Egyptian Funereal Archaeology

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THE MUMMY
SonDon
C.
J.
CLAY
and SONS,
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,

AVE MARIA LANE.
ffilagsofa:
CatnbrttiBe
263,
ARGYLE STREET.
DEIGHTON, BELL AND

F. A. BROCKHAUS.
CO.
ILEipjig:
iftttoSork:
MACMILLAN AND
CO.
THE MUMMY
CHAPTERS ON EGYPTIAN FUNEREAL
ARCHAEOLOGY
BY
E. A.
WALLIS BUDGE,
Litt. D., F.S.A.,
KEEPER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN AND

ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES, BRITISH MUSEUM
WITH EIGHTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS
SECOND EDITION
CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1894
[/f//
Rights
reserz'ed'l
Cambridge
PRINTED EY
C. J.
CLAY, M.A.
AND SONS
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

p'oni plates prepared by
Messrs Harrison & Sons, London.
XI, "2. c^r.
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X.
DEDICATED TO
JOHN
PEILE,
LiTT.D.,
MASTER OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
A MARK OF GRATITUDE AND REGARD
PREFACE.
The
contained in this book were originallyform the Introduction to the Catalogue of the
Egyptian Collection in the Fitzzvilliani Mnsenin, Cambridge,
written
which
chapters
to
wrote
for the
Syndics of that institution
intended to supply the information

standing the object and
therein.
use
of the
antiquities
In the hope, however, that they
may
in a
described
be of service
to all such as are interested in the antiquities of
been decided to publish them
they are
necessary for under-
Egypt,
it
has
separate form.
The monuments and remains of ancient Egypt preserved

in the great museums of Europe and Egypt are chiefly of a
sepulchral character, and we owe them entirely to the belief
of the Egyptians that the soul would at
some period
revivify
body, and to the care, consequent on this belief, with

which they embalmed the bodies of their dead, so that they
the
might
resist the action
of the soul.
mummy, was
The
of decay, and be ready for the return
preservation of the
embalmed body, or
who
the chief end and aim of every Egyptian
for everlasting life.

For the sake of the mummy's
tombs were hewn, papyri were inscribed with compositions, the knowledge of which would enable him to
repel the attacks of demons, ceremonies were performed and
services were recited
for the sake of the comfort of the
mummy and his ka^ or genius, the tombs were decorated with
scenes which would remind him of those with which he was
familiar when upon earth, and they were also provided with
many objects used by him in daily life, so that his tomb
wished
safety
PREFACE.
VI
might resemble as much as possible his old home. Following

up the idea that the mummy is the most important of all
objects, I have given an account of the various methods of
embalming of the amulets and other objects which formed
the mummy's dress
of the various kinds of coffins and
sarcophagi in which he was laid
of the iishabtiii and other
figures, stelae, vases, etc., which formed the furniture of a well
appointed tomb
and also of the most important classes of
tombs hewn or built in different dynasties. In the series of
articles which form this account I have given the information
which the experience gained from the service of some years
in the British Museum has shown me to be the most needed
both by those who, though possessing no special knowledge
of Egyptian antiquities, are yet greatly interested in them, and
by those who have formed, or who are about to form, Egyptian
;
Frequent reference has been made to the great

Museum because the anWith a view of applying
there are accessible to all.
collections.
national collection in the British

tiquities
the facts
stated
in
these articles
to a particular case, an
account of an Egyptian funeral beginning with the process
mummifying the body and ending with

tomb has been added.
of
its
deposit in the
In the somewhat lengthy chapter on the Rosetta Stone,

the evidence of the
hieroglyphics
facts
is
principal
Greek writers on Egyptian
brought together.
The statement
of the
connected with the history of Egyptian decipherment,
as well as the extracts from the papers on this subject col-
by Leitch in his edition of the Miscellaneous Works by

Thomas Young, London, 1855, and by Dean Peacock
in his Life of Thomas Young, London, 1855, seems to show
that the labours of Akerblad and Young were of more
the views of
importance than is usually attributed to them
lected
the late
Egyptologists quoted at the end of that chapter will indicate

the prevailing opinion of experts on this matter.
E. A.
WALLIS BUDGE.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
The Pyramid
of
Medum
....
....
Statue of Chephren
The Shekh el-Beled

The entrance to the tombs
The Colossi at Thebes
Seti
I.
when
II.
35
39
41
........
Epiphanes
inscribed
in
Egyptian Funeral Procession.
I.
Egyptian Funeral Procession.
II.
Mummy
20
a child
The Rosetta Stone
View of
16
Beni-hasan
at
.....
in battle
Rameses
12
13
the Coffin
honour of Ptolemy
V.
From the Papyrus of Ani

From the Papyuis of Ani
Chamber.
170
172
.....
.....
of Artemidorus
" Canopic " Jar
108
168
186
196
Ushahti figure of the Scribe Pa-mer-ahu
Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure with stand for holding a portion of a
mummied body
or papyrus
....
215
Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure which held the papyrus of Anhai,
Amen, about
priestess of
B.C.
Stele of Antef, son of Amen-set
Egyptian gods
900
.
216
218
....
Amen-Ra
269
Amsu
Ra
269
270
Heru (Horus)
270
Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates)
271
Chensu
Chensu Nefer-hetep
271
Atmu
272
,
272

Vlll
Egyptian gods {continued)
Nefer-Atmu
Ptah
Ptah-Tatenen
I-em-hetep (Imouthis)
Chnemu (Chnoumis)
Chepera.
Tehuti (Thoth)
Set
Ausar
(Osiris)
Auset
(Isis)
Nebt-het (Nephthys)
Anpu
(Anubis)
Shu
Hapi (Nile)
Hapi (Apis)
Ur-mer (Mnevis
Mestha
Hapi
Tuamautef
Qebhsennuf
.
Bull)
Sati
Anqet
Sebek
An-heru
Bes
Bast
Net(Neith)
Mut
Maat
Het-Heru (Hathor)
Shu lifting Nut from Seb
Nut
.
Seb
Serq (Selk)
Maahes
Seker
Ta-urt (Thouerisj
Sefech-Aabu
Sphinx
IX
PAGE
The
lady Nai
Woman
The
302
kneading bread
Scribe Kha-f-Ra
Limestone statue
304
304
Statue of Ti
305
Statue of Ra-nefer
305
Tomb of Rameses IL
Tomb of Rameses II.
Section of the
Plan of the
Three Mastabas
at
316
316
Gizeh
Entrance to a Mastaba
at
317
Sakkarah
317
Plan of a Mastaba with four serdabs

Longitudinal section of a Mastaba
317
318
Transverse section of a Mastaba
318
Transverse section at the bottom of a serdab
Upper chamber,
Mastaba
at
pit
and sarcophagus chamber of
Gizeh with double
Netting wild fowl
Bakers making bread
.....
.....
.....
in the
319
320
322
tomb of Ptah-hetep
on the march
The Great Pyramid and the three small Pyramids
Section of the Pyramid of Cheops at Gizeh
Cattle
Mastaba
321
pit
Figures in relief in a Mastaba at Gizeh
West wall of a chamber

Winnowing wheat
326
326
327
327
329
CONTENTS.
^:^PAGE.
The Egyptian Race and Language

...
...
The Land of Egypt
Egyptian Chronology
The
...
...
History of Egypt, Dynasties
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
10
...
...11-64
L-XXX.
...
Persian Rulers of Egypt
...
...
65
,,
Macedonian Rulers of Egypt
...
...
65
...
...
...
66
...
...
...
67
...
...
...
68
,,
.,
...
...
...
68
The Ptolemies ...

The Romans
...
The Byzantines ...
The Muhammadans
List of Egyptian Dynasties
Egyptologists
List of
Nomes
of
and the dates assigned
...
...
...
Upper and Lower Egypt
to
them by
...
...
...
...
List of the Cartouches of the Principal Egyptian Kings
The
i-6
...
Rosetta Stone
Greek
writers
...
69
70-75
76-107
on hieroglyphics.
Democritus, Herodotus
Hecataeus,
...
...
Hellanicu.s,
...
...
112
Diodorus, Strabo, Chaeremon, John Tzetzes, Hermapion,
Clement of Alexandria, Porphyry, HorapoUo...

...
Labours of Kircher and Jablonski...
Young and Champollion and their successors
Young's hieroglyphic alphabet

Champollion's
method
of
...
...
alphabet...
...
...
obtaining
a
...
...
...
113
...
...
125
...
...
127
...
...
141
hieroglyphic
...
...
145
Opinions of Egyptologists on the labours of Young and
Champollion
Modern
...
...
hieroglyphical literature
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...
An Egyptian Funeral ...
...
Mummy, Methods of Mummifying
Mummy Cloth and Akhmim Embroideries
Canopic Jars and the inscriptions upon them

...
Chests for Canopic Jars
The Book
of the
Dead
148-152
...
153
...
...
153-173
173-189
...
...
...
...
...
...
194
...
201
189
202

CONTENTS.
Xll
PAGE.
2IO
Pillows
Ushabtiu figures
...
Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures ...

Sepulchral Boxes
Funereal Cones or models of Loaves of Bread

Stelae
Vases
Objects for the Toilet,
JNIirrors,
Tweezers, Hair-pins, Combs,
Fans, AV^/-pots, Oils
Necklaces, Rings, Bracelets, etc
Their
Scarabs.
Amenophis
lalysos,
Funereal, ornamental and his-
signification.
Texts engraved on scarabs.
torical scarabs.
III.
Phcenician Scarabs.
Kamiros, Tharros, Arban, Babylon,
used by Gnostics
Amulets
The Buckle
TheTetS
or Tie
-Hieroglyphic texts
...
The Vulture
The
^^
Collar
The Papyrus
The
The
Sceptre
Pillow
The Heart
tQ>
Anc/i -
The UU/iaf
The
JVe/er T
The Sam
The Horizon
The
S/ieu
cQ]
The Crown
of the North
The Mend^
South
^
Q
Scarabs of
Scarabs found at
etc.
Scarabs

CONTENTS.
Xlll
PAGE.
The Cartouche
>
265
TheNe/ia [p
The
Serpent's
265
Head
265
The Disk and Plumes
265
The Frog Xt)
265
The
Staircase ^/_\
The
Fingers
266
Figures of the Gods
Amen-Ea
Amsu
266
...
A f^^^
-^^^
268
""="
270
r>0
Ra
270
Heru (Horus)
271
"v
Menthu-Ra ^^^^
YJ
271
Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates)
271
Chensu (Chonsu
272
Atmu
272
Ptah
273
1-k^
n
Ptah Seker-Ausar
i-em-hetep (Imouthis)
Chnemu (Chnoumis)
Tehuti (Thoth)
11
274
274
n ^
^%
276
277
Ausar
(Osiris)
Auset(Isis)
^.
279
jg^
Nebt-het (Nephthys) T]
279
CONTENTS.
XIV
PAGE.
Anpu
(Anubis)
V ^^
Apuat
v\ ^
(I
shup^l
Hapi
279
280
...
(the Nile)
280
AAAAAA
Hapi(Apis)|A^
Ausar-Hapi (Serapis) rjj)
282
m ^^
Mnevis
^^^
Mestha
^^^ ll
^
(1
;^
The
Tuamautef
Qebbsennuf
four children of
Horus
>i<
283
IJII^^
283
Sebek P
Aiiher
J ^3;
A ^
284
285
.^
285
Sechet
4 ^ J)
Bast
Menhit
^^
Mut
289
289
Nit(Neith)^^^ J.
289
Maat
290
Het-heru (Hathor)
Nu
000
^1
and Nut
290
c.
293

CONTENTS.
XV
PAGE.
'^'^^M
Serq(Sclk)
Madhes
294
p^:^^
294
1 IM.
294
^^
Neheb-ka^yUimt^
295
Seker^cz^^
295
^^
Ta-iirt (Thoueris)
Figures of Animals,
tk
c^
etc.,
^^
<>
297
UHt
sacred to the gods
Ape
Hipiôpotamus
297
298
Cow
298
Lion
298
Sphinx
298
Bull
299
Ram
Cat
Jackal
...
Hare
Hippopotamus
Hedgehog ...
Shrew-mouse
...
299
299
...
299
...
299
290
...
299
300
...
300
...
Stag
Ichneumon
...
...
300
Crocodile
...
...
300
Vulture
...
300
Hawk
...
300
Ibis
Oxyrhynchus
Phagrus
...
300
...
300
...
300
...
300
...
300
...
300
Frog
...
300
Toad
...
300
Fishes
Latus
Silurus
....
...
^ Lepidotus
Scorpion
...
Uraeus
Beetle
...
...
301
301
301
...
CONTENTS.
XVI
PAGB
Figures of Kings and Private Persons
...
...
...
...
301
Coffins
...
...
...
...
306
...
...
...
310
...
...
Sarcophagi
...
Tombs
Egyptian
...
...
...
...
...
Mastabas
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
318
Pyramids
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
328
...
...
...
...
...
343
Theban Tombs
...
Egyptian Writing Materials
The Papyrus
...
...
...
...
...
...
Palette
...
...
...
...
...
...
349
350
...
...
...
...
...
...
352
...
...
...
353
...
...
...
Reeds and Ink

Egyptian Writing
"^
Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic s
Coptic Writing and Language
Mummies
...
of Animals, Reptiles, Birds, and Fishes
Apis Bull
Antelope
356
...
...
...
...
...
Cat
Crocodile
356
...
...
..
...
..
...
Shrew-mouse
...
...
...
...
...
...
356
Ichneumon...
..
...
...
...
...
...
356
...
Ibis
357
Hawk
357
Frog
357
Toad
Scorpion
357
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
357
Beetle
357
Snake
357
Fish
357
Cippi of Horus
...
and Arabic
...
..
The Egyptian Months, and
their
...
Egyptian and Coptic Numbers
A
A
356
356
List of
List of
Common
Common
...
names,
...
in
...
Coptic,
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
Hieroglyphic Characters
..
...
...
Determinatives
...
...
...
...
358
Greek,
363
364
366
375
THE HISTORY OF EGYPT.'
The
when the land of Egypt was taken

by the race of people which we are accustomed
None of the researches which
to call Egyptian is unknown.
have been carried on by historians, philologists, anthropologists and archaeologists has, up to the present, given us any
information from which we may reasonably hope to arrive at
And
a decision as to the time when this event took place.
date of the period
possession of
we know nothing of the period of the advent of the

we know nothing of the aboriginal people
whom we may assume they found living there when they
arrived.
The Egyptian aborigines are thought by some to
just as
invaders, so also
race, and to have belonged to the

Whatever may be the truth on these points, it
is pretty clear that no traces of their works or buildings have
come down to us, and as skulls belonging to their time have
not been found, any statement as to their race characteristics
must be based on pure assumption.
About the race to which the Egyptian known to us from
mummies and statues belongs and his characteristics, there is
have been a dark-skinned

negro family.
*
Among the books which derive their information about the history of Egj'pt
from native sources, and are all important for the study of Ei^yptian History,
must be mentioned: Champollion-Figeac, Eg^'pte Ancienne, Paris, 1839;
Rosellini, Monnmmti Storici, Pisa, 1832-1844; Bunsen, Aegyptcns Sielle in der
IVeltgcschichte, Gotha, 1844-1857 (English translation with supplementary addi-
by the late Dr. Birch, Vols. 1-5, London, 1857) Lepsius, Chronologic der
Aegypter, Berlin, 1849 ; Lepsius, Koiiigsbuch, Berlin, 1858 ; Brugsch, Geschichte
Aegyptens, Leipzig, 1859 (English translation by Danby Seymour and Philip
tions
V>\xc\\, Egypt from t/te earliest

;
London, 1880; Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte, Gotha,
Smith, B.A., 2 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1881)
TinUs
to B.C.
300,
1884 ; Meyer, Geschichte des alten Aegyptens, Berlin, 1887, with Einleitting,
Geographic des alten Aegyptens, Schrift nnd Sprache seiner Bewohuer, by
Diimichen; and Mariette, Aperpi de PHistoire Ancienne d" Egypte, Paris, 1867.
Interesting and popular works on this subject are contained in Maspero, Histoire
Ancienne
des Petiples de
r Orient,
ist ed., 1875,
and Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne
de rOrient, Paris, 1882.
B-
M.
Antiquity
Epvptians
FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Asia the
original
home
of
the
Egyptians.
He was a Caucasian, and it would seem

Egypt from an original home in Asia. He
no doubt whatever.
that he
came
to
wandered, or was driven, forth from there, and travelling in a

south-westerly or westerly direction, after a
arrived at a place to the north of the
Red
number of years
Sea, probably the
Of the time
Isthmus of Suez, the "bridge of nations."
in
making
his
way
from
immigrant
occupied by the
Asia to
Egypt nothing can be said it is quite certain, however, that
when he arrived he brought a high civilization with him.
Following the statement of Diodorus Siculus,^ it was the fashion
.some years ago to state in books of history that the ancient
Egyptian was a negro, and some distinguished historians still
make the statement that " the fundamental character of the
Egyptian in respect of physical type, language, and tone of
thought, is Nigritic." ^
That neither the Egyptian nor his
civilization is of Nigritic origin is proved by the inscriptions
and by the evidence of an ever-increasing number of statues of
kings, and of high officials in their service, who lived during the
earliest times of the rule of the invaders over Egypt.
Prof.
" Taking the
Owen's opinion on this subject is as follows
sum of the correspondence notable in collections of skulls
from Egyptian graveyards as a probable indication of the
;
Evidence
of skulls
and antiquities.
hypothetical primitive race originating the civilized conditions

of cranial departure from the skull-character of such race,
was certainly not of the Australioid
is more
But such
suggestive characters maybe due to intercourse or 'admixture' at periods later than [the] XHIth dynasty; they are
that race
type,
suggestive of a northern Nubian or Berber basis.
not present, or in a
much
less degree, in the skulls, features,
and physiognomies of individuals of from the Hlrd to the
XHth
in
dynasties."^
mummies and
If the
pure ancient Egyptian, as found
represented in paintings upon the tombs, be
compared with the negro, we
shall find that they are abso-
lutely unlike in every particular.
but the Egyptian

'
Bk.
iii.
3. I. (ed.
is
orthognathous
Didot,
The negro
;
the
bony
is
prognathous,
structure of the
p. 128).
G. Rawlinson, Andent Egypt, 1887, p. 24.

* Journal
of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Vol. IV. p. 239.
*
"
EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE.
negro
is
heavier and stronger than that of the Egyptian
the
and woolly, while that of the

The Egyptian was usually of
slender build, with broad shoulders, sinewy arms and legs,
and long hands and feet. His head was small, with large
eyes, full cheeks, broad mouth, lips inclined to be full, and
square chin. The nose was short and not aquiline. It will
be observed, too, that if we add that the Egyptian was dark
complexioned, the above particulars will agree very well with
their general description by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxii, i6,
23) " Homines autem Aegyptii plerique subfusculi sunt et
magis quam maesti oris, gracilenti et aridi, ad
atrati
" When an Egyptian
singulos motus excandescentes
had an aquiline nose, it indicated that he had Semitic blood
the aquiline nose was hardly ever met with in
in his veins
Upper Egypt." But it is quite as impossible to show that the
Egyptian was a Semite, as some have attempted to do, as
that he was a negro.
The language of the Egyptian as known to us by the
inscriptions which he left behind him belongs wholly neither
to the Indo-European nor to the Semitic family of languages,
The only known language which it resembles is Coptic, and
negro
of the
hair
Egyptian
is
crisp
smooth and
is
Features
Erryn^tian.
fine.
this
is
now
pretty well understood to be a dialect of the
language of the hieroglyphics. Benfey^ endeavoured to show

that the Egyptian had sprung from a Semitic stock, and
De Rougd,* Ebers and Brugsch have followed in his steps,
'
See also Herodotus,
ii.
104.
have reproduced passages from my Prefatory Remarks

on the unrolling the Mummy of Bak-ran, privately printed, London, 1890. See
Ebers, Aegypten und die BUcher Moses, i. p. 46 ff. and Wiedemann, Aegyptische
2
Here and elsewhere
Geschichte, p. 25.
^
The whole
of the facts which favour the theory that the Egyptian
to the Semitic languages are collected in his
is
allied
work Ueber das Verhdltniss der
Aegyptischen Sprache ziim Semitischen Sprachstatiuiie, Leipzig, 1844.

*
Memoire sur finscriplion du tombeau dAhmis,
presque toujours un
p.
"
195.
et
curieux a ete mis en evidence, i savoir, que la grammaire

de la langue antique se rapproche bien plus decidement des caracteres propres
fait
aux idiomes semitiques.

*
Worterbuch,
I.
Vorrede,
ss.
9-12.
" Es
steht
mir namlich
fest,
altagyptische Sprache, d. h. die alteste Gestaltung derselben, im
dass die
Semitischen
wurzelt und dass wir von hieraus alle jene Erscheinungen zu erklaren haben, welche
sonst ohne jede Ausflosung dastehen wiirden."
B 2
Opinions
on^the"^*^^
affinity of

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.
Barthelemy, de Guignes, Giorgi, de Rossi and
Kopp
pro-
claimed unhesitatingly the identity of Coptic with Hebrew/

but Quatremere in his Recherdies critiques et historiques sur la
langue
et la litte'ratiire
de VEgypte,
p. i6,
declared that Coptic
was without affinity with any other language, and that it was
a mother tongue. Dr. Lepsius tried to show by the names of
the numerals and alphabets that the Indo-European, Semitic
and Coptic families of languages were originally identical,^
and Schwartze ^ asserted that Coptic was analogous to the
Semitic languages in its grammar, and to the Indo-European
languages by its roots but that it was more akin to the
Semitic languages in its simple character and lack of logical
Bunsen and Paul de Lagarde thought that the
structure.
Egyptian language represented a pre-historic layer of Semitism, and tried to show that the forms and the roots of the
ancient Egyptian could be explained neither by Aryan nor
Semitic singly, but by both of these families together, and
that they formed in some way the transition from one to the
other.*
Stern in his Koptische Grammatik, p. 4, says
" Es besteht eine alte Verwandtschaft zwischen der aegyptischen, welche dem hamitischen Stamme angehort, und den
semitischen Sprachen, wie sich unverkennbar noch in der
pronominalbildung und in manchen gemeinsamen Wurzeln
zeigt
doch scheint sich das aegyptische von den asiatischen
Schwestern friih getrennt zu haben und seinen eigenen Weg
Die allgemeine Stammverwandtschaft
gegangen zu sein
der beiden Sprachen ist durch weitgehende Lautverschiebungen und Veranderungen verdeckt" Prof W. Wright thought
that " we have not a few structural affinities, which may
;
sufficient to justify those linguists
perhaps be thought
hold that Egyptian
is
who
a relic of the earliest age of Semitism,
or of Semitic speech as
it
was before
it
passed into the
we may be said to know it historically."

Granimar of the Semitic Languages, p. 34.)
peculiar form in which
(CoDiparative
*
Renan, Histoire Ghierale des Latigues Semitiques,
Ueber den Ursprutig
Germattischeii,
'
Das
Renan,
alte
p. 80.
und die Verwandtschaft der Zahlworter

Semitischen und Koplischen Sprcuhe, Berlin, 1S36.
Aegypten, pp. 976, 1033.
op. cit., p. 82.
in der Indo-
EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE.
Quite recently Dr.
Erman
has discussed' the question of
the affinity of the language of the hieroglyphics with the
Semitic dialects, and he is of opinion that a relationship

undoubtedly exists. To support this view he prints a list
of Egyptian words with what he and I believe to be their
Semitic equivalents, and he thinks that the number of such
words might be considerably increased if we were able to
recover the radicals which are hidden in their hieroglyphic
forms.
His arguments are carefully thought out and his
facts ably put together, and he has made an important contribution towards the settlement of a difficult subject.
On the other hand Renan, Max Miiller, and others,

do not admit the connexion between Egyptian and the
Semitic languages in any way whatever. Renan does not
seek to deny that the proposed relationships between Coptic
and Semitic dictionaries have something seductive about
them, but he cannot admit that they form any scientific
proof he considers them to be accidents rather than organic
^
analogies, as shown by the following list
;
Egyptian.
Sing.
I.
Hebrew.
Coptic.
anuk
\\
^.ttOK
AA/\A/V\
2.
m.
entuk
<2
nn^^
T -
thou flOOK
for
nn^N
T
OS
A/V\A/NA
2. f.
3.
m.
3.
f.
ci
anta
enhit
thou ftoo
<2
entuf
he
nOOC|
(3
entus
she
ItOOC
^P:^
Z.D.M.G., Band XLVI.
See however Wright [Comparative Graniviar,
for
'nj^
^1
pp. 93-129.
p.
33),
"An
examination of
the Coptic alone readily suggests several considerations in support of this view
\i.e.,
that Egyptian
For example, there
is
is
descended from the same stock as the Semitic languages].

the marvellous similarity, almost amounting to identity, of
the personal pronouns, both separate and suffixed
class of
words which languages
of radically different families are not apt to borrow from one another
"
anti

Egyptian.
Hebrew.
Coptic,
AAAA/SA
Plur.
^'^^^
I.
we
enen
niTO^, ^3
ÎtOIt
rtOUOXen
vwwv entuten you

III
I
Ju\
^'
itOOJonr
they
^/
Dnt>^ for Dn^b^

::-
The identity of the pronouns, and especially the manner

which they are treated in the two groups of languages, he
considers a remarkable fact, and goes on to say that this
identity is observed even in the details which seem the most
in
secondary.
Several apparent irregularities of the Semitic
pronoun, as for example, the changing of the

affix,
Ts into '^ in the
even find in the theory of the Coptic pronoun a
The
factory explanation.
pointed out by Lepsius are
Egyptian.
Coptic.
two
CIt^.T
six
COO'V
sexef,
seven
cy^LCyq
Xemennu,
eight
cyJULHIt
sen.
III
satis-
number
not less striking, for example
analogies of the nouns of
suu or
sas,
(masc.)
0^30
ttJtt?
III
o e
The conjugation
Egyptian
and
Coptic.
the
two languages
itself is
;
not without
"Ha
some analogies
in
is formed by the agglupronoun at the beginning of the verbal root,

and the other tenses are formed by means of a composition
like those which the Aramean languages make use of.
Having admitted these facts, Renan goes on to say that the
problem whether these resemblances are merely such things
as are to be found in all languages, or analogies which spring
from a common origin is, to say the truth, almost unsolvable.
We must then make for the language and civilization of
Egypt a family by itself, which may be called Haniitic}
imperfect of the Semitic languages,
Eg^'ptian
il^TDtp
the present tense in Coptic, like the
tination of the
and
iTltt?
Renan,
op. cit., pp. 84, 85, 89.
THE LAND OF
?:GYPT.
According to Prof. Max IMiiller and others, "the Egyptian Max MUland the Semitic languages belong to quite different stages '^'^^^'^*ôf language, the former to what Prof. Max Miiller calls
the second or Terminational, the latter to the third or
In the Terminational stage, two or more
Inflexional stage.
roots may coalesce to form a word, the one retaining its
radical independence, the other sinking down to a mere
The languages belonging to this stage have
termination.
generally been called agglutinative.
Now the Egyptian
language has indeed reached this stage as regards the pronominal and one or two other suffixes. But in all other
respects it most nearly resembles the languages of the first or
Radical stage, in which there is no formal distinction between
theory has been put forth by Dr.
a root and a word." ^
Strassmaier that a relationship exists between the Accadiaii Ei^yptian,
and Egyptian languages, and he printed a small list of ^^^^^^'
Eg}-ptian, Coptic and Accadian words which he thought to Accadian.
If Egypt and Mesopotamia were conquered by
be identical.
branches of the same Accadian-speaking race this is only
what might be expected. See his paper, Akkadisch tind
Aegyptisch, in the Albuui^ presented to M. Leemans.
The land
of
Egypt was commonly called by
o Kaint,
,.
.
if
.,
its
.
inhabitants Country
.,
because of the dark colour of the
Egypt.
..
soil,
and
the colour of the ground for a few miles on each side of
the Nile be
compared with the Arabian and Libyan desert
the appropriateness of the

evident.
Kam
name
Another old name of Egypt
of the inundation," ====.
two other names
for the
M1
'
country are
having reference to Egypt as an
'
Renouf, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 5S-6l.
or
is
"^
jj
f)
Kamt
6^
'*
'
^^^^
at
once
1^ ^
'
@ Beqet, apparently
land,
and
question of Fronotninal
forms
olive-bearing
The
is
Ta-merd, "the land
Egyptian has been discussed by this writer in the Proceedings of the Society of
Biblical Archaolo^y, March, i888, pp. 247-264, and in this paper he states that
pronouns like anuk, entuk, entuf etc. are formed of a series of demonstrative
elements; anuk = a + nu+k, entuk = en + tu + k, entuf = en + tuf.
in
2 Etudes Archdologiques,
Linguistiques
Leemans, Leide, 1885, pp. 105-107.
et
Historiqties,
dediees ^
Dr.
of

Upper Egypt was commonly
Ta-res or ^^f
-=+-fl
Ta-qenid, " the land of the South,"
Lower Egypt
Ta-meh, "the land
Upper and Lower Egypt were represented
of
and
North."
the
in the inscriptions
*,n^M,33,^4;.
by the following
Native
called 5î=f X.
names of
The Hebrews
Egypt.
Egypt
called
and Babylonians Musur ;
"
Mizraim," and the Assyrians

given this latter
it is
name
in the
cuneiform despatches of Tushratta, King of Mitani, about
Upper Egypt extended from Aswan (Syene) to

Memphis, and Lower Egypt, beginning at Memphis, included
the Delta and sea-coast.
From the earliest times Egypt appears to have been
B.C. 1550.
divided into a series of districts which the Egyptians called
Nomes
of
liesp
had
its
and the Greeks
Nomes.
ôfxol, or
Egypt.
own
The
capital city
and temple
for worship, its
sacred animals and trees, and
nome were most
limits of each
amount
of cultivated land, the
own
its
Each nome
own
feasts, its
protecting deity.
carefully marked,
amount of land
agricultural purposes after a high Nile,
and the
available for
and the canals with
Each nome with its

independent administration, formed, practically, a small but
complete state.
their various branches,
The number
varies
Diodorus,
were
of the
who
all
known.^
nomes according
says
(i.
to classical authors
54) that the
the time of Sesostris, gives thirty-six, Pliny
number usually given in Egyptian

two in Upper Egypt, and twenty
lists is
in
nome
^
dates from
forty-five.
forty-two
Lower Egypt.
The
twenty-
Hepta-
nomis, or Middle Egypt, appears to have been the district
between the Thebaid and the Delta

its seven nomes are
said to have been Memphites, Heracleopolites, Crocodilopo;
lites,
HermoThe Greater and Lesser Oases were considered to
Aphroditopolites, Oxyrhynchites, Cynopolites,
polites.
be parts of Heptanomis.
*
He
list
of the
towns are
nomes
is
given
at the
end of the chapter on Egyptian History.
them praefeduras oppidortwi, (v. 9, 9). The nomes and their

given by Ptolemy, Geographiac, iv. 5, ed. Mercator, pp. 105-108.
calls
chief
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
Over the
greater than
Egyptian
first
earl>'
history of Egypt there hangs a mystery The
wliich shrouds the origin
tliat
of the period which preceded
historical
king of Egypt, nothing
and home of the ""eriS
Mena
(Menes), the
known. According
to Manetho a race of demi-gods and kings from This, near
Abydos, and from Memphis ruled over Egypt before the
advent of Mena, and these may possibly correspond with the
s/iesu
the
Hon
list
or
"
followers of
Horus
Egyptian
'''''^^'
is
"
of the Turin papyrus,

of kings on which begins with god-kings and ends
with the rule of the Hyksos at the end of the XVI Ith dynasty
or about B.C. 1700.
The work of Manetho of Sebennytus on
Egyptian history is, unfortunately, lost. He was alive about

B.C. 271, and
is said
to have been a contemporary of
Ptolemy I.
his Egyptian history was composed during
the reign of Ptolemy II.
Philadelphus,
B.C.
286-247.
Extracts from this work are given us by Josephus {contra
Apion. I., 14), which refer to the reigns of the kings of the
Early
historians.
XV
XlXth dynasties. In Eusebius and Julius Africanus

(fragments of whose work 'Kevraî^Xlov xpovo\o<yiK6v are
preserved in Eusebius) there are given a list of Egyptian
dynasties, and the
number of
the years of the reign of each
one of the most valuable documents which
This list is
have come down to us, for Manetho, by reason of his position
as priest and his knowledge of the ancient Egyptian language,
had access to, and was able to make use of, the ancient
Egyptian literature in a way which no other writer seems to
have done.
The thirty dynasties of Egyptian kings he
divides into three periods, thus
Dynasties I. XL, Dynasties
XII. XIX., and Dynasties XX. XXX. It must, however,
king.
be understood that the Egyptian did not group the kings

into dynasties, and this fact is evident from the Tablet of
Abydos and
the Tablet of Sakkarah.

The Tablet of
Abydos, discovered by Diimichen in the Temple of Osiris, at
Abydos, in 1864, gives the names of seventy-five kings,
beginning with Mena or Menes, and ending with Seti I., the
father of Rameses II.
it is not a complete list, and there is
The
nothing to show why certain names are omitted.
Sakkarah,
of
Sakkarah,
Mariette
at
Tablet
discovered by
was inscribed during the reign of Rameses II., and it gives
;
Lists of
^^^^'
lO
the names of forty-seven kings, agreeing closely, in the matter

of selection of names, with the Tablet of Abydos. The name
of Mer-ba-pen, the
which begins
this
sixth
list.
king of the
1st dynasty, is that
The Tablet of Karnak was
disco-
vered at Karnak by Burton and was taken to Paris by Prisse.

It was inscribed during the reign of Thothmes III., and
contains the
names of sixty-one
kings.
Notwithstanding the
arrangement no chronological order has been
followed, the tablet is of great value, for it mentions the names
of some of the kings of from the Xlllth to the XVIIth
dynasties, and gives the names of those of the Xlth dynasty
more fully than any other list. The names of the kings in
Manetho's list are in many instances corrupt by the help of
the monuments, however, the greater number can be corrected,
and the value of the document is the more assured as more
fact that in the
of the historical inscriptions

Uncertainty of
Egyptian
Chrono-
become known.
The chronology of Egypt has
been, and must be for
some
time yet, a subject of difficulty and of variety of opinion. The

fixed points in Egyptian history are so few and the gaps
logy.
between them so great, that it is quite impossible to establish

an accurate system of chronology approximate dates are all
that can be hoped for at present.
Nearly every student of
chronology
arrives
conclusions
Egyptian
at
different from
any of his predecessors, and how widely different they are is
seen from the fact that the date given for Menes by
Champollion-Figeac is 5867, by Bockh 5702, by Bunsen 3623,
by Lepsius 3892, by Lieblein 3893, by Mariette 5004, and by
Brugsch 4400. The system of chronology by Brugsch, which
is based on the calculation of three generations to a century,
is generally used throughout this book.
:
Dynasties I-VI.
4400
Founding
of
Memphis.
Mena or Menes, the first historical king of Egypt, came

from This near Abydos in Upper Egypt. He left This, and
journeying northwards, arrived at the head of the Delta,
where, having turned the Nile out of its course, he founded
the city of Memphis and built the temple of Ptah.
I I
The name Memphis,
in
Egyptian
lit
V
J[
A Men-nefert,
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
means
the
'^
" fair
site "
the sacred
"
name
and means
Hî-Pi^b-ka,
name
II
"
of the place
the temple
is
of the
seems that the Greek

The worship of the
gods, the temple services, and the cult of Apis were introduced by Menes, who is said to have been devoured by a
genius of Ptah
name
from
this
Egypt ATyuttto?
for
is
it
derived.
crocodile.
Ti.C.
Teta wrote a book on anatomy, and continued building

at
Memphis,
is
kfll^^l
In tnb reign of this king a great famine happened.
Ata.
He
said to have built
karah, but there
Pyramid
'
pyramids
Kochome
at
no evidence that he
is
famous Step
built the
in
Es^ypt-
The 64th chapter
Hesep-ti.
of the Book of the Dead is

Denderah during his reign, and
30th chapter also dates from that period.
4300
near Sak- Famine
there.
said to have been found at
the
4366
With
Mer-ba-pen.
this king's
name
4266
Antiquity
tjie
the Tablet of Sak-
Dead.
4233
karah begins.
During the second dynasty an earthquake swallowed up a

many people at Bubastis, and the succession of females
Sent, the last
to the throne of Egypt was declared valid.
king of this dynasty, revised a work on medicine, and he
appears to be the first king of whom contemporaneous monuments remain.
During the rule of Nefer-ka-Seker, the first king of the
great
4000
Early
^/"
knowledge
^"
Egypt.
Ilird dynasty, the tribes of the land to the north-west of the
Delta rebelled
first
according to Manetho's statement, the
the rebels were so terrified that they fled
The monuments
the
the
'
first
The
in height
in terror.
and
civilization the
number, and are about 38, 36, 34^, 32, 31 and 29J feet
The lengths of the
is from six to seven feet.
east and west, 596 feet, and the
north and south, 352 feet
steps are six in

;
the width of each step
actual height
of the
is
this period, particularly,
sides at the base are
ment
away
Eclipse of
i"oon.
of the IVth dynasty are numerous, and
show to what a high

Egyptians had attained.
king, Seneferu, very little is known
he invaded
tombs of
state of culture
Of
moon
grew very large and bright, and then became dark, and
197
feet.
The shape
chambers inside
is
of the pyramid
peculiar to
itself.
is
oblong, and the arrange-
3766
//
FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.
12
the peninsula of Sinai, and having conquered the hostile tribes

He dug
there, established copper mining at Wady Ma'arah.
Copper
mines
worked
forts and temples there for the use of

and overseers, and from the remains of the
working of his mines, which may be seen there to this day,
it is clear that the copper industry must have been very large
wells,
in
Sinai.
the
and
built
miners
at that period in Egypt.
Pyramid of
Medum.
Sinai was called
QA
CJia,
pyramid."
and
in
Arabic El-Haravi d-Kadddb, " the
This pyramid
in three stages
3733
Great
founded.
the
first
is
is
false'
of Mfedum.
about 115 feet high, and is built

70, the second 20, and the third
about 25 feet high. It was never completed.

Chufu, or Cheops, the next king of Egypt,
is
more
famous as the builder of the great pyramid of Gizeh than as

little more is known of his military expeditions
than that he continued the wars against the tribes of Sinai
which his predecessor Seneferu had so ably begun.
He
appears to have built many towns, and the famous temple of
Denderah is said to have been founded during his reign. As
the pyramids were tombs, they will be described in the chapter
a warrior, and
pyramid
built and
Denderah
^c^î
Mafkata, " the land of the bluish-green stone." Seneferu is

said to have built the Pyramid of Medum, called in Egyptian
The Pyramid
B.C.
^^ V\
relating to tombs.
J3
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
Statue of Chephren, King of Egypt,
b.c.
3666
[Museum
of Gizeh].
14
B.C.
Chafra, or Chephren,
3666
is
also
more famous
as the builder
of the second pyramid than as a warrior, and with his

is
The age
The
Sphinx.
Repairs
to the
Sphinx.
name
coupled that of the Sphinx.
Sphinx
of the
connected with
its
is
unknown, and few of the
history have
come down
facts
to these days.
Some years ago it was generally believed to have been made

during the rule of the kings of the Middle Empire over
Egypt, but when the stele which recorded the repairs made
in
the temple
came
to light,
of the
it
sphinx by Thothmes IV,,
became
certain that
it
The
of the kings of the Ancient Empire.
B.C. 1533,
was the work of one

stele records that
one day during an after-dinner sleep, Harmachis appeared to

Thothmes IV., and promised to bestow upon him the crown
of Egypt if he would dig his image, i.e., the Sphinx, out of
the sand.
At the end of the inscription part of the name of
Cha-f-Ra or Chephren appears, and hence some have thought
that this king was the maker of the Sphinx and as the statue
of Chephren was subsequently found in the temple close by,
An inscription found by
this theory was generally adopted.
Mariette near one of the pyramids to the east of the pyramid
of Cheops shows that the Sphinx existed in the time of
Chu-fu or Cheops. The Egyptians called the Sphinx hi
.S:^) and he represented the god Harmachis, i.e., Heru;
rOi " Horus in the horizon," or the rising

em-chut ^^ /
On
sun, the conqueror of darkness, the god of the morning.
.
by Thothmes IV., Harmachis says that he

and dominion to Thothmes III., and he promises to
give the same good gifts to his successor Thothmes IV.
The discovery of the steps which led up to the Sphinx, a
smaller Sphinx, and an open temple, etc., was made by
the tablet erected
gave
Caviglia
excavates
Sphinx.
life
Caviglia,
who
first
excavated
this
monument
within the last
few years very extensive excavations have been

it
by the Egyptian Government, and
parts of
it
made round
several hitherto unseen
have been brought to view.
The Sphinx
is
hewn
out of the living rock, but pieces of stone have been added
where necessary
the
body
are 50 feet long, the head
is
is
about
30
50 feet long, the paws
feet long, the face
is
14 feet
from the top of the head to the base of the

monument the distance is about 70 feet. Originally there
wide, and
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
probably were ornaments on the head, the whole of which

was covered with a limestone covering, and the face was
coloured red
now
of these decorations scarcely any traces
remain, though they were visible towards the end of the last
centur)'.
The
condition in which the
due to the savage
is
Muhammadan
origin
is
monument now appears
of
features
its
by the
Egypt, some of whom caused it to be

Around this imposing relic of antiquity,
rulers of
used for a target.
whose
destruction
wrapped
in mj-stery, a
number of legends and
superstitions have clustered in all ages
but Egyptology has
image of Ra-Harmachis, and

upon earth, the king
of Egypt who had it hewn, and II., that it was in existence
in the time of, and was probably repaired b}-, Cheops and
Chephren, who lived about three thousand seven hundred
shown,
I.,
that
it
therefore of his
years
'
coffin
colossal
representative
%'^'"''
blcm of
niachir
before Christ.^
B.C.
Menkaura
third
was a
human
The
or
Mykerinos is famous as the builder of the

Gizeh.
The fragments of his inner wooden
pyramid at
and a small fragment of
3633
sarcophagus are The
his basalt
oldest
preserved in the British INIuseum, together with the remains ^*"
human body which were found with them in the third

pyramid at Gizeh.
The reputation which this king left
behind him is that of a good and just ruler.
The kings of the Vth like those of the IVth dynasty are
famous rather as builders than as warriors. The rule of the
Sahura,
first king, Userkaf, extended as far as Elephantine.
^"
of a
3566
the second king, suppressed revolts in the Sinaitic peninsula
An, Heru-men-kau,
and founded a town near Esneh.
and Tet-ka-Ra also made expeditions into Sinai, and caused
reliefs to be cut on the rocks with the usual inscriptions in
which they are called the conquerors of- the land. In the
reign of this last named king Tet-ka-Ra or Assa was written
the famous work entitled the " Precepts of Ptah-Hetep."
A single complete copy of this work, dating from the Xlth or
Xllth dynasty, is extant it is preserved in the Bibliotheque
Nationale in Paris, where it was brought by Prisse.^ If all
;
'
Budge, The
The
N'ile,
Notes for Travellers in Egypt, 2iid
been published by
hieratic text has
Egyftien, Paris, 1847.

