should be given to
others first and blame should be taken on oneself first. Therefore, the correct order of the
Personal Pronoun is :
For all good things :
You, he and I have achieved remarkable success.
You, he and I; You and I or He and I
For all bad things :
I, you and he are responsible for the failure of the project.
I, you and he; I and you or I and he
Emphatic and Reflexive Pronouns
I did this work myself. Who did? I myself. I myself did this work. In both case myself
emphasizes only I
and nobody else did it. Therefore, myself is emphatic pronoun.
Notice its position. An emphatic pronoun can either be used soon after the subject or at the end
of the
sentence.
I saw myself in the mirror. Myself answers I saw what or whom. Therefore, myself is used as
the object of
the verb saw. It comes soon after the verb. Here myself is reflexive pronoun. It reflects the
action on the doer on himself.
The forms of emphatic and reflexive pronouns are :
Imyself; weourselves; youyourself (singular)/yourselves (plural); sheherself; hehimself; it
itself;
theythemselves.
Target Exercise 16
Directions Choose the correct pronoun in the context.
1. Soliloquy is supposed to be in plays; one cannot to be talking to oneself/himself in real life.
2. The dog stretched himself/itself after a long days sleep.
3. The baby laughed on seeing herself/itself in the mirror.
4. The dictator himself declared/declared himself all powerful.
5. The aging woman herself was searching/was searching herself in the young daughter.
6. They themselves were responsible/were responsible themselves for their defeat.
7. The leader told the people, You yourself/yourselves have to build your nation; and no
neighbour or a
powerful county will come for your help.
8. God helps those who help himself/themselves.
9. You yourselves have to do/have to do yourselves this assignment, the teacher
remarked.
10. She walked in a very arrogant manner presumably to give herself/to herself give some
extra pride.
Answers 1. oneself 2. itself 3. itself 4. declared himself 5. was searching herself 6. themselves
were responsible 7. yourselves 8. themselves 9. yourselves have to do 10. to give herself.
The usage of this, these, that, those
Read the following sentences :
The son of my boss and the son of my neighbour go to the same school.
The job of my father and the job of my mother are not same.
The employees of this office are as hard working as that office.
The culture of India is similar to the culture of the south Asian countries.
The feature of the Chinese people is similar to the features of the Mongolians.
Dont you feel they sound awkward or improper? Whats wrong?
There is unnecessary and clumsy repetition of nouns. It should be avoided. The second time a
suitable
pronoun that matches with the noun should be used.
These sentences would be better said if we say them like these :
The son of my boss and that of my neighbour go to the same school.
The job of my father and that of my mother are not same.