Arch., Serie I. t. xv. , p.
The
i
ff.
ed., pp.
Prisse, Facsimile
best analyses of the text are
and
in
194, 195.
cTun Papyrus
by Chabas
in
Remie
Aegyptisrhe Zeitschrift, June and July, 1870.
3400
Copper
worked
Sinai.
3366
in
The Shekh
el-Beled.
From Sakkarah [Gizeh Museum, No.
492].
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
other
monuments
wanting, these
"
1/
of the great civilization of
Precepts
"
Egypt were
alone would show the moral worth
of the Egyptians, and the high ideal of man's duties which

they had formed nearly 5 500 years ago. Of Unas, the last
king of the Vth dynasty, we
know
little
^ ^
3333
except that he built
a pyramid at Sakkarah, which was opened
The kings
in 1881.
of the Vlth dynasty seem to have extended
names are found at

El-kab, Abydos, Aswan, and elsewhere.
Teta and Pepi I.
built each a pyramid at Sakkarah, and the rule of the latter
seems to have embraced all Egypt.
He renewed the
Egyptian rule over the Sinaitic peninsula, and the inscriptions
at Wady Ma'arah show that copper mining was carried on
their operations further south, for their
there during his reign as busily as ever.
Among
3266-3233
Pepi's staff
was a young man called Una, who had been a favoured The career
servant of Teta
Pepi employed him in many ways and
distinguished him by entrusting the care of an expedition
against the Aamu and Heru-sha, who are supposed to be
Semitic and Asiatic enemies of Egypt respectively. Troops
were brought from Ethiopia and led against them by Una
the Egyptians were successful in defeating them, and having
wasted their land, they returned to Egypt bringing many
;
captives with them.
north of the
To
troops in ships.
As
sent to the quarries of

to bring
quell the tribes
Heru-sha territory
it
in
revolt
was necessary
to
the
to send
mark of the king's favour Una was

Turah (in Eg. *^~y^ ^^^ \> r<^^^ Re-du)
back a block of stone suitable
for the king's sarco-
The ability and fidelity of Una made him an

phagus.
acceptable officer to Merenra, the successor of Pepi I., who
sent him to the quarries to bring back a block of stone for
3200
Aswan and Elephctntine for granite

and to make the doors of his pyramid, and
to Alabastron for a large slab of fine white limestone.
Neferka-Ra, or Pepi II., succeeded his brother Merenra; he built a
pyramid and made an expedition to Sinai. The last ruler of
she
the sixth dynasty, Nitaqert (Nitocris), was a queen
enlarged the pyramid of Mykcrinos and covered it over with
slabs of granite, and the remains of a fine basalt sarcophagus
which were found in a chamber near that of Mykerinos seem
to indicate that the queen's body had been laid there.
B. M.
C
3133
the royal sarcophagus, to

to build a shrine

Working
of the copper mines
of Sinai.
During the first six dynasties it is clear that the Egyptians

were masters of the copper mine district in Sinai, that they
were able to beat off the tribes on their western borders, that
they defeated the two great warlike bodies of the Aamu and
the Heru-sha, and that they were at peace with the Ethiopians, upon whom they could call for assistance in time of
As builders they were unequalled, and their art had
war.
advanced so far that they were never successfully imitated by
Their religion and government were well
later generations.
founded, and their education was of a very high character.
So far as is known there was no other nation, except the
Babylonians under Naram-Sin and Sargon, which was so
highly civilized at this remote period.
Dynasties VII-XI.
Of
Unknown
period in
Egyptian
history.
the
the history of
names
Egypt of
of the kings
who
this period
nothing
is
known
reigned cannot even be arranged
Towards the end of this

number of kings named Antef and Menthu-hetep
ruled
they appear to have been of Theban origin. Menthuhetep, with the prenomen of Neb-taui-Ra, is styled, on a
in
accurate chronologica.1 order.
period a
;
on the island of Konosso, the conqueror of thirteen

and his name appears on rocks which lie beside the
old road from Coptos to the Red Sea through the valley of
Hammamat. The mightiest king of this period seems to
have been Seanchkara, who was able to send forth an
expedition to the land of Punt, the land of the gods, the
stele
nations,
B.C.
2500
home of the god Bes ^, and the land of sweet

The expedition set out in the eighth year of the
king's reign, under the leadership of Hennu
it consisted of
3000 men, among whom were stone-cutters, soldiers, etc. On
peculiar
Great expedition to
I'unt.
spices.
their road they
the shores of the

for the
dug
Red
four wells, and having arrived safely on

Sea, they took ship
and sailed probably
southern part of the Arabian peninsula.
tion returned successfully, bearing with

spices, precious stones,
it
The expedi-
great quantities of
and other products of the East.
XIIth Dynasty.
2466
The kings
of this dynasty, like the Antefs and Menthu-
heteps, were of
Theban
origin,
and under
their rule
Egypt
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
I9
comes forth into the h't^ht of day as a mighty power. As

they were able to defend their country from the assaults of
their hereditary foes in Ethiopia, and from the tribes on their
eastern and western borders, the arts and sciences flourished,
and large works connected with the storage of Nile water
The
were undertaken.
period of their rule, following as
it
one of the most interesting in the

history of Egypt
and Thebes, which hitherto had not been
the seat of government, became the chief city of the Egyptian
did absolute anarchy,
is
empire.
Amenemhat
I.
made himself master
of
Egypt
Thebes
capitarof
Egypt.
after very
b.c7~^
hard fighting, and during his rule of twenty-nine years he

defeated the Uauat, an Ethiopian tribe, the Matui, a people
who
lived in the desert to the west of
Egypt, and the Asiatics.
He wrote a series of "Instructions" for his

whom he seems to have associated with him in
son Usertsen,
the rule of the
kingdom during the last ten years of his life. Conspiracies

were formed against him, and he relates that his foes crept
chamber at night
into his
to kill him.
Amenemhat I.
is
famous
temple of Amen-Ra, " the king of the

gods," at Thebes, but although he beautified Thebes by this
temple, he did not forget to establish another at Memphis,
He
and at the other venerable cities of his kingdom.
as the founder of the
followed the custom of the kings of the earlier dynasties and
pyramid for his tomb. During his reign the story of

Scnehet was written. For an account of this remarkable
papyrus see the article by Goodwin in Frasers Magazine,
No. 422, 1865, and for a translation see Records of the Past, -V
built a
Vol. VI., pp.
1st ed.,
Berlin,
31-150.
The
original
is
Bl.
preserved in
104
ff
famous as being the king who set up

and who beautified that city by
building splendid temples there.
These works were undertaken by him after taking counsel with his chief advisers,
and in the record ^ of the proceedings of the solemn assembly
at which tliis took place, Usertsen's orders for the prompt
Usertsen
obelisks
'
The
and a facsimile was published by Lepsius, Denkmdler,
Abth. VI.,
185S, and
.,,
/>
at
I.
is
Heliopolis
leather roll giving this interesting text

is
now
wab purchased by Brugsch
preserved at Berlin.
C 2
in
2433
Rise of
^^^t^^ ^y
20
The
entrance to the tombs at Beni-Hasan.
Xllth dynasty.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
21
building of temples to the sun are preserved.
Fragments of
an obelisk set up by this king still exist near the modern

town of Begig in the Fayyum, and portions of inscriptions
remain
at
Karnak, which show that he continued the building
operations which his father began there.
of his reign
Ameni Amenemhat,
Ethiopia with four hundred
In the forty-third year
a high
official, set
to quell
soldiers
out for
rebellion
which had broken out there. This expedition was perfectly

and having smitten all the tribes of Kash without
successful,
losing a man, returned to the leader's city in the
nome
of
Meh, near Beni-hasan of to-day, bringing much gold with Tombs

them. Ameni Amenemhat was one of the feudal lords of ?'^"''
hasan.
Egypt, and he led this expedition in the place of his father,
who was too old to go on military service. Another high
official called Mentu-hetep built a well at Abydos, of which,
Like so many of the
however, no trace has been found.
kings who went before him, Usertsen caused the mines in the
at
Sinaitic peninsula to be regularly worked,
Amenemhat II. sent men to Nubia to dig for gold, and

he opened the mines in the valley of Hammamat; he appears
to have lived some time at Tanis and to have had building
In the nineteenth
operations carried on there like Usertsen I.
year of this king's reign Chnemu-hetep became governor of
Menat-Chufu, near Beni-hasan, an office held before by his
father
and grandfather.
In the thirty-third year of
emhat's reign he associated his successor Usertsen
him
in
'\
r^6v
AmenII.
with
the rule of the kingdom.
In the sixth year of Usertsen II. thirty-seven people

belonging to a branch of the Semitic race called Aamu, in
the country of Absha, brought a gift of eye-paint to
Chnemu-hetep,
depicted.
the
2400
visit
Some
in
whose tomb
interesting
this
scene
2366
is
writers have seen in this a representation of
of Jacob's sons to
Egypt
to
buy
corn, but there
is
no
Visi
of
Of the wars of this king

ground whatever for this opinion.
^^""l"^
^
o
peoples
nothing is known, and of his buildings only one mention is Egypt.
made, and that
is
on a slab
With the coming
in
the temple of Ptah at Memphis.
to the throne of
period of prosperity began for Egypt.
Usertsen
He
III.
new
recognized very
soon that the tribes of Nubia had to be put down with a
2333
to
"
22
Egyptians
conquer
Nubia.
strong hand, and he marched into that country, and did not
leave
it
until
he had wasted the land, destroyed the crops and

In the labours of Usertsen III. to
carried off the cattle.
suppress
tliese
peoples
we have
the
expeditions of the English against the
counterpart
Mahdi and
of
the
Sudani
followers.
He foresaw that it was hopeless to expect to
master these people if the frontier town of Egypt was Aswan
or Wady Halfah, hence he went further south and built
fortresses at Semneh and Kummeh.
In spite of these, however, he himself was compelled to lead an expedition into
Ethiopia in the nineteenth year of his reign, and having
conquered the country he built a temple at Elephantine to the
local gods and probably another at Amada.
In Egypt proper
he seems to have carried on building operations at Tanis and
Egyptian
fortresses
in Nubia.
his
Heracleopolis.
B.C.
Amenemhat
In
2300
seriously set to
work
III.
to
we have the first Egyptian king who

make the fullest possible use of the
At the fortresses which his prede-
Ancient
inundation of the Nile.
irrigation
cessor Usertsen III. had established, he stationed officers to

record and report the increase of the Nile, and " runners
works in
Egypt.
must have conveyed the information

The
Fayyum.
to the king in Egypt.
Amenemhat III. will, however, be best remembered as the

The Egyptians
builder of Lake Moeris in the Fayyum.
called the Fayyum ^^sFf \f^ Ta-she, " the land of the lake "
X
the name Fayyum is the Arabic form of the Coptic word
;
cJ)IoJUt
"the water," which
in turn is
taken from /^X
(JO
^r"
AAAAAA
^^S:;^
Pa-iiima,
The Egyptian
A/V\AAA
Moeris
water,"
iHu-7ir,
The
of the
Labyrinth.
name
iner-ur, " great
Birket el-Kurun to the west of the
Fayyum was
Lake Moeris, but both
it and the
famous Labyrinth were situated in the eastern part of the
district.
The Labyrinth was also built by Amenemhat III.,
and is said by Herodotus (ii. 148) to have contained twelve
courts, six facing the north, and six the south, and three
thousand rooms: fifteen hundred above ground, and fifteen
hundred below. In Egyptian it was called the "temple at the
^w^^. and the stone
mouth of the Lake " <==^ ^r^ '^^p \ ^ ^ AA/VSAA
AA/WVN
originally identified with
Building
or
of the
original
"
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
23
seems to have been brought from the Valley of

The copper mines in the mountains of Sinai
were diligently worked during this reign.
li.C.
Amenemhat IV. reigned conjointly with his sister Scbck2266
neferu, and be}'ond continuing the mining operations of his
We may see in
ancestors he seems to have done nothing.
collecting the results of the rule of the Xllth dynasty over Power of
Egypt, that its kings had extended their sway about 250 .^^^Vt?!^
miles south of the first cataract, and that they had lost dynasty.
for building
it
Hammamat.
nothing of their possessions either
in the eastern desert or in
Mighty public works like the Labyrinth and Lake Moeris had been successfully carried out, an
active trade was carried on with the natives of Punt, and with
the country to-day called Syria, and with the districts further
Agriculture flourished, and the whole land was in a
east.
most prosperous condition. And if the living were well cared
The tombs built for high
for, the dead were no less so.
the Sinaitic peninsula.
and gentlemen
o
officials
relatives,
while the
attest
the
sculptures
and
Beauty of
syptian
sorrowing
o tombs 01
paintings employed to Xiuh
care
of
the
adorn them indicate that the artistic knowledge

Egyptians had arrived at a very high pitch.
the
of
^'
Dynasties XIII-XVII.
According to Manetho these dynasties were as follows
Dynasty XIII,
XIV,
XV,
from Thebes, 60 kings
chois,
Hyksos,
XVI, Hyksos,
XVII, from Thebes,
in
453 years
The
76
6
,.
''il;:;L"r[\
484
260
Kings."
10
251
10
10
There are no monuments by which Ihese figures can be

is no other authority for them besides
Manetho. The Turin papyrus gives traces of 136 names for
the period corresponding to that of the Xlllth and XlVth
dynasties.
Among the rulers of the Xlllth and XlVth
dynasties were many who were not of royal descent.
Semench-ka is known to us byhis statues found at Tanis, and
according to Mariette he seems to have been an officer who
rebelled and then seated himself on the throne.
Sebekchecked, and there
24
hetep
was the son of a private
II.
individual,
and Nefer-
hetep's parents appear not to have been royal.
This latter
king built largely at Abydos, and as a worshipper of the
local gods he is represented at Konosso and the islands of
Of Sebek-hetep III., brother of SebekSebek-hetep IV., and Sebek-hetep V. little is

known of Sebek-hetep VI. the best memorials are the rock
tombs at Asyut. The names of many kings belonging to
this period are known from the monuments, but a greater
knowledge of the history of that time is necessary for
arranging them in chronological order.
It seems pretty
certain that few of the kings reigned many years, and that
the country was divided into a number of little states which
were always at war with each other, and against whomsoever
was king. Such a condition of things was, of course, highly
favourable for a foreign invader, who would naturally be
attracted by reports of the wealth of Egypt.
The hardy
tribes of desert dwellers, Semites and others, who crowded
on the eastern and western borders of Egypt, delayed not to
take advantage of the distracted and divided state of the
country, and making a successful attack on the north-east
provinces of the Delta, they pressed in, and having taken
^
.
_ _
^,
^ ^
possession oi Memphis, became masters of Egypt.
Iheir
attack would probably be rendered less difficult by the fact
the
first
hetep
II
cataract.
,
'
Attacks of
the Semites
upon the
Delta.
that a great
many
of the inhabitants of the Delta were of
Semitic origin, their ancestors having settled there in the
Xllth dynasty, and

be, in
Manetho
"H^^k
their opposition to their
consequence, less stubborn.
history of this invasion
is
"
kinsmen would
sole authority for the
Josephus, who, quoting Manetho,
There was a king of

Under him it came to pass,
averse to us, and there came,
" ^^y^'
The
ours,
I
whose name was Timaus.

not how, that God was
know
after a surprising
manner,
men
of ignoble birth out of the eastern parts, and had boldness
enough to make an expedition into our country, and with

ease subd.ued it by force, yet without our hazarding a battle
with them. So when they had gotten those that governed us
under their power, they afterwards burnt down our cities, and
demolished the temples of the gods, and used all the
inhabitants after a most barbarous manner nay, some they
:
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
slew,
and
and
led their children
made one
length they
2$
At
name was
their wives into slavery.
of themselves king, whose
Salatis he also lived at Memphis, and made both the upper

and lower regions pay tribute, and left garrisons in places
He chiefly aimed to
that were the most proper for them.
;
secure the eastern parts, as foreseeing that the Assyrians,
who
had there the greatest power, would be desirous of that kingdom and invade them and as he found in the Saite [Sethroite] Nomos a city very proper for his purpose, and which
lay upon the Bubastic channel, but with regard to a certain
theologic notion was called Avaris, this he rebuilt, and made
very strong by the walls he built about it, and by a most
numerous garrison of two hundred and forty thousand armed
men whom he put into it to keep it. Thither Salatis came in
summer time, partly to gather his corn and pay his soldiers
their wages, and partly to exercise his armed men, and
thereby to terrify foreigners. When this man had reigned
thirteen years, after him reigned another whose name was
" Hyksos"
'^'"Ss-
'
Beon for forty-four years after him reigned another, called

Apachnas, thirty-six years and seven months after him
Apophis reigned sixty-one years, and then Jonias fifty years
and one month after all these reigned Assis forty-nine years
and two months.
;
"
And
these six were the
first
rulers
among them, who were
along making war with the Egyptians, and were very

This
desirous gradually to destroy them to the very roots.
all
whole nation was styled Hycsos, that

for the
Hyc, according
syllable
first
Shepherd-kings
to the sacred dialect,
but this according to the
is
ordinary dialect
and of these
is
compounded Hycsos but

Now, in another
some say
that these people were Arabians."
copy
said, that this
it is
'
SoS, a shepherd
denotes a king, as
;
is,
word does not denote
kings, but
on
the contrary, denotes Captive Shepherds, and this on account

of the particle
Hyc
for that
HYC, with the
aspiration, in the
Egyptian tongue again denotes SHEPHERDS, and that exand this to me seems the more probable
pressly also
[But
opinion, and more agreeable to ancient history.
Manetho goes on]
" These people whom we have before
named kings, and called shepherds also, and their descendants,"
;
Manetho
derivation
of
FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY
26
OP^
EGYPT.
Egypt five hundred and eleven

seems that these observations of
as he says, "kept possession of

years."
On
Manetho
nothing
the whole
are
is
known which can
"^"^
Kings.
the
Salatis,
and there
historically,
Hyksos king,
are no monuments
be the work of the
first
correctly be asserted to
Hyksos dynasty. The country from which

also, is unknown.
Some Egyptologists
consider the Hyksos to be Cushites, and some think they
kings of the
The
Of
correct.
known
it
first
the
Hyksos came,
are
to
be
with
identified
them
believe
Accadians
the
to be Phoenicians or Semites.
the statues that have
come down
to us
others,
The
which are attributed
to the Hyksos, have the following characteristics
are comparatively small, the nose
again,
features of
The eyes
broad but aquiline, the

cheek bones are prominent and the cheeks thick, the mouth is
is
broad, the lips thick, and the chin protrudes slightly.

these facts
some have
stated
From
Hyksos
must be proved that the

the Hyksos were really made by
cannot have been Semites, but
monuments
decidedly that the
attributed to
it
them, before this question can be considered to be definitively

of.
Of the two meanings of the name Hyksos put
by Josephus, the first being Manetho's explanation, and
the second that of Josephus, based on another copy of
Manetho's work seen by him, the former seems to be the
more correct, and we may perhaps give the Egyptian
disposed
forth
Sf!L TV&'M'^QP
p^ ^
^
phic equiv-
^'Hvlisos"
''
'
'
'
'
'^\ Hegu-shadsu,
T^y-\y\
)>i
^^^ Shaasu are a

came from the deserts
east
Bar-Hebraeus
that
^^-
as an equivalent of
well
known enemy
of Egypt,
who
and north-east of Egypt, and

" Hequ-shaasu " or " princes of the Shaasu " would be a name
such as we might expect the Egyptians to bestow upon the
invaders, just as they spoke of Heq Cheta, " Prince of Cheta."
The kings belonging to this period, made known to us by
the Egyptian monuments, are Apepa I., Apepa n.,and Nubti.
Of Apepa I. very little is known, but of Apepa II. a number
of monuments remain, and among others one which records
the submission to him of a number of Ethiopian tribes.
relates
there
fourth king of the Shepherds called

'
Josephus, Contra Apion,
i.
"
reigned in Egypt the

Apapus, fourteen years.
14, translated
by Whistoii,
p.
610.
EGVI'TIAN lUSTORV.
It
was
ruler
this
who dreamed dreams, and who made Joseph
king
according
seems that
27
the
to
kings were
these
Chaldeans
and it
called " Shepherd Kings
It is known from a granite
writings
of
because of Joseph's brethren." ^

- found at Tanis,
a city formerly inhabited by the
stele
Rameses
the reign of
in
Apepa
II.
Dr. Birch,^
Wiedemann*
and other Egyptologists, compare this period of 400 years

with the 430 years of the bondage of Israel in Egypt, and, as
the Exodus probably took place during the reign of the
immediate successor of Rameses II., we may assume that the
statement of Bar-Hebraeus was based on some trustworthy
tradition.
It has also been pertinently remarked that it would
be easier for Joseph to hold high office under the Shepherd
kings than under the rule of an ancient hereditary aristocracy.
The Shepherd kings worshipped a god called Sut or Sutech,
who was to the Egyptians a veritable abomination. They
lived in the cities of Tanis and Avaris, on the east side of the
Pelusiac arm of the Nile.
They adopted the manners and
customs and writing of the Egyptians, and whatever may
have been their severity when they first began to rule, they
It is doubtful,
were of great service to the Egyptians.
how
however,
number
far
of kings
^'^'^'P'"
hundredth year from the reign of Nubti
kings, that the four

fell
Joseph in
The names
south their rule extended.
whom Wiedemann
Israel in
^sypi-
Joseph and
h'Trd^^^^
Kings."
of a
attributes to this period
are to be found in his GescJiichte, pp. 295-297.
The kings of the X Vllth dynasty were of Theban origin,

and are famous as those who defeated the Shepherd kings and
expelled them. According to Manetho, "under a king whose
name was Alisphragmuthosis, the shepherds were subdued
by him, and were indeed driven out of other parts of Egypt,
^ccQaal Uoijj ImiJlj
'
Ed. Bnins,
An
p. 14, at
]Aa:.>>
the top
English translation
Egypt,
p. 76.
0C7I
is
)nlk) ^jÎxar: loai
]^V^
liil^k)
j^LdIo
Âai
ooi1dA*"|
ed. Bedjan, p. 13, at the top.
given by Birch in Records of the Past, V.,

"
Aeg. Geschichte,
p. 294.
p. ^t,
fT.
jj^^ j.j
of Thebes
cxocl tlic
Hyksos.
28
.
^
\
but were shut up

acres:
" the
in
a place
place was
this
Shepherds
named
round
built a wall
large and strong wall,
that contained
and
ten thousand
Manetho says that

this place, which was a
Avaris."
all
this in
order to keep
all
their
possessions and their prey within a place of strength, but that
Thummosis
the son of Alisphragmuthosis made an attempt

them by force and by siege with 480,000 men to lie
round about them but that, upon his despair of taking the
place by that siege, they came to a composition with them,
that they should leave Egypt, and go without any harm to
be done them, whithersoever they would and that, after
this composition was made, they went away with their whole
families and effects, not fewer in number than 240,000, and
to take
Retreat of
''Hyksos."
took their journey from Egypt, through the wilderness, for

Syria but that, as they were in fear of the Assyrians, who
had then the dominion over Asia, they built a city in that
:
country which
is
contain this great
now called Judea, and that large enough to

number of men, and called it Jerusalem." *
Of more
value than this account ofjosephus for the expulsion

Shepherd kings, is the mutilated papyrus^ in the
British Museum which treats of Apepa and the native Theban
According to it,
king Tau-aa-qcn or Seqenen-Ra III.
king, although
to
her
foes
and
had
no
Egypt belonged
Seqenen-Ra, who is described as a keq or prince, was master
of a town in the south. Apepa received tribute from all parts
of the Delta, and part of it he devoted to building temples to
He wished all Egypt, both south and north, to
his god Set.
worship this god, and to pay tribute to himself, and he sent
a messenger from Avaris to Thebes requiring Seqenen-Ra to
worship Set alone. This king returned answer saying that
he could worship no god but Amen-Ra. Some time after
another messenger of Apepa arrived with threats, which
caused Seqenen-Ra much trouble, and he gathered together
his generals and councillors to decide upon a plan of action.
What the decision was the mutilated state of the papyrus
prevents us from knowing, but there is no doubt about the
of the
Seqenen^^
ultimate result of their deliberations.

L
One
Whiston's translation,
'
Cojitra Apion.
For the text see Select Papyri, ed. Birch,
14,
of the officers of
p.
pi. 2.
611.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
Seqenen-Ra was
29
called Baba, the son of Re-ant, and he
had
Aahmes who was born in the city of Eileithyia.

Aahmes became an officer on board a ship of war called
a son called
This
the " North," and in the inscription on the walls of his
Aahmes
general
tomb
went with the king to besiege the city of

next promoted to a ship called Cha-emMennefer, and he took part in the battle fought upon the
Here he performed mighty
canal of Pat'etku of Avaris.
deeds of valour, and he distinctly says, " We took Avaris, and
it
is
said that he
Avaris.
carried
He was
man and
from thence one
off as captives
three
The war of independence begun

women, in all four heads."
by Seqenen-Ra III., was brought to a successful issue by
Aahmes or Amasis I., and Egypt was delivered. Seqenen-Ra
probably lost his life in battle with the enemy, and must in
any case have been seriously wounded, judging by the
smashed skull and broken bones which his mummy exhibits.
^
Egyptians
^
jlyksos.
Dynasty XVni.
B.C.
Aahmes
the
first
I.,
son of
king of the
Egypt
Ka-mes and
XVHIth
Aah-hetep, was
his wife
dynasty, and the
first
1700
native
hundred years.
Having captured Avaris, Am.asis marched into Asia, where he
ruler of all
for a period of
about
captured the town of Sharhana, the
five
ID'l'^tt?
of Joshua xtx.
6,
and made himself master of the land of T'ahi.

Returning
he
marched
into
Nubia
and
defeated
to Egypt
several
tribes
^
-'
who had rebelled systematically for many years past.
Having made the borders of his country safe from invasion,
Amasis began to build at Memphis and Thebes and other
places.
Thebes, the home of the kings who had expelled the
Hyksos, became the first town in Egypt, and Amen-Ra, who
hitherto had enjoyed the reputation of a mere local god,
became the head of Egyptian deities. Amenophis I., son of
Amasis I., marched into Nubia, and brought it into subjection
to him, and in the north of Egypt he defeated a people called
the Aamu-kehak.
In the reign of this king the horse is first
represented on the monuments.
.
>
Records of the Past, VI. p. 8.
"^^^-"^^^
Egyptian
conquests
in Asia and
Nubia.
1666
jL^y.'^j,
/
'
FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGV OF EGYPT.
30
B.C.
1633
Thothmes
Amenophis I., marched into

and defeated the rebel tribes he made the people
slaves and carried off much spoil to Thebes.
Soon after his
return to Thebes he set out with his army on an expedition
to Mesopotamia, passing through the Arabian desert and
Palestine by the way, and finally arrived on the banks of the
Euphrates and Tigris. This expedition was the last in which
the officer Aahmes took part, and he again distinguished
himself by his personal bravery as on former occasions.
To
commemorate this expedition Thothmes I. set up two stelae
"^^*' ^^^ Euphrates to mark the limits of Egyptian territory.
It would seem that no Egyptian king ever possessed perNubia
Limits of
temto'rv in
Asia.
I.,
like his father
manent hold upon the country of Mesopotamia,
a^vwva
^^^/i
Neheni (compare
.ôij A.
or ]2o)OlJ A.
>^
land
it is
clear
Egypt only held even a nominal dominion over it as

long as each king on his accession marched into the country
to terrify the nomad tribes afresh, and to decide what amount
of tribute each petty king or head of a tribe should pay to
Egypt. The governors of cities in Mesopotamia and Ruthen,
that
or Syria,
made
treaties
among themselves and planned wars
against each other, or a

to the authority of
if
common
foe,
Egypt over them.
without any reference

Each king of Assyria,
he wished to maintain his authority, found it necessary on

soon after, to undertake a series of military
his accession, or
expeditions to punish the peoples who, on the death of a

If this were necessary for a power
king, always revolted.
actually resident in Mesopotamia,
1600
how much more
necessary
would it be for a remote and shadowy power like that of

Egypt. Thothmes I. continued the buildings at Thebes, and
Towards the end of his reign he
set up two granite obelisks.
associated his daughter Maat-ka-Ra, or Hat-shepset, with
him in the rule of the kingdom.
Thothmes II. married his sister Hatshepset and became
king of Egypt. The tribes of Nubia were again re-conquered,
and the Shaasu were once more defeated. After a short reign,
the greater part of which was occupied in continuing the
buildings at Karnak, the king died and Hatshepset his sister*
The
office of
"Prince of Cush"
is first
mentioned
in the reign of
Thothmes L
EGYPTIAN IIISTORV.
This queen was one of the most
wife reigned in his stead.
capable
women who
as the builder
ever reigned in
Egypt
she
is
famous
of the beautiful temple at Dcr el-Bahari, and
remarkable expedition to Punt planned by her and

Ships were made
carried out in the ninth year of her reign.
ready and sailors collected a multitude of gifts were stowed
in each ship, and the necessary guard of soldiers for each told
off; a number of Egyptian ladies and high officials prepared
to accompany the expedition, and the direction of the whole
was put into the hands of the queen's most beloved servant.
for the
Matshepset
e^Bahari.
The
Expedition
inhabitants of Punt received the expedition in a very
friendly manner,
and having loaded the servants of Hat-
shepset with rich gifts of gold, ivory, balsam, precious stones,

trees, ebony, apes, greyhounds, etc., etc., sent them
back to Egypt. When these things had been safely brought
back to Thebes, Hatshepset received them with joy, and
dedicated the greater part of them as an offering to her
plants,
Amen-Ra.
In the sixteenth year of her reign
III. became associated with her in her rule over
At Karnak she set up two magnificent granite
Egypt.
memory of her father Thothmes I. According to
in
obelisks
father
Thothmes
an inscription on the base of the one still standing, the granite

for it was hewn out of the quarry in Aswan, and was brought
to Thebes,
and was polished and inscribed and
seven months.
The
height of this obelisk
is
set
105
up within
and if
feet,
the weight be taken into consideration, and the difficult
among
site,
was to be set up,

it will be
easy to judge of the resources and skill of the
Egyptian architect and mason of that period. Of the end of
Hatshepset nothing is known. During her lifetime she wore
male attire, and put on the robes and ornaments which
a crowd of buildings, upon which
it
belonged to kings only. In the inscriptions she is always

described as king " of the North and South, Maat-ka-Ra,
son of the Sun, Hatshepset," and the verbs and pronouns
relating to her are masculine.
After her death her brother
Thothmes
III.
caused as
many
traces of her rule as possible
to disappear.
'
The
statue of her architect
Scn-mut
is
preserved at Berlin.
Obelisks
32
Thothmes III. was one of the mightiest kings who

occupied the throne of Egypt, and during his long reign of
fifty-three years ^ he carried the arms of Egypt to the uttermost parts of the world as known to the Egyptians, and
showed himself to be a wise and great king. While Hatshepset was amusing herself with her expedition to Punt and
the building of her temple at Der el-Bahari, the desert tribes
on her eastern and western borders were making preparations ready to revolt, and they showed their contempt for the
authority of Egypt by refusing to pay tribute.
The Mesopotamians, over whom the power of Egypt must ever have
been of a shadowy nature, boldly declared themselves free,
and their neighbours and kinsmen living in Syria and in the
districts to the north and north-east of Damascus followed
The conquests made by Amasis I. and
Conquest
their example.
Sby^'" Amenhetep I. were all forgotten, and Thothmes III. had
Thothmes
practically to reconquer the world.

In his twenty-second
year he set out from Tanis, and passing through the desert
of Sinai he marched to Gaza, a city v/hich had remained

to his authority.
A few days later he set out for
Megiddo, which he found to be occupied by the governor
of Kadesh, who had made a league with all the tribes living
between the Mediterranean and Nineveh. Sixteen days after
Thothmes left Gaza he engaged the enemy, who seeing that
the Egyptian king himself was fighting against them, lost
all heart, and leaping down from their chariots, decorated
with gold and silver, fled to Megiddo, throwing away their
arms as they went. As the gates of this town had been shut
by those inside, the fugitives had to be pulled up over the
walls.
The number of the enemy slain by the Egyptians was
enormous, and Megiddo was taken with little difficulty. The
faithful
Fall of
egiddo.
(,j^jgfg
Qf
î^Q
allied
destroyed, and that
peoples seeing that their league was
Megiddo was
in the hands of the enemy,

immediately brought offerings of gold, precious stones, horses,
corn, oxen, etc., etc., and submitted to Thothmes.
The news
of the defeat of the league reached the remote parts of Mesopotamia, and their governors, in due time, also sent gifts of
'
This number includes the years which he reigned conjointly with his sister;
he reigned alone thirty-one years.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
33
The names of the places conquered

by Thothmes were inscribed by his orders on some of the
pylons at Karnak of the 360 places there mentioned, compropitiation to the king.
Defeat of
jeaeur'^"
paratively few can be identified with Biblical sites with an)'
For the next few years the Retennu or Syrians

and the Babylonians brought their appointed tribute regularly,
and to make the relations between himself and the former
certainty.
nation of an amicable character,

of their country.
Thothmes married
a princess
In the twenty-ninth and thirtieth years of his
marched again to Syria and captured Tunep, Aradus,

Carchemish and Kadesh on the Orontes. The remaining
years of his life he employed in making expeditions against
the Retennu and the Mesopotamians, into whose country
he marched as far as Nl. The tribes of Ethiopia and Sinai
sent him valuable gifts, which are duly enumerated in the
inscriptions containing the annals of this king.
A good
idea of the different objects of the tribute sent from the
various countries may be obtained from the paintings on the
tomb of Rech-ma-Ra at Thebes, where we see depicted
horses and chariots, collars of gold, vases weighing 2,821
pounds of gold, tables of cedar, plants, ivory, ebony, corn,
reign he
cattle,
copper, lapis-lazuli, silver, iron, wine,
etc., etc.
On
the
south the Egyptian empire reached to the southern confines
Lake Van, on the east to the

and on the west to the great desert on the left bank of
the Nile.
Notwithstanding the warlike activity of Thothmes
III., he was able to carry on great buildings at Heliopolis,
Memphi.s, Thebes, Elephantine and nearly every town in
Nubia. Four of the obelisks set up by Thothmes have come
down to us one is now near the Lateran at Rome, one at
Constantinople, one in London, and one" in New York.
of Nubia, on the north-east to
Tigris,
B.C.
had been associated with Thothmes IIL

in the rule of the kingdom, and immediately he began to
reign alone he found himself plunged in wars with the
tributary peoples, who on the death of Thothmes IH.
declared themselves free.
He marched into Mesopotamia
and captured Ni and Akati he made war on the Shaasu and
Amen-hetep
II.
1566
Conquest
^^^
^gj^^^
the Nubians, and defeated both peoples.
Thothmes
B.
M.
IV. maintained the authority of Egypt from
1533
34
Mesopotamia
to the borders of Nubia, but he
Sphinx
is
better
known
first
year of
The
as the repairer of the
Sphinx
he removed the sand which had covered up the

monument, in consequence of an after-dinner sleep in which
Harmachis appeared to him and promised to bestow upon
him the crown of Egypt if he would dig his image, i.e., the
Sphinx, out of the sand. Thothmes set up between the paws
of the Sphinx a tablet about fourteen feet high, in which he
inscribed an account of this vision and a statement of the
works which he carried out at Heliopolis and Memphis.
repaired.
B.C.
1500
at Gizeh.
In the
his reign
In Amen-hetep III., or Amenophis, the Memnon of the

Greeks, the successor of Thothmes IV., Egypt gained a king
and West-
having some of the ability and energy of Thothmes III. In

the fifth year of his reign he marched into Nubia to quell a
mighty rebellion which had broken out against the Egyptian
em
rule
Conquest
of Nubia
Asia.
among
a number of confederate
Mesopotamians
in subjection, for
we
tribes.
He also held
the
learn from large scarabs
during his reign that his empire extended from

Neherna, or Mesopotamia, to Karei, or the land south of Nubia.
inscribed
From these same scarabs we learn that Amenophis was a

"mighty hunter," and that during the first ten years of his reign
Serapeum
at
Sakkarah.
The
Colossi.
he slew 102 lions with his own hand. He built the oldest
part of the Serapeum at Sakkarah, a temple to Amen-Ra at
Karnak, a larger temple to the same god at Luxor, with an

avenue of Sphinxes leading to it, and the temple of Mut to
On the western bank of the river he
the south of Karnak.
built a large temple, the dedication of which was described
on a stele found behind the Colossi, which also were set up
by this king. These wonderful statues were about 60 feet
high, and from that on the north, called the Colossus of
Memnon, a sound was said to issue each morning when the
sun rose. The upper part of it was thrown down by an
earthquake, it is said, about B.C. 27; the damage was partially
repaired during the reign of Septimius Severus, about A.D. 160
who restored the head and shoulders of the figure by adding
to
it
five layers
spake no more.
of stone
but after that Memnon's Colossus
At El-Kab, Aswan, and Soleb Amenophis
Four important events

king are recorded by large steatite
III. also built temples.
in the life
and
reign of this
scarabs.
The
ErATTIAN HISTORY.
The
Colossi set up in honour of
Amenophis
35
III.
Thebes.
36
Historical
scarabs of
Amenophis III.
first records his lion hunts

the second the coming of Thi, the
daughter of an Asiatic father, to Egypt, accompanied by 317
of her women the third the marriage of Amenophis and Thi,
;
and the fourth the building of a large lake 3,600 cubits long
by 600 cubits wide for his queen near the town of T'arucha,
which the king opened on the i6th of Choiak in the eleventh
year of his reign, by sailing across it in his barge called Aten-
The
neferu.
The
Tell
el-Amarna
tablets.
Marriage
with Thi.
tablets inscribed in cuneiform recently found at
el-Amarna prove that Amenophis
III. married a sister

daughter of Kallimma-Sin, king of Karaduniyash, a
country probably lying to the north-east of Syria; Gilukhipa
the sister of Tushratta, king of Mitani, and Satumkhipa
daughter of Tushratta; and Thi the daughter of parents who
Tell
and
were not
royal.
east of Syria,
The country
about
of Assyria,
of Mitani also lay to the north-
and we know that
frequently to hunt lions.
-^
like Tiglath-Pileser
Amenophis
11 20,
B.C.
The
III.
I.,
king
went thither
kings and governors of places
as remote as Babylon promptly claimed the friendship of their
new kinsman, and their letters expressing their willingness to

make alliances offensive and defensive, are some of the most
interesting objects of the " find " at Tell el-Amarna.
B.C.
1466
Of Amen-hetep
IV., or Chu-en-aten, the son of Amenand the Mesopotamian lady Thi, very little is
known he built a temple at Heliopolis, another at Memphis,
one at Thebes, and some in Nubia. He is famous, however,
hetep
III.
;
Heresy of
the disk
worshippers.
as the leader of the heresy of the " disk worshippers," that

to say of those people
Aten
(I'vv^^ in preference to
Egypt.
by
who worshipped
is
the disk of the sun,
Amen-Ra,
the national god of
He showed how much
he detested the god Amen,

name Amen-hetep and adopting that of
brilliance of the disk." The worship of the
setting aside his
Chu-en-aten,
disk was of
theistic
"
the
some
worship
Amenophis
antiquity,
of
and seems to have been a mono-
Ra which
originated
in
Heliopolis.
seems to have encouraged this form of

religion somewhat, and it is certain that he named his barge
Aten-neferu, " the most beautiful disk." The native Egyptian
^
III.
See The Tell el-Amarna
Budge,
p. xviii.
tablets
in the British
Museum, by Bezold and
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
37
priesthood disliked the foreign queen, and the sight of her Ameno-
son
with his protruding chin, thick hps, and other charac- Larrels
of a foreign race, found no favour in their eyes
that îfh the
teristics
such a
man
should openly despise the worship of
Amen-Ra
priests.
was a thing intolerable to them. In answer to their angry

words and acts, the king ordered the name of Amen-Ra to be
chiselled out of all the monuments, even from his father's
name.
Rebellion then broke out, and Chu-en-aten left
Thebes and founded a new city for himself at a place between
Memphis and Thebes, now called Tell el-Amarna. After a few Founding
years the queen Thi came to live there, and there Chu-en-aten Tgu''^^^
passed the rest of his life with his wife and seven daughters. Amama.
In the twelfth year of his reign he celebrated his victories
over the Syrians and Ethiopians, but it is doubtful if they
were of any importance.
After the death of Amenophis IV. there is some confusion
in Eg}'ptian history the immediate successors of the "heretic The
king " were Se-aa-ka-Ra, Tut-anch-Amen, Ai, of whom but J^'/n
T^**^"
little is
known. The last king of the XVIIIth dynasty
was Heru-em-heb, the Horus of Manetho, who seems to
have been a native of Het-suten, the Alabastronpolis of the
He made an expedition into
Greeks, or Tell el-Amarna.
Nubia and the lands to the south of that country, and he
carried on buildings at various places, and restored temples at
Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes and elsewhere.
;
The Nineteenth Dynasty.