The employees of this office are as hard working as those of that office.
The culture of India is similar to that of the south Asian countries.
The feature of the Chinese people is similar to those of the Mongolians.
Its NOT correct to say, One should do his or her duty but it should be, One should do ones
duty.
Divya and Devika went to market to buy her dress. To buy whos dressDivyas or Devikas? It
should be to
buy Divyas dress or Devikas dress or even their dress. The noun cannot be left
ambiguous in a sentence.
Target Exercise 17
Directions Check the use of this, that, these, those in the given sentences and correct them.
1. The culture of our country is richer than any other country in the world.
2. The animals in this sanctuary are better off than that sanctuary.
3. The instructions came that one should be punctual in submitting his/her work.
4. Ravi, Sanchit and Arif have gone to by his guitar.
5. He, you and I are to be blamed for all the mess in the last evenings programme.
Answers 1. richer than that of any other country 2. are better off than those in that sanctuary 3.
in
submitting ones 4. to buy their guitar or Ravis guitar or Sanchits or Arifsa pronoun should not
be left ambiguous about the person it mentions 5. I, you and he are to be blamed.
Structure Rule
One, Ones, Ones and Once
The various meanings of one :
A single, a particular but unspecified, with unknown persons nameone Ms Radhika, the same
one and the same, onlyone and only,
everyoneone and all, unknown somebody.
Ones as in those ones, these ones, the ones I am looking forplural of one.
Ones means of somebody.
Once as in give me a chance oncefor one time, as in once upon a timeat some time in the
past, all at oncesuddenly.
The usage of who, whom, whos, whose, that and which
l Note the difference in the following sentences :
(i) My friend who owes me money is not seen these days.
(ii) My friend whom I owe money is not seen these days.
l The big difference in the two sentences is that in the first, he has to give me money and in the
second I
have to give him money.
l In place of who owes we can say my friend owes or he owes. Who, my friend and he are all
subjective
forms.
l In place of whom I owe we can say I owe to my friend or I owe him. Whom, my friend and
him are all
objective forms here.
(iii) Do you know whose bicycle is this?
(iv) Tell me whos who in the new cabinet.
l Whose means of whom or belonging to whom. The sentence can be restated as Do you
know whom does
the bicycle belong to?
l Whos is the contracted form of who is. The sentence can be restated as Tell me who is who
in the new
cabinet.
(v) The book which you gave me has been lost.
(vi) You can read the books that are available in the library.
l Which you gave emphasizes a particular book.
l That are available talks generally about all the books.
(vii) Name the colour which you like the most.
(viii) VIBGYOR represents those seven colours which are in the sun.
(ix) These are the colours that are available now.
l The first two sentences talk about a particular colour or colours whereas the last one talks
about colours in
general without emphasizing.
l That and which are usually used for animals, things, ideas, babies etc. Exceptionally, that and
which can be
used for people sometimes.
l The people that dwelt this earth before us were wise enough to preserve the environment.
l Which of the people are you talking aboutthe ones who were before the modern age or the
ones a generation
before us?
The sixth crucial question that you are supposed to ask is
Are the forms of pronoun correct and do they agree with the related nouns and other
pronouns?
This is the rule no. SIX
Target Exercise 18
Directions Choose the correct form of the pronoun in the given sentences.
1. I met a man who/whom told me about my award.
2. I met a man who/whom I told about his award.
3. Whos/whose book is this?
4. This is not the doctor who/whom he referred to.
5. These are the holes in which/that those snakes live.
6. All which/that glitters is not gold.
7. All which/that know the truth dont always utter it.
8. There is hardly anyone who/that doesnt know about her.
9. Shakespeare was the most prolific writer which/that time has ever seen.
10. What is there in your hand which/that your have brought for me?
Answers. 1. who 2. whom 3. whose 4. whom 5. which 6. that 7. that 8. who 9. that 10. that
Type 10 : Error of Prepositions
Prepositions fix the position of a noun or verb in relation to another noun.
Place (point)
l to, at, fromto a point, at a point, from a point
eg,
(i) She went to the hotel.
(ii) I met her at the door.
(iii) She came from Canada.
The hotel, the door and Canada are used as a point of arrival, meeting and departure.
Place (line)
l on, off, across, over, alongon the line, off the line, across the line, over the line, along the
line
eg,
(i) It was a foul as the ball fell on the line.