B.C.
Of
the events which
led
to
Rameses
I.
becoming
sole
1400
Some suppose
is known.
he was connected with Horus, the last king of the
XVIIIth dynasty, but there are no proofs which can be
brought forward in support of this thcor>^ He seems to have
carried on some small war with the people of Nubia, and to
king of Egypt nothing whatever
that
have been concerned

a
little
Seti
I.,
in a
He
treaty with the Cheta
how
he also
built ^Var with
probably associated with him

but
famous, however, as the father of

at Thebes.
the former was
and grandfather of Rameses II.
is
long
it is
in
the
rule
of the kingdom,
not possible to say.
While Amenophis IV. was quarrelling with the
priests of
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
Amen
39
about the worship of the disk, and during the rule of
Nubia and the Shaasu

and the nations of Syria and IMesopotamia became more and
more independent, and as a result ceased to fear the arms of
Egypt, and consequently declined to pay the tribute imposed
upon them by the mighty Thothmes III. and Amenophis III.
Under the rule of Rameses I. the Egyptians were forced to
sign a treaty which fixed the limits of their country and those
of the Cheta
hence when Seti I. ascended the throne he
found it necessary to make war against nearly every nation
that had formerly been subject to the Egyptians.
From the
reliefs sculptured on the walls of the temple of Amen-Ra at
Karnak we see that he attacked the people who lived north
of Palestine, the Retennu or Syrians, the Shaasu, the Cheta,
and in returning to Egj-pt passed through the land of
Limanen. At the city of Chetam, on the frontier of Egypt,
he was received by the priests and nobles of Egypt, who said
to him " Thou hast returned from the lands which thou hast
conquered, and thou hast triumphed over thy enemies. May
thy life be as long as that of the sun in heaven
Thou hast
washed thy heart on the barbarians, Ra has defined thy
boundaries."
Seti then sailed up to Thebes, where he
presented his captives and booty to the gods in the temples
there.
From the lists of vanquished peoples inscribed by
Seti it is found that his rule extended over Mesopotamia,
Punt or Somali land, Nubia, and the lands on the west bank
of the Nile. Cities like Kadesh on the Orontes, Tyre, Reseph,
his feeble successors, the peoples of
B.C.
1366
Migdol,
them.
in
my
etc.,
he not only conquered, but also built fortresses
in
During the reign of Seti the Cheta who, without,

opinion, the slightest evidence for the theory, have been
identified with the Hittites of the Bible, ^reappear in history.
Seti set up an obelisk at Kantarah, "the bridge" uniting Asia

and Africa, he built at Heliopolis, Memphis and Abydos, and
at Karnak he began several buildings, some of which were
finished by Rameses II.
His name is often found in Nubia
on rocks and stelae, and he worked the gold mines there, and
sank wells in the rock to obtain water for his workmen. Seti
associated his son Rameses II. with him in the rule of the
kingdom when he was but twelve years old. According to the
Conquests
^sia^^'^
40
monuments Seti reigned about twenty-seven years.

name Seti is connected with the god Set, who though
The
at one
time worshipped by the Egyptians, was subsequently considered to be the father of

B.C.
Rameses
1333
Sesostris.
name has been
that his
II.,
all
evil
in several places
is
seen
the Sesostris of the Greeks, was perhaps the
greatest king that ever ruled over Egypt.
commanding
it
carefully chiselled out.
He was
stature, of great physical strength
man
of
and personal
bravery, a great builder and a liberal patron of the science
and
art
of his
days.
Around
his
name has gathered a
multitude of legends, and the exploits of other warriors and

heroes
who
reigned hundreds of years after him have been
attributed to him.
Before he came to the throne he led an
expedition into Nubia and defeated the peoples there
he brought back to Egypt
much
and
spoil, consisting of lions,
gazelles, panthers, ebony, ivory, gold, etc., etc.
In the
fifth
year of his reign he set out on a campaign against the Cheta,
which was the most important event in his life his victory
over this foe was considered so great a triumph that an
account of it illustrated by sculptures was inscribed upon the
temples of Thebes, Kalabshi and Abu Simbel, and a poetic
;
description of the battle with a vivid outline of the king's

Pentaurt's
poem on
the defeat
of the
Cheta.
The Cheta
kings.
own prowess was written down by Pen-ta-urt, a temple

scribe.
The Cheta were a confederation of peoples, nomad
and stationary, who first appear in the time of Thothmes III.,
In the time of Rameses I. they
to whom they paid tribute.
made a treaty of friendship with the Egyptians, but in the
time of Seti I. they fought with them. The kings of the
Cheta at this period were Sapalel and his son Maru-sar
the latter had two sons Mautenure and Cheta-sar.
Mautenure was king of the Cheta when Rameses II. marched
against them in his fifth year, and Cheta-sar was king when
the Cheta and the Egyptians made a new treaty in the
;
Rameses, at which time they

have reached the summit of their power. According
to an inscription which appears to be the official statement
concerning this memorable battle, Rameses II. was in the
fifth year of his reign in the land of T'ah, not far from
Kadesh on the Orontes. The outposts kept a sharp look-out,
twenty-first year of the reign of
seem
to
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
Rameses
II
when a
child.
FUNEREAL ARCHiT-OLOGY OF EGYPT.
42
Defeat of
the Cheta.
Rameses
II.
the
warrior.
and when the army came to the south of the town of Shabtun,
two of the spies of the Shasu came into the camp and pretended that they had been sent by the chiefs of their tribe to
inform Rameses II. that they had forsaken the chief of the
Cheta, and that they wished to make an alHance with his
majesty and become his vassals. They then went on to say
that the chief of the Cheta was in the land of Chirebu to the
north of Tunep some distance off, and that he was afraid to
come near the Egyptian king. These two men were giving
false information, and they had actually been sent by the
Cheta chief to find out where Rameses and his army were
the Cheta chief and his army were at that moment drawn up
in battle array behind Kadesh.
Shortly after these men had
been dismissed, an Egyptian scout came into the king's
presence bringing with him two spies from the army of the
chief of the Cheta
on being questioned, they informed
Rameses that the chief of the Cheta was encamped behind
Kadesh, and that he had succeeded in gathering together a
multitude of soldiers and chariots from the countries round
about.
Rameses summoned his officers to his presence, and
they
informed them of the news which he had just heard
listened with surprise, and insisted that the newly received
Rameses seriously blamed the
information was untrue.
chiefs of the intelligence department for their neglect of
Orders were straightduty, and they admitted their fault.
way issued for the Egyptian army to march upon Kadesh,
and as they were crossing an arm of the river near that city
;
Capture of
Kadesh.
When Rameses
fell in with each other.
growled at them like his father Menthu, lord of
the hostile forces
saw
this,
he
"
Thebes," and
having hastily put on his
full
armour, he
mounted his chariot and drove into the battle. His onset
was so sudden and rapid that before he knew where he was
he found himself surrounded by the enemy, and completely
He called upon his father
isolated from his own troops.
Amen-Ra to help him, and then addressed himself to the
slaughter of all those that came in his way, and his prowess
was so great that the enemy fell in heaps, one over the other,
He was quite alone, and not
into the waters of the Orontes.
horsemen
came
near him to help him.
of
soldiers
or
one
his
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
It
was only with great
way through
difficulty
he succeeded
in the
At
the ranks of the enemy.
inscription he says, " Everything that
that did
43
presence of
my
in
cutting his
the end of the
my
majesty has stated,

and horsemen." In
said to have been sur-
soldiers
poem of Pen-ta-urt the king is

rounded by 2,500 chariots. The defeat of the chief of the
Cheta and his allies was crushing, and Rameses was able to
demand and obtain much tribute.
the
In the
eighth year of his reign
he led an expedition
against towns in southern Syria, and Ascalon
among
others
and within a few years Mesopotamians,

Syrians, dwellers on the coast, Libyans, the Shaasu and Ethiofell
into his hands,
pians
all
reign he
In the twenty-first year of his

a treaty with Mautenure, chief of the Cheta at Eg)ptian
submitted to him.
made
Tanis, the favourite dwelling-place of Rameses.
This treaty
sets out at full length the relations which had existed between
the two nations for some time before, and each party
solemnly promises not to make war on the other, and to
war if required
Rameses married a daughter of the
assist the other in
to
cement the
thTcheta.
alliance
chief of the Cheta called
Maa-ur-neferu-Ra.
Notwithstanding his activity in war, Rameses II. found Rameses

make himself famous as one of the greatest builders builder.
that ever sat on the throne of Egypt, and his name is found
on stelae, obelisks, temples, etc., etc., from Beyrut in Syria to
remote Napata. He built a temple of granite at Tanis, a
town which seems to have been founded four hundred years
before his time by Nubti, one of the so-called Hyksos kings.
time to
Near
the wall from Pelusium to Heliopolis,

supposed to have built to keep out the
Asiatics.
At Heliopolis he set up obelisks, none of which
has come down to our time at Memphis he added largely
to the temple of Ptah
and at Abydos he completed the
temple begun by his father Seti I. At Thebes he finished
the buildings begun by his father and grandfather
he
repaired the temples of Thothmes III. and Amenophis III.,
adding walls and doors, and occasionally usurping monuments
of the kings who went before him; he set up statues of
himself and two splendid obelisks before a building which he
this
city ran
which Rameses
is
44
made
Amenophis III.; on the western

Thebes he finished the temple originally dedicated to
Rameses I., and consecrated it to his father Seti I.; he restored
the temple of Hatshepset at Der el-Bahari he built a temple
at Medinet Habu, and at Thebes, his greatest work of all, the
Ramesseum. The statues of himself which he placed in this
last place are among the largest and finest known.
At Bet
el-Wali at Kalabshi in Nubia he built a beautiful little rock
temple, on the walls of the court of which are some well
adjoining the temple of
side of
executed sculptures representing the bringing of tribute to
him
Rock
Abu*
^ ^
Simbel.
by Asiatics
classical Aboccis,
to
and Ethiopians.
he hewed out of the
Ra Harmachis
Cheta
it
to
At Abu
commemorate
his
Nubia, and for simple grandeur and majesty
the
temple
victory over the
monument
the largest and finest Egyptian
is
Simbel,
solid rock a large
in
second to none
in all Egypt. It is hewn out of the rock to a depth of 185 feet,
and the surface of the rock, which originally sloped down to
the river, was cut
away
Rameses
II.,
out of the living rock.
columns with large
Among
them.
the
Akita,
66
is
feet
The
large hall inside contains eight
figures of Osiris about 17 feet high
other matters the inscriptions give a
of Rameses.
children
about 90 feet to form

ornamented by four colossal
high, seated on thrones, hewn
for a space of
the front of the temple, which

statues of
is
now Gebel
The gold mines
Alaki, which were worked
by
in
upon
list
of
the land of
Seti
appear
I.,
not to have been very profitable, by reason of the scarcity of

water.
supplied
stopped.
The
well
little
which he sank to the depth of 120 cubits

and the works in the mines were
or no water,
In the third year of his reign Rameses sent
bore another
well,
and they found abundant water
men
at the
to
depth
of twelve cubits.
Rameses
Oppression
jq^^^
thought to have been the

oppressor of the Jews in Egypt, and it was probably for him
that they built the treasure-cities of Pithom and Raamses.
II.
is
generally
Rameses reigned sixty-seven years, and at his death he

Egypt one of the largest and most powerful kingdoms
upon earth under him this country reached its highest point
of prosperity and glory. The tribute brought in by conquered
nations enriched the country, the hosts of foreign workmen
left
EGYPTIAN IIISTURY.
45
employed by the king produced articles of luxury and beauty,

and literature flourished unfettered, and the tombs and
sepulchres of the dead were scarcely less splendid than the
art
palaces of the king or the houses of his nobles.
death of Rameses Egypt

inertness and
of foreigners
After the
declined rapidly, chiefly through the
want of national spirit possessed by the hosts

lived there, and the country became a mart
who
and a home of traders rather than of warriors.

B.C.
Mer-en-Ptah, the thirteenth son of Rameses II., had been

associated with his father in the rule of the kingdom before
he ascended the throne. The chief event in his reign was an
expedition against the Lebu, Kehak, Mashuash, Akauasha,
Tursha, Leku, Sharetana and Shekelasha in the fifth year of
The Lebu, thought by some to be the Libyans,
his reign.
under Maroi, the son of Titi, had advanced to the city of PaBairo, and were preparing to march upon Heliopolis and
Memphis Maroi himself had reached Pa-aru-shep, when the
god Ptah appeared to Mer-en-Ptah in a dream and promised
him victory. On the third day of Epiphi the hostile forces
Maroi fled, about thirteen thousand of his
joined in battle.
people were slain, and all his and their property fell into the
hands of the Egyptians. The Akauasha have by some been
the Achaeans, the Sharetana with the
identified with
1300
Sardinians, the Shekelasha with the Sicilians, the
Defeat of
^^^^^
Lebu with
the Libyans, the Tursha with the Etruscans, the Leku with
These identifications, based on a
the Lycians, etc., etc.
suggestion made by de Roug6, cannot be accepted, lacking
It is
as they do any historical evidence in support of them.
quite certain, however, that the tribes against which Mer-enPtah fought were comparatively close neighbours of Egypt.
The Exodus is thought by some to have taken place during The
^^'^"'-
the reign of this king.
Of Mer-en-Ptah's
successor, Seti
II.,
but
little is
known
by any
remarkable event. The rule of the XlXth dynasty was
brought to an end by the reigns of Amen-mes and Se-Ptah.
his reign was very short, and was not distinguished
46
The Twentieth Dynasty.

For some years
death of Mer-en-Ptah Egypt was

man did as he pleased, and there
was no one who had authority over his fellows. The Land of
Egypt was under chiefs of nomes and each fought against
after the
in a state of anarchy, "
each
B.C.
1200
the other."
After a time " a Syrian called Arsu,"
^^
^.
arose
(I
among them and succeeded
diverting the tribute to himself and finally in
(^
in
making himself
Rest and peace were not restored to

Egypt, however, until the gods set their son Set-Necht upon
the throne, who very shortly after associated his son Rameses
master of the land.
III. with him in the rule of the kingdom.

On the death of
Set-Necht Rameses III. reigned alone, and having established
the worship of the gods in the temples, and restored the
customary
offerings, in the eighth
year he set out with his
troops for the north-eastern borders of his country to do battle

Egyptians
against the allied forces of the Mashuash, Leku, Shekelasha
defeat the
and other Asiatic peoples, who had come to the land of the
Amorites partly by land and partly by sea the Egyptians
were victorious and inflicted a crushing defeat on the enemy.
A year or two after Rameses attacked the Mashuasha, who
appear to have settled in the western part of the Delta and
further south, and they were defeated with great slaughter.
About this time he seems to have carried on some small wars
in Nubia.
In addition to his wars, he fitted out and despatched
an expedition to Punt, which returned safely, bringing many
he worked the turquoise
marvellous things and treasures
Peninsula,
and
the
Sinaitic
the copper mines in the
mines in
He also opened up for trade the old road
land of Ataka.
between Kosseir on the Red Sea and Coptos on the Nile.
With the spoil which Rameses obtained from his successful
wars, and the wealth which he gained from his mines and
allied
nations.
Expedition
to Punt,
and opening of old
trade
routes.
trading enterprises,
Heliopolis,
built a granite
endowed
At
the
temples
of
Tell el-Yahudiyeh he
and limestone temple, at Heliopolis he restored
Memphis he restored the temple of Ptah, he added

temple of Thothmes III. at Medinet Habu, and at the
temples, at
to the
he lavishly
Memphis and Thebes.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
47
same place he built what has been generally called his "palace,"
The " palace
and a magnificent temple to Amen-Ra.
consisted of two square towers, the four sides of which were
common
symmetrically inclined to a
centre.
The
interior
chambers were ornamented with sculptures, on which were

depicted scenes in the domestic
temple at Medinet
Habu
(?)
life
The
of the king.
of remarkable interest, and on the MoUnet
is
^'
walls are sculptured battle scenes on land and sea, in which ^^j
Rameses is victorious over his enemies. Near Karnak he Karnak.
built a
temple
temple of
to
Amen-Ra
Ptah, and
he added
buildings
to
the
he began to build the temple of

would seem that he repaired many of the
there
Chonsu, and it
temples and shrines set up both at Karnak and Luxor. The
most important document for the history of the reign of this
king is the famous Harris Papyrus No. i,now preserved in the
It was found in a box, in a rough-hewn
British Museum.
Harris
^P^"^^-
rock chamber in the earth, near Medinet Habu. This papyrus

enumerates the gifts which he made to the gods of Thebes,
Heliopolis and Memphis, and concludes with a statement of
This wonderful papyrus,
the principal events of his reign.
135 feet by 17
by the Trustees of the
introduction and translation by Dr.
which measures
inches,
was published
facsimile
British
Museum, with an
in
Birch.
B.C.
Of Rameses
carried on the
IV.
works
with great diligence

whom also very little
little is
in the
;
is
known beyond
mines
the fact that he 1166-1133
in the valley of
Hammamat
Rameses V., of
Of Rameses VI., the most
he was succeeded by
known.
important remains are his tomb
in
Biban el-Muluk
on the
much astroThis
tomb
was
originally
information.
made for
nomical
VII.
and Rameses VIII. were the
Rameses V. Rameses
walls the risings of various stars are given and
-'
Astro""Z?**^^'
tables at
Thebes.
the most important event in the

next rulers of Egypt
reign of Rameses IX. was the attempt to break into and
;
rob the royal tombs at Thebes in his sixteenth year. The

robbers were caught and prosecuted by the government, and
an official examination of the tombs had been made

by the chief officers of the city, to find out exactly what
damage had been done, the band of thieves were properly
punished. The robbery had gone on for some years, and
after
Robbery of
^y^^
FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT,
48
appears to have been continued in the nineteenth year of

the reign of Rameses IX.
The reigns of Rameses X. and
Rameses XI. are of no interest. Of the reign of

successor Rameses XII. an interesting though fabulous
their
story-
recorded.
A stele found near the temple of Chonsu at
Karnak states that the king was paying his usual visit to
Mesopotamia to receive the tribute from the tribes subject to
Each chief brought his offering of gold, etc., but the
him.
is
Princess of
who was a most

and gave her to the king. She found favour in
his sight, and he married her, and gave her the official title of
" royal spouse."
Some time after they had returned to Egypt,
a messenger came to the king from Bechten saying that a
young sister of his wife Ra-Neferu, called Bentresh, was
grievously ill, and entreated him to send a physician to heal
her.
A very learned scribe called Tehuti-em-heb was
despatched, but when he arrived in Bechten he found that the
illness of Bentresh was caused by an evil spirit, and he was
unable to cure her. Another messenger was sent to Egypt
and he asked that the god Chonsu himself might be sent to
cure Bentresh, and the king having asked the god to consent
to this proposition, prepared a suitable shrine and sent the god
to Bechten, where he arrived after a journey of one year and
As soon as the god was brought into the sick
five months.
chamber,
he addressed the demon who possessed her
maiden's
and drove him out from her. The demon acknowledged the
authority of the god, and promised to depart to his own place
the chief of
if a great feast was prepared in his honour
Bechten gladly made a feast, and the demon departed. The
god Chonsu was detained in Bechten three years and nine
months, and at the end of that time he returned to Egypt, his
Although it is proved
priests bringing rich gifts with them.
now that this narrative is a romance and not history, it is
nevertheless of great antiquity, and is most important as showing the belief in demoniacal possession at that remote period.
The country of Bechten is unknown, but if, as is stated, seventeen months were spent in reaching it, its situation must have
chief of Bechten brought his eldest daughter,
beautiful
girl,
been very
the
XXth
from E gypt. With the reign of

dynasty comes to an end.
far
Rameses
XIII.,
egyptian history.
49
The Twenty- first Dynasty.

With the death of Rameses XIII. a new period of discame over the government of Egypt, and for nearly one
"Priest-
order
^^"^^
hundred years there seems to have been no legal king seated

on the throne. The chief priest of Amen called Her-Heruse-Amen had little by little gathered the power of a king
into his own hand, and finally he declared himself " King of
Upper and Lower Egypt," and thus became the first of the
so-called "priest-kings" of the XXIst dynasty. His dwellingplace was Thebes, and the buildings which he carried out
Eg)'?*-
^ ^
iioo-iooo
there, instead of being inscribed with the records of glorious
Egypt, were decorated with inscripThe tribes that were

subject to Egypt, and were at that moment unprepared for
victories over the foes of
tions of a purely religious character.
war, paid their tribute to
but
it
was not
him
as the successor of the Pharaohs,
to be expected that a ruler
time to the service of
Amen
who devoted more
than to war, could maintain his
sovereignty over restless and warlike peoples like the Cheta,
whom
During
and funereal furniture of
some of the kings of the XVIIth, XVIIIth and XlXth
dynasties were brought from their tombs and deposited
together in one place, now called in Arabic Der el-bahari,
where they were discovered by an Arab in 1871. For the
account of the recovery of these by Brugsch-Bey and Maspero,
see Maspero, Les Momies Royales de Deir el BaJiari, fasc. i,
tom. IV., of the Memoires of the French Archaeological Mission
or Retennu, of
his reign the
he
calls
mummies and
himself the conqueror.
coffins
Der
el-
^lu'i^mic^
at Cairo.
Her-Heru was succeeded by
his grandson,
the son of Pi-anchi, the high-priest of
Maat ka-Ra,
kings
wife
a princess
Pi-net'em
II.
Amen,
who belonged
Pi-net'em
I.,
the husband of
to the old line of
married the royal daughter and royal
Het-Hert-hent-taui, but appears never to have been
king.
Wiedemann doubts the existence of this
Of Paseb-cha-nut, Men-cheper-Ra and his son Pinetem III. but little is known they were succeeded by
actually
king.^
Paseb-cha-nut
II.,
during whose reign Solomon captured

^
B.
M.
Aeg. Geschichte,
p.
536.
FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYrT.
50
Solomon
becomes
the town
of Gezer, and
having conquered the Canaanites
became king of Palestine. It is thought by some that

Egyptian wife was the daughter of one of the kings of the
king of
there,
Palestine.
his
XXIst
and
The
dynasty.
history of this period
definite conclusions respecting
without
it
is very uncertain,
cannot be arrived at
fuller information.
The Twenty-second Dynasty.

Various theories have been propounded concerning the
Babylonian origin
of kings of
origin of the kings of this dynasty
XXIInd
Shashanq
I.
identified
with that of Nimrod.
dynasty.
was
the father of
From
names Usarken, Thekeleth, common

resemble
and
Assyrian
the
its first
king
Nemart, a name which has been
called
the fact that the
to several of
Babylonian
names
its
kings,
Sarginu,
Sargon," and Tukulti, " Tiglath," it has been generally

assumed that they sprang either from a purely Semitic race
in Mesopotamia itself, or from Semites who had been settled
in the Delta for a considerable time.
That they were of
*'
foreign extraction
at the
certain,
is
end of their names
country
is
because the determinative placed

that of a man from a foreign
and the people called Ma, of
styles himself the prince,
whom Nemart
have been proved by
De Roug^
to
be simply the Mashuasha.

B.C.
Shashanq
966 800
I.,
the Shishak
who
tector of Jeroboam,
Kings
xi. 26), led
Conquest
(i
of Pales-
of Judah, and took
tine
and
capture of
Jerusalem.
(pt2J^t^)
up
of the Bible, the pro-
hand against Solomon

an expedition against Rehoboam, king
lifted
his
away from Jerusalem "the
treasures of
the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king's house,
he even took away
and he took away all the shields of

Kings xiv. 25, 26.)
(i
The list of the cities and districts, about 138 in number,
captured by Shashanq during this war is inscribed upon the
south wall of the temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak. The wife
of Shashanq was called Kerama, and their son Aauput. Of
all
gold which Solomon had made."
the
acts
Usarken
of
II.,
'
Usarken (Sargon)
and Shashanq II.
De Rouge,
I.,
Thekeleth (Tiglath) I.,

little is known, and the
but
Melanges iCArchcologie,
t.
I, p.
87.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
reig^ns
of these kings were uneventful.
Thekeleth
II.
25th of
the
]\Iesori, in
moon took
During the reign of
among
a rebellion broke out
the south and north of Egypt, and
it
is
the peoples to
stated that on the
the fifteenth year of his reign, an eclipse of
place.
Shashanq
III.
made
great gifts to the
temple of Amen-Ra at Thebes. He reigned fifty-two years

and an Apis bull which had been born in his twenty-eighth
year, died in the second year of the reign of his successor
Pamai.
During the reign of Shashanq IV. three Apis
bulls
Death of
^^^
died, the last in the thirty-seventh year of his reign.
The Twenty-third Dynasty.

B.C.
Of the history of Peta-Bast, its first king, nothing is

known from Egyptian monuments, and for the events of the
reign of his successor, Usarken III., we have to rely upon
766
the information supplied by a stele recording the mvasion Conquest
and conquest of Egypt by Pianchi, king of Ethiopia. When

the kings of Egypt sent to that country in the Vlth dynasty,
no opposition was offered by the natives to their felling trees,
but in the Xllth dynasty the Egyptians found it necessary
to guard against them at the first cataract by lightly-armed,
From the Xllth to the XXth dynasty Egypt
swift soldiers.
maintained her authority over Ethiopia, and her kings built
magnificent temples there, and ruled the country by a staff
In
of officers under the direction of the " Prince of Cush."
the unsettled times which followed the death of Rameses II.,
the Ethiopians saw that the power of Egypt to maintain her
supremacy abroad was becoming less and less. For many
years they paid their customary tribute to his feeble successors, but at the same time they looked forward to a time
when they could cast off the yoke of Egypt. They had
adopted Egyptian civilization, the hieroglyphic form of
they seem
writing, and the language and religion of Egypt
When
to have wished to make a second Egypt in Ethiopia.
during the reigns of the kings of the XXIst and XXI Ind
dynasties they saw that the power of Egypt continued to
decrease, they boldly resolved to found a kingdom of their
own, and they chose Napata, now called Gebel Barkal, as the
Brugsch thinks {Egypt under the
site of their capital.
E 2
pfandii
the Ethio-
Defection
of Ethiopians.
Ethiopians
kingdom
52
Pharaohs, 2nd
ed., 1881, Vol. II., p. 235) that the founder of

the kingdom was one of the descendants of Her-Heru, the
priest-king of the
many
XXIst dynasty, and he points out that

name of Pianchi. Early in the
of them bore the
eighth century before Christ Pi-anchi was king of Napata, and

his rule probably
extended at
least as far north as
Thebes.
In the twenty- first year of his reign news was brought to him
that
Tafnecht, prince of Sais and Memphis, had revolted,
that a league formed chiefly of governors of towns had placed
him
at its head,
and that
all
Lower Egypt was
in his hands.
Pianchi's
Pianchi at once sent troops against the rebels, and on their
to^^'^^t"
^^y down the Nile they met a number of soldiers belonging

The
to the army of Tafnecht, and these they defeated.
Ethiopian troops seem not to have been unvaryingly sucit was necessary for Pianchi himself to come to
cessful, for
Thebes
thence he marched to Hermopolis, which surrendered
after a three days' siege.
Nimrod, who had defended
it,
delivered up to Pianchi his wives, palace, horses and everything he had. Pianchi set out once more for the north, and
every city opened its gates to him until he reached Memphis.
Capture of
Thebes,
Memphis
and
Sais.
Here he met with strong opposition, for Tafnecht had

brought several thousands of soldiers into the city, and
Pianchi,
every part of the wall was guarded by them.
however, brought his boats up to the very walls of the city,
there was a mighty
assault captured it
^^^ after a vigorous
^^
o J
slaughter, and it would seem that some thousands of men
The rebel princes came in one by one, and
were slain.
tendered their submission to the Ethiopian, and thus Pianchi
At Memphis, Heliopolis and
became master of Egypt.
Thebes he offered sacrifices to the great gods of Egypt, and
;
no
acts
of wanton
destruction of cities
or buildings
are
recorded of him.
'^^'
The Twenty-Fourth Dynasty.
733
Bocchoris
ahve*^
This dynasty
is
represented
en-ren-f (Bocchoris),
who
by a
single king called
reigned but a very few years
Bak-
many
legends concerning him are extant in classical writers, but the

Egyptian monuments scarcely mention him. According to
Manetho he was burnt
XXVth
dynasty.
alive
by Sabaco the
first
king of the
egyptian history.
53
The Twenty-Fifth Dynasty.
b-c-
700
The kings of this dynasty were
who
Ethiopians,
following
up the success of Pianchi, made themselves masters of all

Egypt. The first king, Shabaka, is known from the Egyptian
inscriptions to have beautified the temple of Karnak, and his
name is found on many buildings there to which he made
He
whom Hoshea
additions or repairs.
is
Egypt
(2
to
best
known
Kings
Alliance of
^^
^^^^
Sabaco.
as being the king of
xvii. 4),
having ceased to
send his customary tribute to the king of Assyria, went for
Some
help.
think
that
Shabaka (Hebrew
Schrader would point ^^D) was not king of
all
which
b^"iD,
Egypt, because
(B.C. 721-705) styles him simp\y s/iilSabaco seems to have been known in
Nineveh, for among the ruins of the palaces at Kouyunjik
were found two impressions from his seal or scarab, in which
he appears wearing the crown of Lower Egypt V; in his right
Sargon, king of Assyria
iatina,
"
prince."
Egyptian
fQ^^d at
Nineveh.
hand he holds a stick or club, and he is in the act of slaughterHis cartouche stands above, together with his
ing enemies.
titles and the legend recording the speech of some god, " I
give to thee
all
foreign lands."
"^
Sabaco was succeeded by his son Shabataka, concerning

the Eg}ptian inscriptions tell us very little.
During
the reign of this king Sargon of Assyria died, and was
succeeded by Sennacherib, who within a few years set out to
suppress the rebellion which had broken out in Syria and
Phoenicia.
The prince of Ekron, Padi, who had been set
upon the throne by Sargon, was seized by a crowd of rebels,
who had obtained help from Hezekiah, king of Judah, and Hezekiah,
made prisoner Hezekiah himself likewise appealed to the yuîfh'
Egyptian king for assistance.
Sennacherib marched on provokes
Judaea, and at Altekeh he met the allied forces of Jews and of the
Egyptians. The battle was short and decisive, the Assyrians Assyrians.
were victorious, and Sennacherib having wasted the country
with fire, and destroyed the towns, captured and plundered Defeat of
'^
Jerusalem, where Hezekiah had shut himself up " like a bird ^^^^
in a cage."
Padi was restored to the throne of Ekron, and capture of
whom
Jerusalem.
'
See Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 1883, p. 269.
A full description of these fragments is given in the chapter on scarabs.
54
Judsea became an Assyrian province. Sennacherib, hearing

of the advance of Tirhakah king of Ethiopia, determined to
march on the
Assyrian
trOTe/^^'
Delta, and it was during this march that an

epidemic broke out among his troops, and a catastrophe
destroyed nearly all of them he returned to Nineveh without
having performed upon Hezekiah the vengeance which he
;
The ultimate failure of his expedition

probably caused his sons to despise him, and shortly afterwards two of them, Adrammelech and Sharezer, smote him
had threatened.
with the sword, and he died (2 Kings xix. 37). Shabataka

reigned twelve years, and was put to death by Tirhakah, who
succeeded him.
B.C.
Taharqa, or Tirhakah
693
to the throne,
Alliance of
made an
rif^n"?]!,
offensive
shortly after his accession
and defensive alliance with
the Phoenicians under Baal king of Tyre, and probably also
Hezekiah
^^^^ ^^^ people of Cyprus;
Tirhakah.
joined
Hezekiah king of Judah also

Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib,
marched to Palestine by way of Beyrut, where on his return
to Assyria he set up a memorial slab at the head of the Nahr
the
in
league.
el-Kelb side by side with those of Rameses

other than those caused
difficulties
by
thirst
Without
and heat his
II.
byÊsar-^
army marched into Egypt, and Tirhakah having fled,

Memphis fell into the hands of the Assyrian king. From
Memphis he marched to Thebes, and having plundered the
haddon.
city,
Capture of
and placed the
rule of the
Assyria laden with
On
spoil.
a reign of thirteen years
(B.C.
to
the death of Esarhaddon, after
681-668), Tirhakah
Egypt and entered Memphis boldly
returned
he drove out the

Assyrians that were there, and openly attended the burial of
an Apis bull in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. As soon
as the news of the return of Tirhakah to Egypt reached
to
Assurbani-
whole country under twenty
some Assyrian, some Egyptian, he returned
governors,
dition to^'
Assurbanipal, the son of Esarhaddon, in Nineveh, he set out
Egypt.
with his army for Egypt
he came up with the Egyptian

and completely defeated them, and
Tirhakah, who had remained in Memphis, was obliged to flee
to Thebes when Assurbanipal followed him thither, he fled
When the Assyrian king had reappointed
into Nubia.
governors over the chief towns of Egypt, and established
troops
Karbanit,
at
EGYPTIAN IIISTORV.
garrisons there, he
55
returned to Nineveh.
Soon
after this
NikO, governor of Memphis, headed a rebellion against the

Assyrian rule, but he was promptly sent to Nineveh in
chains
of
his
new
Assurbanipal so
him, that
far forgave
when he heard
successes of Tirhakah in Egypt, he sent
country to rule over
Assyria
Egypt under the
all
Niku back
to
direction of
soon after his arrival Tirhakah died.
Tirhakah
temple at Gebel Barkal, and restored temples
and other buildings at Thebes.
Rut-Amen, son of Sabaco
succeeded Tirhakah, and
in consequence of a dream, set out to regain for Ethiopia the
rule over Egypt.
Without very much difficulty he captured
Thebes, and advanced on Memphis, where he was opposed
;
built a large
Tirhakah's
in
Nub^^
(.-'),
by the Assyrian governor
Amen
in the fight
which ensued Rut-
Urdamanah of Assurbanipal's inscriptions) was

victorious, and again Memphis fell into the hands of the
Ethiopians.
Once more Assurbanipal marched to Egypt,
(the
Rut-Amen's army, and advanced on

whither
rebel
king had fled. Having arrived there,
Thebes,
the
the sack and pillage of the city by the Assyrians followed.
A stele found at Gebel Barkal relates that Nut-Amen, a king
of Ethiopia, had a dream, in consequence of which he set out
to regain the rule over Egypt, and that having gained
authority over Thebes and Memphis and the Delta, he
returned to Ethiopia in the Nut-Amen of this stele, and the
Urdamanah of the cuneiform inscriptions, we have probably
one and the same king.
where he defeated
Ethiopians
capture
Memphis,
"Stele of
the
Dream."
The Twenty-stxth Dynasty.

Psammetichus
I.,
the
first
king of this dynasty, was the
Memphis "and Sais in Lower

Egypt, and had been associated with Nut-Amen in the rule
When the Ethiopian king retired to his own
of- the country.
He married
land, Psammetichus became king of Egypt.
son of a governor (Niku
?)
of
Shep-en-apt, a daughter of Pianchi, and thus secured himself

from any attack by the Ethiopians and by the help of the
Ionian and Carian soldiers whom Gyges king of Lydia sent
to him, he was able to overcome the Assyrian governors who,
one after another, made war upon him, and resisted his
;
666
56
Defeat
of the
Assyrians.
Revival of
arts
and
sciences,
and
liter-
ature
flourishes.
authority.
decisive battle took
were
place at
Memphis
the
and Psammetichus found

himself firmly seated on the throne of Egypt. A permanent
settlement was assigned by him to the lonians and Carians,
and his favour to these foreign soldiers so exasperated the
Egyptian troops, that 200,000 are said to have forsaken
Egypt and settled in Nubia. Psammetichus appears to have
decided that it was useless to attempt to make great conquests of remote countries, as did the kings of old, but set to
work to consolidate his kingdom, and to defend its borders.
He was a devout worshipper of the gods, and he repaired and
rebuilt many of the decayed buildings at Heliopolis, Mendes,
Memphis, Abydos and Thebes. He lived at his birthplace,
Sais, and made it the capital of his kingdom.
He was a wise
patron of the arts and sciences, and during his rule the great
renaissance of art took place. The statues and wall paintings
of the first empire were diligently copied, many new copies
of ancient religious works were made, and the smallest and
Assyrians
greatest
utterly
monuments of
routed,
this
period,
ornament, are characterized by a high
as well
finish
as
objects of
and elaboration of
which was the peculiar product of this time.

II., son of Psammetichus I. and Shepenapt,continued
the policy of his father, and added a considerable number of
foreign troops to his army he gave the Greeks every facility
to enter and settle in Egypt, and he assisted the commercial
With the view of
enterprise of the day as much as possible.
joining the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, he dug a canal
from a place near Pithom, a little above Bubastis, on the
Pelusiac arm of the Nile, which passing first through the plain,
flowed through a valley between the spurs of the Mukattam
hills, in a southerly direction, until it emptied itself into the
Arabian Gulf It was an indirect connecting of the Mediteranean with the Red Sea by means of the Nile, and did
not correspond with the Suez Canal, except in the reach from
the Bitter Lakes to Suez, in which it followed a somewhat
detail,
B.C.
6l2
Necho
Necho's
Canal.
About 120,000 men perished during the

similar course.^
work, and when an oracle announced that he was only working for the good of foreigners, Necho desisted frorn his under*
Wiedemann, Aegyptische
Geschichte, p. 626.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
57
Necho also sent Phoenician seamen to sail round

them to set out from Suez and come home by
taking.
Africa, bidding
way
in
of the Strait of Gibraltar
on their return, they stated
proof of their having accomplished their task, that they had
seen the sun
rise
A few
on
their right
hand
as they sailed from east
years before Nebuchadnezzar
(B.C. 604-558)
Necho
set
on the march
Babylon,
out
ascended the throne of
was
opposed
by Josiah
to Mesopotamia, and on the road
Then Pharaoh Necho "sent
king of Judah, at Megiddo.
ambassadors to him saying. What have I to do with thee,
to west.
thou king of Judah?
gabyloniar
Empire,
co7ue not against thee this day, but
against the house wherewith
me to make
Rise of
have war
for
God commanded
who is
haste: forbear \hcQfroin meddlhig Wiih. God,
with me, that he destroy thee not.
Nevertheless Josiah would
not turn his face from him, but disguised himself, that he
might
fight
with him, and hearkened not unto the words of
Necho from the mouth of God, and came

of Megiddo.
And
to fight in the valley
the archers shot at king Josiah
and the
Death of
for I am sore
king said to his servants, Have me away
His servants therefore took him out of that
wounded.
chariot, and put him in the second chariot that he had
and
they brought him to Jerusalem, and he died, and was buried
;
in
Necho went on his

one of the sepulchres of his fathers." '
Carchemish,
not
any
farther
into Mesopobut
did
go
to
way
On
he marched to Jerusalem and deposed

Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, whom the Jews had set up as
king in the place of his father, and made Eliakim (Jehoiakim),
another son of Josiah, king in his stead he also imposed a
tamia.
his return
tax of one hundred talents of
and a talent of gold.^

Soon after Necho had returned to Egypt he heard that a
Babylonian army was marching into western Asia, and he
again set out for Carchemish, where it was encamped. On his
arrival there he found that the Babylonian forces were commanded by Nebuchadnezzar H., and in the battle which
followed the Egyptian king was utterly defeated his troops,
Libyans, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, were slain by thousands,
and Nebuchadnezzar marched through Palestine to the borders
of Egypt. Necho reigned sixteen years, and was buried at
silver,
'
2 Chron. xxxv. 21-24.
2 Chron. xxxvi. 1-4.
Nebuchad'
fn^v^des
Egypt-
58
Sai's
he was succeeded by his son Psammetichus
II.,
whose
reign of a few years was, comparatively, unimportant.

B.C.
591
Apries, in Egyptian Uah-ab-Ra, Heb. i^lCH fjeremiah

xliv.
Capture of
jerusa em.
Fall of
^^^'
30),
made an
attack upon
Tyre and Sidon by sea
Sidon was captured, and the Cyprian fleet which attempted to

The Babylonians marched to
resist him was destroyed.
besiege Jerusalem during his reign, and Nebuchadnezzar
j^^^,jj^g already had Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin, kings of Judah,
brought to him in fetters at Babylon, determined to punish
the new king Zedekiah who had rebelled against him.
Notwithstanding the presence of some troops of Apries, Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem, and having blinded Zedekiah and
slain his sons before his eyes, set up Gedaliah as king in his
Multitudes of Jews flocked to Egypt, where they
stead.
were received by Apries, and this act of the Egyptian king
drew upon him the wrath of Nebuchadnezzar. After a siege
of thirteen years. Tyre fell into the hands of the Babylonian
king, who thus became master of Phoenicia and Egypt, for
Apries had no army to set in the field against him. In a
dispute which broke out between the Cyrenians and the
Libyans, Apries sent an Egyptian force to help the latter
The
people, for he had a treaty with their king, Adikran.
hostile forces
met
in
battle,
but the Egyptian troops were
defeated with a great slaughter, and their countrymen were
enraged and asserted that Apries had intentionally sent them
When
against the Greeks that they might be destroyed.
Egypt a
troops returned to
Defection
'''^
f "d^f-'^'t
of Apries.
the
among them,
down but while
rebellion broke out
and Apries sent Amasis, an officer, to put it

^^ ^^^ addressing the disaffected troops, a soldier placed a
helmet on his head, and declared him king, and all the other
soldiers agreeing in this, king he became.
Apries then sent
Patarbemis to bring Amasis to him, and because he was
unsuccessful in his mission, he gave orders that his nose and
Soon after this, Apries marched
ears should be cut off
against Amasis, and in the battle which took place at
Momemphis, on the Canopic arm of the Nile, his troops were
defeated, and he himself was taken prisoner and led back to
he was shortly after strangled and buried
his palace at Sais
;
with his fathers
in
the temple of Neith.
Before the death of
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
Apries Nebuchadnezzar
and to have
is
said
to
have invaded Egypt,
up as far as Aswan.
became sole king of Egypt
sailed
Amasis
II.
59
II.
B.C.
after the death of
572
Apries, and as he had married Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra, daughter
of Psammetichus
II. and of Nit-aqert, a sister of Apries, the

Egyptians regarded him as, more or less, a legal successor to
the throne.
He
continued the policy
of his
predecessors
towards foreigners, and gave the Greeks many valuable trading

in his reign Naucratis became a very important
privileges
Greeks
^^"Ji^^s^
and the centre of Greek influence in Egypt. In addition

he married Ladike, said to be
the daughter either of Critoboulos or Battus or Arcesilaus
according to Herodotus he was the first king
the Cyrenian
of Egypt who conquered Cyprus. The same historian says
(III. I) that Cambyses, king of Persia, made war upon him
because, having demanded from Amasis his daughter to wife,
the Egyptian king sent to him Nitetis, the daughter of Apries,
as his own daughter when the damsel declared who she was,
Cambyses was greatly enraged, and determined to invade
During his long reign of forty-five years Amasis
Egj'pt.
repaired and added to the temples in many parts of Egypt,
and he worked the mines in the valley of Hammamat. He
did not live to see the invasion of the Persians, but he left the
country in such a flourishing condition that it formed very
city,
to Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra
and
rise
of
^"'^'^^t'^-
rich spoil for them.
Psammetichus
III., together with his army, formed of

528
marched
troops,
against
the
Persians
Egyptian
Greek and
and did battle with them at Pelusium, but he was utterly
routed, and the conquering host took possession of Egypt, Egyptians
and marched on to Memphis, whither the remainder of the ctmbyse7
Egyptian army had fled for protection. The reign of Psammetichus lasted but a few months, and he was taken captive
to Persia, where he suffered a miserable death.
The Twenty-seventh Dynasty.

Cambyses,
king of the Persian dynasty, seems to

have been of a revengeful disposition, for, according to legend,
when he arrived at Safs he is said to have ordered the mummy
the
first
of Amasis to be dragged from
its
tomb, and having caused
it
527
6o
Desecration of
mummies
to be illtreated
had
it
burned.
Tradition, in general, states
many barbarous acts to be performed by

wrecking of many tombs and statues in
that this king caused
and tombs his soldiers, and the

by CamEgypt is said to date
byses.
from
his reign.
His expeditions against
the Nubians and the people of the Oasis proving disastrous,
Restoration of
Temple of
Neith
at
Sais.
he returned to Memphis in exasperation and grief, and finding

the whole town in festival, on account of the appearance of a
new Apis bull, he ordered this god to be brought to him, and,
Another view of the
in a fit of rage, stabbed it in the thigh.
character of Cambyses is, however, given by an inscription on
the statue of a naval commander under Cambyses and Darius,
This officer, called Ut'a-Heru-enpreserved in the Vatican.
that
when
Cambyses
came to Sais he ordered the
pe-resu, states
temple of Neith to be cleansed, he restored its revenues and
sacred festivals, he performed all the rites there, and established
the offerings according to what the kings before him had
done. When Darius was king of Egypt the same official was
appointed by him to re-establish the school of scribes in
Egypt, and he seems to have had some influence in preserving Sais from the destruction which Cambyses spread over
the country, and he probably helped Darius to establish the
beneficent government in Egypt for which he is famous.
Cambyses died from a wound in the thigh, accidentally
caused by his own dagger while mounting his horse.
B.C.
521
On
ascending the throne Darius Hystaspes, the successor
of Cambyses, set to work to improve the condition of the
damage done to the prestige of

Egypt by Cambyses. He deposed Aryandes, the Persian satrap of Egypt, appointed by Cambyses,
and caused him to be slain, because he had made an attack on
country, and to repair the
Persian government in
Cyrene, and because of his cruelty and misgovernment.

The
coin-
age and
good
govern-
ment
of
Darius.
Red Sea
Canal.
Darius
established a coinage, rearranged the taxation of the country,
and completed the canal to join the Red Sea and the Mediterranean which Necho had begun. The course of this canal
can still be traced by the inscriptions in hieroglyphics, and in
Persian, Median, and Assyrian cuneiform, which cover the
rocks near which the canal passed. As stated above, Darius
re-established the school of scribes in Egypt, and spared no
pains to improve the condition of the people, and to increase
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
the trade of the country
by land and
6l
sea.
Towards the end
of his reign, while the Persians were fighting the Greeks,

off the Persian yoke, and set up Chabbesha as
Darius never recovered his hold upon Egypt, and died
Egypt threw
king
after a reign of
about thirty-six years.
Soon after Xerxes I. ascended the throne, he marched to

Egypt to reassert the Persian supremacy he broke through
the defences which Chabbesha had set up on the mouths of
the Nile and in the marshes, and taking possession of the
486
Persians
^ô"^"^''
country compelled the Egyptians to send a contigent of two

hundred ships to assist him in his attack upon Greece the
;
crews of these ships distinguished themselves by their bravery

After the murder of Xerxes by
at the battle of Artemisium.
Artaxerxes I. became king of Egypt, but

towards the end of his reign the Egyptians, headed by Inarus,
Artabanus,
king of L}'bia, assisted by a
Athenian
taxes, or to
fleet
of two or three hundred
again revolted and refused
ships,
465
either
acknowledge the Persian authority.
sent a force of 300,000 or 400,000 to put
a battle took place near Papremis
down
to
pay
Artaxerxes
the revolt, and
the Persians, owing to
overwhelming numbers, were at first victorious, but were

subsequently beaten, and those that escaped from the general
their
massacre fled to Memphis for refuge, and were besieged there

by the Egyptians. Soon after this Artaxerxes sent more
troops to Egypt, and these having surrounded Memphis, the
Fall of
Memphis.
Athenians were compelled first to withdraw, and secondly to

burn their ships Inarus was wounded in an engagement and
taken captive to Persia, where he was crucified or impaled.
Amyrtaeus, the governor of a town in the Delta and an ally
of Inarus, fled to the marshes, and the Persians appointed
Pausiris and Thannyras, their sons respectively, rulers over
Xerxes II., the next king of Egypt,
the Delta in their stead.
was murdered by his brother Sogdianus, and towards the
end of the reign of Darius II., his successor, the Egyptians
once more rebelled, and regained their independence under
Amyrtaeus of Sais about B.C. 405.
;
The Twenty-eighth Dynasty.