(ii) The fielder fell off the line holding the ball and so it was a six.
(iii) The ball rolled across the line. It was four.
(iv) It was a clear six as the ball went over the line.
(v) The fielder ran along the line towards the ball to save it from crossing the line.
Place (surface)
l on, off, across, over, throughon the surface, off the surface, across the surface, over the
surface, through the
surface
eg,
(i) The passengers were waiting on the platform.
(ii) A crowd pushed and one of them fell off the platform on the track.
(iii) A vendor was prowling across the platform selling his newspaper.
(iv) A crow flew over the platform snatching a piece of bread from a child.
(v) Some trolleys were piercing their way through the platform.
Place (area)
l in, into, out of, throughwas in the playground, came into the playground, came out of the
playground, went
through the playground
eg,
(i) The first team was already in the playground.
(ii) After five minutes the second team came into the playground.
(iii) After ten minutes one of the players was sent out of the playground.
(iv) The game was stopped and the refry went through the playground to check what was
wrong.
Target Exercise 19
Directions Choose the correct preposition in the context.
1. During her visit to Mumbai, she stayed in/at her friends home.
2. A dog ran in/on the middle of the road.
3. We were walking on/along the road when we saw an accident.
4. A crowd poured in/into the compartments of the train.
5. All through his journey, he kept looking from/through the window.
6. The car was standing at/in the farmhouse.
7. She is at/in the post office at the moment.
8. When the accident took place, the train really came at/on the platform instead of coming
at/on the
platform.
9. This chapter is consisted of/off eight vital segments.
10. The boy fell of/off the bus as it started moving.
Answers 1. at 2. in 3. along 4. into 5. through 6. at 7. in 8. on, at 9. of 10. off
Position
l over, aboveA beautiful carpet was there all over the floor, a blue shining floor under the
carpet, a ball
thrown over the table, a shuttle shot over the net, a plane/helicopter hovering over the town,
the sun shined
vertically over/above head in mid summer, millions of poor have not roof over/above their
head, an exquisite
fan handing over/above the table, star shining like a diamond in the sky which is up above the
world so high,
above average marks/student, 40% people living above poverty line, the flooded river went
above the danger
mark
l under, belowa small child standing below the table, lived under/below the same roof, no
man
under/below the sky knows, ground hollow below the surface, below average, below the
danger mark,
below poverty line
l under, underneath, beneatha carpet underneath the table, a cat sitting under/beneath the
table,
underneath the carpet polished and shimmering tiles seen here and there
l in front of, behind, by, besideone chair in front of the table, another behind it, a small
stool in front of a
dressing table, wall behind the dressing table, the bed, the windows and doors hidden behind
the curtains,
two mongoose hiding behind the bushes, train came behind time means came late, before
time is early
l by, besidea side table by/beside the bed, sit beside me, a tower standing by the river,
passed by me
l round, arounda shop round the corner (nearby), a car moved around the
building/roundabout, turned
round and round, the earth moving round the sun, the periphery around the shrine
l in front of (just next in the row/line), opposite (facing), next (adjacent)sitting in front of
me, sitting
opposite facing each other, a building opposite the school across the road, a building next to it
or in front of
it, the girl next door
l between, amongstuffing between two slices of bread, no grudge between you and me,
between 6 P.M. and
9 P.M., a woman sitting between two men, river flows between its banks, an orange in the bowl
among manyapples, a man sitting among many women
Target Exercise 20
1. I was sitting behind him and he was in front of/opposite me.
2. Cross your finger; the good news is round/around the corner.
3. The number of people living under/below the poverty line has decreased in India.
4. Children under/below 18 years are not allowed in the movies having A-certificate.
5. Many personnel work under/below him.
6. The Commonwealth Games committee is unhappy as the preparations for the 2010 games
are in front
of/behind schedule.
7. He stood by/beside his friend in all his difficulties.
8. The house which was standing between/among the trees was well canopied from all sides.
9. The man was standing by/on the river and looking at/around the evening sky.
10. The area was evacuated as the level of water in the river went over/above the danger mark.
Answers 1. in front of 2. round 3. below 4. below 5. under 6. behind 7. by 8. among 9. by, at
10. above
Means and Instrument
l by, in, from, withby hand, by air, by writing, cooked from oil/butter, with knife/screwdriver/hammer
eg,
(i) The money was delivered by hand.
(ii) The handicraft shop sells things made by hand.
(iii) Travelling by air is faster than travelling by train or by car.
(iv) We informed them by writing a message.
(v) Food is cooked here from pure butter.
(vi) He drove a nail in the wall with a hammer.
Time
l at, on, inat 4 oclock, on Monday, in March
l for (summed up time), since (beginning time)for two hours, since morning
l before, afterwoke before the day break, slept after the night fall
l from-to, between-andfrom 6 p.m. to 9 p.m., between 6 p.m. and 9 p.m.
l during, within, tillduring the entire day, within three days, till the day after tomorrow, till
yesterday
eg,
(i) This happened at 5 in the morning on a Monday in January in 1992.
(ii) It has been raining since last week and it has already rained for seven days.
(iii) She worshipped before eating and she worshipped after eating.
(iv) The show runs from 6 p.m. to 9 p.m.
(v) You can see the doctor between 6 p.m. and 9 p.m.
(vi) We went to Nainital during the holidays.
(vii) You will have to complete the test within the time provided.
(viii) I was quite unaware of this fact till yesterday.
(ix) They will keep the decision on hold till next week.
Cause, Purpose
l of, from, fordied of cholera, suffering from fever, worked for social welfare
Rate
l at, byat the speed of 140 km/h, sugar sells by the kilogram, cloth by the metre and milk by
the litre
Target Exercise 21
1. The poacher killed the animal in one shot from/with his AK 47 gun.
2. Sugarcane should be better supplied on/by truck than by/through a train.
3. The news was first conveyed on/by a post card, them through/by a telegram.
4. The food cooked in/from ghee is preferred over the one cooked by/from oil.
5. Many people last year dies from/of swine flue.
6. The renowned agrarian leader stood before/for the cause of the farmers.
7. Apply in/within ten days or visit between Monday to/and Wednesday.
8. Sugar sells at/by Rs 40 a kilo these days.