Of Amen-rut or Amyrtaeus, the only king of this
little is known
his native city was Sais, but
very
dynasty,
it
is
not
400
62
FUNEREAL ARCHÔLOGV' OF EGYPT.
likely that
he
identical with the
is
Amyrtaeus who
assisted
the ill-fated Inarus to rebel against the Persians.
The Twenty-ninth
Dynasty.-
B.C.
399
393
Naifaarut I., or Nepherites, the first king of this dynasty,

was a native of Mendes, and he associated his son Nectanebus
with him in the rule of the kingdom.
He supplied the
Lacedaemonians with wood for building one hundred triremes
and half a million bushels of grain at the time when
Agesilaus was fighting against the Persians.^ He reigned six
years, and was succeeded by P-se-mut or Psammuthis, who
was in turn succeeded by Haker. Of Haker, or Achoris,
the inscriptions say nothing, although his
nam^
is
found
inscribed on buildings and temples at Thebes, and in the
quarries of Ma'sara and Turah.
became an
Towards the end of
his
king of Cyprus,
they began a war,
ally of Evagoras,
Egyptians
reign Achoris
wrragainst
^^^ ^^^ king of Persia, against whom

succeeded in destroying their united fleet, and shortly after
Persians,
379
Achoris died, having reigned twelve or thirteen years. He

seems to have been succeeded by Naifaarut II., who was,
however, soon deposed on account of his unpopularity with
the people.
The Thirtieth Dynasty.

To
378
the
Persian
y^Q^^
Cyprus.
Necht-neb-f, or Nectanebus
first
king of
I.,
the son of Naifaarut
this dynasty, fell the task of
I.,
continuing the
war which Achoris, his predecessor, and Evagoras, king of

The Persian
Cyprus, had begun against Artaxerxes H.
king attacked Cyprus with great determination, but Evagoras
met his forces with about one hundred ships and six thousand
soldiers, and succeeded in partially stopping the supplies of
grain for the enemy, in consequence of which a rebellion
broke out among them. He increased his fleet as much as
he was able, and with the addition of fifty ships from Egypt,
in the great battle
attacked the Persians with all haste
which followed, however, his ships were scattered or sunk,
;
Wiedemann
matter
is,
thinks that the king of Egypt
from chronological
(Ae^-. Geschichte, p. 698.)
grounds, more
who
assisted the
likely
to
Greeks
in this
have been Achoris.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
63
and the Persians sailed on to attack Salamis. Evagoras fled

to Egypt to obtain supplies from Nectanebus to carry on the
war, but when he returned he found that his capital was
He straightway
besieged, and that his allies had fled.
tendered his submission to the Persians,
who
finally
decided
from him a yearly tribute and to consider him a

The war against Evagoras being at an end,
vassal of Persia.
the Persian king next directed his attention to an attack
upon Egypt, and placing the Persian troops under the command of Pharnabazus, and his Greek troops under that of
Iphicrates, he advanced against Egypt with nearly a quarter
Necof a million soldiers and three hundred ships of war.
tanebus on his part fortified each of the seven mouths of the
to accept
Persian
^"^^
Egypt.
Nile, giving particular attention to strengthening the defences Egyptians
on the Pelusiac mouth, and he flooded the whole country

round.
When
the
mined to make their attack by the Mendesian mouth of the

Nile, and after a battle they succeeded in capturing the fort
which commanded it, and reduced its defenders to slavery.
A dispute next arose between Pharnabazus and Iphicrates as
to an immediate attack upon Memphis, and while the former
was opposing the march upon this city by the latter, the
Egyptians themselves mustered a strong force there, and in
the battles which followed the arrival of the allied army of
Soon after
Persians and Greeks were generally successful.
this, owing to the inundation of the Nile, the Persians withdrew to Syria, and Iphicrates returned to Athens thus the
attack of the Persians, notwithstanding their immense army,
came to nought. Nectanebus restored and added to many of
the temples of Egypt, and after a reign of eighteen years was
succeeded by T'chehra, or Teos (Tachos), who reigned but
two years the Egyptian inscriptions make no mention of
From Greek historians we learn that Teos levied
this king.
a tax on the Egyptians to carry on the war, and that, contrary
to the advice of Agesilaus, one of his allies, he advanced to
attack Phoenicia. During his absence the Egyptians revolted,
and sent messengers to Syria to invite Nectanebus II., the
lawful heir to the throne of Egypt, to come and take possession of his country.
The allies of Teos forsook him, and
;
Delta,
Persian generals saw this they deter-
Retreat
persi^^s
360
64
he

fled to the court
of Artaxerxes
II.
and of Ochus the Persian
kings, where, after a time spent in riotous living, he died.

B.C.
358
Necht-neb-f, or Nectanebus
II.,
was the
last native
king
of Egypt, and having been helped by Agesilaus to overthrow
a native of Mendes
who
aspired to the throne, he assumed
kingdom without further opposition. After

the death of Artaxerxes II., Ochus determined to make an
attack upon Egypt and Cyprus and Phoenicia, the kings of
the rule of the
Persian
attack
upon
Phoenicia.
Persians
capture
Cyprus,
which had joined forces with each other and with the
Egyptians to make themselves independent.
Tennes, the
successfully
expelled
king of Sidon,
a number of Persians
from Phoenicia, but when he heard that Ochus himself was
coming to take vengeance upon him for this proceeding, he
sent messengers to him to tender his submission, and to
promise him his help in invading Egypt. The Persian king
promised to overlook the past, but marched on Sidon, notTennes betrayed the city
withstanding, and surrounded it
and led Artaxerxes and his army into it, whereupon the
Sidonians destroyed their fleet and set fire to their houses
with themselves and their wives and families inside them.
The treachery of Tennes availed him nothing, for he was put
Phoenicia, and soon after Cyprus,
to death by Artaxerxes.
fell into the hands of the Persian king, who now made ready
In a few small preliminary
in earnest to conquer Egypt.
battles fought on the north-east frontier of Egypt, victory
rested with the Persians, and when Nectanebus learned this,
and saw that Pelusium was attacked in a systematic manner,
the Persians
he and his troops withdrew to Memphis
advanced through the Delta, and captured Bubastis, and
their march to Memphis was a triumphal progress rather
than the march of an enemy upon the capital of Egypt.
Fear seized Nectanebus when he heard of the approach of
the Persians, and having gathered together all the money
that he could conveniently carry, he fled from his troubles,
some say to Ethiopia, and some say to Macedon, where
according to Pseudo-Callisthenes he became the father of
;
Persians
capture
Memphis.
Flight of
Nectanebus.
Alexander the Great.
Nectanebus, during
his
reign
of
seventeen or eighteen years, obtained the reputation of being

a devout worshipper of the gods, and a sorcerer.
The mines
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
65
I.lammamat were worked during his reign,

and repaired many of the temples at Phila^,
Thebes, EdfCl, Heliopolis, etc. With the flight of Nectanebus
the history of Egypt as an independent country comes to an
in the valley of
and he added
to
end.
Persian Rulers of Egypt.
When Artaxerxes
B.C.
III.,
Ochus, became
sole
king
of
340
Egypt, he emulated the barbarous acts of Cambyses

the
principal towns were looted and destroyed, the temples were Ochus
overthrown, and their sanctuaries pillaged, the Apis bull was P|"'^'^^^''s
;
and the ram of

Ochus returned to Babylon wîth much
spoil, and after a reign of twelve years was probably poisoned
by Bagoas the Egyptian, who, it is said, thus avenged the
slaughter of the Apis bull.
Arses, the youngest son of Ochus, next sat on the throne
of Egypt, but in the third year of his reign he and his family
were slain by Bagoas.
Arses was succeeded by Darius III., who narrowly escaped
poisoning by the hand of Bagoas
the plot was, however,
discovered, and Darius freed himself from the traitor by
causing him to drink poison, and he died. Darius was defeated
by Alexander the Great at Issus, and the Greeks marched on
Egypt and took possession of it without any difficulty.
killed
and eaten by the king and
Mendes was
his friends,
slain.
Defeat of
^^
jg^^g"^
Macedonians.
Alexander the Great founded the Alexandria near Rakoti,
Eg.
to
"^^^
make
M
it
^-=^
(111
Rdqetit, Copt. p^.KO'f",
the central market-place of the
was tolerant of the Egyptian
religion,
and
and endeavoured
known
He
world.
sacrificed to
Amen,
of Libya,
who Qgreeted him as his son. After about a
the gôd
^
J
year spent in Egypt, Alexander set out on his expedition
^
Having conquered all the

and travelled nearly alone into China, he came back to
his body was
Babylon, where he was poisoned at a banquet
brought in great state to his city Alexandria and was buried
against Darius king of Persia.
east,
there.
B.
M.
332
Alexan^^"^
,
,
founded.
FUNEREAL ARCIIiEOLOGY OF EGYPT.
66
Ptoi>emies.
B.C.
Ptolemy
I.,
Soter, son of Lagus, founded the
Alexandrian
Library.
Ptolemy
286
II.,
Philadelphus,
Alexan-
Berenice on the
drian
Library
founded.
to compile a history of
247
222
205
182
170
117
built
Sea, and Arsinoe
Egypt and
its
Pharos, founded
he employed Manetho
gods from native authothe
and caused the Greek version of the Old Testament

be made.
rities,
Septuagint
made.
Red
to
Ptolem}'
III.,
Euergetes
I.
Ptolemy IV., Philopator, founded the temple of Edfu.

Ptolemy V., Epiphanes.
Ptolemy VI., Eupator, died in this year.
Ptolemy VIL, Philometor.
Ptolemy VIII., murdered by Physcon.
Ptolemy IX., Euergetes II. or Physcon, reigned conjointly
with Ptolemy VII. (B.C. 170165).
Ptolemy X., Soter II., Philometor II., or Lathyrus reigned
he was banished B.C. 106, and
conjointly with Cleopatra III.
;
recalled B.C. 8j.
81
Ptolemy XL, Alexander I., made co-regent.

He was
slain
banished B.C. 89 and
B.C. 8y.
Ptolemy XII., Alexander II., is slain.
Ptolemy XIIL, Neos Dionysos or Auletes, became king
of Egypt he died B.C. 52.
Ptolemy XIV., Dionysos II., banished his co-regent
Cleopatra VIL, Caesar arrived in Egypt to support Cleopatra,
and Ptolemy XIV. was drowned.
Ptolemy XV., brother of Cleopatra VIL, appointed her coregent he was murdered at her wish.
Ptolemy XVI., Caesarion, was nam^d co-regent.
Antony ordered Cleopatra to appear before him, and was
seduced by her charms he killed himself, and Cleopatra died
by the bite of an asp.
;
52
42
Death of
Cleopatra.
Romans.
27
Egypt becomes a
Roman
Province.
became master of the Roman Empire,

and Cornelius Callus the first prefect of Egypt under the
third prefect, Aelius Gallus, Candace, Queen of the Ethiopians,
invaded Egypt, but was defeated.
Caesar Augustus
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.
67
A.D.
Gcrmanicus went to Egypt, sailing

up the Nile from the city of Canopus to Thebes, where he
visited the temples of Luxor and Karnak, and heard the priest
read on the pylons the names of conquered nations which
Passing over to the other
still exist on them b}- the score.
side of the river, Tacitus tells us (II., 61) that he saw the
stone image of Memnon, which, when struck by the sun's
rays, gave out the sound of a human voice, and there is little
doubt that he visited the Tombs of the Kings, the Ramesseum
and the temples at Medinet Habu. He passed on to Syene,
where he visited the island of Elephantine, and either going
up or coming down the river, he saw Lake Moeris and the
In his reign
Tiberius.
14
Germanicus travels
through
Egypt.
Pyramids.
Caligula.
37
Claudius.
Nero.
41
In
his
Christianity
reign
was
The Blemmyes made
Egypt by Saint Mark.
preached
first
raids
in
upon the
southern frontier of Egypt.
Jerusalem destroyed, a.d. 70.

Domitian builds temples to Isis and Serapis at Rome.
The Amnis Trajanus, or canal which joined the
Trajan.
Nile and Red Sea, re-opened.
Vespasian.
He
Hadrian.
visited
Egypt
twice.
55
Blemmyes
invade
Egypt.
69
82
98
117
Marcus Aurelius.
161
Commodus.
180
Septimius Severus.
193
Caracalla visited Egypt, and caused a large
young men
number of
211
to be massacred in Alexandria.
Macrinus.
217
Elagabalus.
218
Decius.
249
Valerianus.
253
Zenobia,
Queen of Palmyra, invaded Egypt.

Zenobia dethroned
Aurelian.
268
A.D. 273.
270
Probus.
276
Diocletian.
"
Pompey's Pillar" erected
Martyrs
Diocletian's accession to the throne (August
Constantine the Great.
Copts
date
the
era
of
the
A.D.
from
302.
the
day
The
284
of
29).
324
F 2
68
337
Constantius.
379
Theodosius
I.,
the
Great,
proclaimed
Christianity
the
religion of his empire.
Byzantines.
Emperor
395
Arcadius,
408
Theodosius
450
In this reign Silco invaded Egypt, with his
Marcianus.
Nubian
followers.
474
Zeno.
481
Anastasius.
527
Justinian.
610
of the East.
II.
Heraclius expelled the Persians from Egypt after they
had held
it,
under Chosroes,
for ten years.
MUHAMMADANS.
638
Arab con-
*Amr
ibn el-'Asi conquers Egypt, and the country
a part of the
Muhammadan
becomes
empire for about nine hundred
quest of
Egypt.
1517
years.
Selim
I.,
of Constantinople,
Egypt becomes a Turkish

1798
Napoleon
deposes Tijman
Bey, and
Pashalik.
Bonaparte stormed Alexandria, battle of the

fleet destroyed off Abukir by the
Pyramids, and French

English.
1801
The French compelled by
1805
Muhammad
1848
Ibrahim Pasha.
1849
Death of
1854
Said Pasha.
'Ali
the English to evacuate Egypt.
appointed Pasha of Egypt.
Muhammad
During
'Ali.
his reign the
Bulak Museum was
founded, and the excavation of the Suez Canal began.

1863
1882
Ismail, son of Ibrahim Pasha, made Khedive.

Suez
Canal opened, 1869.
Massacre of Europeans at Alexandria, bombardment of
Egypt was occupied
the town by the English fleet in July
'Arabi
Pasha
and
defeated.
English
troops,
by
;
1883
1892
Murder of Gordon, and abandonment of the Sud^n.

English troops continue to occupy Egypt.
EGYPTIAN
IIISTORV.
69
List of Egyptian Dynasties and the Dates

assigned to them by egyptologists.
^'
From
Dynasty.
Lepsius.
Mariette.
Wilkinson.
Brugsch.
ChanipoUion
Figeac.
Thinis
3.892
5.867
5,004
2,320
4,400
II
Thinis...
5.615
4,751
2,300
4,133
III
Mempliis
3,639
1 iiQ
5,318
4,449
IV
Memphis
3.124
5.
121
4,23s
2,840
4,673
3,951
Memphis
Memphis
Memphis
2,744
4,425
3,703
2,592
4,222
3,500
2,522
4.147
3,500
Heracleopolis
2,674
4.047
3.358
Heracleopolis
2,565
3,947
3,249
XI
2,423
3,762
XII
XIII
Thebes
Thebes
Thebes
2,380
3,703
2,136
3,417
2,851
XIV
Chois
2,167
3,004
2,398
XV
(Shepherds)
...
2,101
2,520
XVI
(Shepherds)
...
1,842
2,270
1,684
2,082
1,591
1,822
1.443
1,269
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
XXI
Elephantim;
XXIV
3,061
...
2,214
3.966
3.766
3,566
3,300
3,100
2,500
2,466
2,233
1,830
1,740
1,800
1,651
1,703
1,575
1,700
1,473
1,462
1,269
1,400
1,279
1,288
1,170
1,200
1.091
1,101
1,110
1,068
1,100
Bubastis
961
971
966
787
85'
980
810
981
Tanis
908
766
Thebes
Thebes
Thebes
Thebes
\
'
XXII
XXIII
...
Tanis
Thebes
...
Sais
Ethiopia
729
762
721
812
733
XXV
Ethiopia
716
718
715
XXVI
Sais
685
674
665
773
664
700
666
Persia
525
Sais
525
524
404
398
406
525
414
408
405
XXVII
XXVIII
XXIX
XXX
XXXI
Mendes
Sebennytos
Persia
...
399
378
340
527
377
399
378
339
340
1 Kdnigsbuch, Berlin, 1858, Synoptische Tafeln,
taf.
2 L'Univers.
269.
Egypte Ancienne, Paris, 1839,
p.
II, pp.
387
399
378
340
340
4-8.
3 Notice des Principaiix Monuments du Musee a Boulaq^

4 The Ancient Egyptians, ed. Birch, 1878, Vol. I, p. 28
5 Egypt tinder the Pharaohs, ed. 1S80, Vol.
527
Paris, 1869, p. 15.

ff.
341-346.
M>
;o
LIST OF NOMESi
NOME.
CAPITAL.
.6.
r.
n r^-^^
Ta-kens
a^==o
'11
TT
lês-Heru
Tcbt
Ten
Nexeb
nr
o
Sent
Vast
-^
Uast
or
Hemi
,or
il^
Annu qemdt
Qeht
^J
Aati
Ta-en-tarert
Sechem
Het
Abtu
Abet
Amsu
Apu
Uat'et
Tebt
^--S-
9.
mIP
Sut
r^
12.
^^-^
An/VVV\
Shas-hetep
^
Tu-hef
Nut-enth-bak
Atef-chent
Saut
Atef-peh
Kes
nr
15-
-^
Un
^, or
1 1 1 1
D(^
'
See Brugsch, Diet. Geog.,
p.
Chemennu
1 1 1 1
1358,
f.
and Diimichen
LIST OF NOMES.
;i
JPPER EGYPT).
DEITY
GREEK NAME.
^\
:Llophantine
Chnemu
d
vpoUinopolis
magna
HeruBehuti't.
MM
uleithyia
Nexeb.
.atopolis, Esneli
Thebes,
or
A men-Ed
^
ÂAAA/^
^s.
êrmonthis
Menthu
AAAAAA
Amsu
ôptos
Tentyris
Het-Heni,
Hathor
Diospolis parva
Het-Heru,
Hathor
^bydos
An- her
Panopolis
Amsu
Aphroditopolis
Het-Heru.
Hypselis
^M
Chnemu
Heru,
iHieraconpolis
Lycopolis, Asyilt
Hermopolis
Meyer, Geschichte des alten Aegyptens,
Horus
Ap-nat
Cusae
in
Hathor
p. 24,
fT.
Het-Heru,
Hathor
Te/ntff\
Thoth
72
LIST
NOME.
16.
17-
4v;7"
OF NOME
CAPITAL.
Meh-inahet
Hebenu
^^
Ka-sa
Sepet
Het-bennu
im
Uab
.0.
Pa-inat'et
Am-chent
Suten-henen
i
1
Am-peh
Sendxent
Mdten
Tep-dJiet
'^5f^.
LIST OF
NOME.
CAPITAL.
A neb-he
I.
t'
'JÂ
Ad
3.
Anient
/^
I
Sept-res
5-
Sepi-ineht
Nut-e?it-Hdpi
Teqd
.t
t^^
^
Ka-set
Li the western part of this
Men-nefert
Sechem
^ o
4-
6.
NOMES
(2
o
Chasuut
IP (2
nome was
the
Salt
Fayûm,
p"^ -^ ^
Ta-shet.
LIST OF NOMliS.
73
-EGY?l)iOiitinuccl
(UPPER
DEITY.
GP.EEK NAME.
Hem,
Horns
Ati/>u,
Anubis
Hipponus
Anpu,
Anubis
Oxyrhynchus
Sut
Kynonpolis
\o<s.'k
Heracleopolis
Nilopolis
Magna
rTr~i
Her-sefiu
Chnemu
(?)
Het-Heru^
Aphroditopolis
Hathor
(LOWER EGYPT).
DEITY.
GREEK NAME.
Memphis
Ptah
Letopolis
Ileru
Horu
Het-Heru
Hathor
Apis
Amen-Ra
Nit
Sais
Amen-Rd
Chois
/VSAA/NA
See
J.
de Rouge, Geog. Ancienne de la Basse Egypte, Paris, 1851.
FUNEREAL ARCII/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.
74
LIST OF NOMES
NOME.
7-
8.
CAPITAL.
Wf
Nefer-Ament
^1
Nefer-Abet
Thekut
Ati (or Anet)
Pa-Ausdr
Ka-kam
II.
Q^
n ^
5.
RT
^^
Ka-Jubes
JP')^),
Het-ta-herdbt
Hebes-ka
c^
Teb-neter
14.
Sent-tiefert
c W
Jl
Theb-netert
Heq-dt
Annu
Chent-abt
Tdnt
Te/mti
err]
Pa-Tehuti
I
16.
^^^Îl
Char
Pa-ba-neb- Tettet
I
17-
ef^^
Behutet
Pa-chen-en-Avient
4^
Am-chent
Ani-peh
19.
?j'^jj
Pa-Bast
irzi
Pa-uaf
>o.
Sept
Pekes
LIST OK NOMES.
(LOWER
EGYVT)contifiuo/.
DEITY.
GREEt^ NAME.
I/u
Metelis
Sethroe
75
Atmu
(?)
Busiris
Ausiir
Athribis
Heni-chent-chathi
Kabasos
Auset
Sebennythos
An-her
Heliopolis
Rd
Tanis
Heru
Horus
Hermopolis
Tehuti
Thoth
Mendes
Ba-neb-Tettet
Amen-Rd
>iospolis
1
Bubastis
/SA/V^V\
1
1^
Bast
Duto
Uaf
Phakussa
Sept
Osiris
Isis
CARTOUCHES
LIST OF THE
OF THE PRINCIPAL
EGYPTIAN KINGS.
The
is
name
CZDI in which a
oval
written,
The
called cartoudie.
nomen, and the second the name
of a royal person
these are quite distinct
suten net, placed before the prenomen,
from his
titles.
means
King of the North and South," and
"
"
means
neb
Horus,"
I
"
4\^
Son of the Sun."
tarn, "
lord of
^2^
two
Other
lands,"
common
^^
Horus.
"lord of diadems,"
"^
The
title
beautiful god,''
is
oval contains the pre-
first
etc., etc.
titles
O
sc
Rd
are kz::7
r^^""!
" the golden
^.^
"mighty
^Û]
Pharaoh
bull,"
iliTlQ finds
its
^^,
origin in
or
nn'
In the early dynasties

pie
in
only.
form,
and
^ f^
consisted
In addition to the pre-
king often had what
was written
in
crzi
kings'
often of the
v_^
termed a
is
^^^ ^^' "great house."

names were very sim-
nomen
"
banner
a rectangular enclosure
Heru ka
-^^
great
ur peh pek,
ne'yt
of valour,"
Amenophis
"
formed the
1^
II.
mighty
banner
aa
name, which
Horus,
"
name
and
"
e.:
prenomen
"
bull,
name
'yeperu
of
Ka was
1^'^
his
prenomen
'l^^
Jietep
neter heq
Heliopolis,"
name had
C Amenophis,Hi
Aiuiu,
and
was
a meaning, but
to translate.
"
his
god, prince of
name.
many
Avien-
Each prenomen and
of these are very difficult
CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS.
Dynasty*
^
V ^^^
L,
from Thinis,
4400.
b.c.
v)
Mena.
Hesep-ti.
;]
Mer-ba-pen.
Teta.
Semen -Ptah.
AteO.
4.
\% c^-^
Qebh.
Ata.
Dynasty
IT.,
from Thinis,
13.
r.c.
4133.
^\
Neter-baiu.
4^
10.
Senta.
^4-
4=^
Ka-kau.
Per-ab-sen.
.5.
Ba-en-neter.
m (TTj
77
.6.
M
M
Nefer-ka-Ra.t
El
Nefer-ka-seker.
Uat'-nes.
17.
u J^
,
^\
l^\M
Het'efa.
* Manetho's grouping of the kings into dynasties
venience
t Though
read
last.
is
only used here for con-
the ancient Egyptians had no such division.
Ra
is
generally placed
first
in the cartouche,
it is
generally to be
78
Dynasty
ci
i^
blil
from Memphis,
III.,
b.c.
m(-^n
Kjfl
Sct'es.
Tat'ai.
19.
3966.
mC^^l
MCM_li]
Neb-ka.
Serteta.
\=^
<=
Ahtes.
Ser.
man
Neb-ka-Ra.
Teta.
CHS]
-mcîm] ^
Nefer ka-Ra,
Dynasty
IV.,
son of the Sun,
Huni,
from Memphis,
b.c.
3766.
31-
]
Tet-f-Ra.
Seneferu.
,8.
m r^]^]
Shepses-ka-f.
xufu.
(Cheops.)
29.
MC^^j
Sebek-ka-Ra.
xa-f-Ra.
(Chephren.)
30.
^ Ce^LIUj
Men-kau-Ra.
(Mycerinus.
34.
lkg^l
I-em-hetep.
Dynasty
V.,
from Elephantine,
m (JED
^'-
m C^V)
uuy
Kakaa
Nefer-ka-ari-Ra, son of the Sun,
3S.
M(ZE]
M SD
O
Nefer-f-Ra,
39.
bc. 3366.
Sah u-Ra.
Usr-ka-f.
'
CiM^jj]
Shepses-ka-Ra.
son of the Sun,
du
Nefer-xa-Ra,
Heru-a-ka-u
son of the Sun,
4c
Usr-en-Ra,
An.
son of the Sun,
"iii'
41.
i,
ULJ
Men-kau Heru.
M r ÎTj ^ Q
m îPl
O
42.
son of the Sun,
Tet-ka-Ra,
43.
Dynasty
- !4
VI.,
from Memphis,
CaU
Teta
Assa.
Unas.
p..c.
3266.
c
or
79
Teta-mer-en-Ptah.
(Tela beloved of Ptah.)
So
45.
(ZTFu]
Usr-ka-Ra,
46.
son of the Sun,
Ati.
^^
11
Meri-Ra,
47.
son of the Sun,
Pepi
(I.).
m-"N
;'
^:
Mer-en-i\.a,
48.
^^
son of the Sun,
-'"
Uil - CUD
Nefer-ka-Ra,
49.
son of the Sun,
Pepi
(II.).
I
Ra-mer-en-se (?)-em-sa-f
51
Heru-em-sa-f.
|\^ ("o
Neter-ka-Ra.
g u]
Men-ka-Ra,
son of the Sun,
Netaqerti,
(Nitocris.)
Dynasties VII. and VIIL, from Memphis Dynasties

IX. and X., FROM HeRACLEOPOLIS, B.C. 3IOO.
;
52.
m
m G^lEI
^-
Nefer-ka.
53-
%ar0i.
57-
Nefer-seh ....
54
m(jT}Zi
Nefer-ka-Ra.
M CÎtJl l
M Quo^
Nefer-ka-Ra-Nebi.
Ab.
55
m Cîll
M]
Nefer-kau-Ra
59.
Tet-ka-Ra-maa
M(3^P|
Nefer- ka
Ra
îi
Mer-en-Heru.
xentu.
Se-nefer-ka-Ra.
Senefer-ka.
63-
l\
Ka-en-Ra.
a.
m^
Nefer-ka-Ra-annu.*
Qus-]
Nefer-ka-Ra-t-rer-1
^-
68.
III
Nefer-kau-Ra.
(?).
m CHu]
ÎW
'^'MC
Nefer-ka-Heru.
8i
Nefer-kau-Heru.
m C^Kixj
70
Nefer-ka-Ra-Pepi-senb.
Nefer -ka-ari-Ra.
Dynasty XL, from Thebes.
Erpaf
72.
f^
Ql
Ciz]
71.
i]
Antef.
* After this
name
the tablet of
^\|
75-
Antef (?).
Men-[tu-hetep].
-^dE]
/VNAAAA
Antef.
Antef.
76
iCE]
1
Neter
nefer,
Antef.
Beautiful god,
Antef.
Abydos had
*l^
!a
lil
kau-Ra
t Erpa, usually translated "hereditary prince" or "duke,"
....
is
one of the
oldest titles of nobility in Egypt.
B.
M.
82
>
O
77.
V
Son of the k
r
^"'^^^
Sun
Nub-xeper-Ra,
So.
s CM3
FS=^
79
Son of the
An-aa.
Sun
son of the Sun,
Antuf.
îj
Aha-Heru-Ra-apu-maat, son of the Sun, Antuf-aa.
m CMS33
O
son of the Sun,
Aha-renpit-Ra-aput-maat,
Antef-aa.
Tet-Ra-her-her-maat, son of the Sun,

S3.
M QlECI
85.
|\^ (ô j p
3.
1^
Ra
m
88.
ÂAAAA
Ci
Menû-hetep
D
(L).
M r-^s=^^
Se-Ra-Men0-hetep
C^^l
Neb-nem-Ra.
Son of the Sun,
89.
^^
Usr-en-Ra.
Senefer-ka-Ra.
87.
Antef.
(II.)
[o]
AAAA/V\
Neb-hetep-Ra,
O
Neb-taiu-Ra,
S^
son of the Sun, Men^-hetep
'
(III.).
r^^^^
s^
son of the Sun, Men^-hetep (IV.).
91
\'.
83
Neb-xeru-Ra,
son of the Sun, Men^-hetep (V.).
Se-anx-ka-Ra.
Dynasty
from Thebes,
XII.,
-9
Sehetep-ab-Ra,
94
xeper-ka-Ra,
95-
Nub-kau-Ra,
96.
^Vfe
U
son of the Sun,
xa-kau-Ra,
son of the Sun,
J^
(I.).
.^
r^""^
Amen-em-hat
\^
xeper-xa-Ra,
(I.).
^^"^'^^
Usertsen
son of the Sun,
son of the Sun,
Maat-en-Ra,
99-
Amen -em-hat
\^
m(^^S\
2466.
son of the Sun,
ml
b.c.
'^^'^^
(II.).
Usertsen (IL).
Usertsen
(III.).
son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat (III.)

r*^^^
:f]
Maa-xeru-Ra,
\%
son of the Sun,
Amen-em-hat
^^m l
Sebek neferu - Ra.
G2
(IV.).
84
Dynasty
XIII.,
MC^^S]
2233.
b.c.
103.
Ik^^l
XU-taiu-Ra.
xerp-ka-Ra.
em -hat.
Sehetep-ab-Ra.
M CCI]
Auf-na.
.6.
1^
gj
Seanx-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Ameni-Antef-Amen-em-hat.
'7.
^\^
Rs^l
Semen-ka-Ra.
.08.
^\^
Net'em-ab-Ra.
Q^]
Ci
109.
C3
Sehetep-ab-Ra.
/I
Sebek-[hete]p-Ra.
Mdm]
?iri
Ren
ka.
m (^^^ m\
M
113-
t>^
Set'ef
"4.
=?^
Ra.
rQ
D^
Ra-xerp (?)-xu-taiu Sebek-hetep

..5
\% r^psiui
Semenx-ka-Ra,
6.
||(oTpTg
-?
(I.).
O
J\
son of the Sun,
Mer-menfitu.
(QMU
xerp-seuat'-taiu-Ra, sonof the Sun, Sebek-hetep (XL).
xa-seshesh-Ra, son of the Sun,
Nefer-hetep.
^mGHS]
Ra-het
.9.
|\|
-2
[oaj]
ClM]
son of the Sun,
se,
Het-Heru-se.
r^
85
xa-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (III.)
i:;o.
|(0S^
OS
:k\^
son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (IV.).
xa-hetep-Ra,
mi-tw^Mi
iû]
LA
Uah-ab-Ra-aa-ab.
Q
!JJ
xaa-xeru-Ra.
123.
Neb-f-a(?)a-mer-Ra.
124.
Nefer ab-Ra.
125-
M(Z3]
son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (V.).
xa-anx-Ra,
'
(^S\^
m Gîl
Mer-xerp-Ra.
.37.
m ro=^
Men-xau-Ra,
son of the Sun,
Anab.
86
--l
^(311]
xerp-uat'-xau-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-em-sa-f
9-
m (4iF2i=1
(I.)
xerp-seset-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-em-sa-f

,30.
\%
gpte]
.3..
m (eii^jgi
Sesusr-taiu-Ra,
3.
(II.).
xerp(?)-Uast-Ra.
^ff^l
son of the Sun,
xerp-uah-xa-Ra,
Ra-hetep.
Dynasty XIV.
M (30
Ai
Mer-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun,
134-
Mer-hetep-Ra,
m CoPfSPIg]
M (oStl
- M CM]
son of the Sun,
37.
35.
M (3SI
m fcsU]
Seuat'-en-Ra,
Seanxensehtu - Ra.
3S-
>38.
xa-ka-Ra.
Mer-xerp-Ra-an-ren.
Ka-meri-Ra.
Ana.
neter nefer.
C5S1
Mer-kau-Ra.
141.
Seheb-Ra.
Sta-ka-Ra.
Mer-t'efa- Ra.
Neb-t'efa-Ra
Ra
(sic).

44.
m C^j|3
1^]
47.
Uben-Ra.
45.
.46.
87
Seuah- en-Ra.
^XWl
48.
c^
1^]
^ V
Her-ab-Ra.
Sexeper-en-Ra.
1^ Ci^PTTT]
49.
m (Mil)
Neb- sen -Ra.
Tet-xeru-Ra.
Dynasty XV., "Shepherd Kings."

o
Aa-peh-peh-Set, son of the Sun,
Nub-Set
(?).
Abeh (?) - en - x^pes.
.... Banan.
Apepa.
Dynasty XVI., "Shepherd Kings."

o
154-
=====
Neter nefer
Aa-ab-taiu-Ra,
dim
Apepa.
son of the Sun,
Beautiful god.
1
or
AAAAA"
neter nefer
Aa-qenen-Ra.
Dynasty XVII., from Thebes
"
M C ôl
Seqenen-Ra,
-9
o
III
son of the Sun,
^^
1=
Tau-aa.
FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT
88
1 O
I
Seqenen-Ra,
57.
mC
son of the Sun,

-9
1^
II
/\AAA/V\
y1
Seqenen-Ra,
.3.
Tau-aa-aa.
Tau-aa-qen.
son of the Sun,
c^m
u
I
HD
Kames.
son of the Sun,
Uat'-xeper-Ra,
AAAAAA
159-
Suten hemt
Royal
.ô.
Aah-hetep.
wife.
^ (^
Aah-mes-se-pa-ari.
Dynasty XVI 1 1., from Thebes,

.<>.
M S (ZWi
Neb-peh-peh-Ra,
1700.
b.c.
o
(H
Aahmes.
son of the Sun,
(Amasis
162.
Neter hemt
J^-^
I.)
\s
Aah-mes-nefert-ari.
Divine wife.
Ca
i=
^j
Ser-ka-Ra,
_/_]
\^^
son of the Sun,
AAAAAA
i:^
U
Aa-êper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun,
>^
Amen-hetep.
(Amenophis
,64.
'-'
I.)
MB
Tehuti-mes.
(Thothmes
I.)

16 5.
89
Mil3
Aa-xeper-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Nefer-xau-Tehuti-mes.

(Tliothmes
Mat-ka-Ra,
II.)
son of the Sun, Hat -shepset-xnem- Amen.

(Queen Hatshepsu.)
'67.
1^
ro^^j
ffip
Men-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun,
Tehuti-mes.
(Thothmes
III.)
1^""^
,68.
1-
^1
Aa-xeperu-Ra,
.69.
III]
Amen-hetepneterheq Annu,
son of the
^""'
(Amenophis
II.)
MM)
If]
Men-xeperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes xa-xSu(Thothmes IV.)
f^n^
170.
^1
Neb-mat-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep heq-Uast.

(Amenophis
171
III.)
\^h^4
Suten hemt
6i.
(The Mesopotamian wife of Amenophis
III.)
172.
Nefer-xeperu-Ra-ua-en-Ra, son of the Sun,
or
x^-en-Aten.
Amen-hetep neter
heq Uast.
(Amenophis IV.)
90
Suten hemt
Royal wife,
174.
^\#^
urt
Nefer-neferu-aten Neferti-i0.
great lady.
ÎjÛJ
mn
Anx-xeperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Seaa-ka-next-xeperu-Ra.
175-
1^(33 ^ OlSiKI
m c^fiiî ^
Neb-xeperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tut-anx-Amen heq Annu resu
.76.
(?).
(oiîffrfi
Xeper-xeperu-mat-ari-Ra, son of the Sun, Atf-neter Ai neter heq Uast.
177.
Ser-xeperu-Ra-setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-meri-en-Heru-em-heb.
Dynasty XIX., from Thebes,
m CSS
-9
b.c.
1400.
PTO
Men-pehtet-Ra, son of the Sun,
Ra-messu.
(Rameses L)
...;^g^3
GMIH
Men-mat-Ra, son of the Sun,
Ptah-meri-en-Seti.
(Seti
m GHS]
Usr-mat-Ra setep-en-Ra, son
^
of the
Sun,
L)
QM
Ra-messu-meri-Amen.
(Rameses IL)
Suten hemt
Royal
wife.
Auset-nefert.
Suten mut
Royal mother.
Tui.
91
m CMi^l (H
O
'^3-
Ba-Ra-meri-en-Amen, son of the Sun,
Ptah-meri-en-hetepher-mat.
(Meneplah
I.)
IPPH]
Men-ma-Ra
85.
Amen-meses-heq-Uast.
(Amen-meses.)
setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun,
cim
m CUhPI
Usr-xeperu-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun,
Seti-meri-en-Ptah.
(Seti II).
-mGHS]
m OHSI
XU-en-Ra setep-en-Ra,
(MTm).
son of the Sun,
Ptah-meri-en-se-Ptah.
(Meneptah
II.)
-'
.t-J-
Usr-xau-Ra setep-en-Ra son of the Sun,

meri-Amen,
Ra-meri Amen-merer
Set-ne;(;t.
(Set-Next.)
Dynasty XX., from Thebes,
'-
m RiEl
b.c.
1200.
M^H
f o
Usr-mat-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun,
(Rameses
Usr-mat-Ra setep-en-
son of the Sun,
III.)
Ra-meses-meri-Amen-
Ra heq
Amen,
Ra-raeses-heq-Annu.
mat.
(Rameses IV.)
Usr-mat-Ra s-xeper- son

en-Ra,
of the Sun,
Ra-mes-meri-Amen-Amen
suten-f.
(Rameses V.)
92
m (JHSJi
Ra-Amen-mat-
Ra-Amen-meses neter
heq Annu,
son of the Sun,
meri-neb,
(Rameses VI.
o^
(li^fnr
Ra-Amen-meses-ta-neter-
son of the Sun,
Ra-usr-Amen-meri-
heq-Annu.
setep-en-Ra,
(Rameses VIL)
193-
mm
i^Gili
son of the Sun,
Ra-mat-usr-xu-en-
Ra-Amen-meses-meri-
Amen.
Anien,
(Rameses VIII.)
,4.
^ rn^n(]"j ^ rM^n
X^
^^Ff
Neb
QUI
Q îwvAAA^
S-\a-en-Ra Meri-
ta
Amen,
Lord of the
V^ gl
neb xau
Rameses-se-Ptah.
lord of crowns,
(Rameses IX.)
land,
.95.
s^
l\
111
?v,Ayv\AA
Nefer-kau-Ra
_7Ij
im-
Ra-meses-merer-Amen-
son of the Sun,
setep-en-Ra,
x^-'Uast
(?).
(Rameses X.)
196.
Ra-xeper-mat setep-
son of the Sun,
or-o
1P
I
aâ
Amen.
O^rppl
Usr-mat-Ra setepnu-Ra,
(?)
(Rameses XI.)
en-Ra,
197.
Ra-mes suten
son of the Sun,
Amen
mer-Ra-meses.
(Rameses XII.)
"""'
vi
Men-mat- Ra
setep-en-Ra,
son of the Sun,
Ra-meses-merer-Amen xa
Uast (?) neter heq Annu.
(Rameses XIII.)
Dynasty XXL, from Tanis,
93
iico.
b.c.
I.
O
199.
C)
Amen,
Ci
Se-Mentu meri-Ra,
son of the Sun,
Ra-neter-xeper setep-en
(Se-Mentu.)
gQ
son of the Sun, Amen-meri Pa-seb-xa-nu.
Ra-aa-xeper setep-
(Pasebxanu
en-Mentu,
I.)
v._
son of the Sun,
Aa-seh-Ra,
CUM]
~)
Setep-en-Mentu-Ra,
son of the Sun,
Meri-]\Ientu-Amen
em-apt.
(Amenemapt.)
203.
mqhci ^
Het' heq
son of the Sun,
osEa
Meri-Amen Pa-seb-xa-nu.
(Pasebxanu
Dynasty XXL, from Thebes,
II.)
iico
b.c.
H
204.
MQEH]
o
Neter-hen-hetep en-
1 1
-Q
first
C)
Jitb
(Her-Heru.)
of
Amen,
i^
j^XLLLUj
Neter hen hetep en

Prophet
mm
Her-Heru-se-Amen.
son of the Sun,
Amen,
Prophet
11
Â/WV^
first
of
Amen
Pa
an^
Amen
Pa
anx.
94
m cwu
-'
Pai-net'em
207.
(I.).
son of the Sun,
Xeper-xa-Ra-setep-
AAAA/V\
net'em
mut
Suten
209.
of
(II.).
Hent-taiu.
Hent - taiu.
Royal mother,
first
^0
Amen-meri-Pai-
en- Amen,
Prophet
xV~\
Amen,
ra
Masaher^.
O
Prophet
first,
Men-;^;eper-Ra, child Royal,
Amen-meri Pai-net'em.
!
Neter hen hetep en
Prophet
first
Amen-Ra, Pai-nat'em
(HI.).
Amen-Ra.
of
Suten hemt Mat-ka Ra.

Royal
wife.
Dynasty XXII., from Bubastis,

213.
I
Xeper-sexet-Ra
son of the Sun,
M-Q
-O
Xerp-êper-Ra,
setep-en-Ra,
Amen-meri-Shashanq.
(Shashanq
setep-en-Ra,
-4.
b.c. 966.
I.)
eof]^^
son of the Sun,
Amen-meri Uasarken.
(Osorkon
I.)
aaH ^
Het'-Ra-setep-en-Amen
son of the
neter heq Uast,
Sun,
r^"^^
95
niMD
Amen-meri Auset-meri
dekeled.
(Takeleth
.0.
I.)
m (^1=^1
Ra-usr-mat setep-en-
Amen-meri Uasarken.
son of the Sun,
Amen,
(Osorkon
Amen-meri Shash[anq].
son of the Sun,
Xeper-sexem-Ra
setep-en-Amen,
II.)
(Shashanq
Amen-Ra-meri Auset-
son of the Sun,
Het'-xeperu-Ra
II.)
meri SekeleO.
setep-en-Ra,
(Takeleth.)
219.
M(323
CB?|mm^
1-
son of the Sun, Amen-meri-se-Bast Shasha[n]q.
Usr-mat-Ra
(Shashanq III.)
setep-en-Ra,
m(33
Usr-mat-Ra setepen-Amen,
Dynasty
XX
ra
1 1 1.,
Amen-meri Pa-mai.
son of the Sun,
(Pa-mai.)
from Tanis,
e.g.
766
Se-her-ab-Ra,
son of the Sun,

-?
Aa-xeper-Ra
setep-en-Amen,
son of the Sun,
Peta-se-Bast
iOsI^ WVAAA vU
[J^ ^
-'ij^
Ra-Amen-meri Uasarkena.
(Osorkon
III.)
96
Dynasty XXIV., from
Uah-ka-Ra,
Sais, b.c. 733.
son of the Sun,
Bakenrenf.
Dynasty XXIV., from Ethiopia,
Suten
Kasta.
King
Kashta.
Men-xeper-Ra,
son of the Sun,
b.c.
733.
P-anxi.
^^xixu,
'.6.
1}
Df
Amen-meri P-anxi, son
of the Sun,
Dynasty XXV., from Ethiopia,

-7.
|\^
P-anxi-
b.c. 700.
QhI ^ (mû
Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun,
Shabaka.
(Sabaco.
^8.
mG
Tet-kau-Ra,
229.
u1
u
Shabataka
son of the Sun,
Bi(35]
Ra-nefer-tem-xu,
ra
son of the Sun,
zi
Tahrq.
(Tirhakah.)
Neter nefer
God
beautiful,
Usr-mat-Ra setepen-Amen,
lord of
two
lands,
Amenrut.
Dynasty XXVI., from
97
Sais, b.c. 666.
-M(351
Uah-ab-Ra, son of the Sun,
QSH
Psemêk.
(Psammetichus
'''
1^
C3X3
Nem-ab-Ra,
Nekau.
son of the Sun,
(Necho
233-
^(3
D n
>1
Nefer-ab-Ra,
II.)
Psemêk.
son of the Sun,
(Psammetichus
.34.
%%
(333
Haa-ab-Ra,
I.)
II.)
ll\
son of the Sun,
Uah ab-Ra.
(Apries.
35.
\% (o
V
=
-=
^^y
?(3 !
xnem-ab-Ra, son of the Sun,
Ahmes-se-net.
(Amasis
,36.
\^ fo* U
Anx-ka-en-Ra, son of the Sun,
II.)
D n
Psem6?ek.
(Psammetichus III.)
Dynasty XXVII. (Persian),
3^
527.
CrDH
n C3EH1
Mesu0-Ra,
b.c.
son of the Sun,
Kembaêt.
(Cambyses.
B.
M.
98
'
3--
COM]
m Gk\1
O
son of the Sun,
Settu,
Antariusha.
(Darius Hystaspes.)
239-
-^^
Mflf)
Lord of two
xshaiarsha.
lands,
(Xerxes the Great.)
t.t.t^
-2:^
240.
ck
Artaxshashas.
(Artaxerxes.)
241.
11
cm]
Sis,
Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun,
Anêrirutsha.
(Darius Xerxes.)
Dynasty XXVIII., from
Sais.
IW
o
242.
TTD
V.
=,
Senen-en-Ptah-Mentu-
son of the Sun,
(âbbesha.)
setep,
Dynasty XXIX., from Mendes,

.
o^tfjl
1-
Ba-en-Ra neteru-
son of the Sun,
b.c.
399.
Niafaaurut.
meri,
=44.
m (gê
"^
xnem-mat-Ra, son of the Sun,
Ra-usr-Ptah-setep-en,
son of the Sun,
m^s^ ]
Haker.
ES
Psemut.
Dynasty XXX. from Sebennytus,
378.
Next-Heru-hebt-meri-
son of the Sun,
S-net'em-ab-Ra
b.c.
99
Amen.
setep-en-Amen,
(Nectanebus
247-
^^\l
G/WVSAA
i]^
I.)
Q ^ jg^
son of the Sun,
xeper-ka-Ra,
Next-neb-f.
(Nectanebus
II.)
Dynasty XXXI.,* Persians.

Dynasty XXXII., Macedonians,
b.c.
332.
(5Str D
Setep-ka-en-Ra-meri- son of the Sun,
Aleksantres.
Amen,
(Alexander the Great.)
249.
1fl5^H1^f]P
neb
taiu
Setep-en-Ra- son of the Sun,
Phiuliupuas.
meri-Amen,
(Philip Aridaeus.
-M31]
Ra-haa-ab-setep-
^'
CEEi]
son of the Sun,
Aleksantres.
en-Amen,
(Alexander IV.)
Dynasty XXXIII., Ptolemies,

?
251
SSI]
^.
Setep-en-Ra-meri-
son of the Sun,
Amen,
^s^-
b.c. 305.
Ptulmis.
(Ptolemy
Neter mut,
Bareniket.
(Berenice
is
Soter
I.)
-^ (*
Divine Mother
The word "dynasty"
I.
I.)
retained here for convenience of classification.
ICX)
Amen,
Ra-usr-ka-meri
son of the Sun,
Ptulmis.
(Ptolemy IL Philadelphus.)
Sutenet
set
suten
Royal daughter, royal
sent
sister,
255set
Royal daughter,
hemt neb
Arsanat.
taiu
(Arsinoe).
QEMI]
iz
]
Suten
suten
royal wife, lady of the two lands
suten sent
Pilatra.
royal sister
(Philotera).
n
Neteru-senu-ua-en-Ra-setep-Amen-;êrp (?)-en-anx, son of the Son,
fiaiflfSlIi
Ptualmis an^
Ptolemy (IIL Euergeles L),
257
y\
Ptah meri
living for ever, beloved of Ptah.
Qq^s^M^g]
Heqt
t'etta
nebt
Barenikat.
taiu,
Princess, lady of the
two
(Berenice II.)
lands,
Neteru-menx-ua-[en]-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-usr-ka-Amen-x;erp
son of the Sun,
Ptualmis anx
t'etta
Suten
set
suten
Royal daughter,
an^,
Auset meri.
Ptolemy (IV. Philopator,) living
'O
(?)
for ever, beloved of Isis.
"Ssj^
sent
hemt
urt
nebt
taiu
royal sister,
wife,
great lady,
lady
of the two lands,
^^lE
Arsinai.
Arsinoe
(III., wife
of Philopator
I.).
260.
mm
AA-^^V^
lOI
Neteru-meri-ua-en-Ptah-setep-Ra-usr-ka-Amen-xerp-an^f,
CM^mîi
Ptualmis anx t'etia Ptah meri.

Ptolemy (V. Epiphanes) living for ever, beloved of Ptah.
son of the Sun,
261. Ptolemy VI. Eupator, wanting,
262
^f]&1^
Suten set
sen
hemt
Qlauaperat.
Royal daughter,
sister,
wife,
(Cleopatra I.)
-3.
m (m^M33iM)i
Netcru-xu (?)-ua-Ptah-xeper-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari-mat
Ptualmis anx
son of the Sun,
Ptolemy (VII. Philometor
1-^
264.
Sutenet set
suten
sent
Royal daughter,
royal
sister,
Ptah meri.
beloved of Ptah.
I.), living for ever,
hemt suten
wife,
t'etta
(?),
royal
mut
neb
mother,
taiu
lady of the two lands,
^Mi]^\ ^
^
Qlauapetrat.
(Cleopatra II. wife of Philometor
265.
Ptolemy VIII. Philopator
ciô
Neteru-xu
Ml
(?)
A^^/v^
II.
I.)
wanting.
^^ -<S>- M Jg
All K
ua-en-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari-mat xerp anx,
GSMBMi ^
1
son of the Sun,
Ptualmis anx
Ptolemy (IX. Euergetes
t'etta
Ptah meri.
II.), living for ever,
beloved of Ptah.
I02
267.
CIS
Suten net
King of North and South,
two lands,
lord of
l!
1^
Neteru-menx-mat-s-meri-net-ua-Ptah-xerp (?)-setep-en-Ra-
Amen-ari-mat,
o o
M^^m^ll^^
III
Ra-se
Son
neb
Ptualmis anx
x^-u
t'etta
Ptah meri.
Ptolemy X. (Soter IL Philometor
of the Sun, lord of
II.)
diadems,
268.
Neleru-menx-ua-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari-mat-
Suten net,
King
mm
R i>
("f|f1^^l
of North and
senen-Ptah-anx-en,
South,
Ptualmis t'etu-nef Aleksentres anx
son of the Sun,
Ptolemy (XI.) called
is
t'etta
Ptah meri.
he Alexander, living for ever,
beloved of Ptah.
J69.
Io
\>
\>
neb
Heqt
Princess, lady of
^;
iJMiH
Erpa-ur-qebh-Baaarenekat.
taiu
two lands,
Berenice (III.)
270. Ptolemy XII. (Alexander II. ), wanting,
271.
4.
IMVA
P-neter-n-ua-enti-nehem-Ptah-setep-en-ari-mat-en-
Ra-Amen-xerp-anx,
.f{^m:2iiuzt^^
Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah Auset meri.
Ptolemy (XIII.), living for ever, beloved of Isis and Ptah.
son of the Sun,
Neb
Lady
of
Qlapetrat t'ettu-nes Trapenet
taiu
two
103
Cleopatra (V.), called
lands,
is
she Tryphaena.
273-
f,
Heqt
274-
Qluapeter.
taiu
Queen
of two lands,
Cleopatra (VI.).
-S^
<lQj
neb
Suten net
King of North and
Ptualmis
taiu
Ptolemy (XIV.),
two lands,
lord of
South,
jOj
.^^
Ra
se
neb
son of the Sun,
CS^lMlffl
Kiseres anx t'etta Ptah Auset meri.
;(âa
lord of diadems,
Isis
Dynasty XXXIV.,
^^^
of
North and
^T^
b.c.
27.
.S^ A
neb
taiu
Auteqreter
lord of
two lands,
Autocrator,
Suten net
King
beloved.
Roman Emperors,
- =
Ôs
275-
Ptah and
Caesar, living for ever, of
South,
?Q
Ra
se
Sun's son,
-ef^!ii:l
Ql
neb xû
lord of crowns,
Kiseres anx t'etta Ptah Auset meri.

Ciesar (Augustus), living for ever,
of Ptah and Isis beloved.
276.
ds
Suten net neb taiu
(g^ A
QUI
Auteqreter
Autocrator,
Ra
se
son of the Sun,
fÂ
Tebaris Kiseres
an;;^ t'etta.
Tiberius Caesar living for ever.
neb
;âu
lord of diadems.
104
277-
Heq hequ
Autekreter Ptah Auset-meri
King of kings, Autocrator, of Ptah and
son of the Sun,
beloved.
Isis
%t^^^qpr^--Toi.i! -y
Qais Kaiseres Kermeniqis.
Gaius (Caligula) Csesar Germanicus.
C^-
?Os
"^^^^
Suten net
neb
278.
",'_,
.
:]
Auteqreter Kiseres
taiu
Autocrator Caesar,
SGXCi
III
Ra
se
Sun's son,
Qlutes Tibaresa.
lord of crowns.
Claudius Tiberius.
279.
^
neb
King
of North and
QUI
neb y^M
Sun's son,
280.
taiu
two
II
Heq
hequ-setep-en-Auset meri Ptah
Ruler of rulers, chosen one of
Isis,
beloved of Ptah.
lands,
:S*
Ra
\>
lord of
South,
se
IH]
%au
neb
(3 (3
f\
/wwvvNI
Autekreter Anrani.
(Autocrator Nero).
lord of crowns,
Ctl?
vU^
Merqes Au6'unes (Marcus Otho).
^1^^^ S
^^^17
Sun's son,
III
lord of crowns,
Kiseres netx Autukreter.

Csesar
281. Vitellius (wanting).
....
Autocrator.
CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS,
105
*a
Suten net
Autukretur Kisares
(?)
Autocrator Ca-sar,
"^
(^
G
Suten net
Uspisines netx
(?)
Vespasianus
283.
<0
WAutekretur Tetis Keseres.

Autocrator Titus Caesar,
(iDQ
Sun's son,
284.
lord of crowns.
Uspesines net^.
Vespasianus ....
<iQs
Autukretur Kiseres.
Autocrator Csesar,
nD^':^
Sun's son,
lord of crowns.
Tumetines net^.
Domitianus ....
285.
w<^
(^
(ac^^p.
Autukreter Kiseres.
son of the Sun,
Autocrator Ctesar.
Neruas netx.
Nerva
286.
Cb
(3,
'^^Qd p
Autukreter Kaiseres Neruaui.

Autocrator Csesar Nerva,
io6
(IQ^'^fld
^(2.
the Sun's son,
Traianes net^ Arsut Kermineqsa Ntekiqes.
lord of crowns,
(Augustus) Germanicus.
Trajan
Dacicus.
11333
^Q5
287.
2n
,D ci
s
s
Autukreter Kiseres Trinus.

Autocrator Cassar Trajan,
S
the Sun's son, lord of crowns,
Atrines netxHadrian
Suten hemt
Sabinat
Royal wife,
Sabina,
505 ^r^7 King
(^^(gp^'
Sebesta an^
t etta.
Sebaste living for ever.
of the North and South, lord of the world.
fTPr]HPr^qp>d
Autukreter Kiseres Oites Alis Atrins.

Autocrator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus,
V_-^
S
2
the Sun's son,
OS 11o*JR^plrr^l^s
Antunines Sebesêsus Bans netixui.
lord of crowns,
Os
290.
Antoninus Augustus Pius
"Tk
nn
"^
**
(^
Autekreter Kaiseres.
Autocrator Caesar,
y s2
the Sun's son,

lord of crowns,
GSSMiS^Sl]
Aurelais Antanines netx
Aurelius Antoninus,
....
anx
t'etta,
living for ever.
3^
CARTOUCHES OF EGVrTIAN KINGS.
291.
W\ CM)
Autekreter
Kesers
Luki
Autocrator
Cffisar
Lucius
(vSD
EEJ
Uara anx
Aulli
Aelius
292.
t'etta.
Venis, living for ever.
CEMK
?Qs
Autekretirs Kisaures
Autocrator Csesar,
O sss
the Sun's son, lord of crowns,
Kamtaus
A-en-ta-nins netex-
Commodus. Antoninus
-2ia.
93. Autocrator Csesar
(^
^^
\\
'^1
"^^^/^^
Sauris netx.
Severus ....
294.
Autocrator Csesar
^-v^^
^^^
Antanenes netxAntoninus [Caracalla] ....
ao
Kat
~M
"^^ZLJ
netix-
Geta
M ^ "^^
5^
^^
Taksas netxDecius
107
io8
The Rosetta Stone ^ and the Stele of Canopus.
Finding
of the
Rosetta
Stone.
The following remarks upon the decipherment of the

Egyptian hieroglyphics may be fitly introduced by a description of the remarkable objects of antiquity whose names
stand at the head of this chapter.
The Rosetta Stone is a slab of black basalt, which is
now preserved in the British Museum (Egyptian Gallery,
No. 24). It was found by a French artillery officer called
Boussard, among the ruins of Fort Saint Julien, near the
Rosetta mouth of the Nile, in 1799, but subsequently came
possession
the
into
of
the
capitulation of Alexandria.
British
Government
It is inscribed
at
the
with fragments of
14 lines of hieroglyphics, 32 lines of demotic, and 54 lines of

portion of the stone has been broken off from the
Greek.
and the right-hand bottom corner has also suffered injury.

We may arrive
It now measures 3 ft, 9 in. x 2 ft. 4iin. x i lin.
at an idea of the original size of the Rosetta Stone by comparing the number of lines upon it with the number of those
upon the Stele of Canopus, which is inscribed in hieroglyphic,
demotic and Greek, measures 7ft. 2in. x 2ft. 7in. x ift. 2in.,
and is inscribed with 36 lines of hieroglyphics, 73 lines of
demotic, and 74 lines of Greek. The demotic inscription is
on the edge of the stele. This stele was set up at Canopus
top,
Stele of
Canopus
and
Rosetta
Stone
compared.
in the ninth
(B.C.
247
year of the reign of Ptolemy
priesthood, assembled from
the
III.,
Euergetes
I.
222), to record the decree made at Canopus by the
king.
It
all
records the
parts of Egypt, in honour of
great
benefits
which
he
had
conferred upon Egypt, and states what festivals are to be

celebrated in his honour, and in that of Berenice,
etc.,
and,
like the Rosetta Stone, concludes with a resolution ordering
that a copy of this inscription in hieroglyphics, Greek and
every large temple in Egypt.
demotic, shall be placed
in
Now
inscribed with 32 lines of demotic,
the Rosetta Stone
is
and the Stele of Canopus with 73 but as the lines on the

Rosetta Stone are rather more than double the length of
those on the Stele of Canopus, it is pretty certain that each
;
cast of the Rosetta
Stone
is
exhibited in the Fitzwilliam
Museum.
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.,
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The RosETTA Stone,

To /arc p. io8.
Memphis, conferring divine honours on

Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, King of Egypt, B.C. 195.
inscribed with a decree of the priests of
THE ROSETTA STONE.
IO9
The Stele of
document is of about the same length.
Stone,
Rosetta
Greek
to
on
the
has
Canopus
54
74 lines of
this
it
is
clear
from
the
longer
and
wider,
but as
letters are
space.
the
same
also that the Greek versions occupied about
Allowing then
characters,
for the difference in the size of the hieroglyphic
we should expect
the hieroglyphic inscription on
the Rosetta Stone to occupy 14 or 15
When
lines.
complete
the stele must have been about twelve inches longer than
it
now, and the top was probably rounded and inscribed, like
that of the Stele of Canopus, with a winged disk, having
is
pendent
ursei,
on the right wearing
that
Upper Egypt, and that on the left

Eg>'pt
by the side of each urceus,
;
the crown of
the crown of
laid horizontally,
Lower
would
and above ^ j /a anc/i, " giver of life."

The inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone form a version of a
decree of the priesthood assembled at Memphis in honour of
Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, King of Egypt, B.C. 195, written in
hieroglyphics, demotic and Greek.
A facsimile ^ of them was
published by the Society of Antiquaries ^ in 1802, and copies
were distributed among the scholars who were anxious to
be
c^^Ô-,
undertake the investigation of the texts.

text has been translated
by Brugsch
The
1851
hieroglyphic
1867
Berlin,
1850
Salvolini,
Analyse Graniniaticale Raisonnee de
' Other facsimiles are given in Lepsius, Auswahl, Bl. i8, and in Arundale and
Bonomi, Gallery of Antiquities, pi. 49, p. 114.
^ The Greek version of the decree of the Egyptian Priests in honour of
Ptolemy the Fifth, surnamed Epiphanes, from the stone inscribed in the sacred
and vulgar Egyptian and the Greek characters, taken from the French at the
surrender of Alexandria.
London, 1802,
"^
stoned
in his Inscriptio Roscttana, Principal
by Chabas,
Inscription hieroglypJiique de
and by Sharpe, TJie Rosetta Stone in
hieroglypJiics and Greek, London, 871, etc.
The Demotic text
has been studied by M. de Sacy, Lettre a M. Chaptal sur linscription egypt. de Rosette, Paris, 1802; by Akerblad, Letter a
M. de Sacy sur V inscription cgypt. de Rosette, Paris, 1802 by
Young, Hieroglypliics (collected by the Egyptian Society,
arranged by Dr. T. Young, 2 vols., fol., 100 plates, 1823-1828),
pi. x ff.
by Brugsch, Die Inschrift von Rosette nach iJireni
dgyptiscJi-deviotischeii Tcxte spracldich und sachlick erkldrt,
Berlin,
Rosette, Paris,
Contents
Nichols.
the Rosetta
Stone.
irO
differents textes des anciens Egyptiens, Vol.
phique
et
I.,
Texte hi^rogly-
demotique de la pierre de Rosette^ Paris, 1836.
work was never
The Greek
This
by
Heyne, Coinmentatio in inscriptioneni grcBcain inonumenti trinis
titiilis iiisigniti ex Aegypto Londinum apportati, in torn. xv. of
Comment. Soc. R. Sc. Gott., pp. 260-280; Ameilhon, Eclaircissements snr Vinscription grecque du monument trouve d
Rosette, Paris, 1 803
Drumann, Commentatio in inscriptionem
prope Rosettam inventam, Regiomont. 1822; and Drumann,
finished.
text has been edited
Historisch-antiqiiariscJie
UntersiicJmngen iiber Aegypten, oder
die Inschrift von Rosette aus
dem
und
Griediischen iibersetzt
Konigsberg, 1823; Lenormant, Essai snr le texte

grec de Viiiscription de Rosette, Paris, 1842; Letronne, Recneil
erldutert,
des inscriptions grecgues
Franz
p.
Beneficent
PtokmyV.
Epiphanes.
334
et la tines
d'Egypte, Paris, 1842
Boeckh, Corpus Inscriptionum Gra^carum,
in
ff-.
No. 4697,
t.
iii.,
by
1853,
etc.
The inscriptions upon the Rosetta Stone set forth that

Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, while king of Egypt, consecrated
revenues of silver and corn to the temples, that he suppressed
certain taxes and reduced others, that he granted certain
privileges to the priests and soldiers, and that when, in the
eighth year of his reign, the Nile rose to a great height and
flooded
task of
all
the plains, he undertook, at great expense, the
damming
it
in
and directing the overflow of its waters

and benefit of the
into proper channels, to the great gain

agricultural classes.
In addition to the remissions of taxes
which he made to the people, he gave handsome gifts to the

temples, and subscribed to the various ceremonies which were
In return for these gracious acts the
carried on in them.
priesthood assembled at Memphis decreed that a statue of
the king should be set up in a conspicuous place in every
temple of Egypt, and that each should be inscribed with the
name and titles of " Ptolemy, the saviour of Egypt," Royal
apparel was to be placed on each statue, and ceremonies were
It was also
to be performed before each three times a day.
decreed that a gilded wooden shrine, containing a gilded
wooden statue of the king, should be placed in each temple,
and that these were
to
be carried out with the shrines of the

It was also decreed
other kings in the great panegyrics.
THE ROSETTA STONE.
Ill
that ten golden crowns of a peculiar design should be
made
upon the royal shrine

that the birthday and
coronation day of the king should be celebrated each year
with great pomp and show that the first five days of the
month of Thoth should each year be set apart for the
performance of a festival in honour of the king and finally
that a copy of this decree, engraved upon a tablet of hard
stone in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek characters, should
be set up in each of the temples of the first, second and third
and
laid
Festivals
of Ptolemy
Epiphanes.
orders,
near the
statue of
the
Ptolemy.
ever-living
The
Greek portion of the inscriptions appears to be the original

document, and the hieroglyphic and demotic versions merely
translations of
it.
Although it is nearly certain that, without the aid of the

Greek inscription found on the socket of an obelisk at Philae,
and the hieroglyphic inscription found on the obelisk which
belonged to that socket, the hieroglyphic alphabet could
never have been recovered from the Rosetta Stone, still it is
around this wonderful document that all the interest in the
decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics clings.
For
many hundreds
of years the interest of the learned of
Rosetta
^
b^se of
decipher-
all
Egyptian
by the hieroglyphic inscriptions of

Egypt, and the theories propounded as to their contents were
legion.
Speaking broadly, the references to this subject by
classical authors are not very satisfactory; still there are some
hieiogiy-
countries has been excited
'
remarkable exceptions which
asmuch
as the
names of
will
Roman
be referred to presently.
In-
emperors, as late as the time
of Decius, were written in hieroglyphics,
it
follows that the Late
knowledge of this subject must have been possessed by some

" For a hundred
one, either Greek or Egyptian, in Egypt.
and fifty years after the Ptolemies began to reign, the Egyptian
hieroglyphics appear to have been commonly used, and the
Egyptians were not prohibited from making use, so far as it
seemed requisite, according to ritual or otherwise appropriate,
of the native language and of its time-hallowed written
signs," 2
Little by little, however, the Greek language dis'
See Gutschmifl, Scriptoritrn
Bd. X., Gottingen, 1855,

'
Mommsen,
ss.
712
Provinces of (he
rerutii
Aegyptiacarum
Series,,
ff.
Roman Empire,
Vol. II.
p.
243.
in Fhilologtis,
use of
phic*^^^"
112
common
placed the Egyptian, and the writing in

people,
the
called
use
among
to-day "demotic" or "enchorial,"
and
anciently " epistolographic," completely usurped the place of

" hieratic "
or cursive form of hieroglyphic writing.

Although the Greeks and Romans appear not to have studied
hieroglyphics thoroughly, only repeating, generally, what
they were told about certain signs, nevertheless writers like
Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Hermapion, Chaeremon,
Clemens Alexandrinus, and Horapollo, contribute information
the
on
this subject of considerable value.
upon
B.C.
To Hccatacus of Miletus,^ who visited Egypt between

513-501, we owe, through Herodotus, much knowledge
Egyptian
^f Egypt,
and he must be considered the earliest Greek writer
-' '
Greek
hieroglyphics.
upon Egypt.
Hellanitus of Mytilene,
B.C.
478-393, shows
some accurate knowledge of

Democritus
the meaning of some hieroglyphic words. ^
wrote upon the hieroglyphics of Meroe, ^ but this work is
lost.
Herodotus says that the Egyptians used two quite
in his
AlyvTTTiaKa that he has
kinds of writing, one of which
different
common
the other
(hieroglyphic),
called
is
sacred
Diodorus
(demotic).
says that the Ethiopian letters are called by the Egyptians

" hieroglyphics."
Strabo,
speaking of the
obelisks
at
Thebes, says that there are inscriptions upon them which proclaim the riches and power of their kings, and that their rule
Chaeremon
extends even to Scythia, Bactria, and India.
who
of Naucratis,
lived in the first half of the first century
Christ,^ and who must be an entirely different person

from Chaeremon the companion of Aelius Gallus (B.C. 25),
after
'
See
Magnum,
^
De rerum Aegyptiacarum
in Philologus, Bd. X.
See the instances quoted
^ Ilfpi
TO}v iv
s.
scriptoribus
Graecis
ante
Alexandrum
525.
in Philologus,
Mtpoy Upuiv ypanfiaru)v.
Bd. X.
s.
539.
Diogenes Laertius,
Vi't.
Democ,
ed.
Isaac Casaubon, 1593, p. 661.

*
Koi
Didot,
TCL fxiv
avTwv
Ipa,
to.
Sf
S/j/xort/cd
KoKitTai.
Herodotus, H. 36, ed.
p. 84.
HL
Diodorus,
Strabo,
'
According to
Claudius.
XVII.
4, ed. Didot, p. 129.

I,
46, ed. Didot, p. 693.
Mommsen
he came to Rome, as tutor to Nero, in the reign of
Provinces of Rome, Vol.
II.
pp. 259, 273.
THE ROSETTA STONE.

derided by Strabo.^ and charged with
IJ3
l}-ing
by
Josephiis,^ Greek
Egyptian hieroglyphics'^ Trepl rwv ieptov upon'^^

ypa/jL/jLaTcop, which has been lost.
He appears to have been Egyptian
attached to the great library of Alexandria, and as he was phicT^
a " sacred scribe," it may therefore be assumed that he had
access to many important works on hieroglyphics, and that
he understood them.
He is mentioned by Eusebius* as
Xaip7]ficov 6 ipoypafi/j.aTev<i, and by Suidas,^ but neither of
these writers gives any information as to the contents of his
work on hieroglyphics, and we should have no idea of the
manner of work it was but for the extract preserved by
John Tzetzes (Têr^?;?, born about A.D. mo, died after John
A.D. 1 180).
Tzetzes was a man of considerable learning and jr^.pfjan"
literary activity, and his works ^ have value on account of the hiuroglyIn his CJtiliades (Bk,
lost books which are quoted in them.
v., line 395) he speaks of o A-lyvirrios lepoypafXfjbaTev'i Xaip^ficov, and refers to Chaeremon's SiSdyfiara toov lepwv ypafi/xdroov.
In his Exegesis of Homer's Iliad he gives an extract
from the work itself, and we are able to see at once that it
was written by one who was able to give his information at
first hand.
This interesting extract was first brought to the
wrote a work on
'
notice of the world
paper on
it
by the
late Dr. Birch,
who
published a
in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Litera-
III., second series, 1850, pp. 385-396.

In it he
quoted the Greek text of the extract, from the edition of
ture, Vol.
Tzetzes' Exegesis,
first
published
by Hermann,^ and added
remarks and hieroglyphic characters
illustrative of
As
in places.
'
this extract
ViKw\itvoc, 5i TO ttAsov
is
together
it,
with the scholia of Tzetzes, the text of which he
emended
so important for the history of
wf dAa^wj/
Strabo,
Kai iciuirijc.
XVII.
I,
29, ed.
Didot, p. 685.
*
Co)itra Apion.,
I.
32
sopher with Chaeremon the

'
*
On
the identity of
Chneremon the
iep3ypafifj.arivg, see Zeller, Herntes,
XI.
Stoic ])hilos.
431.
His other lost work, AiynTrna/ca, treated of the Exodus.

Piaep. Evang., v. 10, ed. Gaisford, t. I, p. 421.
Sub
For an account of them see Krumbacher, Gcschichte
voce 'lipoy\v(piKd.
Literatur,
in
ff.
aei
Byzantinischen
Munchen, 189 1, pp. 235-242.
Ed. Kiessling, Leipzig, 1826,
Draconis Stratonicensis Liber de Metris Poeticis.
Homeri Iliadcm.
K.
M.
Primum
p.
edidit
191.
Joannis Tzetzae Exegesis
God. Hermannus, Lipsiae, 1S12.

I
114
the study of hieroglyphics,

scholia on
given here, together with the
is
it
from the excellent edition of the Greek text,
it,
by Lud. Bachmann, Scholia in Homeri Iliadem, Lipsiae,

pp. 823, 97 and 838, with an English translation.
Extract
from
Tzetzes'
work on
the Iliad.
'
Ofir]po9 ê, 7raiCev9ei9 a/c/JtySw? ê iraaav fiaOrjcriv ck
Kwv AidioTTiKwv
lavTa
^pafifiaiwv^
aW
(prjCFiv
'
ol
rwv avfiôXi-
AiOioire^
<âp
1835,
aT0L'xê7a
tovtwv
f^pafif-icuTwu
oVK
Kai fiopia
povKofievoi âp ol ap')(aioTepoi twv lepo'^pajjifiarewv 70v vepl
dewv
'
i.')(ovaiv^
avT
ainCbv
'C,ijia
7rai>To7a,
(f)vatKOv Xo'ôv KpvTneiv, Sc" aXXrj'yopiKivi'
Kat rjpafijuciTwi' T019
kui (xvfiôXwv Toioxntuv
TEKVOis avTa Trapehihovv,
idi'oi9
kui jueXr]
w<s o cepof^pafi/narevs
'X.aiprjfiwv (prjai'
I.
Koi avTi fiev
2<
avTi Xv7nj9, avOpwTTov
^6
clvtI
Trj
'X^'pi
'
to rêveiov KparouvTa,
Kai Trpos
o(^6a\fiov baKpvovra
avjLi'popa'S.f
4. avjl Tou
5.
<^vvaiKa TVfiiraviôvaav <^pa(/)ov
vevovra
'ytjv
3. avTi
)(âpa<i,
cTêtf,
fxri
8vo
)(eipa's
Keva^ eKrerafieva^
oCpiv eêpxa/u-evov ck tivo^ oirrj^'
avaToXijs,
6. ovtI
Svtrewiy eiaep'xôfiei'ov
7. dvri
avaîwaews^
âTpa')(,ov
lepoKa' eVt Kai avTi yXtov Kai 6eov'
8.
avri
Y'l'X'y^',
9.
avTi
6rj\v<^/6i'ov
lyvfat/cos,
Kai
firjrpos
Kai
\p6vov
Kai
ovpavov^
'yuTra
10. auTi /3a<TX6ty9, /neXtaaau

LI. avTi
(yei/6ff6tDS
Kai avjo(pvwv Kai appevwv, KavOapov'
12. avTi 77 S5 fiovv
'
13. XeovTOS Se TrpoTOfxij iraaav apjîjv Kai (pvXaKrjv Brj\o7
14. oi'pa Xeov709^ dva^Ktjv
Km' avrov^'
'
'
15. eXa(f>09^ eviavTov
16. ofioitvs Kai o (poLvi^'

17. o TTats hi]Xo2 Ta avâvofieva
18.0
Ta (pdeipofieva
ryepivVf
'
19. TO Toôj/, Trju oêiav Suva/iiv' Kai eTepa juvpia'
Tavrd
(pTjCiv
'
eV
aWw
TOU 'Kaipjjfiovo^^ Kai
tos
Be
tiv
toVw,
eiirep
<ypa/ifiaTtvv
e^ wv "0/xnpo9
alpeiaOe,
aVTwv
iBwp
e'/c
eK(f)wvii<xei^
AlOlOTTlKlJUS eiTTW
Translation of the
extract.
Now, Homer says this as he was accurately instructed

in all learning by means of the symbolic Ethiopian characters
For the Ethiopians do not use alphabetic characters, but
depict animals of all sorts instead, and limbs and members of
"
these animals
for the sacred scribes in
former times desired
THE ROSETTA STONE.
II5
and
handed all this down to their own children by allegorical methods and the aforesaid symbols and characters, as
the sacred scribe Chaeremon says."
to conceal their opinion about the nature of the gods,
therefore
"And
1.
tambourine.
(or
J Of they would depict a woman beating

,
a Accuracy
'
[The drum or tambourine was used in the temples

for festivâl services, and a woman beating a tamthe determinative of the words
bourine
is
St'ker, "
to beat a tambourine,"
Q>^
and
fec/uyi7i?i.]
2. " For -rzef, a man clasping his chin
bending towards the ground."
[A man,
is
hand and
in his
with his hand to his mouth,
seated,
the determinative of the word T ^C\
c/iadnd?i, " grief"
woman
seated
bent and hands thrown up before her

determinative of
"W
f,
N|
/mt/i,
'
V^
with head
face, is
the
to weep."]
"For misfortune, an eye weeping."

[The weeping eye
is the determinative of the
3.
7^
common word
4. "
nV
^^^''^
" to
weep."
For want, two hands stretched out empt}\''

[Compare ,ju. at, "not to have," "to be without."
Coptic ^-T.]
"
5.
For
rising, a
snake coming out of a hole."
[Compare ^<^ =:
(of the sun)
6.
^^
per, " to
come
forth, to rise
"
"For setting, [the same] going in",

J\ aq, "to
[Compare -â
= ^
enter, to set" (of
the sun).]
7. "
For
vivification, a frog."^
[The frog
fertility
'
R C^"^
j^
hefenmi,
and abundance of
But compare Horapollo,
(ed.
Leemans,
means
100,000, hence
life.]
p.
33),
"
kitXamov
5f
dvdpbtirnv
ypa(poi'T(<;, /Sdrpax"'' Zi^yfja<povaiv.

T
of TzctzGS
statements
proved,
Il6
Accuracy
8.
"
For
of Tzetzes'
statements
proved.
hawk
soiil,
^^
Compare
and also
ba, " soul,"
_Zx\iv
Heru,
9.
"
Horus
"
"
sim and god^
for
p,
w.
_M^
ne/er, " god,"
j^
wv
and
_tN^
or "the Sun-god."]
For a female-bearing woman, and mother zx\d ttmea.nd
sky, a vulture."
^ vnit, " mother,"
'v\
and
vulture,
is
the
at times the
common meaning
goddess
Mut seems
of a
to be
"the sky."
Horapollo
^-^
vulture
also
the
meant
"year"
says that
(ed. Leemans, p. 5), and this statement is borne out by the
evidence of the hieroglyphics, where we find that
identified with
^0 =
10.
"
mit,
(gr.^/M"year."]
For king, a bee."
[Compare ^l^
net, "
siiteii
king of the North and
South."]
n.
"
For
dirt/i
and natural groivth, and males, a
O
^
[The beetle
Cheperd
(1
%^/'^^
r^f,
who
beetle."
was the emblem of the god

is
supposed to have created
or evolved himself, and to
have given birth to
gods, men, and every creature and thing in earth
and
be
in
W
^
means
The word
and sky.
late
fairly
texts
well
rendered by
meaning male comes, of
k^
'
" to
become,"
chepem
"evolutions."
course, from
may
The
the idea
of the ancients that the beetle had no female.
See infra, under Scarab.^

12.
"
For
[I
earth,
an ox."
dhet
means
field,
and
(1
^^(7/^ means "ox";
can Chaeremon have confused the meanings of

these two words, similar in sound
13.
"And
? ]
the fore part of a lion signifies dominion and
protection of every kind."
THE ROSETTA STUNE.

[Compare
,
.,=5)
.
Jul,
"A
that which
in
is
front, Accuracy
of Tzetzes'
statements
,,-1
duke, prince.
14.
" chief,
I17
lion's tail, necessity
[Compare d|
^^^^^
''
"to
pcIi,
compel, to be
force, to
strong."]
15,
"
16.
stag,
likewise the /cr/w."
j't'rtr;
"
[Of the stag meaning
The palm branch
"The boy
which
S),
meaning "youth
"The
can give no example.
renpit,
is
common
the
signifies ^/c'Te'//^."
[Compare
18.
or
for " year."]
word
ij.
" I
year
"
is
the determinative of words
and juvenescence.]
old man, decay."
[Compare r%, the determinative of (j^^

VlA^
"
dan,
19.
"
old age."]
The bow,
[The
the swift power."
Egyptian
Compare
"And
others
place,
you
if
characters
says
this.
Ethiopic
And by means
proceed
will
Tzetzes says,
"
fashion,
we
symbolic
demonstrates that
vol
[xrjv
ovSe
yeyove,
expound
will
this
OTTOia elaL
j^^^
pet.
to run, to flee away."]
as
the
into
nature of which
d/jivr]TO<i
But
is
in
of these
another
have learnt
it
from
'
In another place
uninitiated
^'r^ pet, "
please, to explain the pronunciation of those
in
Chaeremon."
bow
for
by the thousand.
Homer
characters
word
D^
in
Homer was
tmv
AWlottikcov
irepl
wv
iv
rot?
Moreover, he was not
Ethiopian
characters,
the proper places.

instructed
olKetoa
All
Egypt,"
in
crvfiôXtKwv
the
ypafifidrcov
tottol'^
SiSdôfiev
Kol ravra he rbv "O/xijpov iv AlyvTrTOi iraihevOrjvai
irapaheiKvvova-i,
and upon
this the scholia
on Tzetzes say
Tlepl TO)v AWioiTiKOiv ypnfifxdrcov Ai6\_8copo<;1 H'^^
KOL ixepiKW<i eivev, dXX' coairep e^
'
Hermann,
p. 123,
'
Hermann,
p.
17,
11.
11.
2-29
21-25
dK07]<i
Bachmann,
Bachmann,
dWov
p.
823,
p. 755,
e7r/jbvr]crdr),
juaOcbv koI
11.
11.
12-34.
9-12.
ovk
Extract
Tzeizes.
Il8
aKpiôi<i
iirKTrd/jLevo^
avTO'i
ioairep ev
t&v
fiareiis oXrjv /St/3Xoy Trepl
ariva,
T049
ev
tlvu tovtcov KUTeXeêv
Kai
[et]
Xaipyjficov Se 6 lepoypafi-
oihe TrapprjcridêTat.
ol<i
toiovtcov ypafifidrcov avveraêv.
7rpo[cr(ôpot9]
tmv
TOTrot?
'Opbr^peiaiv
eiroiv
Diodorus made
mention of the Ethiopian characters and spoke particularly,
yet as though he had learnt by hearsay from another and did
not understand them accurately himself, although he set
down some of them, as though he were talking confidently
on subjects that he knew. But Chaeremon the sacred scribe
compiled a whole book about the aforesaid characters, which
I will discuss more accurately and more fully in the proper
It is much to be regretted
places in the Homeric poems."
that Chaeremon's work, if he ever fulfilled his promise, has
Koi
d[Kpi]/3ecrTepov
down
not come
Greek
of Egyp-"'
tiantextby
pion.
One
Tr\aTvrepu><i
"
ipoi}
to us.
most valuable extracts from the works oi

Greek and Roman writers on Egypt is that from a translation
of an Egyptian obelisk by Hermapion, preserved by
of the
Ammianus Marcellinus ^ unfortunately,

name of Hermapion's work nor the
however,
the
lived
known.
is
This
extract
time
of
consists
translation of six lines of hieroglyphics
neither
which he
in
the
Greek
three lines are from
the south side of the obelisk, one line from the east side, and
A comparison
a second and a third line from the other sides.
of the Greek extract with any inscription of Rameses

obelisk shows at once that
Hermapion must have had
accurate knowledge of hieroglyphics
II.
on an
a certain
his translation of the
however does not follow consecutively. The following

examples will show that the Greek, in many cases, represents
the Egyptian very closely. Aiyet "HXco'i jSaaiXel 'Pafiearrj'
^^5''
'^/^-y'
oeoMpTjfjbat aoi ava iraaav oiKOVfMevrjv fxera 'xâpa<; pacrcXeveLv,
lines,
Comparison of
Greek
translation
Ûhthe
>v^
'
.n
ou
Egyptian
r/
tj^
HXco,
^=
jl
>
1-==^
C)
^
^
^^^
^
^^"^ "^^^
f\J_^
CMlllU]
i:^ [ ^MZ:o]
1^
text.
"
^^^
,
^^^^^
Says Ra,
give
lands and foreign countries with rest of heart,

king of the north and south, Usr-maat-Ra-setep-en-Ra,
to thee all
^
^^
Hermann,
Liber
p.
XVH.
146,
4.
11.
2-22
Bachmann,
p.
838,
11.
31-37.
THE ROSETTA STONE.
son of the Sun, Rameses, beloved of Amen-Ra."
KTiarm T^?
oiKov/j,ei"n<i
11^ r^
[Jj f'
the gods, possessor of the two lands"

a\T]dLa<;
eTT
KeKTr]fjL6vo<;,
..
Seo-Tror?;?
,,.
i^^^
'
"born of
the world).
'O earcos
AiyvTrrov So^dawi
tj-jv
'HXiov iroXiv
dy\a07roi/icra<i
(doyevvr)To<i
f -j^^
'
(i.e.,
8ia87]fxaTO<i,
I9
^
CJ
\\ll
i?)
^@>
111
Law, lord of diadems, protector of Egypt, making splendid

Heliopolis with monuments." "HXio? 6eo<; /xeya<; hea7r6Ti]<i
oipaôO
= ll i
^5^ 1 II
^^
machis, the great god, lord of heaven,"

dyaOoiv,
(f)oi,viKO<;
X^
''
filling
splendours,
Oeol
ol
the temple of
may
"
7r\T}p(0(ra<;
rov
recDV
tov
i^copt'/aavro
')(p6yov
tûS]^
Ra Ha,-
Says
the benmi, (phoenix) with his
him
the gods give to
life
like the
Sun
for
ever," etc.
The Flaminian
obelisk,
from which the Egyptian passages
Rome
given above are taken, was brought from Heliopolis to
by Augustus, and placed in the Circus Maximus,^ whence it

was dug out it now stands in the Piazza del Popolo at
Rome, where it was set up by Pope Sixtus V. in 1589.^ This
obelisk was originally set up by Seti I., whose inscriptions
occupy the middle column of the north, south, and west
sides
the other columns of hierogl}-phics record the names
and titles of Rameses II. who, in this case, appropriated the
obelisk of his father, just as he did that of Thothmes III.
The obelisk was found broken into three pieces, and in order
;
to render
it
capable of sustaining
was cut from the base.
The
Kircher, Oedipus Aegyptiacus,

Interpretatio
'
iii.
t.
Urbis,
Ammianus
Pliny,
XXXVI.
Marcellinus,
XVH.
4,
p.
213
Rome,
Qui autem notarum textus obelisco incisus
etc.
Obeliscoriim
three palms' length
itself,
17.
1842,
est veteri,
It
by
Ungarelli,
p.
65,
sqg.,
quern videmus in Circo
seems to be referred to
in
29.
For a comparative table of obelisks standing in 1840, see Bonomi,

Trans. RoynlSoc. Lit., Vol. I. Second Series, p. 158.
Obelisks, in
by
texts have been published
Azotes
on
Flaminian
^^^^^'^-
120
and by Bonomi, who drew them for a paper on this

by the Rev. G. Tomlinson in Trans. Royal Soc. Lit.,
For an account of this
Vol. I. Second Series, p. 176 ff.
obelisk, see Zoega, De Origine et Usu Obeliscoruni, Rome,
plate 2
obelisk
1797, p. 92.
The next Greek

Cham-
flourished about A.D.
pollion's
'"'
estimate of
Clement's
statements
un
whose statements on Egyptian
writer
hieroglyphics are of value
Clement of Alexandria, who
is
According to ChampolHon,
191-220.
a demele et signale, dans
auteur grec,
seul
egyptienne sacree,
I'ecriture
on hiero-
en sont, pour ainsi
glyphics.
d'Alexandrie
s'est,
principe vital
dire, le
lui
elemens phonetiques, lesquels
les
seul,
Clement
occasionnellement attache a en
donner une idee claire et ce philosophe chretien etait, bien

que tout autre, en position d'en etre bien instruit.
Lorsque mes recherches et I'etude constante des monuments
;
plus
egyptiens
m'eurent
exposes, je dus
aux
conduit
d'Alexandrie, que
j'ai
souvent
cite,
des notions que j'avais tirees

inscriptions
resultats
revenir sur ce passage
hieroglyphiques,
pour savoir
d'un
le
texte
precedemment
de Saint Clement
si,
la faveur
examen soutenu des

de I'auteur grec ne
deviendrait pas plus intelligible qu'il ne I'avait paru jusque-
J'avoue que ses termes
la.
me
semblerent alors
si
positifs et
exactement conformes a
ma theorie de I'ecriture hieroglyphique, que je dus craindre
aussi de me livrer a une illusion et a un entrainement dont
From the above it will
tout me commaiidait de me defier."^
be seen what a high value ChampolHon placed on the statements concerning the hieroglyphics by Clement, and they
have, in consequence, formed the subject of various works by
eminent authorities. In his Precis {^. 328), ChampolHon gives
the extract from Clement with a Latin translation and remarks
Dulaurier in his Examen. dun passage
by Letronne.^
des Stromates de Saint Clement d'Alexandrie, Paris, 1833,
again published the passage and gave many explanations of
words in it, and commented learnedly upon it. (See also
si clairs, et les idees qu'il
renferme
si
du Systeme hiiroglypliique des anciens Egyptiens,
Precis
"
Precis, p. 327.
'
See also CEuvres Choisies,
t.
I.
pp. 237-254.
Paris, 1824, p. 321.
THE kOSETTA STONE.
121
Bunsen's Acgyptens Stcl/e, Bd. I., p. 240, and Thicrbach,