9. In this strange part of the world they sell cloth at/by the kilogram.
10. The thief opened the lock by/with a hair-pin.
Answers 1. with 2. by, by 3. by, by 4. from, from 5. of 6. for 7. within, and 8. at 9. by 10. with
The usage of preposition with some words is fixed
Some of the most common ones are given below.
l Accustomed of = He was accustomed of working hard in his youth. (used to)
l Accused of = The man accused of stealing was sent to jail. (blamed of)
l Acquainted with = Please introduce him to me if you are acquainted with him. (know)
l Afraid of = Dont get afraid of that dog. It wont bite. (fear from)
l Agree to (idea) = The president agreed to the resolution and passed it. (accept)
l Agree with (person) = If you agree with me please support me. (have same opinion)
l According to = He was acquitted as he was innocent according to the jury. (in the opinion of)
l Adapted to = Man easily gets adapted to new environments. (change)
l Along with = The Prime Minister along with his retinue entered the hall. (together with)
l Associated with = He had long been associated with the organization before he retired.
(worked with)
l Averse to = Initially people are averse to accepting their weakness, but with the passage of
time they start
realizing and correcting themselves. (unwilling to)
l Believe in (faith) = I believe in God. (have faith in)
l Belong to = As this country belongs to us, we belong to this country. (have a right over)
l Clever at = She is clever at painting and playing music, but I am at music. (skilled at)
l Congratulate on = I congratulated her on her great success. (greeted)
l Cure for = As man conquers a disease and find a cure
for it, another pops up. (remedy for)
l Depend on = High rate of employment depends on growth of economy. (is related with)
l Derived from = Many English words are derived from Greek and Latin. (came/originate from)
l Details of = This new book contains details of her extensive journey. (description of)
l Different from = Village life is quite different from city life. (not same)
l Divide into = The property was divided into two parts and given to the two sons. (break into)
l Dream of = The henpeck husband could never dream of opposing his wife. (think of)
l Frightened of = Those frightened of obstacles never proceed ahead for success. (having fear
of)
l Famous for = The city of Benaras is famous for its teeming ghats. (known for)
l Good at = He is quite good at convincing people in his favour. (skilled at)
l Ignorant of = Being ignorant of the consequences, the naives easily fall into bad habits. (not
knowing)
l Increase in = There has been a tremendous increase in the multi-nationals in our country.
(rise in)
l Insist on = The shopkeeper could not deny when she insisted on paying later. (said forcefully)
l Interested in = Work hard if you are interested in your progress. (want to)
l Lack of = Lack of money brings poverty and lack of knowledge ignorance. (devoid of, not
having)
l Fond of = The mother was very fond of her youngest child. (loved/liked very much)
l Aim at = The shooter aimed at the target and shot accurately. (fix at the target)
l Laugh at = Dont laugh at those who are deprived of Gods blessings. (ridicule, make fun of)
l Listen to = Hello! Please listen to me. (lend your ear, heed, pay attention to)
l Look at = What are you looking at? (see)
l Look after = The nurse looked after the child better than the mother. (to take care of, to rear)
l Look for = Have you lost anything? What are you looking for under the table. (to search for)
l Look into = I have requested the police commissioner to look into the matter of increasing
crime in our
locality. (investigate, to probe, examine)
l Married to = Sita was married to Ram and Ram to Sita after a Swayambar.
l Operate on = The doctors operated on the patient and transplanted his heart. (to cut to cure)
l Pay for = We need to pay for everything that we take in our lifetime. (return in money or kind)
l Pleased with = He is looking too pleased with himself. (amused, happy with)
l Prevent from = The strict administration prevented the riot from taking place. (avoided,
stopped)
l Proof of = Many accused get punishment as they cannot produce proof of their innocence.
(evidence of)
l Reason for = There cannot be a good reason for lethargy. (cause, excuse)
l Respond to = People responded to the call of the president and contributed generously for
the cause of the
flood victims. (acted positively, acted in favour)
l Remind of = This alluring smell of the flowers remind me of my childhood days in a garden.
(reminiscent of,
bring to memory)
l Shout at = Scolding or shouting at children does not help their cause in anyway. (to be angry
loudly, scold loudly)
l Sorry for = Should we feel sorry at the end of the day for what did during the day? (regret, feel
remorse)
l Speak to/with = I wanted to speak to you, but you were not available.
l Unless the countries speak with one another they cannot resolve their disputes. (talk,
communicate)
l Suffer from = The businessman suffered from great losses and was soon declared bankrupt.
(incurred,
troubled by)
l Surprised at = The scientists were surprised at the remarkable discovery.
l Take part in = Taking part in extra-curricular activities is equally important as excelling in
academics. (to
participate, to be a part of)
l Thank for = Before leaving the participants thanked the organizers for giving them the
opportunity. (be
grateful for)
l Tolerant of = In a multi-lingual and multi-cultural country like India people need to be tolerant
of the
diversity and differences. (to be considerate, thoughtful of)
l Translate into = Volumes of works of Sanskrit have been translated into English and many
other European
languages. (change in language)
Target Exercise 22
1. Only till few years ago people could not dream about/of the facilities and comforts that they
enjoy now.
2. The girl was quite frightened from/of the ghost stories.
3. Which subject are good in/at?
4. He smiled in the way as if he was acquainted about/with me.
5. The minister now-a-days are quite averse to/from coming out of their comfort zone.
6. People clever in/at deceiving get away easy without being reprimanded.
7. The majority of Hindi words are derived of/from Sanskrit.
8. If a country progresses the masses should not remain deprived from/of the fruits.
9. The quick arrival of the fire-brigade prevented the fire for/from spreading further.
10. If one has a problem one should sit down and speak to/with the parties involved.
Answers 1. of 2. of 3. at 4. with 5. to 6. at 7. from 8. of 9. from 10. with
Structure Rule
The idiomatic nature of preposition
Convention rules the use of preposition. As we have seen above, there is some collocation
between some word and their fixed
preposition. At the same time, there phrasal verbs or prepositional verbs which mean different
from the words used in them. Therefore,
they are idiomatic by nature. See a few :