ErkldriDig auf das AegyptiscJic Scliriftivescn, Erfurt, 1846.)
The passage is as follows
:
ai'TiKn
.
oi
Ai^/vTmofi
Trnjj'
'/,
Trpunov
TraiScvofievoi
,1
KiiXovfiei'iji',
tevTefjdi'
ê
ti)u
tepaTtKrjV,
vtnaTtjr fe Kal TeXevTai'av tijv

7ri>iCTWi'
y p.ev
KVpioXoyiKi], y
(TToixe'ii-'f
tuu Clement of
^
Be uvTiKpv^
?)>?
01
Be crVfipoXlKfj.
le/>o'^//)(if(fi(nc7^-,
eVrt 8td
/<eV
kvkKov
eiBo9,
OevTe'^y Ttt
Tovatv.
B'
T/yv Be avfi/3o\tKiJ9
Troiovai^ ae\yvrjv
rjovv
Bid
di'n''/pd(f)ov<Tt.
Bia Ti]v iropeiav ti]v
eaTiv
\o^)]i^
icvKKoTepe^
en.
^wov
f'/i'veaOai.
ficrmi-
re
ctov?
ets
TfUjfia
t^j/
to
acjialpau
jiiev
rij's
f.ivOoL's
Kara T0U9
rwv aKXwv
too Be
(Tic/Luiaiv
Owrepov
tov
ra
TOde.
o(pewv
(f)a<n Be
Be
icat
OeoXo'^/ov/.ievot^
eTrai'vov^
vXuaafievos dvTnrpoawTro^ KvXivBei.
airepfiat'veiv
/nera'^/0VTe9
twv avay\v(f)(i)V,
TOO KavOdpov, eTreiBy
Tu)
fiyvoeiBe^ Kara to Kvpio-
<T')(ijfia
oiKeioTrjra
âaiKewu
Tuiv
aiVCyfMOV^ Tpnov eitov^ cet^fia
uaTpwv
Be
TpoTTiKwi Be Kar
efaXXttTTOi'Te?, ra Be TroA-Xo^^w? fie7aa')(rffiwriôvTe'i \âpa7-
Tot'9
vapaBiBovTes
f^fap
dweiKciôv^ tov Be
ôeia%-
ovdov
ayîjfia
kcu eâfii]vov fiev viro 7^9,
touto
Kal <êvvav,
virep
Kal
BiananOaiy
fyTJs
6ij\vv
KuvOapov
fir]
'
"For example, those
that
among
educated
are
the
Egyptians first of all learn that system of Egyptian characwhich is styled EPISTOLOGRAPHIC secondly, the HIERATIC, which the sacred scribes employ
lastly and finally the
HIEROGLYPHIC. The hieroglyphic sometimes speaks plainly
by means of the letters of the alphabet, and sometimes
uses symbols, and when it uses symbols, it sometimes (a)
speaks plainly by imitation, and sometimes (d) describes
in a figurative way, and sometimes (c) simply says one
thing for another in accordance with certain secret rules.
Thus (a) if they desire to write si/n or inoon^ they make
ters
a circle
and
or a
when
crescent
{]))
transposition
they
in
plain
describe
manifold changes
Clem. Alex..,
eel.
imitation
in
t.
the
(by
form.
transfer
meaning
and make
Thus, they hand
the natural
some
the form of others.
Dindorf,
of
figuratively
without violating
of words), they completely alter
'
glypnics.
twu
Kara fJ,[/J,r](TlV, y 6' ica-rrep Tp07rtK(O<i r/pd(peTat,

a\Xy{opeiTai Kara TLVa<i aLVtyflOV^;, yXiou rôvv 'îpu\lrai
Xo'^/ov/.tcvov
And
Alexandria
KUpinXoyeiTat,
fiovKojxevoi
yXiov
Trai'-tcv
'
-^pCjvTai
rj
lepoyXvcbtK^JV,
jutv
^
JL
eTTCaTOAOypacpiKr]!^
^^ hiero-
Ac'/vmiu'i' "ipafiumiiH' /ucOofov HKjLiai'Oai'ovai nju
things
III. Strotn. lib. v. 20, 21, pp. 17, 18,
Transla-
Jxtraa
from
FUNEREAL ABCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.
122
down
the praises of their kings in myths about the gods

which they write up in reUcf. Let this be an example of the
third form (r) in accordance with the secret rules.
While
they represent the stars generally by snakes' bodies, because
their course
crooked, they represent the sun by the body of
is
a beetle, for the beetle moulds a ball from cattle

rolls
it
And
before him.
under ground
for six
dung and
they say that this animal
lives
months, and above ground for the other
portion of the year, and that it deposits its seed in this globe
and there engenders offspring, and that no female beetle
exists."
Three
E^ ptian
writing.
From
the above we see that Clement rightly stated that

Egyptians had three kinds of writing
epistolographic,
hieratic and hieroglyphic.
The epistolographic is that kind
which is now called "demotic," and which in the early days
of hieroglyphic decipherment was called "enchorial." The
hieratic is the kind commonly found on papyri.
The hieroglyphic kind is described as, I. cyriologic, that is to say, by
^^^^
means of figurative phonetic

emstih, "
and
crocodile,"
1 1,
representations of objects,
The symbolic
on
I.
from
it
crescent
symbolic, that
^^
e.g.,
division
cyriologic by imitation,
characters,
moon
to represent
[y
the matter
is
month,"
stated
p!|
and
Phonetic.
^X^ man,
e.g.,
-e^, a
a reed and palette

[II.
enigmatic,
e.g.,
In modern Egyptian
more simply, and we see that
hieroglyphic signs are used in two ways

II,
^--s-
actual
"bee," and so
\^
tropical,
II.
beetle, to represent the "sun."^
Grammars
by
a vase with water flowing
to represent "writing" or "scribe";
^,a
to say,
is
"goose,"
represented a "libation";
"
'^\[\'\
e.g.,
subdivided into three parts
is
e.g.,
"water,"
is
I.
Ideographic,
an instance of the
first
an instance of the second.
method, and 1^ %> 1

Ideographic signs are used as determinatives, and are either
m-s-n-h,
ideographic or generic.
1\n
is
placed,
and
is
heaven with a star
'
Thus
is
after y
\\
^ man,
" cat,"
an ideograpJiic determinative
in
it,
written after
Champollioii,
Precis., p.
278.
=:z=> \
a cat
but
'=^
kerh,
is
kOSETTA STONE.
Tlili
Phonetic signs arc either Alphabetic as
generic determinative.
b, 'Jen;*
J
Porphyry
rt-,
the Philosopher,
of Pythagoras
Kat
or Syllabic, as
k,
8ia(f>opd<;,
who
n^
vieti,
etc.
cJicji,
died about A.D. 305, says
Kal
jSoXiKCov,
1^^^^^
eV AiyvTrro) jxev
eê/jLa$,
I23
eiriaroXoypacptKav
^v
Tcov
Kal
Kara
ao(f)vav Pytha-
rpicraa'i
Kal avfi-
iepoyXv(j)tK(iov
KOLvo\oyovfiV(ov
Kara
dWrjyopov/jLevQiV
ri)v
ypafifidrcov Se
(f)Covi]v,
re
Kol
arvvijv
lepevcTL
rol<i
AlyvTrrlcov
ry-jv
/xlfxijaiv,
Sp'^sand
glyphics.
8e
toov
Tiva<; alviy/j,ov<i.
And in Egypt he lived with the priests and learnt their

wisdom and the speech of the Egyptians and three sorts of
writing, epistolographic and hieroglyphic and symbolic,
which sometimes speak in the common way by imitation
and sometimes describe one thing by another in accordance
with certain secret rules." Here it seems that Porphyry
copied Clement inaccurately. Thus he omits all mention of
the Egyptian writing called " hieratic," and of the subdivision
"
of hieroglyphic called " cyriologic," and of the second subdivision of the symbolic called " tropic."
based on Letronne,
make
will
writing held by the Greeks plain

[Sn/J-OTiKO.
Herodotus, Diodorus
and the
inscription
of Rosetta divide
<
Egyptian
into
two
writing
divisions
The common,
j.
nollorl
,.
and
Letronne's
summary.
:
SniJ-OjSi]
by Herodotus and Clement,
iyXôpta by the inscriptions of Rosetta,
-^
following table,
'
lf!n7ro\oypa<piKa by Clement of Alexandria and
'
The
the views about hieroglyphic
'f Iby.^
'
'
>
H.erat.c, or the writing of the priests.
divided
Clement into ( 2. Hieroglyphic

composed of
a. Cyriologic,
by means of the
first
letters of the alphabet.
C a. Cyriological
by
j
I
i.
Symbolical
imitation.
comprising<
6.
the
Tropical
or
metaphorical.
J
!.
c.
Enigmatical.
The next writer of importance on hieroglyphics is ilorapoilo

Horapollo, who towards the close of the IVth century of our g"
Jh^jcs'
era composed a work called 'lepoyXvcpiKa
this book was
translated into Greek by one Philip, of whom nothing is
known. Wiedemann thinks that it was originally written in
;
Coptic,
which,
Porphyry,
in
D3
the
middle
ages,
was
usually
called
Vila Pyihagorae, cd. Didot, 11, p. 89, at the foot.
FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT,
124
" Egyptian,"
and not
in ancient Egyptian.^
work are
In this
given the explanations of a number of ideographs which
most
occur, for the
the
list
Ptolemaic inscriptions; but, like
part, in
of those given by Chaeremon, no phonetic values of
Nevertheless the
the signs are given.
The
interest.
list
best edition of Horapollo
is
is
of considerable
that of Conrad
Leemans,^ but the text was edited in a handy form, with an

English translation and notes by Samuel Sharpe and
Dr. Birch, by
J.
Cory, in 1840.
more modern times the first writer at any length on

hieroglyphics was Athanasius Kircher, the author of some
In
iMediaeval
writers on
Iiiero-
glyphics.
Kiicher
and
Jablonsk
ponderous works
^ in which he pretended to have found the

key to the hieroglyphic inscriptions, and to translate them.
Though a man of great learning, it must be plainly said
that, judged by scholars of to-day, he would be considered
an impostor. In his works on Coptic * there are, no doubt,
many interesting facts, but mixed with them is such an
amount of nonsense that Jablonski says touching one of his
statements, " Verum hie ut in aliis plurimis fucum lectoribus
fecit Jesuita ille, et fiimum vendidit"; from the same writer
also, Kircher's
" Kircherus,
in
arrogant assertions called forth the remark,
quo semper plus
solidae eruditionis."
It
grounds Kircher had

his results
them.
in
is
for his
inest ostentationis,
quam
impossible to understand what
statements and
how he
arrived at
as for his translations, they have nothing correct
Here
one taken
is
at
random
from
Oedipus
The sepulchre of Gordian was inscribed in

" Gordiano sepulchmm milites apud Circeium castrum fecerunt in
finibus Persidis, titulum hujus modi addentes et Graecis, et Latinis, et Persicis,
et Judaicis, et Aegyptiacis literis, ut ab omnibus legeretur. " Erasmus, Hist.
^
Aegyptische Geschichte, p. 151.
Egyptian.
Rom.
2
Scriptortini, Basle, 1533, p. 312, at the top.
Horapollinis
Niloi
Hieroglyphica,
edidit,
diversorum codicum recenter
collatorum, priorumque editionum varias lectiones et versionem latinam subjunxit, adnotationem, item hieroglyphicorum imagines et indices
adjecit
C.L.
Amstelod, 1S35.
^
Obeli setts Pai/ip/nlitis,
Ilieroglyphicis iiivoluta
Symbol is, deteda
Oedipus Aegyptiacus, hoc esrt,

hicem asseritur, Rome, 1650, fol.
universalis hieroglyphicae veterum doctrinae, temporum injuria obolitae instau-
e tenebris
ratio.
^
iti
Rome, 1652-54.
ProdroDtiis Coptits,
Tomi I-IV, fol.

Rome, 1636. Lingua Aegyptiaca
restittita.
1643.
Jablonski, Opuscula,
t.
ed.
Water, 1804, pp. 157, 21
1,
Rome,
THE ROSETTA STONE.
12$
where he gives a translation of an

on the plate between pp. 428 and 429.
The hierogh-phics are written on a Ptah-Seker-Osiris figure
and read
AegyptiacHS,
Ill, p. 431,
t.
inscription (A) printed
xxLn
Ausar
an
t'et
r^
client
amcntet
netcr
neb
aa
" Saith Osiris, at the head of the undertvorld, god great,
(^
W]
lord of
etc
Re-5iau
Ive-siau
and
(i.e.,
the passages of the tomb)."
runs:
his translation
"Vitale
providi
Numinis domi-
nium, quadruplicem Mundani liquoris substantiam dominio

confert Osiridis, cujus una
cum Mendesio
foecundi Numinis
Mundo
dominio, benefica virtute influente, omnia quae in
Other writers
on hieroglyphics whose works Kircher consulted were John
Peter Bolzanius Valerianus,^ and Mercati,^ but no good
results followed their investigations. In the year 1770 Joseph
de Guignes determined the existence of groups of characters De Guighaving determinatives,^ and four years later he published his 2ol;ra'
Menioire^ in which he tried to prove that the epistolographic
and symbolic characters of the Egyptians were to be found
in the Chinese characters, and that the Chinese nation was
nothing but an Egyptian colony. In 1797 Zoega made a step
in the right direction, and came to the conclusion^ that the
hieroglyphics were letters and that the cartouches contained
A few years later Silvestre de Sacy published a Silvestre
royal names.
sunt,
animantur, conservantur."
vegetantur,
de Sacy
and Aker*
Hieroglyphica,
Commentatorium
sett
libri
de sacris Acgyptiorum
VII.,
duobus
aliis
aliariiviqne
ab eritditissimo
genthwi
vii-o
litteris
aniiexis,
etc.,
Basil., 1556.
2
Degli Obdischi di Roma, Rome, 1589.
'
Essai sur le
parvenir a la lecture et a rintelligence des Hiero-
moyen de
glyphes egyptiens.
(In Manoires de
PAcademie
des Inscriptions,
pp. 1-56.)
XXXIX.
"
Ibid.,
De Usn H
t.
p.
ff.
Orisîne Obeliscoriini,
Rome,
1797,
fol., p.
465.
t.
XXXIV.
blad.
126
letter
on the inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone,^ and the work

learned man was soon after followed by that of
of this
Akerblad who, in a letter to M. de Sacy^ discussed the

demotic inscription on the recently discovered Rosetta Stone,
and published an alphabet of the demotic characters, from
which a large number were adopted in after times by Young
and Champollion.
It would seem that Akerblad never
gained the credit which was due to him for his really clever
work, and
Absurd
theories of
tents of
'^
texts!
be seen
will
it
following pages,
how
from the
quoted
in
the
on the Demotic inscription on the Rosetta Stone depended

on those of Akerblad. But side by side with the letters of
de Sacy and i\kerblad and the learned works of Young and
Champollion, there sprang into existence a mass of literature
full of absurd statements and theories written by men having
no qualifications for expressing opinions on hieroglyphic
Thus the Comte de Pahlin in his De I'^tude des
matters.
Hit'roglypJies^ hesitated not to say that the inscription on one
^^ ^^ porticoes of the Temple at Denderah contained a
translation of the hundredth Psalm, composed to invite all
people to enter into the house of the Lord. The same author
said that to produce the books of the Bible, which were
written on papyri, it was only necessary to translate the
Psalms of David into Chinese and to write them in the
ancient characters of that language.'*
Warbur-
facts
largely the success of Young's labours
Lenoir considered the
Egyptian inscriptions to contain Hebrew compositions,* and

Lacour thought that they contained Biblical phrases, Worse
than all these wild theories was the belief in the works of the
Kircher school of investigators, and in the accuracy of the
statements made by Warburton,^ who, it must be confessed,
ton's views
on an
Egyptian
alphabet.
Lettre
Monmneiit
2
an Citoyen
trciive
CJiaptal,
au
sujet
de
rinscription
egyptienne
du
Rosette, Paris, 1802.
Lettre sur rinscription egyptie7im de Rosette, Paris, 1S02.
Published at Paris in 5 vols., 1812.
Lettres sur les Hieroglyphes,
Weimar, 1802.
In Nouvelle explication des Hieroglyphes, Paris, 1809-IO, 4 vols.; and

Nouveaux Essais sur les Hieroglyphes, Paris, 1826, 4 vols.
*
Hieroglyphes igyptiens, Bordeaux, 1821.
See his Essai sur
'
In his The Divine Legation 0/ Moses demonstrated,
les
Essay on Egyptian Hieroglyphics^ London, 1738, 2
vols.
to zvhich
is
adjoint
an
THE ROSETTA STONE.

seems
to
have
characters, but
recognized
who
in
the
existence
of
2/
alphabetic
no way deserves the praise of Bailey,
Cambridge prize essayist, " Vir singulari quodam ingenii

acumine praeditus, Warburtonus qui primus certe rccentiorum ad rectam harum rerum cognitionem patefecit viam." ^
Here naturally comes an account of the labours of Young Young and
and Champollion, two men who stand out pre-eminently as pqi^q^
the true discoverers of the right method of decipherment of
Egyptian hieroglyphics. As much has been written on the
works of these savants, and as some have tried to show that
the whole merit of the discovery belongs to Young, and others
the
that
belongs to Champollion,
it
make a
it
will
not be out of place
drawn from the best

and to give the opinions of the most eminent Egyptologists on this point
a few details concerning the lives of
these remarkable men must, however, be first given.
Dr. Thomas Young' was born at Milverton, in Somersetshire, on the 13th of June, 1773.
His parents were both
here to
plain statement of facts,
sources,
members of the Society

seven
years of his
life
of Friends.
He
lived during the first
with his maternal grandfather, Mr.
Robert Davis, at Minehead, in Somersetshire.

At the age of
two he could read fluently, and before he was four he had
read the Bible through twice. At the age of six, he learnt by
heart in six weeks Goldsmith's Deserted Villnge.
When not
quite seven years of age he went to a school, kept by a man
called King, at Stapleton near Bristol, where he stayed for a
In March 1782, when nearly nine years of
year and a half.
age, he went to the school of Mr. T. Thompson, at Compton,
Here he read
in Dorsetshire, where he remained four years.
Phaedrus's Fables, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Horace expurgated by Knox, the whole of Beza's Greek and Latin Testament, the First Seven Books of the Iliad, Martin's Natural
Philosophy, etc., etc. Before leaving this school he had got
through six chapters of the Hebrew Bible. About this time he
learnt to use the lathe, and he made a telescope and a microscope, and the Italian, Persian, Syriac, and Chaldee languages
From 1787 to 1792 he was private
all occupied his attention.
tutor to Hudson Gurney, at Youngsbury, in Hertfordshire,
'
HieroglypJiicoi'um Ori_ô ei nîtura, Cambridfê, 1S16, p. 9.
Early
q"
life
Youncr^^
Young's
t"j"g3
128
Young's
medical
studies.
where he seems to have devoted himself to the study of

EngHsh, French, Italian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee,
Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Ethiopic, as
well as to that of natural Philosophy, Botany, and Entomology.^ In 1792 Young began to study Medicine and Anatomy
in London, and in 1793 he entered St. Bartholomew's Hospital
In 1803 he read a paper before the Royal
as a pupil.
Society, and was elected a Fellow the following year (balloted
Shortly after he attended medical
for and elected, June 19).
lectures in Edinburgh and Gottingen, and he subsequently
went to Cambridge, where he took the degree of Bachelor of
Medicine (1803), ^îd afterwards that of Doctor of Physic
In 1798 Young received a splendid bequest from his
(1808).
uncle Dr. Brocklesby, consisting of his house in Norfolk
Street, Park Lane, his library, his prints, his pictures, and
about ;îo,ooo in money hence he was free to form his own
scheme of life. In May, 1801, he discovered the undulatory
theory of light, and his paper on this subject was read before
the Royal Society in the November following in the same
;
Discovers
undulatory
theory of
light.
year he accepted the

at the
Royal
office of
Professor of Natural Philosophy
In 1802 he was appointed Foreign
Institution.
Secretary of the Royal Society, and on the 14th of June,

1&04, he married Eliza, the daughter of J. P. Maxwell, Esq.,
and of Trippendence, near Farnborough,

of Young was called to Egyptian
Sir
W.
Rouse
Boughton, who had found in a
inscriptions by
mummy case at Thebes a papyrus written in cursive
Egyptian characters, and to a notice of this which Young
prepared for his friend, he appended a translation of the
of Cavendish Square,
Kent.
The
attention
demotic text of the Rosetta Stone. As the details of his

studies on the Rosetta Stone belong to the history of the
decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics, they are given
further on (p. 141 ff. ), but the reader will understand Young's
by reading Dean Peacock's chapter on " hierolife of Young, pp. 258-344,

and Mr. Leitch's notes in the third volume of the collected
In 18 16 Young was appointed
Works of Dr. Young.
position better
Young's
study of
hiero-
glyphs.
glyphical researches" printed in his
'
For the
list
of books read by
by G. Peacock, London, 1S55,
him
i^p.
at this time, see the
14-17.
Life of Thotnai Young,
THE ROSETTA STONE.

Secretary to a Commission
length
the
for ascertaining
29
of
comparing French and English

standards, etc., and in 181 8 he was appointed Secretary of
the Board of Longitude and Superintendent of the Nautical
Almanac. In 1825 he became Medical Referee and Inspector
the seconds pendulum, for
Company.
of Calculations to the Palladium Insurance
In
1826 he was elected one of the eight foreign Associates of the

of Sciences at Paris.
In Februarj^, 1829, he began
to suffer from repeated attacks of asthma, and by the April
Academy
following he was in a state of great weakness
lOth of
j\Iay,
excellent steel engraving of Young,

picture
by
he died on the
Young's
^^
by R. Ward, from a
Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A., forms the

life by Dean Peacock, which, according
Sir
piece to his
An
not having completed his fifty-sixth year.
Champollion-Figeac, "exprime fidelement
la
douceur,
frontis-
to
J. J.
la grace,
rayonnante d'intelligence." ^
Jean Francois Champollion, surnamed le Jeune, the
immortal discoverer of a correct system of decipherment of
Eg}'ptian hieroglyphics, was born at Figeac on December 24,
His family came originally from Champoleon in the Cham1790.
les traits d'une figure toute
High Alps, where a branch of it still holds property. As a

boy he made rapid progress in classical studies, and he devoted
himself at the same time to botany and mineralogy at a very
early date however he showed a natural taste for oriental
languages, and like Young was, at the age of thirteen, master
of a fair knowledge of Hebrew, Syriac and Chaldee.^
In
1805 his brother J. J. Champollion-Figeac brought him to
Paris, and caused him to be admitted to the Cours de I'Ecole
des Langues Orientales, and introduced him to Silvestre de
Sacy. Soon after his arrival in Paris Champollion turned his
;
attention to the study of the hieroglyphic inscription on the
Rosetta Stone, but his powerful friend de Sacy advised the

elder brother to warn the younger off a study which ne poiivait
In 18 12 he was nominated Professor
do7i7ier auciin resultat.
of Ancient History to the faculty of Letters at Grenoble,

'
Lettre
au Directeur de
la
Revue Britantiique au
siijet
des Recherches
du
Doctetir Young, Paris, 1857, p. il.

*
On
the subject
of
Champolliou's studies, at Grenoble,
Dauphinoises, par A. Champollion-Figeac,

B.
M.
t.
see
Chroniques
III. pp. 153, 156, 157-238.
physk^f
^^^
.
studies.
130
where he
carried
still
on his oriental studies.
When
he
arrived in Paris he found that the old Egyptologists maintained

that hieroglyphics were a
Chamhiero'^^
to verify this
symbolic language, and seeking
He made up
theory, he wasted a year.
his
glyphic
mind, however, to work out this question without having
studies.
regard to the theories of others, and he sketched out a plan for

a large work on
Egypt
in several
volumes.
The
first
part of
appeared at Grenoble in 1811, entitled Introduction ; it

was never sold, for only about thirty copies were printed, but it
appeared, without the analytical table of Coptic geographical
names, under the title UEgypte sous les Pharaons^ 8vo., 2 vols.,
About this time Young, in England, was studying the
1 8 14.
texts on the Rosetta Stone, and had actually begun to make
this
a translation of the demotic section, making use of the results
obtained by de Sacy and Akerblad, to the latter of

great credit
may
it
due
for his acuteness
and
insight.
whom
Whatever
be said as to Champollion's ignorance of Young's results,

quite certain that he must have known of those of
Akerblad, and we know (see p. 135) that a printed copy of

Young's paper on the Rosetta Stone had been put into
Champollion's hands by de Sacy.
In a very short time
Chamacquainted
Yy^
is
is
labours.
ChampoUion discovered where his predecessors had broken

down, and having already written De recriture Hia'atique des
A?iciens Egyptiens, Grenoble, 182 1, on September 17, in the
following year, he read his Memoire on the hieroglyphics and
exhibited his hieroglyphic Alphabet, with its Greek and
Demotic equivalents, before the Academic des Inscriptions.
Champollion's paper created a great sensation, and Louis
XVIII. wished a statement concerning it laid before him, and
M. le Due de Doudeauville determined that an Eg>'ptian
Museum should be formed in the Palace of the Louvre. In
the same year ChampoUion published his Lettre a M. Dacier,
relative a V Alphabet des Hieroglyphes pJwuetiques, in which he
showed beyond a doubt that his system was the correct one.
In a series of Memoires read at the Institut in April, May
and June, 1823, he explained his system more fully, and these
he afterwards published together entitled Precis du Systeme
Hieroglyphique des Anciens Egyptiens, Ydix'xs, 2 vols., 1824. A
second edition, revised and corrected, appeared in 1828. In
THE ROSETTA STONE.
I3I
June, 1824, Champollion arrived in Turin, where he devoted Cham-^

himself to the study of papyri. Early in 1825 he arrived in travels.
the
museums
In 1826 he returned to Paris.
In July,
Rome, and thence he went

were opened
for him.
to Naples,
where
all
Visits
'
1828, he set out on his long planned voyage to Egypt, and

returned in March, 1830, bringing with him a fine collection
of antiquities, and a number of copies of inscriptions which

filled
about two thousand pages.
to France he set to
work
As
soon as he returned
to publish the rich results of his
travels, but while occupied with this undertaking, death overtook him on the 4th of March, 1832. Louis-Philippe ordered
that busts of him, executed at the expense of the civil list,
should be placed in the galleries of the palace at Versailles,
and
in the
rooms of the Egyptian Museum of the Louvre
he
also ordered that marble for another bust should be given to
Champollion-Figeac, and that the carving thereof should be

An etched portrait
entrusted to the famous sculptor Etex.
of Champollion
leur
pollion,
Figeac
le
Jeune
Vie et leurs
will
be found in Lcs Deux Cham-
CEuvres, par
Aime Champollion-
Grenoble, 1887, p. 52.
In addition to the works of Champollion mentioned above,
the following are the most important
la
Rapport
a son Excellence M. le Due de Doudeauville, sur
^"^
a Livourne, Paris, 1826.
Collection Egyptienne
Lettres a
M.
le
Due
de Blacas d'Aulps relatives au
royal Egyptien de Turin
par Champollion-Figeac')
Musee
{avec Notices chronologiques

Paris, 1824-26.
papyrus hieratiques et les peintures du cercueil

de Pctamenoph (Extr. de Voyage a Meroe par Cailliaud de
Notice sur
les
Nantes), Paris, 1827.

Notice descriptive des
Monuments Egyptiens du Musee
Charles X, Paris, 1827.

Catalogue de la Collection
Egyptienne du Louvre, Paris,
1827.
Catalogue des Papyrus Egyptiens du
Rome,
Musee du Vatican,
1826.
^îf.'"',
pollion s
works.
132
Mo7iumcnts de VEgypte
suite a I'ouvrage
1829, Paris, 1829;
vols., fol.,
Gouvernement, pour
de I'Expedition d'Egypte, Paris,
Lettres ecrites pendant
plete.
de la Ntibie, iv
et
Public par ordre du
planches.
German
2me
829-1 847.
son voyage en Egypie, en
by E.
F.
1828,
comvon Gutschmid was
edition, Paris, 1833;
translation
440
faire
collection
published at Quedlinburg, in 1835.
Grammaire Egyptienne, aux Principes g^neranx de
Vecri-
ture sacree Egyptienne appliques a la repre'sentation de la langue
A vec des prolegojnbies et tm portrait de re'diteur^
parlee ;
M.
Champollion-Figeac, Paris,
Dictionnaire
836-1 841.
Egyptien, en icriture hieroglyphique^ piLblie
d'apres les manuscrits
par Champollion-
autographes
Figeac, Paris, 1841.
The
Young's studies of the Rosetta Stone

communicated to the Royal Society of Antiquaries
in a letter from Sir W. E. Rouse Boughton, Bart.
the letter
was read on the 19th of May, 18 14, and was published the followingyear in Arch(Sologia,'Vo\. XVIII. pp. 59-72.^ The letter
was accompanied by a translation of the demotic text on the
Rosetta Stone, which was subsequently reprinted anonymously
were
results of Dr.
first
Young's
labours
on the
Rosetta
Stone in
1814.
in the. M!ise?i)n Criticiini of
Cambridge,
Pt. VI., 18 15,
together
with the correspondence which took place between Dr. Young

In 1802 M.
and MM. Silvestre de Sacy and Akerblad.
Akerblad, the Swedish President at Rome, published his
V inscription Egyptienne de Rosette,
adresse'e an citoyen
which he gave the results of his study of
the demotic text of the Rosetta Stone M. Silvestre de Sacy
also had occupied himself in the same way (see his Lettre au
citoyen Chaptal, au sujet de V inscription Egyptienne du 'monument trouve a Rosette : Paris, 1802), but neither scholar had
made any progress, in the decipherment of the hieroglyphic
text.
In August, 18 14, Dr. Young wrote to Silvestre de Sacy,
asking him what Mr. Akerblad had been doing, and saying,
" I doubt whether the alphabet which Mr. Akerblad has
Lettre snr
Silvestre de Sacy, in
Corres-
pondence
between
Young and
de Sacy.
given us can be of
much
us to decipher the proper

'
Letter to the Rev. S. Weston
4 copper plates.
London, 18 14.
further utility than in enabling
names
respectifig
and sometimes
some Egyptian Antiquities.
have
With
THE ROSETTA STONE.
33
even suspected that the letters which he has identified

resemble the syllabic sort of characters by which the
Chinese express the sounds of foreign languages, and that
in their usual acceptation
they had different significations
cannot at present speak with any

but
^
To this M. de Sacy replied
great confidence."
"
Je ne vous dissimule pas, Monsieur, que malgre I'espece De
d'approbation que j'ai donnê au systeme de M. Akerblad,
of this conjecture
Sacy's
^^'"^blacrs
dans
la
reponse que je
lui
ai
adressee,
m'est toujours rest^
il
works.
de I'alphabet qu'il s'est

fait
Je dois vous ajouter que M. Akerblad n'est pas le
seul qui se flatte d'avoir lu le texte Egyptien de I'inscription
M. Champollion, qui vient de publier deux
de Rosette.
volumes sur I'ancienne geographic de I'Egypte, ^ et qui s'est
beaucoup occupe de la langue Copte, pretend avoir aussi lu
cette inscription.
Je mets assurement plus de confiance dans
les lumieres et la critique de M. Akerblad que dans celles de De Sacy
M. Champollion, mais tant qu'ils n'auront public quelque cham^-'^
resultat de leur travail, il est juste de suspendre son juge- poiiion's
'^'"^'''
ment." (Leitch, Vol. III. p. 17.) Writing to M. de Sacy in
des doutes tres forts sur
la
validity
October of the same year, Young says

Akerblad's essay but hastily
in the course
" I
had read Mr.
of the last winter,
was not disposed to place much confidence in the little

that I recollected of it
so that I was able to enter anew upon
the investigation, without being materially influenced by what
he had published and though I do not profess to lay claim
to perfect originality, or to deny the importance of Mr.
Akerblad's labours, I think myself authorised to consider my
and
own
translation as completely independent of his ingenious
researches
bility of
a circumstance which adds
much
to the proba-
our conjectures where they happen to agree.
It
your obliging letter, that I have Young on

and I have found that it Jîôl.rs!'^'^
again read Mr. Akerblad's work
agrees almost in every instance with the results of my own
is
only since
received
^ For these letters I am indebted to the third volume of the Aliscellancous

Works of the late Thomas Young, M.D., F.R.S., &c., ed. John Leitch, London,
18552
L' Egypte sous
Langue,
les
les
Ecritures,
Phnraons, ou recherches
et
su?- la
Geographic, la Religion, la
t Histoire def Egypte, Paris, 1814.
134
investigation respecting the sense attributed to the words which
the author has examined.

to be
more
This conformity must be allowed

I had followed, with perfect
satisfactory than if
confidence, the
path which
however, confess that

of the investigation
difficult part
it
Akerblad has traced
must
relates only to a few of the first steps
and that the greatest and the most
of the translation
still
remains unsupported by
the authority of any external evidence of this kind."
(Leitch,
Nearly three weeks after writing the above. Young

sent another letter to M. de Sacy, together with a Coptic and
demotic alphabet derived partly from Akerblad, and partly
from his own researches, and a list of eighty-six demotic
words with the words corresponding to them in the Greek
version.
Of these words, he says " Three were observed by
de Sacy, sixteen by Akerblad, and the remainder by himself."
In January, 1815, Akerblad addressed a long letter to Young,
together with which he sent a translation of some lines of the
Rosetta Stone inscription, and some notes upon it. Regarding
" During the ten years which have
his own work he says
elapsed since my departure from Paris, I have devoted but a
^^^ moments, and those at long intervals, to the monument
of Rosetta
For, in fact, I have always felt that the
results of my researches on this monument are deficient in
that sort of evidence which carries with it full conviction, and
you, Sir, as well as M, de Sacy, appear to be of my opinion
in this respect
I must however give you notice beforehand, that in most cases you will only receive a statement of
my doubts and uncertainties, together with a few more plausible conjectures
and I shall be fully satisfied if these last
shall appear to deserve your attention and approbation
If again the inscriptions were engraved in a clear and distinct
character like the Greek and Latin inscriptions of a certain
p.
8.)
Akerblad's
about
his
own
would be easy, by the assistance of the proper

names of several Greek words which occur in it, some of
which I have discovered since the publication of my letter to
M. de Sacy, and of many Egyptian words, the sense of which
is determined
it would be easy, I say, to form a perfectly
antiquity,
it
correct alphabet of these letters
occurs
but here another difficulty
the alphabetical characters which, without doubt, are
THE ROSETTA STONE.
135
common
of very high antiquity in Egypt, must have been in
use for
many
centuries before the date of the decree
course of this time, these
letters, as
has happened
in the
other
in all
have acquired a very irregular and fanciful form, so

In
as to constitute a kind of running hand." (Leitch, p. 33.)
disand
August, 18 1 5, Young replied to Akcrblad's letter,
cussed the passages where his own translation differed from
countries,
that of Akerblad.
In July, 1815, de Sacy sent a letter to Young, which De Sacy

" Monsieur,
the following remarkable passages
Young
contains
outre la traduction Latine de Vinscription Es^yptie7ine que vous

.
.,
avez C07nmumqtice, j at requ posterteurement une autre traduction A nglaise, iviprimee, que je iHai pas en ce moment sous
in
M.
yeux, Vayant pretee a
frere m'en afaite d'apres une lettre quil m'a dit avoir reque
Je pense, Monsieur, que vous
de vous
texte Egyptie7t.
Sifai
a vous
U7i conseil
plus avance
etes
aujo7ird' Jiui et que vous Uses U7te gra7ide partie,
Champoiiion.
demande que
les
S071
Cliampollion sur la
against
du
do7i7icr, c'est
du
de 7ie pas
77ioi7is,
a M. CJia7npollio7i. II se
pourrait faire quîl prete7idit e7isuite a la priorite. II cherche
e}i plusieurs e7idroits de S07i ouvrage a fai7'e croire qu'il a
decouvert beaucoup des mots de V inscriptio7i Egyptie7i7te de
Rosette. J'ai bie7t peur que ce ne soit Id que du charlatanisme ;
Au
fajoute I7ie77ie que fai de fortes 7'aiso7is de le pe7iser
surplus, je 7ie saurais 7)ie persuader que si M. Akerblad,
trop co77U7iu7iiquer vos de'couve7'tes
Et. Quatreinere, ou Cha77tpollion avail fait des progrh rêls da7is

la lecture
du
texte Egyptien, ils ne se fussent
pas plus e77tpresse's

Ce se7'ait U7ie
de faire part au public de leur decouverte.

modestie bien rare, et do7it aucun d'eux
7ie
me
parait capable"
(Leitch, p. 51.)
In a letter to de Sacy, dated 3rd August, 18

"
You may,
perhaps, think
tions of obtaining a
me
5,
too sanguine in
Young
my
says
expecta-
knowledge of the hieroglyphical language

and I will
in general from the inscription of Rosetta only
confess to you that the difficulties are greater than a super-
view of the subject would induce us to suppose. The Young

radical characters is indeed limited, like !^ ^]^pglyphics.
that of the keys of the Chinese
but it appears that these
characters are by no means universally independent of each
ficial
number of the
'
136
two or three of them being often employed to form a single word, and perhaps even to represent
Other, a combination of
and, indeed, this must necessarily happen

where we have only about a thousand characters for the
expression of a whole language. For the same reason it is
impossible that all the characters can be pictures of the
things which they represent
some, however, of the symbols
on the stone of Rosetta have a manifest relation to the objects
denoted by them. For instance, a Priest, a Shrine, a Statue,
an Asp, a Mouth, and the Numerals, and a King is denoted
by a sort of plant with an insect, which is said to have been a
bee while a much greater number of the characters have no
perceptible connexion with the ideas attached to them
a simple idea
although
it
is
metaphorical,
probable that a resemblance, either real or
may have
existed or have been imagined
when
employed thus a Libation was originally denoted by a hand holding a jar, with two streams of a liquid
they were
first
issuing from
it,
but in this inscription the representation has
degenerated into a bird's
foot.
graphic or enchorial character,

that
it
With
it
could be explained even
perfectly
understood, for
many
respect to the epistolo-
does not seem quite certain

if
the hieroglyphics were
of the characters
neither
resemble the corresponding hieroglyphics, nor are capable of

being satisfactorily resolved into an alphabet of any kind
in
two characters might be supposed to belong to

different languages for they do not seem to agree even in their
manner of forming compound from simple terms." (Leitch,
PP- 55) 5^) Writing to de Sacy in the following year (5 th May,
short, the
18 16) touching the question of the alphabetic nature of the

inscription on the Rosetta Stone, he says " Si vous Hsez la lettre
:
de M. Akerblad, vous conviendrez, je crois, qu'au moins il n'a

pas ^t^ plus heureux que moi dans ses lemons Coptes del'inscription. Mais le vrai est que la chose est impossible dans I'etendue
que vous paraissez encore vouloir lui donner, car assur^ment
I'inscription erichoriale n'est alpJiabetique que dans un sens tres
borne
Je me suis born6 dernierement a I'etude des
hieroglyphes, ou plutot a la collection d'inscriptions hieroglyphiques
Les caracteres que j'ai decouverts jettent
deja quelques lumieres sur les antiquit^s de I'Egypte. J'ai
THE ROSETTA STONE.

reconnu, par exemple,
inscriptions
k Phils, a
^
le
137
nom de Ptol^mê dans
Esn^
Ombos, ce qui
n
et a
>
nom
pr^s la date des edifices ou ce
diverses Young
deciphers the
fixe a peu
r
name of
meme
se trouve, et c'est
Ptolemy.
quelque chose que de pouvoir distinguer dans une inscription
quelconque les caracteres qui exprimcnt les noms des personnages auxquels elle a rapport." (Leitch, p. 60.)
On
loth
November,
Champollion
18 14,
President of the Royal Society a copy of his

les
"
Pharaons, and
the
sous
sent
the letter which accompanied
in
La base de mon
to
VEgypte
la lecture
travail est
it
said,
de I'inscription en
beaux ornemens
veux parler du monument
que j'ai faits pour y reussir
caracteres Egyptiens, qui est I'un des plus
du
riche
Musee Britannique
trouve a Rosette.
n'ont point ete,
s'il
Les
je
efforts
m'est permis de
le
dire,
sans quelques
que je crois avoir obtenus apres une Young and

etude constante et suivie, m'en font esperer de plus grands HonTor^
encore." (Leitch, p. 63.)
He asked also that a collation of respond.
the Rosetta Stone with the copy of it which he possessed
might be made, and suggested that a cast of it should be
presented to each of the principal libraries, and to the most
As Foreign Secretary of
celebrated Academies of Europe.
the Royal Society, Young replied saying that the needful
collation should be made, and adding, "Je ne sais si par
hasard M. de Sacy, avec qui vous etes sans doute en correspondance, vous aura parle d'un exemplaire que je lui ai
adresse de ma traduction conjecturale avec I'explication
succes
et les resultats
des dernieres lignes des caracteres hieroglyphiques.
Je
lui
avais deja envoy e la traduction de I'inscription Egyptienne au
commencement du mois d'Octobre passe

des hieroglyphiques ne m'est reussie qu'a
mois."
(Leitch, p. 64.)
I'interpretation
la fin
du
meme
In reply to this Champollion wrote,
M. Silvestre de Sacy, mon ancien professeur, ne m'a point

donne connaissance de votre memoire sur la partie Egyptienne
"
et le texte
hieroglyphique de I'inscription de Rosette
vous
Monsieur,
dire,
avec quel
empressement
I'exemplaire que vous avez la bonte de m'offrir."
je
c'est
recevrai Cham-
We
have
seen above from the extract from a letter of de Sacy that a
copy of Young's work was

May 9 and July 20, 1815.
acquainted
with
Young's
lent
to
Champollion between workm

'^'5-
138
On August 2, 18 16, Young addressed a letter^

Archduke John of Austria, in which he reported
progress in his hieroglyphic studies, thus
ascertained, as
have mentioned
"
one of
in
to the
further
have already
my
letters
to
M. de Sacy, that the enchorial inscription of Rosetta contained a number of individual characters resembling the
corresponding hieroglyphics, and I was not disposed to place
any great reliance on the alphabetical interpretation of any
have now fully
demonstrated the hieroglyphical origin of the running hand,^
in which the manuscripts on papyrus, found with the
considerable
part
mummies
of
"
of Young's
letters,
the
inscription.
The
(Leitch, p. 74.)
principal contents
however, incorporated with other matter,
were made into a more extensive

tributed to the
Young's
published,
article, which was conSupplement of the Encyclopcedia Britannica^
Supplement, Vol. IV.

He made drawings of the plates,
which were engraved by Mr. Turrell, and having procured
separate copies, he sent them to some of his friends in the
summer of 181 8, with a cover on which was printed the
These plates, however,
title, " Hieroglyphical Vocabulary."
were precisely the same that were afterwards contained in the
fourth volume of the Supplement, as belonging to the article
Egypt.
The characters explained in this vocabulary
the number which had
amounted to about two hundred
been immediately obtained from the stone of Rosetta
having been somewhat more than doubled by means of a
careful examination of other monuments
The higher
numerals were readily obtained by a comparison of some
inscriptions in which they stood combined with units and
with tens.^ Young's article in the Encyclopczdia Britannica
obtained great celebrity in Europe
and was reprinted by
;
This
elsewhere
letter
;
it
was printed
in
l8l6, and
did not appear in the
" Que ce second systeme (I'Hieratique)
circulated
Museum Criticum
n'est
in
We
De FEcriture
Paris,
and
qu'une simple modification du
systeme Hieroglyphique, et n'en differe uniquement que par
Champdllion,
London,
until 1821,
la
forme des signes."
Hieratique des Anciejis Egyptiens : Grenoble, 1821.
should have expected some reference by Champollion to Young's discovery
quoted above.
^
Young.
p. 17.
An
Account of some recent discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature,
THE ROSETTA STONE.

Leitch
in
the third
pp. 86-197
I.
it
Works of Dr.
volume of the
contains eight sections
39
Young,
Introductory view of the latest publications relating to Egypt.
II.
III.
Pantheon,
Historiography.
IV. Calendar.
V. Customs and Ceremonies.
VI. Analysis of the Triple Inscription.

VII. Rudiments of a Hieroglyphical Vocabulary.
VIII. Various Monuments of the Egyptians.
This
article is of
very great importance
in
the history of Value
Young taken
the decipherment of the hieroglyphics, and had

the trouble of having
it
of
anic"f in
printed as a separate publication, Encydo-
there would have been less doubt in the minds of scholars as Britanto the good work which he did, and results borrowed from it '"'^'^
by Champollion would have been more

It
has already been said
lished at Paris in 18 14 the
L'Egypte sous
les
(p.
two
Pkaraons, ou
easily identified.^
130) that Champollion pub-
first
parts of a
rechercJies
work
entitled
sur la Geographie, la Cham-
VEgypte
avant r Invasion de Cambyse
parts
treated
simply
these
;
of
^
^
^
the geography of Egypt.
In a note to the Preface he tells us
Religion, la La?igue, les Ecritures et VHistoire de
-^
that the general plan of the work, together with the introduc-
of the
tion
geographical section and the general
Egypt under the Pharaohs, was

Sciences et des
Arts de Grenoble,
that the printing began on the
laid before the

ist
ist
map
of
Societe des
September, 1807, and

September, 18 10.
On
p. 22 of his Introduction, referring to the Rosetta Stone, he
says
"
Ce monument
I'Egypte,
dem
qui
interessant est un decret des pretres de
decerne de grands honneurs
au
jeune
roi
Ich halte mich daher verpflichtet, alles auf unsern Gegenstand beziigliche
Leser nachtraglich genau mitzutheilen und zwar mit einer
um
so grossern
Gewissenhaftigkeit, je hoher durch dessen Kenntniss die Achtung gegen den

trefflichen
Forscher steigen wird, der besonders in der Erklarung der symbolischen
Hieroglyphen so Manches zuerst aussprach, was man ohne den Artikel der
Encyclopaedic gelesen zu haben, meistens als das Eigenthum Champollion's zu
betrachten gewohnt
ist.
Schwartze,
Das
Alte Aegypten, p. 446.
on the
geography
of Egypt.
140
Ptolemee Epiphane. Ce decret est ecrit en hieroglyphes, en

langue et en ecriture alphabetique Egyptiennes, at en Grec."
Now by the words "en langue et en ecriture alphabetique
Champollion's
hiero-
glyphical
studies in
1810.
Egyptiennes" we are clearly to understand that part of the

Rosetta inscription which is written in demotic.
Having
referred to the studies of de Sacy and Akerblad, and spoken
of the words in demotic which the latter scholar had rightly
compared with their equivalents in Coptic, " que nous y avons
lus ensuite," Champollion adds in a foot-note, " Ce n'est pas
ici le lieu de rendre compte du resultat de I'etude suivie que
nous avons faite du texte Egyptien de I'lnscription de
Nous nous
Rosette, et de I'alphabet que nous avons adopte.
occuperons de cet important sujet dans la suite de cet
ouvrage.
En attendant, nous prions le lecteur de regarder
comme exacts les resultats que nous lui presentons ici."
From this it is clear that as early as 18 10 Champollion
claimed to have made progress in the decipherment of the
demotic text (texte Egyptien) of the Rosetta Stone, and it is
now time to ask how much he was indebted to Akerblad's
letter for ideas and results.
A comparison of Plate II. at the
end of Akerblad's Lettre sur V Inscription EgypHeji?ie de
Rosette, with Plate IV, in Champollion's Lettre a M, Dacier
relative a V Alphabet des HicroglypJies PJionetiques, will show
that sixteen of the characters of the alphabet printed by
Akerblad in 1802 were retained by Champollion in 1822
also, if Akerblad's alphabet be compared with the " Supposed
Enchorial Alphabet" printed at the foot of Plate IV. accompanying Young's article EGYPT, printed in 18 18 and
published in 18 19, it will be found that fourteen of the
Thus it seems
characters are identical in both alphabets.
that a greater degree of credit is due to Akerblad than
has usually been awarded to him either by Young ^
;
Akerblad
attributes
correct
values to
fourteen
Demotic
characters.
from having completed his examination of the whole

some collateral encouragement
or co-operation to induce him to continue so laborious an inquiry ; and he had
made little or no effort to understand the first inscription of the pillar which is
professedly engraved in the sacred character, except the detached observation
respecting the numerals at the end ; he was even disposed to acquiesce in the
correctness of Mr. Palin's interpretation, which proceeds on the supposition that
parts of the first lines of the hieroglyphics are still remaining on the stone.
Young, An Account, p. lo.
^
jMr.
Akerblad was
far
enchorial inscription, apparently from the want of
THE ROSETTA STONE.

Champollion,^
or
or,
indeed,
by
141
on
writers
Egyptology
generally."
had
Having seen what foundations Young and Champollion

for their own works on the demotic text to rest on, we
may
consideration of Young's hieroglyphical

the four plates which appeared with his article
return to the
On
studies.
Egypt, he
names of
correctly identified the
Ra, Nut, Thoth,
a few of the gods,
and Nephthys, and he made out

the meanings of several Egyptian ideographs. His identificaOsiris, Isis,
names were, however, most unfortunate. Thus

made Tithons of Thi (a queen), Eoa of
Usertsen, Heron of Psammetichus, Sesostris of Nectanebus,
Proteus of Seti, Psammis
of Rameses H., Amasis of Autocrator, Arsinoe, etc., etc.
He correctly identified the names
tions of kings'
of Amenhetep, he
of Ptolemy and Berenice, although in each case he attributed Young's

to some of the hieroglyphic characters which
wrong values
The
formed these names.
Young was
et
il
as follows
206.^
207.
<
hieroglyphic alphabet given by
îp
->
208.
erte
209.
R.
I-
210.
%.
KG, Kit
211.
AX, JULi.
" Feu Akerblad essaya d'etendre

echoua completement."
value BA.
true
SE.
M.
ses lectures hors des
Champollion, Precis,
noms propres
grecs,
ed., p. 14.
See Schwartze, Das Alte Aegypten, pp. 160, 162,
No. 205, which is omitted here, is really two (demotic characters the values
BA and R to these Young gave the value bere, and so far he was
right, but he failed to see that what he considered to be one sign was, in reality,
^
of which are
two.
In Nos. 213 and 214 his consonants were right but his vowels were wrong.
We
are thus able to see that out of a total of fourteen signs, he assigned correct
wrong values to five.

au Directeur de la Revue Britannique au sujet
Recherches du Docteur Young sur les Hieroglyphes Egyptiens, p. 5, gives
values to six, partly correct values to three, and wholly
Champollion-Figeac
des
Young no
credit
in his Leltre
whatever
glyphic characters by him.
for the three partly correct values assigned to hiero-
giyphic
alphabet.
14.2
true value
212.
AAA^VSA
rt
213.
_2a.
oXe
R or
0^, OC
s.
N.
214.
215.
p.
216.
^^
F.
217.
C^
T.
03
CHA.
L.
<3
218.
Champollion published his famous Lettre a

a V alphabet des Hieroglyphes Phonetiques,
in which he stated his discovery of the Egyptian hieroglyphic
" Vous avez sans doute realphabet in the following u'ords
marque, Monsieur, dans mon Memoire sur I'ecriture demotique
Egyptienne, que ces noms etrangers 6taient exprimes phonetiquement au moyen de signes plutot syllabiques qxxalphabctiques.
La valeur de chaque caractere est reconnue et
invariablement fixee par la comparaison de ces divers noms
et de tous ces rapprochements est resulte I'alphabet, ou plutot
In
1822
M. Dacier
relative
ChampoUion's
system.
le syllabaire danotique figur6 sur ma planche I., colonne

deuxieme. L'emploi de ces caracteres phonetiques une fois
constate dans I'ecriture demotique, je devais naturellement
en conclure que puisque les signes de cette ecriture populaire
etaient, ainsi que je I'ai expos^, empruntes de I'ecriture
hieratique ou sacerdotale, et puisque encore les signes de cette
Ecriture hieratique ne sont, comme on I'a reconnu par mes
divers memoires, qu'une representation abregee, une veritable
tachygraphie des hierographes, cette troisieme espece d'ecriture,
r hieroglypJiique pure, devait avoir
aussi
un
certain
ses signes doues de la faculte d'exprimer les sons

qu'il
existait
Pour
s'assurer
I'existence et discerner
meme
il
la
aurait
valeur de quelques-uns des

sufifi
d'avoir sous les yeux,
en hieroglyphes purs, deux noms de
ment connus,
nombre de
en un mot,
^galement une serie ^'hieroglyphes phonetiques.

de la v^rite de cet aperqu, pour reconnaitre
signes de cette espece,

ecrits
rois grecs prealable-
employees a la
dans I'un et dans I'autre, tels que Ptolemee et Cleopdire,
Alexandre e\. Berenice, etc." (p. 5). Throughout this work there
fois
et
contenant plusieurs
lettres
THE ROSETTA STONE,
43
appears to be no mention whatever of Young's identification

of any letters of the hieroglyphic alphabet, although on p. 2
Champollion
ticulier,
il
sa}-s
suffi
de
"
la
I't^gard
en reconnaitre I'ensemble
aux lumieres de votre
de
I'ecriture
d^motique en par-
pr^cieuse inscription de Rosette pour

;
la critique
illustre confrere,
est redevable d'abord Cham-
M.
Silvestre de Sacy, admits
successivement a cellesdefeu Akerblad et de M. le docteur ^^'"^,?*^,,

Akerblad s
Young, des premieres notions exactes qu'on a tirees de ce and
et
de cette meme inscription que j'ai deduit

demotiques qui, prenant une valeur
syllabico-alphabetique, exprimaient dans les textes ideo-
monument,
et c'est
des
serie
la
grapJiiqucs les
etrangers
EGYPT is a thing not to be understood, especopies were sent to Paris and elsewhere as
advance
as
Young's
cially
noms propres des personnages
That Champollion should not have known of
I'Egypte."
i^ôufs^
signes
article
early as 1818.
From
the facts given above
the following statement as to the
we are enabled to draw up

amount of work done in the
decipherment of the Egyptian language by the early workers

in this field.
had come to the conclusion Statement

and Cham- f [amours
pollion, that the cartouches contained proper names.
Aker- ofZoega,
blad drew up an alphabet of the demotic character, in which Young and
fourteen signs
appear to have had correct values attributed Cham
pollion.
111
Young published
to them.
a demotic alphabet in which the
greater number of Akerblad's results were absorbed he fixed
the correct values to six hieroglyphic characters, and to three
others partly correct values
he identified the names of
Ptolemy and Alexander, the numerals and several gods'
names. Champollion published a demotic alphabet, the
greater part of which he owed, without .question, to Akerblad,
and a hieroglyphic alphabet of which six characters had
had correct values assigned to them by Young, and the
Barth^lemy^ and Zoega
long before the labours of Akerblad, Young,
Caylus, Recueil (TAniiquites Egyptiennes, Etrusques, etc.,
De
Tom. V.
p. 79.
Usu Obeliscorum, p. 465. Conspiciuntur autem passim in

Aegyptiis monumentis schemata quaedam ovata sive elliptica planae basi insi*
In
dentia,
Origine
et
quae emphatica ratione includunt certa notarum syntagmata, sive ad
propria personarum nomina exprimenda, sive ad sacratiores formulas designandas.
144
values of three others had been correctly stated as far as the
consonants were concerned.
There is no doubt whatever

work was eminently scientific, and
his great knowledge of Coptic enabled him to complete the
admirable work of decipherment, which his natural talent had
induced him to undertake. The value of his contributions to
the science of Egyptology it would be difficult to overestimate, and the amount of work which he did in his
that Champollion's plan of
comparatively short
less
life is little
than marvellous.
It
is,
however, to be regretted that Champollion did not state
more clearly what Young had done,

ment of this would have in no way
own immortal
Briefly,
Champollion's
alphabet.
for a full
acknowledg-
injured or lessened his
fame.^
the
way
in
which
Champollion recovered the
greater part of the Egyptian alphabet
is
as follows.
It will
be remembered that, on account of breakages, the only name
found on the Rosetta Stone
is
that of Ptolemy,
Shortly
before Champollion published his letter to M. Dacier, he had
published an account of an obelisk,^ recently brought to
London, which was inscribed with the name of a Ptolemy,

same characters as that on the Rosetta
Stone, and also contained within a cartouche. It was followed
by a second cartouche, which should contain the name of a
queen. The obelisk was said to have been fixed in a socket,
bearing a Greek inscription containing a petition of the
written with the
priests of Isis at Philae, addressed to Ptolemy, to Cleopatra
and to Cleopatra his wife. Now, he argued, if this

obelisk and the hieroglyphic inscription which it bears are really
the result of the petition of the priests, who in the Greek speak
of the dedication of a similar monument, it follows of necessity
that the cartouche must contain the name of a Cleopatra.
The names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra having, in the Greek,
some letters which are similar, may be used for comparing
his sister,
The names
Ptolemy
and
Cleopatra.
We
have seen above that Champollion did know of Young's work, yet in
du Systime Hieroglyphiqtu, p, i8, he says that he had arrived at
similar to those obtained by Dr, Y'oung, without having any knowledge
his Precis
results
of his opinion,
2
Observations sur
pMique, Mars, 1822.
V Obelisque Egyptien
de Pile de Philce, in Revue encyclo-
THE ROSETTA STONE.
1^5
and if the
which are used in each
in
these
two
names
express the
similar
are
which
characters
their
purely
phonetic
character
cartouche,
each
sound
in
same
comparison
of
these
two
A
previous
is at once made clear.
demotic
character
shows
that
when
names written in the
the
hieroglyphics
they are written phonetically several characters, exactly

The analogy of the demotic,
in each.
alike, are used
and hieroglyphic methods of writing in a general

way, leads us to expect the same coincidence and the same
conformity in these same names, written hieroglyphically.
The names Ptolemaios and Cleopatra written in hieroglyphics
hieratic,
are as follows
No.
No.
Now
K, is
down,
2,
Cleopatra.
No. 2 cartouche, sign No.
in
not found
clearly
Ptolemy.
I,
in cartouche No.
i,
which must represent
Sign
No.
i.
2,
identical with sign No.
is
is
Sign No.
L.
3,
in cartouche
-^
No.
i.
This
a pen, represents the short vowel
two of them are to be seen in character No. 6 in No. i

cartouche, and considering their position their value must be
AI
of
a<09.
Sign No. 4
is
identical with No. 3
cartouche, and must have the value
No.
is
identical with sign No.
being the
first
of the
letter
in
of No.
name
in
each name.
i
No.
Sign
cartouche, which
of Ptolemy must be P.
it must be A,
which ends the
name KAEOflATPA we know that signs 10 and 11 always
accompany feminine proper names, because we see them
Sign No. 6
is
not found in No.
because
is
the same sign as sign No.
it
cartouche, but
9,
names of goddesses like {] ^ Isis, and Q

Nephthys. Sign No. 7, an open stretched out hand, must
be T. It does not occur in No. i cartouche, but we find
from other cartouches that
takes the place of <-^=-^ and the
reverse.
Sign No. 8 must be R it is not in No. i cartouche,
following the
B.
M.
Recovery
a lion lying 2l'^^.

Egyptian
alphabet,
146
and ought not to be there. In No. i cartouche sign No. 7

must be S, because it ends the name which in Greek ends
with S.
Thus from these two cartouches we may collect
twelve characters of the Egyptian alphabet, viz., A, AI, E, K,
K, L, M, O, P, R, S, T. Now let us take another cartouche
from the Description de CEgypte, t. III. pi. 38, No. 13, and try
The name to
make
it
out
reads
it
Alexander.
No.
-K.
^:S'P4
Now
i,
and
thus
2,
5, 7, and 8, we know from carand we may write down their values
signs Nos.
touches Nos.
2, 4,
AA..ZE..TP.
The only Greek name which
this order
is
contains these letters in
Alexander, therefore let us assign to the signs
and < the value of K, N and S respectively.

We find on examination that the whole group corresponds,
letter for letter, with the group which stands in the demotic text of a papyrus in the place of the Greek name
AAEXANAPOZ. We have, then, gained three new phonetic signs K, N, and S, and have determined the value of
-:::335,
/vww^,
fifteen in all.
Again,
let
us take the cartouche of another lady
^
The name
Berenice,
Now
î-j^-g
Signs Nos.
2, 3, 4, 6,
them down thus
and 7 we know, and we may
RNAI
The only female name which

is
that of Berenice, and to
assign
the values
crained
two more
order
3/vwwv4ni
signs.
and
contains these letters in this
and
respectively.
we may therefore
Thus we have
THE ROSETTA STONE.

If
we
we take two other cartouches,
find that
which
is
we
viz.
are able to read the
clearly Kaiaapo<; or Caesar
147
once KAISRS,
second the only-
at
first
in the
we do not know is (9. Writing down the values we

know we have A.TAKRTR, which is clearly AvTOKpuTop;
sign
thus the value of the second character must be U.
In this
manner Champollion worked through the names of all the

Ptolemies and the Roman Emperors, and eventually succeeded
in making out the value of one hundred and eleven signs.
At the foot of Plate I., in his Lettre a ]\Ionsieur Dacier, he
writes his
own name
in hieroglyphics
Sha- M
The
PU - LL
thus
- I -
N.
following are the letters of the Egyptian alphabet
with their values as
now accepted by Egyptologists
ra
h
ch{x)
s
sh
t
th
VsA
_cr^
ur
c^
///
.A
L 2
148
Opinions of Egyptologists on the Labours of

Young and Champollion.
In favour of Champollion.
In favour of Young.
The
idea of certain hiero-
first
glyphics being intended to represent
sounds was suggested 1)y Dr. Young,

who, from the names of Ptolemy
and Berenice, had pointed out nine,

which have since proved to be
correct the former taken from the
Rosetta inscription, and the latter
deduced with singular ingenuity
from the enchorial of the same
monument. [M. Champollion fils
seems to be unwilling to allow this
but the fact is evident and surely
;
His [Young's] translations, however, are below criticism, being as

unfounded as those of Kircher.
How far
he
doubted.
he has accomplished too much to

stand in need of assuming to him-
Note
self the merits of another.
Working upon
I.]
p.
M. Champollion,
made
cess,
wîth
i,
basis,
this
happy
suc-
out four or five others,
as also about
thirty
synonymes
and by the ingenious application of

these, the merit of which is all his
own, he has been able to turn to
effect the discovery, and to decipher
therewith a great
names
number
of the Ptolemies and of the
Roman emperors
H.,
M.
of the
Salt,
Young's and
Champollioris Phonetic System
Essay on Dr.
of Hieroglyphics ; London, 1825.
may
be
But even here
[in
correctly,
interpretation] there
is
much
too
incorrect in principle to be of real
use
much
of
it is
beneath criticism.
Birch, Hieroglyphs,
even, in the decipherment,
proceeded
It is
p. 196.
even to this day a
common
habit of Englishmen to couple the
name of their countryman, Dr.

Thomas Young, with that of Champollion, as sharing with him the
No
glory of this discovery.
who knows anything
person
of Egyptian
philology can countenance so gross
an error
But
it is
not true
that he discovered the key to the
decipherment of hieroglyphics, or
even that his labours assisted Champollion in the discovery.
When the
key was once discovered and
re-
cognized as the true one, it was

found that one or two of Young's
results
were correct.
But there was
nothing in his method or theory by

which he or anyone else could distinguish between his right
and his
wrong results, or which could lead
him or anyone else a single step in
advance
If anyone
Amidst
this
mass of
error
and
contradiction, the application of the
phonetic
1
8 18,
had
principle
all
by Young,
in
the merit of an original
discovery
and it was only
by a comparison of the three kinds
of writing that he traced the name
of Ptolemy up in his own way.
has a right to be named in conjunction with Champollion, it is not
Young, but Akerblad, to whom he

does full justice (as he does indeed
to
Young
himself) at the very be-
ginning of his letter to M. Dacier.
Renouf, Hibbert Lectures ; London, 1880, pp. 12-16.
ROSETTA STONE.
Till-:
In favour of Young.
///
M9
favour of Champollion.
enim
initium
from the demotic into hieratic, into

Birch, Hieroglyphs,
hieroglyphs.
The Egyptians,
in Wilkinson,
usque quum cognitio hieroglyphorum, quibus veteres Aegyptii in
pp. 195, 196.
sacra dialecto scribenda utebantur,
Sa^culi
densissimis
quidem
dem
Fast gleichzeitig mit
Jomard
hatte Dr.
alten
Young
das Gliick aus den hieroglyphischen Texten die Bezeichnungen

fiir
Einer, Zehner, Hunderte,
die
und Tausende richtig herauszuerkennen und iiberdies den hieroglyphischen Konigsnamen
BN
KA-t
griechische
entsprechende
ihre
RI
hujiis
tenebris
et
scateret,
homines
acumine explorasse
eruditissimi
vel
ingenii
sunt,
si
summo
sibi visi
hodie forte legimus risum
hoc lapide
postquam omnium animi
ad spem enucleandi tandem istud
monstruosum et perplexum per tot
tenere possimus
vix
detecto
saecula quasi involucris involutorum
genus signorum arrecti sunt, unus

vir Champollio Francogallus exstitit, qui mira sagacitate incredibilique studio adjutus totam hieroglyphorum rationem nulla fere parte
relicta
luce
clarius
explanavit et
Brugsch,
und
Berenike
exposuit.
gegeniiberzustellen, eine
Entdeck-
Rosettana; Berlin, 185 1, pp.
Form
Ptolemaios
ung, die ihm allein gebiihrt und die

den Ausgangspunkt der spateren
Entzifferungen bilden soUte

Dr. Young's gliickliche
stellungen
Zusammen-
der oben aufgefiihrten
agyptisch-hieroglyphischen Eigen-
namen mit
ihren
griechischen
ihm
ihn
plotzlich die
{i.e.,
rechten
entsprechenden
Vorbildem
Augen
9,
offnen
Unabhangig
von
Inscriptio
i, 2.
Young kam
gleichzeitig ein junger franzosischer
Frangois
Gelehrter,
zu der gleichen
Champollion,
Vermutung und ihm
war es beschieden, sogleich
ein
vollig richtiges Resultat zu erhalten.
Erman, Argypten,
p.
14.
sollten
und
Champollion] auf den

Pfad fiihren. Brugsch,
Die Aeg)pto!igie, pp.
ita
omnia, quae antea
ut fere
Young,
fit
qui,
le
premier,
Tapplication du principe phone-
tique k la lecture des hieroglyphes.

fut, dans la realite, le
lux de la science
Toutequelques succes refois, malgre
marquables. Young ne sut pas la
feconder
il
avait bien reconnu
Cette idee
1.
fiat
Ein
Ring mit
solcher
glyph en
Hiero-
Mffl
fand sich nun auch an den betref-
fenden Stellen
der
Inschrift
Rosette und er musste den
von
Namen
dans les hieroglyphes les noms de

Ptolemee et de Berenice, mais sans
reussir k assigner k chacun des
signes qui les composent leur verita-
des Ptolemaus bilden. Es war der

bekannte englische Naturibrscher
ble valeur
Thomas Young,
dans
der im Jahre 1819
ses autres lectures sont
fausses, quoiqu'il ait rencontre juste

la
determination de
la
valeur
ISO
In favour of Young.
und
machte
scharfsinnigen
diesen
Schluss
richtigen
vollig
und
alphabetique de
plusieurs
carac-
minces
qu'ils
Quelques
teres.
wenigstens fur einige Zeichen des
soient, ces premiers resultats con-
Namens den Lautwert feststellte.

Erman, Aegypien, p. 14.
Young un
Der
der es that und von
erste,
en faveur du docteur
considerable, s'il ne
les avait pas compromis lui-meme
en s'engageant dans une fausse
voie, et en publiant des traductions
tout aussi imaginaires que celles de
stitueraient
titre
der beriihmte englische Physiker
ses devanciers.
La solution du
probl^me etait reservê au genie
de Champollion le jeune c'est un
honneur que personne ne pent lui
Thomas Young (geboren
disputer.
dem
richtigen Grundsatze ausging,
dass die Konigsnamen alphabetisch
war
geschrieben sein miissten
erkannte
in
Er
1773).
der haufigsten in
dem
Dekret von Rosette vorkommenden

Gruppe den Namen Ptolemaus, er
vermochte ein spater zum grossen

Teile bestatigtes hieroglyphischcs
aufzustellen
und sie
Alphabet
iiber das System der agyptischen
richtige AnSo haben wir
Young den eigenthchen
vollkommen
Schrift
sichten zu bilden.
denn
in
Entzifferer der agyptischen Schrift
wenn
zu sehen,
es
ihm auch
Wiedemann,
ische Geschichte, p. 29.
p. 5.
Wenn wir die Frage so stellen

Wer hat zuerst einige hieroglyphische Zeichen in ihrem Lautwerthe
richtig
bestimmt
oder
besser
gesagt, zufallig errathen, so miissen
wir antworten
den
das war Th. Young
Schliissel zur Entzifferung der
Hieroglyphenschrift jedoch hat er

nicht
Aegypt-
Chabas, L Inscription
de Rosette,
nicht
gelang, der Sprache selbst Herr zu
werden.
gefunden.
pollion, geb.
den
ChamDecember 1790,
Frangois
23.
den 4. Marz 1832, er ist es,

den die Wissenscbaft der Aegyptologie in dankbarer Verehrung als
gest.
ihren eigentlichen Begriinder nennt
DUMICHEN, Geschichte
In the
first
work of Champollion,
De
VEcriture hieratique
his essay
des alien Aegypiens, Berlin, 1878,

s.
304;
des Anciejis Egyptiens, pubHshed

in
i82i,he recognized the existence
of only the
first
of these three ways
Zwei grosse Manner,
in
England
der auf vielen Gebieten des Wissens
Thomas Young,
supposing
Egyptian characters
represented ideas. When he discovered the erroneousness of this
opinion, he used all possible efforts
to suppress the work in which he
had stated it. That work, however,
begaben sich zu gleicher Zeit, aber

unabhangig von einander, an die
Arbeit. Beider Bemiihungen lohnte
schoner Erfolg. Champollion aber
wird mit Recht vor seinem brit-
contained a valuable discovery.
ischen Rivalen als Entzifferer der
of representing words,
that
all
the
ausgezeichnete
in
Frankreich Frangois Champollion,
THE ROSETTA STONE.

Tn favour of Young.
In the year after this pub-
Champollion pubUshed
lication,
Lettre
d,
M.
his
Dacier, in whicii he
announced the phonetic powers of

certain hieroglyphics and applied
them to the reading of Greek and
Roman
Had
proper names.
he
been candid enough to admit that

he was indebted to Dr. Young for
the
commencement of his discovery,
and only to claim the merit of extending and improving the alphabet, he would probably have bad
his
claims to the preceding and
subsequent discoveries, which were

certainly his own, more readily
admitted by Englishm.en than they
In 1819 Dr. Young had
published his article " Egj'pt " in
the Supplement to the Encyclo-
have been.
paedia Britannica
and
it
cannot
be doubted that the analysis of the

names "Ptolemaeus" and "Berenice," which it contained, reached
Champollion in the inter\'al betw een
his publication in 1821 and 1822,
and led him

.
to alter his views.
The Grammaire
Eg\'piicne
ought to have been given to the

public as his sole bequest hi the
department of Eg>'ptian philology.

It was published from a manuscript
miissen.
und Wort ;
s.
Un
of this
trust that
it
will
visiting card to posterity."
the warmest admirers

pollion
of
must admit that he
be
my
Even
ChamIe<t
his
system in a very imperfect state.

Few, probably, will deny that he
held
his
many
life,
errors to the close of
both
in
what respects the
Young, essaya de
re-
constituer I'alphabet des cartouches.
De
1814 k 1818,
s'exerga sur les
il
systemes
divers
d'ecriture
egyp-
mecaniquement
groupes differents dont se com-
tienne,
les
et
posaient
separa
le texte
hieroglyph ique et
demotique de I'inscription
de Rosette.
Apres avoir determine, d'une maniere plus ou moins
exacte, le sens de chacun d'eux, il
en essaya la lecture
Ses
idees etaient justes en partie, mais
texte
le
methode imparfaite
sa
la terre
il
entrevit
promise, mais sans pouvoir
Le veritable initiateur
y entrer.
fut Francois Champollion
^L\SPERO,
Histoire
Ancic?i7ie ;
Paris, 1886, pp. 729, 730.
Ce
en 18 19, que le Dr. Young

premier que les car-
fut
declara
le
ou encadrements ellipdans le texte hieroglyphique

de I'inscription de Rosette, correspondaient aux noms propres grecs
touches,
tiques,
et particulierement
mediaire
ful
ii.,
savant anglais du plu- grand
merite, Th.
decease, having carefully collected
them to his
with the remark, " Be care-
1879, Bd.
Leipzig,
49.
mee du
the sheets, he delivered
werden
genannt
Ebers, Aegypten in Bild
Hieroglyphen
written in 1831, immediately before

Shortly before his
his last illness.
brother,
151
du
a celui de Ptole-
texte grec, et
meme nom,
dans
aux groupes,
le texte inter-
en ecriture egyptienne
demotique ou vulgaire, groupes qui
avaient "ete deja reconnus et decomposes par MM. Silvestre de
Sacy et Akerblad. II allait encore
plus loin en supposant que chaque
signe du cartouche representait un
son du nom de Ptolemee et en
cherchant a
les definir reellement
im a un par une analyse

genieuse
tr^s
in-
I'lusieurs signes
152
In favour of Young.
In favour of ChnmpoUion.
reading of the characters, and in

what respects the interpretation of
the texts. HiNCKS, On the Number., Names, and Powers
of the
Letters of the Hieroglyphic Alpha-
Trans. Royal Irish Acad.,
in
bet,
Vol.
XXL,
Section Polite Litera-
ture, pp. 133, 134, Dublin, 1848.
avaient ete faussement interpretes
preuve
la plus evidente en
ne reussissait pas k lire
d'autres noms que ceux de Ptolemee
et de Berenice.
II faut done avouer
et
la
etait qu'il
que, malgre
cette
decouverte, les
opinions du Dr. Young, sur la nature
du systeme hieroglyphique,
encore
que
etaient
essentiellement fausses et
cette
decouverte
elle
meme
probablement restee infruc-
serait
tueuse et k peine signalee
comme
decouverte dans la science,
si
on
avait suivi le cliemin que son auteur
lui-meme avait propose. Lepsius,

Lettre h M. le Professeur F. Rosellini snr V Alphabet Hieroglyphique
Rome,
It
Seyffarth
and others
reject
1837, p. II.
could hardly be expected that the system of decipher-
ment proposed by Champollion would be accepted by those
Cham-
who had
poUion's
system.
revived and
hence we find old theories

by side with
Champollion's method of decipherment. Among those who
attacked
systems to put
rival
new
the
forth,
ideas brought to light side
new system
Seyffarth, Goulianoff
were,
and Klaproth.
Spolm,
misguided
the
Spolm and
Seyffarth
emphonics,
symphonies and
aphonics, by which terms they seem to imply phonetics,
Their hopelessly wrong theory
enclitics and ideographics.
was put forth with a great show of learning in De Lingua et
Uteris veterum yEgyptioruin at Leipzig, 1825-3 l Goulianoff^
did not accept Champollion's system entirely, and he wished
divided
hieroglyphics
into
to consider the phonetic hieroglyphics acrologic
was the view taken by Klaproth, who
this
bitterly attacked
also
Cham-
pollion in his Lettre sur la decouverte des hicroglypJies acrolo-
a AT. de Goulianoff, Paris, 1827, and also in

travaux de feu M. Clianipollioji sur
To the first of these two works
les Hieroglyphes, Paris, 1832.
Champollion published a reply entitled Analyse critique de la
giques, adressee
his
Exajnen
'
critique des
i^c^Yiis
Essai
siir les UieroglypJtes d' Horapollo)i,
Paris, 1S37.
AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL.
httre sur la di'couvertc des JiiiUvglypJies acrologiques par

roth (Extr.
du Bulletin de Ferussac),
Klap-
Paris, 1827, in
53
which
he showed the utter worthlessness of the theory. In 1830,

when the correctness of Champollion's system was fully
demonstrated, Janelli published at Naples his FundaDienta
Heruieneutica HicroirlypJiicae, in three volumes, in which the
old s\-mbolic theory of the hieroglyphics was re-asserted
.
and there were many who hesitated not

Fran9ois
which
Ricardi,
may be
" Dtlcoiiverte
lesquels,
of
of one of his works,
title
cliez
soi,
on peut deviner Ihistoire, la
culle de tons les peuples aîciens et modernes,
vtanicre, qu'on le fait en lisant les Jiieroglyphes
eg}>ptiens selon la nouvelle metJiode

little,
soundness
the
HicrcgJyphes doviestiques pJionctiqiies par
! ! ), le
mane
to follow the views of
Charles d'Oneil,
estimated by the
des
sans sortir de
chronologie (
de la
feu
"
Turin,
824.^
by
Little
however, Champollion's system was accepted.
In 1835
Leemans published
his edition of Horapollo, in which the

decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics were
ably applied, and two years later Richard Lepsius published
his famous Lettre a M. F. Rosellini sur V alphabet hieroglypliique, wherein he discussed the whole question of the
decipherment, and showed that Champollion's method was,
results of the
About
without any question, correct.
who worked on Champollion's
time students,
this
plan, sprang
up
in
Holland,
France and England, and the misguided Seyffarth

alone continued down to 1855 to write and protest against
Italy,
new system.
the
An
The
Egyptian Funeral.
funeral of a poor Egyptian was, probably, very
much
one of the present day. After the body had been

steeped for a short time in bitumen or natron, or perhaps
merely rubbed with these substances, the few personal ornalike that of
'
ments of the man were placed on
'
Another of
his
works was
et septieme rois
he was wrapped
in
one
entitled, Trioviphe sur les impies obtenii
adoratetirs de la trcs-sainte Trinite et
sixihme
it,
d Egypte au
du Verbe
eternel, sous le
Vie sihle aprls
le dehisce.
par les
gouvernement des
Sciilpte
hicroglyphiques sui P Obclisque Barberinus et ntaintenant expliqtie ;
en
Geneva,
sigties
1
82
Persis-
tcncc 01
fîsg
?ystems of
interpretation.
154
piece of linen, and with his staff to support his steps/ and his
sandals to protect his weary feet in the nether-world, he was

laid in a hole or cave, or
even in the sand of the open desert,

Trusting in the might of a few
to set out on his last journey.
amulets that were buried with him, he feared not to meet his
foes in the grave.
The
funeral of a king or a
member
of the royal family, or
of a wealth};- person, was a very magnificent ceremony, and

is,
it
perhaps, impossible to realize exactly what an imposing
Treating of the burial of a king in

it must have been.
Egypt, Diodorus says (I. 72), that when a king died all the
inhabitants of the country wept and rent their garments the
sight
Diodoi-us
on I^yp-^
temples were closed, and the people abstained from sacrifices
and celebrated no festival for a period of seventy-two days.

Crowds of men and women, about two or three hundred in
number, went round about the streets with mud on their heads,
and with their garments knotted like girdles below the breasts
(cTLvSova'i vTTOKdrco T(3v /jâarcov),
praise of the dead.
singing dirges twice daily in
They denied themselves wheat, they
ate
no animal food, and they abstained from wine and dainty fare.
No one dared to make use of baths, or unguents, or to recline
upon couches, or even to partake of the pleasures of love.
The seventy-two days were passed in grief and mourning as
Meanwhile, the funeral
and on the last day of
mourning, the body, placed in a coffin, was laid at the
entrance to the tomb, and according to law, judgment was
passed upon the acts of the king during his life. Every one
had the power to make an accusation against the king.
The
priests pronounced a funeral oration over the body, and
declared the noble works of the king during his life, and if
the opinion of the assembled multitude agreed with that of
the priests, and the king had led a blameless life, they testified
their approval openly; if, on the other hand, the life of the
king had been a bad one, they expressed their disapprobation
by loud murmurs. Through the opposition of the people
many kings have been deprived of meet and proper burial,
for the
death of a beloved child.
paraphernalia was
made
ready,
Compare Psalm
xxiii. 4.
and
kinf^s
are
accustomed to
155
exercise justice,
not
only Diodmus
because they fear the disapprobation of their subjects, but

also because they fear that after death their bodies
maltreated, and their memorj' cursed for

It is
ing
is
very doubtful
be
evêr.
the above description of the mourn-
not somewhat exaggerated, and there appears to be no
authority in
many
if
may
Egyptian inscriptions
for
the
statement that
kings were deprived of their meet and proper burial
lives shown by
more valuable for
the indication of the great and solemn respect which was
shown to dead kings, as sons of the god Ra, and as lords of
because of the disapproval
of their past
This account by Diodorus
the people.
the land of Eg}-pt, than for
its strict
is
accuracy of
detail.
The
would be respectfully
imitated at the funerals of the nobles and officials of his court,
and the account by the same writer of what happened after
the mummy of an Egyptian gentleman was prepared for
burial, must next be considered.
According to Diodorus (I. 92), when the body is ready to
be buried, the relatives give notice to the judges and the
friends of tlie deceased, and inform them that the funeral will
take place on a certain day, and that the body will pass over
the lake and straightway the judges, forty in number,^ come
and scat themselves in a semi-circle above the lake. Then
the men who have been commissioned to prepare a boat
called ySa/oi?,^ bring it to the lake, and they set it afloat under
customs observed
at the burial of kings
the charge of a pilot called Charon.^
And
they pretend that
Orpheus travelling in Egypt in ancient times, was present

at a ceremony of this kind, and that he drew his fable of
the infernal regions partly from his remembrance of this
'
Is
it
possible that Diodorus has confused the forty judges at the lake wiih
the forty-two judjês or assessors of the

the deceased
was supposed
In Eg)-ptian
Book
to declare that
J "^^
'JU
of the Dead, before each of
Wic'lcmann compares the Egyptian
^^y
man," "
^=-il^ (/are,
cart-driver."
a.
"ship,"
."--^ barei.
kare,
"
Schiffer."
The
'
/]
whom
he had not committed a certain sin
and
^,
/I
dictionaries give
'^
qdre,
"coach-
"ianbunal.
156
Diodorus
tianiuuml.
ceremony/ and partly from his imagination. Before the coffin

containing the dead man was placed in the boat on the lake,
every person had the right to bring accusations against the
deceased.
If any accuser succeeded in showing that the
deceased had led a bad life, the judges made a decree which
deprived the body of legal burial if, on the other hand, the
accusation was found to be unjust, the person who brought it
was compelled to pay heavy damages. If no one stood forth
to bring an accusation, or if an accusation seemed calumnious,
the relatives of the deceased ceased to mourn and began to
praise the dead man and his virtues, and to entreat the gods
of the infernal regions to admit him into the place reserved
The Egyptians never praised the birth of a
for good men.
man, as did the Greeks, for they believed that all men are
equally noble. The people being gathered together, add their
cries of joy, and utter wishes that the deceased may enjoy ever;
lasting
life
in the
underworld
Those who have private
in the places set apart for
new chamber
in the
company
of the blessed.
burial places lay the bodies of their
them
but those
who have
dead
not, build
and set the body in it fixed

Those who are deprived of burial,
under the ban of an accusation, or
in their house,
upright against the wall.

either because they
lie
because they have not paid their debts, are merely
laid in
own houses. It happens sometimes that the younger

members of a family, having become richer, pay the debts
their
of their ancestors, secure the removal of the condemnatory

sentence upon them, and give them most sumptuous funerals.
The
great honours which are paid to the dead by the

Egyptians form the most solemn ceremonies. As a guarantee
for a debt, it is a customary thing to deposit the bodies of
dead parents, and the greatest disgrace and privation from
burial, wait upon those who redeem not such sacred pledges.
In this account also there are many details given for which
proof is still wanting from the Egyptian monuments.
Thus Orpheus brought back from
his travels in Egj'pt the ceremonies,
the greater part of the mystic rites celebrated in
memory
and
of the courses of Ceres,
and the whole of the myth of hell. The difference between the feasts of Bacchus
and of those of Osiris exists only in name, and the same may be<;aid of the mysteries
of Isis and those of Osiris.
Diodorus, I. 96.
An
may now
57
departed this Hfe at
made to describe briefly what

body of a man of high rank who
Thebes towards the end of the XVIIIth
or beginning of the
XlXth
attempt
happened
be
after death to the
dynasty, that
P:gyptian
melit''"
according
to say about B.C.
momt
known, and therefore nothing need

be invented it is only necessary to gather them together and
to bring them to a focus on the person of one man. We must
imagine then that we are living on the east bank of the Nile,
'"'^"ts.
1400.
The
is
facts are all
near the temple of
Amen-Ra,
"
lord of the thrones of the
earth," in the fifteenth century before Christ.
before the day has dawned,
even before the
One morning
officials who
in the temples are astir, we are

awakened by loud cries of grief and lamentation, and on
making inquiries we are told that Ani, the great scribe of
conduct the early services
the offerings of the gods in the temple of
As he was
Amen-Ra,
is
dead.
the receiver of the revenues of the gods of Abydos,
as well as of
Amen-Ra
of Thebes,
first
prophet of Amen,
and the precentor who stood on the threshold of the temple

morning by morning to lead off the hymn of praise to the
sun, his death naturally causes great excitement in the temples
as his forefathers for
and the immediate neighbourhood
generations have been temple officers of the highest
rank, it is certain that his funeral will be a great event, and
that numbers of the hereditary aristocracy and government
officials will assist at the ceremony.
He leaves no wife to
mourn for him, for she is already dead, and is now lying in a
chamber of a splendid tomb, not yet finished, however, nine
miles away across the river, awaiting the coming of her husband.
She was called Tutu, and belonged to one of the
she was a
oldest and most honourable families in Thebes
member of the famous college of singers of Amen-Ra, and
also a member of the choir of ladies, each one of whom
carried a sistrum or a tambourine in the temple of that god.
Ani began to hew out the tomb for himself and his wife many Tomb
"'"
years ago, and during his lifetime he spared neither pains nor
expense in making it one of the largest and finest ever known
Ani was not a very
for a person of lower rank than a king.
old man when he died, although his step was slow and his
back somewhat bent in stature he was of middle height, and
;
five or six
158
and though comhim for his uprightness

and integrity. He was a learned man, and knew the literature
of Egypt well he himself wrote a fine, bold hand, and was
no mean artist with his pencil. He was a tried servant of the
king, and loved him well, but he loved his god Amen more,
and was very jealous for his honour, and the glory of his
worship in the temple of the Apts. All his ancestors had
been in the service of the god, and it was even said that the
oldest of them had seen Amen, who, until the expulsion of
the Hyksos by the kings of Thebes, had occupied the position
of a mere local deity, suddenly become the national god of
Egypt. Whether Ani believed in his innermost heart any or
had a kind but dignified
his features
paratively few loved him,
look,
respected
all
all
of the
official
him
tion brought
religion
is
another matter
his official
posi-
into contact with the temporal rather than
the spiritual affairs of the Egyptian religion, and whatever
doubts he
may have had
in
matters of
the efficacy of the magic of his day,
belief,
etc., etc.,
or concerning
he said nothing
about them to any man.
For some days past it had been seen that Ani's death was
and many of his colleagues in the temple had
come to see him from time to time, one bringing a charm,
another a decoction of herbs, etc., and a few had taken it in
to be expected,
turns to stay in his

Death
room
for
some hours
at a time.
One
night his illness took a decidedly serious turn, and early in

the morning, a short time before
Orientals say, the
news of
the
daybreak, when, as
smelled,
Ani
died.
the
The
death spreads rapidly through the quarter, for
his
women
dawn may be
all
of his house rush frantically through the streets,
beating their breasts, and from time to time clutching at their

hair,
which
covered with handfuls of the thick dust of the
is
streets, after
the manner of
Anpu
the
in
Tale of the Two

In the house,
Brothers, and uttering wailing cries of grief

parties of
mourning women shriek out their grief, and all the

their tears and sobs.
The steward
members of the house add

of the house
cher-heb
funerals
or
of
has,
priest
however, sent across
who
the
river
to
the
and arranges the

and informed him of
superintends
the wealthy and great,
Ani's death, and as quickly as possible this
official
leaves his
house
near the
Having
Ani's house.
Tombs
Valley of the
together with his assistants,
makes
his
159
of the
way with
Kings, and
all
arrived there he takes Ani's
haste to
body
into Ani's
his charge, and proceeds to discuss the method by which the

body shall be preserved, and the style of the funeral. While
his assistants are taking away the body to the embalming
house, he sends quickly to the western bank of the Nile, and
summons his chief mason to his presence after a short time
he arrives, and the cJier-heb instructs him to go to Ani's tomb
with a body of men, and to finish hewing whatever chambers
and pillars remain in a half completed state, to plaster the
walls, and to paint upon them scenes for which he supplies
him with details and notes. The clier-heb knows that for
many years past Ani, and one or two of his friends among
the scribes, had been writing and illuminating with vignettes
a fine copy of the " Book of the Dead " he remembers that
this work remains unfinished, and he therefore sets a skilful
scribe to finish it in the style in which Ani would probably
given to
'-'"'
|^^
have finished it. Parties of professional mourners are next

organized, and these go round about the city at stated times,
singing in chorus, probably accompanied by some musical instrument, funereal dirges, the subjects of which were the shortness of life and the certainty that all must die, and the virtues
These dirges were sung twice daily, and
of the dead man.
Ani's friends and colleagues, during the days of mourning,
thought it to be their duty to abstain from wine and every
kind of luxury, and they wore the simplest and plainest
garments, and went quite unadorned.
Meanwhile it was decided that Ani's funeral should be
one of the best that money could purchase, and as while he
was alive he was thought to be in constant communion with
the gods, his relatives ordered that his, body should be
mified in the best possible
^va-v,
so that his soul
Dirges for
mum-
^\
ba^
.and his intelligence ^^X?^, when they returned some thou-
sands of years hence to seek his body in the tomb, might find
his
ka or
"
enter into the

it
'
there waitmg, and that
all
three might balmment.
body once more, and revivify it, and live with

kingdom of Osiris. No opportunity must
for ever in the
Object
ofem-
genius
I60
be given for these four component parts of the whole of a
man
to drift
perishable
away one from the
body
^T/i
other,
and to prevent
% must be preserved
in
such a
this the
way
that
it may meetly be identified with a god, and the

whole of it with Osiris, the judge of the dead and king of the
nether world.
The tomb must be made a fit and proper
dwelling-place for the ka, which will never leave it as long as
the body to which it belongs lies in its tomb.
The furniture
of the tomb must be of the best, and every material, and the
workmanship thereof, must also be of the best.
The cher-Jieb next goes to the embalming chamber and
orders his assistants to begin their operations upon Ani's body,
The body is first
over which formulae are being recited.
^y^shcd and then laid upon the ground, and one of the
assistants traces with ink on the left side, over the groin, a
line, some few inches long, to indicate where the incision is to
be made in the body another assistant takes a knife, pro-
each limb of
The cmbaimment.
bably made of
and makes a cut in the body the same

length as the line drawn in ink by his companion.
Whether
this man was then driven away with sticks, and stones thrown
after him, as Diodorus states, or not, is a moot point upon
The chief
which the inscriptions give us no information.
intestines and the heart and lungs were then carefully taken
out and washed in palm wine, and stuffed with sweet smelling
They were next smeared all over with an
spices, gums, etc.
unguent, and then carefully bandaged with strips of linen
many yards long, on which were inscribed the names of the
four children of Horus ^ who symbolized the four cardinal
points and of the four goddesses who took the intestines under
While this was being done a set of
their special protection.
four alabaster jars was brought from the stores of the cJier-heb's
establishment, and in each of these one of the four packets of
flint,
^(liPi;,""=iP:-=l""=T
'
"^
C ^
^. S^
"the four
children of Horus, in the form of four hgures
man, with the

hawk."
made
of metal, with the face of a
face of an ape, with the face of a jackal,
and with the
face of a
embalmed
l6l
was placed. Each jar was inscribed with

wanted to make it the property
of Ani was to inscribe his name upon it in the blank
Each jar had a cover made in
spaces left for the purpose.
the form of the head of the child of Horus to whom it was
The jar of Mestha had the head of a man, and in
dedicated.
it was under the protection of Isis.
it was placed the stomach
The jar of Hapi had the head of an ape, and in it were placed
it
was under the protection of
the smaller intestines
jar
of
Tuamautef
had the head of a jackal,
Nephthys. The
and in it was placed the heart it was under the protection of
Neith. The jar of Qebhsennuf had the head of a hawk, and in
it was under the protection of Serqet.
it was placed the liver
The inscriptions on the jars state that the part of the deceased
in it is identified with the child of Horus to whom the jar
is dedicated, and that the goddess under whose charge it is
protects it. The covers of the jars are fastened on by running
in liquid plaster, and they are finally set in the four divisions
of a coffer on a sledge with a vaulted cover and a projecting
rectangular upright at each corner.
It was of the greatest
intestines
a formula, and
all
that was
Jars for
'"'estmes.
A^*^^
importance to have the intestines ^ preserved intact, for withThe brain is Removal
out them a man could not hope to live again.
next removed through the nostrils by means of an iron rod
curved at one end, and
with the body
formulae are recited.

perishable parts
is
put aside to be dried and buried
at every step
is
The body
in
these processes religious
thus deprived
taken and laid to soak
At
natron for a period of seventy days.
in
of
that
it
is
of a greenish-grey colour
bones, for the flesh beneath

hair of the
body is
it
very
thin,
made
it is
seen
the skin clings to the The body
has shrunk somewhat, but the
and feet
though now drawn and
Longitudinal slits are next
well preserved, the nails of the hands
adhere to the skin, and the
still
more
the end of this time
taken out and carefully washed and dried, and
it is
its
a tank of liquid
has changed but
little.
face,
and toes and the fleshy parts of the arms,

thighs and legs, which are then stuffed with a mixture of
sweet spices and natron, and sewn up again. The cavity in
'
In
in the fingers
mummies
of the best period the intestines are sometimes found in packets
beneath the bandages.