To look after = to take care of
To look for = to search
To look into = to enquire about
To take after = to resemble
To take to heart = to feel bad
We will discuss these in detail in the chapter Idioms and Phrases.
The seventh question that you have to ask is
Are the prepositions correctly used?
This is the rule no. SEVEN
Target Exercise 23
Directions One of the words is incorrectly spelt in each group. Encircle that word.
1. grammar summer summerise hammer
2. author interior governer organiser
3. theatre kilomitre kilolitre metre
4. important impotent ignorent obedient
5. licence lens sense influence
6. negligable valuable possible resistible
7. dangerous mystereous superstitious courteous
8. official presidential crucial substancial
9. expense expanse expansion expultion
10. anxious conscious consentious pretentious
Answers 1. summarise 2. governor 3. kilometre 4. ignorant 5. license 6. negligible
7. mysterious 8. substantial 9. expulsion 10. conscientious
Target Exercise 24
Directions One of the words is correctly spelt in each group. Encircle that word.
1. acommodate accomodate accommodate eccommodate
2. begger beggar beggery beggerly
3. cocoon cucoon cacoon cocun
4. quarrelling quarreling quarelling querrelling
5. residencial recidential reasidential residential
6. apology appology apolosy epology
7. sinsere sincere sinceer sincier
8. restorent restaurent restaurant resteurant
9. profession proffesion profetion profeson
10. posesson possession posession possesion
Answers 1. accommodate 2. beggar 3. cocoon 4. quarrelling 5. residential 6. apology
7. sincere 8. restaurant 9. profession 10. possession
Type 11 : Error of Punctuation
Apostrophe with Possessives Nouns
(i) A boys bag (ii) The boys school
(iii) My fathers house (iv) My parents place
(v) Mens saloon (vi) Womens parlour
(vii) Childrens park (viii) Socrates disciple
(ix) Dickens novels (x) Levis jeans
The nouns ending with s do not usually require another s after the apostrophe.
(i) Jack and Jills houseone house belonging to both
(ii) Sita and Rams journeysame journey covered together
But
(i) Jacks and Jills housestwo different possessions or ownerships
(ii) Sitas and Rams destinationstwo different destinations of the two
Structure Rule
Apostrophe is also used to make contracted forms :
It is = its There is = theres Here is = heres I will = Ill
I will not = I wont He has = hes He is = hes We have = weve
She had = shed She would = shed Do not = dont Cannot = cant and so on
Target Exercise 25
Directions Rewrite the sentences after applying proper punctuations marks.
1. Keats and Shelleys poems adore nature with deep sensuous passion.
2. You can get your car repaired at Salims and Karims garage which is only a furlong away.
3. R.K. Narayans, the famous Indian English authors, stories are known for deep insight into
their
characters.
4. The boys and the girls school were standing face to face flanking the road.
5. Childrens magazines are hardly to be seen anywhere these days.
Answers 1. Keatss and Shelleys poemstwo different poets poems 2. Salim and Karimsone
garage
owned by two 3. R.K. Narayan, the famous Indian English authors 4. the boys and girls school
5. childrens
Punctuation
Use of comma (,), semi-colon (;), colon (:) and quotation marks ()
Comma
l To mention a list of things : eg,
(i) You, he and I are friends.
(ii) She bought mango, apple, guava and orange.
(iii) Industrialization, urbanization and globalization are the process to bring about modernization
l To separate two clauses : eg,
(i) When I was there, I did not go out for a day.
(ii) If you work hard, you will succeed.
l Before and, or, but, if the clauses are long enough: eg,
(i) I offer her tea but she declined.
(ii) Some of the boys joined the course, but the girls were not interested.
l After connective like however, therefore, on the other hand, similarly: eg,
(i) He is sincere. However, he is not successful.
(ii) They criticized the man. On the other hand, they honoured him.
l When some words intrude the sentence especially between the subject and its verb: eg,
(i) We were, believe it or not, on the cloud nine last night.
(ii) He, however, did not do as he had promised.
(iii) Mr. Victor, the principal of the college, did not agree to our proposal.
(iv) People, who follow nature, get blessed.
Semi-colon
l To show closeness of two independent sentences where otherwise full stop can be used: eg,
(i) Idea disseminated; and this is how civilization grew.
(ii) She invited me; but I was not interest.
(iii) Some people like summers; others like winter.
Colon
l For writing dialogues: eg,
A: Whats that? B: Guess.
l For presenting explanations, lists etc: eg,

(i) Answer the following questions:
1. Whats true? 2. Whats not true?
(ii) Her explanation was like this:
l In headings and titles: eg,
(i) Video wills acceptable: Supreme Court (ii) Punctuation: Apostrophe
(iii) Chapter One: Sentence Correction
Quotation marks
l Direct speech eg,
(i) She said, Ill come tomorrow.
l Quotations
(i) The famous proverb goes, Dont count your chickens before they hatch.
l To make the word stand out: eg,
(i) He was the wisest fool of all times. (ii) I like Alice in the Wonderland.
Target Exercise 26
Directions Rewrite the sentences after applying proper punctuations marks.
1. An angry humiliated and wounded A.Q. Khan has finallymadethe secret of nuclear
proliferation public.
2. Narayanan reinforced the official position saying We have thermonuclear capabilities.
3. What about the drunk customers nuisance.
4. Shakuntala Devi the famous numerologists latest book has hit the book-stalls.
5. Im going to barge in for the evening worship she insisted.
The eighth important question to be asked is
Are the spelling and punctuation in place?
This is the rule no. EIGHT
Answers 1. an angry, humiliated and wounded 2. saying, We have 3. customers
4. numerologists 5. Im Worship, she insisted.

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There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.

Mr. Rajesh is the teacher.

An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.

She sleeps on the sofa.

A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.

She sleeps every afternoon.

A time expression (an adverb phrase) is added to tell when

She is sleeping right now.

The dogs are sleeping in the

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.

The friendly people like rice.

Subject modified with an adjective

The people in the restaurant like

Subject modified with an adjective phrase.

The people like hot, white rice.

Object modified with more than one adjective

Object modified with an adjective

Basic sentence with another linking verb

Jordan is tall, dark and handsome.

He appears very comfortable.

Adverb or intensifier added

George became sick last night.

Different tense and linking verb

Using an adverb phrase

Teachers are everywhere.

Plural noun and verb used, adverb.

The teachers are in the lobby.

Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb

Using plural noun and verb

My father is a nice guy.

Modified subject and complement

My grandparents are senior

Some (count) are here. Some (non-count) is not.

None of those people are nice.

The woman who lives here is my aunt.

Mrs. Jenner softly sang a lullaby.

She went there.

I ate at that restaurant last week.

She went to the store.

I ate in the cafeteria.

I was busy at last night.

I was busy last night.

John works in downtown.

John works downtown.

She came to home on yesterday.

She came home yesterday

The Prepositional Phrase

Along the busy, six-lane highway

Prepositional Phrases - Answers

The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death.

Practice in Identifying Adjective Clauses.

Identifying adverb clauses.

10. Everything is funny, as long as it's happening to somebody else.

Exercise for Practice.

9. I fear that all................ (fail) in the examination.

1.was 2.might 3.make 4.is 5.should

suffer 6.rains 7.do

did) 8.is,ends 9.will

Exercise for Practice.