B.
M.
^"
^^^^^J^^
62
is now filled up with a mixture of spices, powdered

and natron, and the nostrils through which it was inserted are plugged up with small linen pledgets dipped in
the skull
plaster
some astringent
Large
a very
little
obsidian eyes are also inserted in the eye-
quantities of gums, spices, natron, as well as
sockets.
bitumen, are pounded and well mixed together,
and with them the breast and stomach are carefully packed
through the slit in the side while certain formulae are being
;
recited, a gold plate inscribed with the utchat, or
^^
body
laid
is
upon
it
to indicate that this
as he did over that of his father Osiris.
the hands are stained with henna (Arab.

The
orna-
the"bod^
eye of Horus,
god watched over
*Ias>^),
The
this
nails of
and on the
hand is placed Ani's gold ring, in the

mounted a handsome steatite scarab inThe ring was
scribed on the base with his name and titles.
supposed to confer upon the deceased some power, but what
it is certain,
that power was is not yet exactly made out
however, that no one was buried without one or more, and if
the relatives of the deceased were not able to buy them in
little
bezel
finger of the left
of which
is
gold or
silver,
they
made
and even of small
use of faience rings, glazed various
which they tied on

the fingers in lieu of rings. The legs are then brought closely
together, and the arms are laid on the body with one wrist
The cJier-heb next provides a large
crossed over the other.
and handsome scarab made of green basalt which is set in a
frame of gold, over the back of it is a horizontal band of
the same metal, at right angles to which, on the side of the
tail of the beetle, runs another band which joins the frame
at the head of the scarab is a gold loop through which is now
threaded a thick gold wire sufficiently long to go round Ani's
neck.
This scarab was part of the stock in trade of the
cJier-hebf and all that was necessary to do to make it Ani's
property was to inscribe his name and titles upon it in the
blank line left for the purpose at the head of the flat base.
This done the scarab was covered with a thin gold leaf and
^^^^ upon Ani's breast at the neck.^
The inscription upon it
colours,
strings of beads
The scarab
the heart.
* According to some rubrics of the thirtieth chapter the scarab

was to be placed
"within the heart" of a person after the ceremony of "opening the mouth"
163
was one of the verses of the 30th chapter of the Book of the
Dead, and contained a prayer, addressed by Ani to his heart,
that there might not be brought against him adverse evidence
when it was weighed in the balance in the judgment hall of
Osiiis, that he might not be obstructed or driven back, and
that his name might not be overthrown by those powers who
made it their business to harass the newcomers among the
dead in the nether-world. The prayer ends with a petition
that no false evidence may be borne against him in the presence of the god.
And now
smeared
all
the bandaging begins.
over with unguents.
The body
first
of
all
Processor
Pieces of linen are then
'^'^"''aji'ng-
is
torn into strips about three inches wide, and one edge of each
gummed. On one end of each of these the name of

Ani has been written in hieratic characters to facilitate the
strip is
identification of the
a number of
mummy during the
process of bandaging
dipped
and the
embalmers having bandaged the fingers, hands, and arms,
and toes separately, begin to bandage the body from the feet
upwards. The moist bandages cling tightly to the body, and
the gummed edge enables each fold of the bandage to obtain
firm hold
the little irregularities are corrected by small
pledgets of linen placed between the folds and gummed in
position.
These linen bandages are also held in position
by means of narrower strips of linen wound round the body
at intervals of six and eight inches, and tied in a double knot.
Over these fine linen bandages passages from the Book of
the Dead, and formulai which were intended to give power
One end of a very thick bandage
to the dead, are written.
of eighteen to twenty-five folds of linen is laid under the
shoulders, and the other is brought over the head and face,
and rests on the upper part of the chest this is held in
position by a bandage wound round the neck, and tied in a
double knot at the back of the neck. The same plan is
adopted with respect to the feet, but before the bandage
these strips
are
water,
in
(Naville, Bd. II, 99),
had been performed
this rite,
however, took place in the
tomb.
164
which secures
all is tied,
thick pads of linen are laid on the
top of the feet to prevent any injury happening to them

Process of
bandaging.
Names
of
the bandages.
the
mummy
is
made
when
The bandaged arms
to stand upright,^
having been pressed closely into the
sides, and the fore-arms

and hands having been laid upon the stomach, the bandaging
goes on again, while formulae are recited by the cher-Jieb.
Each bandage had a special name,^ each bandage gave power
to the deceased, and was inscribed with words and figures of
gods, which also gave him power, and the adjustment of each
in its proper position required both
care and judgment.
More folds of linen are laid on the body perpendicularly,^
Referring to the embalming of the feet, the following extract is of interest.
"After these things perform the embalming operations on his right and left arms,
and the children of Horns, and the children of Chent-aat,
and then the
Rub the
shall carry out the embalming operations on the two legs of the deceased.
'
and then rub them

draw two
jackals upon two pieces of linen with colours mixed with water perfumed with dnti,
and each jackal shall have his face turned towards the other ; the jackal on the one
bandage is Anubis, lord of Hert the jackal on the other is Horus, lord of
Hebennu. Put Anubis on the right leg, and Horus on the left leg, and wrap
them up in fine linen. To complete the embalming of the legs, take six measures
of dnchamu flowers, natron and resin, and mix with water of ebony gum, and put
and thighs of the deceased with black stone
feet, legs,
a second time with the finest
Wrap
oil.
(?) oil,
the toes in a piece of cloth,
three measures on the right leg and three measures on the

fresh
(?)
senb flowers
made
into twelve bundles
left.
on the
(?)
Then put some
left leg,
and twelve
bands of linen, and anoint with the finest oil." Maspero, Le Ritiiel de I'Embaumeinent, pp. 43, 44, in Memoire sur Quelques Papyrus du Louvre (Extrait des
Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits, torn, xxiv., i" partie
-
E.g.,
one of the bandages of the
nostrils
was
Paris, 1875).
called
(1(15
>
ra
and the other
rit^^^^
,
^"^"^
the two bandages of the cheek
bandages of the top of the head
^ ^^^^ bandage
>
""
(
v\
||
ll
ll
1 v
^^^{'^^"^f^'^'^y
anchth dnchth
Yi^
\S.
C Q
nehi.
sri,
the two
mehut'ati.
While the head was being bandaged the following petition was recited by
one of the embalmers : " O most august goddess, O lady of the west, O mistress
of the east, come and enter into the two ears of the deceastd
O doulily
'
powerful, eternally young, and very mighty lady of the west, and mistress of the
east
may
breathing take place in the head of the deceased in the nether world
Grant that he
may
may
breathe through his nose, that
articulate with his tongue in the nether
truth
and
justice,
may hear with his two ears, that he

he may utter sounds from his mouth, and
see with his eyes, that he
and
his
triumph
world
in the hall of
Receive his voice in the hall of
Seb
in the
presence of the great
AN
liGVPTlAN FUNERAL.
165
and more bandag^cs are wound round the body horizontally,

until, little by little, it loses its shape beneath them.
When
a length of about three hundred cubits has been used in
folds and bandages, a coarse piece of linen is laid on the
body, and is sewn up at the back. Over this again a saffroncoloured linen sheet is laid, and this having been deftly sewn
over the head, down the back, and under the feet, is finally
held in position by a perpendicular bandage of brownish
coloured linen, passing from the head to the feet and under
them up the back to the head, and by four horizontal
bandages of the same coloured linen, one round the shoulders,
one round the middle of the body, one round the knees, and
one round the ankles. Thus the mummy is complete.
During the seventy da)s which have been spent in
embalming Ani's body, the coffin makers have not been idle,
and they have made ready a covering of wood to be laid on
the mummy, and two beautiful coffins.
The covering, in the
form of a mummy, is slightly vaulted, and has a human face,
bearded, on it it is handsomely painted outside with collar,
figures of Nut, Anubis, and Ap-uat, the full names and titles
of Ani in perpendicular lines of inscription, the cartouches of
the king in whose time he lived, and scenes in which Ani is
adoring the gods. On the inside of the cover, on the purple
;
ground, are painted
in
a light yellow colour pictures of the
horizon, the spirits of the East, in the form of apes, adoring
Ra, the lion gods of the morning and evening with a disk on
their united
backs,
etc.,
etc.^
The
inner coffin
is
equally
O Oîiis {i.e., the deceased), the thick oil which comes

upon thee furnishes thy mouth with life, and thine eye looketh into the lower
heaven, as Ra looketh upon the upper heaven.
It giveth thee thy two ears to
hear that wliich thou wishest, just as Shu in Hebit (?) heard that which he
wished to hear.
It giveth thee thy nose to smell a beautiful perfume like Seb.
It giveth to thee thy mouth well furnished by its passage (into the throat), like
the mouth of Thoth, when he weigheth Maat.
It giveth thee Maat (Law) in
I.febit.
O worshipper in Hetbenben, the cries of thy mouth are in Siut, Osiris of
Siut comes to thee, tliy mouth is the mouth of Ap-uat in the mountain of the
west." (See Maspero, Le Riliiclde P Embanmcnient, p. 27, in Memoire sur Quelqiics
Fapyrus ciu Louvre (Extrait des Notices el Extroits des Alatniscrits), torn, xxiv.,
I" partie ; Paris, 1875).
god, lord of the west.
'
'
fine
Cambridge.
example of such a covering
is
that of Nesi-pa-ur-shefi, preserved at
Ani's
^*^"-
l66
handsome, and carpenter and artist have expended their best

labour upon it before Ani was embalmed he was measured
for it, and due allowance having been made for the bandages,
it fits the mummy exactly.
It is in the form of a mummy,
and the sycamore planks of which it is made are about two
inches thick
the bottom is in one piece, as is also each of
the sides, the rounded head-piece is cut out of a solid piece of
wood, and the foot-piece is also separate
all these parts are
pegged together with wooden pegs about two inches long.
On the cover is pegged a solid face, carved out of hard wood,
which is thought to have a strong resemblance to that of
Ani bronze eyelids and obsidian eyes are fixed in it, and a
;
Coffin
"
tation.
Scenes
Ui'"''^ffin"
carved wooden beard
is
fastened to the chin.
wooden
Solid
hands are next fastened to the breast. The whole coffin,

inside and out, is next covered with a thin layer of plaster
over this a coat of light yellow varnish is painted, and the
scenes and inscriptions are painted on it in red, light and
^^^^"^ green, white and other colours.
At the head is Nephthys, and at the foot is Isis, each making speeches to Ani, and
telling
is
him
that she
is
protecting him.
On
the cover outside
Nut, and between two series of scenes in which Ani
is
two perpendicular
and titles
recording
his
name
at the
inscriptions
of
lines
sides
figures
of
Anubis
and
Ap-uat.
The
of
foot of these are
the coffin are ornamented with figures of gods in shrines, the
scene of the weighing of the heart, Ani drinking water from
the hands of a goddess standing in a tree, Shu lifting up Nut
from the embraces of Seb, etc. Inside the coffin are painted
figures of a number of gods and genii with instructions
referring to them, and the goddesses Nut and Hathor the
first covers Ani with her wings, and the second, as mistress of
the nether-world, receives Ani into her arms. Around the edge
of the coffin near the cover, from head to foot, run two lines
of inscription, one on each side, which repeat at considerable
The outer edge of the
length the name and titles of Ani.
coffin, and the inner edge of the cover are "rabbeted " out, the
one to fit into the other, and on each side, at regular interrepresented worshipping the gods, are
vals, four
rectangular slots about iîn. x 2in. x
fasten the coffin hermetically, tightly fitting
|in.
are cut; to
wooden dowels,
four
inches long, are pressed into the slots
in
the coffin, and pegs
driven from the outside of the coffin through them keep

firmly in
coffin,
position.
the cover
is
67
them
Ani's body having been placed in this

laid
upon it, the ends of the dowels fit

and coffin and cover are firmly
into the slots in the sides,
joined together
wooden pegs
are driven through the cover
and dowels, the " rabbets " fit tightly, the little space between
the coffin and cover is " stopped " with liquid plaster, and
thus the coffin is sealed. Any injury that may have hap- The
pened to the plaster or paintings during the process of sealing
is repaired, and the whole coffin is once more varnished.
This coffin is, in its turn, placed inside an outer coffin, which
is painted, both inside and outside, with scenes similar to
those on the inner coffin the drawing is, however, more free,
and the details are fewer. The outer coffin being sealed in
the same way as that inside it, Ani is now ready to be carried
outer
to his everlasting
On
home
in the
Theban
hills.
a day fixed by the relatives and friends,
articles of funereal
furniture
brought to Ani's house, where also the
now lies
awaiting the funeral
all
the various
which have been prepared are
mummy
in its coffins
the cJier-heb sees that the things
necessary for a great man's funeral are provided, and arranges

for the procession to start
day having
on the
first
auspicious day.
ing together the servants and those
who
are to carry burdens,
see that each has his load ready and that each
When
This
come, and gather-
arrived, the cher-JieUs assistants
knows
his place
ready the funeral train sets The

out from Ani's house, while the female servants wail and procession.
lament their master, and the professional mourners beat their
in the procession.
all
is
breasts, feign to pull out their hair
each other
in shrieking
by handfuls, and
vie with
the loudest and most often.
They
have not a great distance to go to reach the river, but the

difficulties of passing through the narrow streets increase
almost at every step, for the populace of Thebes loved the
sight of a grand funeral as much as that of any European
country to-day.
After some {qw hours the procession reaches
the river, and there a scene of indescribable confusion happens
every bearer of a burden

boats which
lie
is
waiting in a row by the quay
one of the
the animals which
anxious to deposit
it
in
68
draw the
sledge, on which Ani's bier is laid, kick out wildly

and struggle while being pushed into the boats, people rush
hither and thither, and the noise of men giving orders, and
the shouts and cries of the spectators, are distracting. At
length, however, the procession is embarked and the boats
push off to drop with the current across the Nile to a place
little
north of the
After an hour
forms
itself in
Temple of Thothmes
spent
in
the order in which
and we see
for the first
Funereal
provided.
In the front walk a
offerings.
and stands
filled
opposite Asasif
it
will
march
re-
to the tomb,
time what a splendid funeral has been
with vases
flowers, bread, cakes, ducks,
one man
he used
III.,
disembarking, the procession
number of men bearing
full
of wine, beer,
oil,
tables
perfumes,
haunches of beef, and vegetables

and box of instruments which
carries Ani's palette

for writing
and drawing, another
carries his staff,
another his bed, another his chair, others bring the ushabtiu
box with a vaulted cover and made like a tomb

and following them comes the stele recording his name and
titles and prayers to the gods of the nether-world and behind
them, drawn by two men, is a coffer surmounted by a jackal,
on a sledge decorated with lotus flowers, in which stand the
four jars which contain Ani's intestines.
Next follow the
men bearing everything which Ani made use of during his
life, as, for example, the palette which he carried when he
followed his king to war in order to keep the accounts of the
army and to make lists of all the precious things which were
brought to his lord as gifts and tribute, and the harp on which
figures in a
Ani's
personal
property
carried to
the tomb.
he played
in
which
is
in his leisure hours.

laid the
mummy
is
the boat
the chest j^^,
of Ani, placed in a boat which
mounted on a sledge drawn by

chest
Next comes
four
oxen
at the
is
head of the
a figure of Nephthys, and at the foot a figure of Isis,

is supplied with oars as if it were really destined to
row down to Abydos, so that the body might be buried

and its soul pass into the nether-world through the "Gap"
there,
T\
^ Peka
the Egyptian
on
{i.e.,
the
Sam
Gap') the place whence, according to
under the guidance of Osiris, set out

the head of the boat stands a whitewearing a panther skin he holds a bronze
belief, souls,
their last journey.
robed
'
priest
At
Bc'/-uvi-n
pp.
16S-9.
VIEW OF
(From
ANI'S
FUNERAL PROCESSIOI
the Papyrus of Ani, Brit.
Mus. No. 10,470,
blieet
5).
instrument for burning incense
right he scatters water
in
the
left
69
hand, and with the
on the ground from a Hbation vase
y.
Behind the boat follow a number of white-robed priests, one

Next follow more funereal
of whom has his head powdered.^
suspended from the
flowers
carried
in
boxes
offerings and
balance on their
who
carry
them
ends of poles which the men
shoulders. After these come a number of women with breasts
uncovered and dishevelled hair, who in their wailing lamentaAmong these
tions lament the dead and praise his virtues.
would probably be the female ser\'ants of Ani's house, whose
grief would be genuine, for they would feel that they had lost
a good master and a comfortable home.
Meanwhile the procession has moved on and has entered

one of the rocky defiles to the north of Der el-Bahari, whence,
winding along through the valley of the kings, they hope to
reach a remote place in the Western valley. The progress of
the train is slow, for the ground is rough and rocky, and
frequent halts have to be made on the right hand and on
the left, kings and nobles are buried in splendid tombs, and
almost every hill which they climb hides the mummy of some
A few miles further on, at some
distinguished Egyptian.
a hill, a rectangular
openinglittle distance upon
is seen, and
r
^
_'
;
>
fc>
when
the procession arrives at the foot of it, a number of

workmen, attendants, tomb-guardians and others are seen
assembled
The
there.
mummy
the chest, and carried up the
hill
in its coffin
is
lifted
out of
to the rectangular opening,
which proves to be the mouth of Ani's tomb there it is set

upright, and before it the attendants pile up tables with sepulchral offerings and flowers, and animals for sacrifice are also
brought there. The wailing women and the distant relatives
of Ani here take farewell of him, and w hen they have descended the hill, the coffin is let down the slanting passage by
ropes into the chamber, where it is hoped that Ani's friends
;
will
bring sepulchral offerings to his ka, at the appointed
seasons.
This chamber
square pillars
'
in
it.
rectangular and has two rows of
is
From
it
In the papyrus of Ani, his wife
grief by the side of the boat.
there leads a passage about six
is
represented kneeling on
tfê
ground
in
Ani's
tomb
'" ^^^,
mountains.
I70
wide by seven feet high, and passing through this we see

to the right and left a series of chambers upon the walls of
which are painted in vivid colours the pictures of Ani and his
wife Tutu making offerings to the gods, and inscriptions
feet
The walls of some

drawn from the daily
and therefore no mean
recording his prayers and their answers.
rooms are occupied

events of his
we
artist,
entirely with scenes
As he was
life.
a scribe,
are probably right in assuming that he superintended
the painting of many of them himself

their walls
unornamented, and
it
Some of the rooms have

would seem that these were
used for the living rooms of the priests
tombs
rites
who visited
or lived in the
purpose of carrying out the various sepulchral

at their appointed times.
We pass through or by sevenfor the
teen chambers, and then arrive at a flight of steps which leads
which the mummy and coffin are to

be placed. Hewn in the wall just above the top of the flight of
steps is a square niche, in which, seated on one seat, are two
stone figures of Ani and his wife
he has an open roll of
papyrus on his knees, and holds a palette in his hand, and she
has lotus flowers in both hands, which rest on her knees. The
plinth of the statues is inscribed with the names and titles of
Ani and Tutu. Beneath, let into the wall, is a stone stele, the
surface of which is divided into two parts
the upper part
contains a representation of Ani adoring the sun-god Ra, and
the lower contains about thirty lines of inscription in which
Ani prays that Ra, Osiris and Anubis will cause all kinds of
sepulchral goods to be supplied for his ka or genius that they
will grant his coming forth from and going into the netherworld whenever he pleases that his soul may alight on the
trees which he has planted
that he may drink cool water
from the depths of the Nile when he pleases, etc.
down
Statue
chamber
in
^
'^f
to the
Ani
The
mummy
steps,
and
where
its final
room we
is
in its coffin
now
resting place
see that a part of
is
it is
to be.
the
left,
As we
pass into this
already occupied with a coffin
and the funereal furniture belonging to
we
down
chamber on the
has been brought
carried into a large
it.
When we come
Tutu,
nearer
Ani's wife.
by her is a table of alabaster covered with shapely vessels of

the same substance, filled with wine, oil, and other unguents
find that
it is
the coffin of Tutu, Ani's wife.
Close
Bclwcfii pp.
170-1.
VIEW OF
ANI'S
(From the Papyrusof Ani,
FUNERAL PROCESSION
Brit,
Mus. No. 10,470, sheet
6).
AN EGYl'TIAN FUNERAL.
each of these fragile objects
made
the table are spoons
manship.
body
They
inscribed with her name.
is
On
of ivory of the most beautiful work-
are shaped in the form of a
creamy
stained a deep
is
I7I
woman.
The
colour, the colour of the skin
who guarded herself from the rays of

we see that it is movable
when we lift it off we see the name of " Tutu, the sistrum
On a second stand, made of
bearer," engraved beneath.
wood, we find the articles for her toilet, mirror, kohl pot in
of the Egyptian lady,
the sun
obsidian,
the hair
fan,
black, and
is
etc.,
and close by
carried in the temple of
is
the sistrum which she
Amen-Ra upon
earth,
and which was
buried with her, so that she might be able to praise that god
Chairs and her couch

and stands covered with dried flowers and
with music in his mansions in the sky.

there too,
are
various offerings.
Removing
mummy
it
lying as
was
the
laid a
lid
of the coffin
we
few years before.
breasts are strings of dried flowers with the
bloom
see her
On
still
her
on
them, and by her side is a roll of papyrus containing a copy

of the service which she used to sing in the temple of Amen
in
the Apts,
when on
earth.
Her amethyst necklace and
other ornaments are small, but very beautiful.

feet
is
a blue glazed steatite usJuihti figure.
,
'
(Xaa>^^-^^^'^'
Just over her
While we have
l/^tlîit
been examining Tutu's general furniture, the servants of the

clier-heb have brought down the coffin, which is placed on a
and the chairs and couch and boxes

and arranged them about the chamber.
In a square niche in the wall, just over the head of the coffin,
Ani's writing palette and reeds are placed, and by its side is
laid a large roll of papyrus nearly 90 feet long, inscribed in Ani's
hieroglyphics during his lifetime and under his direction, with ,^12"]^;;,]
the oldest and most important chapters of the " Book of the
Dead " the vignettes, which refer to the chapters, are beautifully painted, and in some as many as thirteen colours are
and in every work connected with
used in this chamber
Ani's tomb there is a simple majesty which is characteristic
of the ancient Egyptian gentleman.
At each of the four
corners or sides of the bier, is placed one of the so-called
Canopic jars, and at the foot are laid a few stone tishabtiu CA'^^P'^C
figures, whose duty it was to perform for the deceased such
bier along the east wall,
and funereal
offerings,
FUNEREAL ARCtL4iOLOGY OF EGYPT.
172
labours as
filling
the furrows with water, ploughing the
fields,
he were called upon to do them.

When everything has been brought into this chamber, and
the tables of offerings have been arranged, a priest, wearing a
panther skin, and accompanied by another who burns incense
in a bronze censer, approaches the mummy, and performs the
and carrying the sand,
if
ceremony of "opening the
mouth"
^^
"nnimr '^-y-^
while a priest in white robes reads from a
roll
un-re
of papyrus
embalming has taken away from the

and the various portions
of his body, and before these can be of any use to him in the
nether-world, a mouth must be given to him, and it must be
opened so that his ka may be able to speak. The twentyfirst and twenty-second chapters of the
Book of the Dead "
refer to the giving a mouth to the deceased, and the vignette
The
or leather.
dead man
all
act of
control over his limbs
**
of the twenty-second chapter (Naville,

priest called the "
The
giving
to the
deceased.
guardian of the scale,"
xxxiii) represents a
dri Vianet, giving the deceased his mouth.
....
the twenty-third chapter a priest

tion of
openmg
the instrument
has opened
The
bl,
<2>-
is
mouth
and the deceased says
my mouth
In the vignette to
<c:z>
the
^^ r~^ I^
seen performing the opera-
f
\J ^
">
drit apt
re,
in the text, "
with
Ptah
with that instrument of steel with
which he opened the mouth of the gods." ^ When the mouth

of the deceased had been opened, his ka gained control of his
speech, intelligence and limbs, and was able to hold intercourse with the gods, and to go in and out of his tomb
whenever he pleased. When the formulae are finished and
all rites performed, Ani's relatives and near friends withdraw
from the mummy chamber and make their way up the stairs,
through the long passage and into the first chamber, where
they find that animals have been slaughtered, and that many
of the assistants and those who accompanied the funeral arc
funeral
feast.
*
Some
copies read Shu.
VIEW OF THE COFFIN CHAMBER
(from Nav'lle,
Adtlress of Isis at the foot of the bier.
Amibis standing on one side of the

is
mummy
on the other
the soul.
Address of Nephthys
Speech of a
at the foot of the bier.
statuette.
Inscription of the
tct.
Inscription of the flame.
To face p.
172.
Das Aegyptische
Todtenbucli).
g.
Inscription of the jaclcal.
/;.
Addresses of the "living soul."
/.
Inscription of the ushabtiii figures.
/'.
Speech of Qebh-sennuf.
Speech of Hapi.
m. Speech of Tuamautef.
. Speech of Mestha.
/.
MUMMY.
173
When
eating and drinking of the funereal offerings.
the last
mummy
chamber, masons bring along

slabs of stone and lime which they have ready and wall it up
the joints between the stones are so fine that the blade of a
modern penknife can with difficulty be inserted to the depth
person has
left
the
We
of half an inch.
have seen Ani's body embalmed, we
have watched all the stages of the manufacture of his coffin,

we have seen the body dressed and laid in it, we have accompanied him to the tomb, we have gone through it and seen
how it is arranged and decorated, and we have assisted at the
funereal ceremonies
him
tomb then, let us leave

company of his wife. Ani did
and beautiful tomb to be hewn for him
in his beautiful
his long rest in the
to enjoy
not cause such a large
merely to gratify his pride
with him, as with
all
educated
was the outcome of the belief that his soul would

revivify his body, and was the result of a firm assurance in
his mind of the truth of the doctrine of immortality, which is
the foundation of the Egyptian religion, and which was as
deeply rooted in them as the hills are in the earth,
Egyptians,
it
MUMMY.^
Mummy
is
the term which
body of a human
is
generally applied to the
being, animal, bird,
fish,
or reptile, which
has been preserved by means of bitumen, spices, gums, or

natron.
As
far as
can be discovered, the word
is
neither a Origin
corruption of the ancient Egyptian word for a preserved body,
nor of the more modern Coptic form of the hieroglyphic name.
The word
fuo/jiiov),
"
mummy "
and
languages.
in
It is
is
Latin,^
found in Byzantine Greek {ôvfila,

and indeed in almost all European
derived from the Arabic u^^, "bitumen,"
and the Arabic word
for
" bitumenized thing," or a
mummy is Lt^,J^, which means a

body preserved by bitumen. The
Syriac-speaking people called
it
],^qSd, the Greeks Trtrrda-
have reproduced here many paragraphs from
my
Prefatory Reniarhs
on Egyptian Mummies, on the occasion of the unrolling of the

privately printed;
^
It
appears
in
mode
Mummy of Bak-Ean,
London, 1890.
Latin al>out A. U. 1000.
Leipzig, 1890, p. 349.
Wiedemann, Herodots Zweites Bush
of
Muî]iy.'
1/4
(f)a\TO<;,
and the Persians
a drug used in medicine lS'\j^<^.
call
The
celebrated Arabic physician Ibn Betar (died A.H. 646),

quoting Dioscorides,^ who Hved in the first century of our era,
says that Muviia

that
it
flows
is
found
in
the country called Apollonia, and
down with water from
the "lightning mountains,"
and being thrown by the water on the sides of the water

courses, becomes hard and thick, and that it has a smell like
that of pitch. Having further quoted the article by Dioscorides
on Pittasphaltus, he adds, " What I say on this subject is as
"Mummy" follows
The name mthnta
(_^lxo,<i
is
given to the drug of
stance
which mention has just been made, and to that which
embalming
'Bitumen of
bodies.
tombs
^jy^jJ^^Û and
Judaea,'
tJ,jul^ i_?ljkA)j/*iU
which
is
found
is
called
to the m/iinta of the

in great quantities in
Egypt, and which is nothing else than a mixture which the

Byzantine Greeks used formerly for embalming their dead, in
order that the dead bodies might remain in the state in which
they were buried, and experience neither decay nor change.
Bitumen of Judaea is the substance which is obtained from the
Asphaltites Lake, L^^
i'.jk:sc."
'Abd
el-Latif^ mentions that
he saw miimia or bitumen which had been taken out of the

skulls and stomachs of mummies sold in the towns, and he adds
that he bought "the contents of three skulls for half an
Egyptian dirhem,"
^fA^
(^)'^'
pitch, for
to procure
Mummy
adrugt
^'^^
which
About
?>-s.y'&
it
dj.^
(_iw2Ju
that
it
1^>.a^
U^Jj^
ci^jyUil
JJiJj
varies very little from mineral
can be substituted
if
one takes the trouble
it.
three or four hundred years ago Egyptian
mummy
formed one of the ordinary drugs in apothecaries' shops.
mummy
was
The
by Jews, and as early

as the twelfth century a physician called El-Magar was in the
It was said to be
habit of prescribing mummy to his patients.
good for bruises and wounds. After a time, for various
reasons, the supply of genuine mummies ran short, and the
trade in
Materia JMeJica
(ed.
carried on chiefly
Kiihn, in Alediconnn Graecorittii Opera, tom. xxv.,
Leipzig, 1829, p. loi).

2 See Abd el-Latif, KeIatio7i de r Egypte,\.x. by De Sacy, Paris, 1810,
and AhdoUatiphi Historice /Egypli Compendiu7ii, Ed. White, Oxford, i8ro,
p. 273,
p. 150.
MUMMY.
175
Jews were obliged to manufacture

the bodies of
all
and of people who had died
They
others.
They procured
them.
the criminals that were executed in gaols,
filled
Christians and
hospitals,
in
the bodies with bitumen and stuffed the
limbs with the same substance
up tightly and exposed them

means they made them look
1564 a physician called
to see the stock of the
this done,
they bound them
By
to the heat of the sun.

like old
mummies.
this
In the year
Guy de la Fontaine made an attempt

mummies of the chief merchant in
mummies at Alexandria, and he discovered that they were

made from the bodies of slaves and others who had died of the
most loathsome diseases. The traffic in mummies as a drug
was stopped in a curious manner. A Jew at Dainietta who
traded in mummies had a Christian slave who was treated
with great harshness by him because he would not consent to
become a Jew.
Finally,
when
the ill-treatment
became so
no longer, the slave went to the

Pasha and informed him what his master's business was. The
Jew was speedily thrown into prison, and only obtained his End of the
liberty by payment of three hundred pieces of gold.
Every niumnw.
Jewish trader in mummy was seized by the local governor of
the place where he lived, and money was extorted from him.
severe that he could bear
The
trade in
mummy
it
being hampered by this arbitrary tax,
soon languished, and finally died out entirely.^
The
hieroglyphic word for
mummy
is
'
v\
-11
Q '^
JLd
Sdhu, and the word used to indicate the act of making a dead
man
into a
"wrap up
mummy
in
is
bandages."
o''
__^==^
^^^
'
^^
means
of the latter word

and they were used by
the Copts to translate the Greek eWa^facr/x.09,
Ta(f>T),
ivracîdiêiv,
the word JULIoXojrt, "mummy," is also given by

Kircher, Liytgua Aegyptiaca Restitiita, Rome, 1643, p. 183, at
The mummifier was called pecJKUJC ; compare
the foot.
dcLTrretv, etc.;
OTO^
Lnvsxac ajl nicp^-HX
<f)Lacrav oi ivra(})iacrTal
nxe nipeqKcbc^ =
rov^laparfK.^
'
Pettigrew on Muntniies, p. 4.
Lagarde,
Lagarde, Lihroriim
Der
Pentateuch Koptisch, Gen.

Vet.
Test. Cation.,
1.
2.
Gen.
1.
2, p.
iji.
icaX
iveTa-
of
embalmed
the
to body.
The Coptic forms
are Kec, KHC, KtJOC, KUJtUC, KOJCJUCe,
Egyptian
name
176
Whether the
art
mummifying was known to the

it was introduced
of
aboriginal inhabitants of Egypt, or whether
by the new-comers from Asia,

difficult to decide.
We
know
is
a question which
is
very
for a certainty that the stele of
a dignitary preserved at Oxford was
made during
the reign of
Sent, the fifth king of the second dynasty, about B.C. 4000.
The
existence of this stele with
its
figures
and inscriptions
entreating the god of the dead to grant sepulchral meals,

points to the fact that the art of elaborate sepulture had
reached a high pitch of perfection
man
for
whom
it
was made was
held the dignity of i
in
those early times.
called
^^
(1
neter hen or "prophet"; the stele also
tells
us that he was 1 ;^^
Antiquity
The
inscriptions contain
balming.
granted to the deceased
suten
rech
or
" royal
relative."
prayers asking that there

in the
may be
nether world, " thousands of
oxen, linen bandages, cakes, vessels of wine, incense,
f^v ,1.
The
Shera, and he
etc.,"
which fact shows that religious belief, funereal ceremonies, and

a hope for a life after death, had already become a part of the
During the reign of king Sent,
life of the people of Egypt.
the redaction of a medical papyrus was carried out. As this
work presupposes many years of experiment and experience,
it is clear that the Egyptians possessed at a remote period
ample anatomical knowledge for mummifying a human body.
Again, if we consider that the existence of this king is proved
by papyri and contemporaneous monuments, and that we
know the names of some of the priests who took part in
funereal ceremonies during his reign, there is no difficulty in
acknowledging the great antiquity of such ceremonies, and
also that they presuppose a religious belief in the actual
revivification of the body because of which hoped-for event
the Egyptians took the greatest possible care to preserve and
afterwards to hide the bodies of the dead.
Though
there exists, to
my knowledge,
no monument of a
would prove
similar nature to that of the stele of Sent which
beyond doubt that mummies were made in the first dynasty,

still it seems tolerably certain that they were made, and there
Ancient
work on"
anatomy.
is little doubt that the Egyptians possessed all the anatomical

knowledge necessary for this purpose. We know from
Mauctho that Teta, the second king of the first dynasty,
MUMMY.
177
B.C. 4366, wrote a book upon anatomy, and that hei

busied himself in making experiments with drugs.
The
abcut
mother of
this king, a lady called
Shesh
{n^
Jj,^
earned fame
by inventing a hair wash. From the fact that the

bodies of some ancient Eg}-ptians who lived during the first
for herself
four
dynasties,
have been found
in
skeleton
state
in
sarcophagi which had never been opened since the time they
were cemented, some six thousand years ago, until the present
day,
it
has been argued by some that mummification was not
practised during the early dynasties in Egypt.
of preser\-ation must have been
Some system
adopted, however, because
the bones are discoloured, and smell strongly of bitumen.
The knowledge
mummified
of the
way
in
which the ancient Egyptians
obtained from the works of Greek
their dead
and from an examination of mummies. According
to Herodotus,^ " When in a family a man of any consideration Account of
^^^^"""S
dies, all the females of that family
^ besmear their heads and by Herofaces with mud, and then leaving the body in the house, they dotus.
wander about the city, and beat themselves, having their clothes
girt up, and exposing their breasts, and all their relations
accompany them. On the other hand, the men beat themWhen they have done
selves, being girt up in like manner.
There are
this, they carry out the body to be embalmed.
persons who are appointed for this very purpose they, when
the dead body is brought to them, show to the bearers wooden
is
historians,
'
models of corpses made exactly
show that which they say
is
like
by
painting.
the most expensive
And
they
manner of
embalming, the name of which ^ I do not think it right to

mention on such an occasion they then show the second,
which is inferior and less expensive and then the third which
Having explained them all, they learn from
is the cheapest.
they wish the body to be prepared then
way
them in what
they have agreed on the price, depart but
when
the relations,
in the workshops thus proceed to
remaining
the embalmers
embalm in the most expensive manner. First they draw out
part of
the brains through
o the nostrils with an iron hook, taking
3
;
Three
ofêm
balming.
First
"}'=^'^"^'
01
em-
balming.
*
Papyrus Eheis, Bd.
Bk.
II., Glossariuin
Hieroglyphicttm, by Stern,
p. 47.
II. 85.
^ i.e.,
Osiris.
B. xM.
FUNEREAL ARCILîOLOGV OF EGYPT.
1/8
it
out in this manner, the rest by the infusion of drugs.
make an
with a sharp Ethiopian stone they

side,
and take out
all
the bowels
Then
incision in the
and having cleansed the
abdomen and rinsed it with palm-wine, they next sprinkle it

with pounded perfumes. Then having filled the belly with
pure myrrh pounded, and cassia, and other perfumes, frankincense excepted, they sew it up again and when they have
;
done
days
At
this,
;
they steep
for a longer
it
in
natrum, leaving
time than this
it
under
it
70
for
not lawful to steep
is
it.
70 days they wash the corpse,

and wrap the whole body in bandages of flaxen cloth,
smearing it with gum, which the Egyptians commonly use
After this the relations, having taken the
instead of glue.
body back again, make a wooden case in the shape of a man,^
and having made it, they enclose the body and thus, having
fastened it up, they store it in a sepulchral chamber,^ setting
it upright against the wall.
In this manner they prepare the
bodies that are embalmed in the most expensive way.
"Those who, avoiding great expense, desire the middle
way, they prepare in the following manner. When they have
the expiration of the
Second
meihod
of em-
balming.
'
Really in the form of the god Osiris.
Compare
Tapixî'S* 51 6 klyvirriOQ- ovtoq
viKpov ^vfStnrvov
/cat îfxTroT))!'
fAv yf
%t]pavaQ rov
Xkyoi S' I'Swv
21
'Lucian, >e Lttciu,
Iitoi/jtoto.
Dindorf,
(ed.
Paris, 1867, p. 569).
AiyvTTioi
yilQ txovaiv.
56
TO evrepa
f?f\oi'Tfc rapix^vovatv ahrovc,
ai'v
/cai
Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrhoniarum Institutionum
knvrolq
lib. III.
virip
cap. 24
(ed. J. A. Fabricius, Leipzig, 1718, p. 184).
Mortuos limo
ohliti
plangunt
nee cremare aut fodere
arte medicatos intra penetralia coUocant.
Gronov., Leyden, i;S2,
fas
Pomponius Mela,
putant
lib.
I.
verum
cap. 9 (ed.
p. 62).
Aegyptia
tellus
Claudit odorato post funus stantia saxo
Corpora,
et a
mensis exsanguem baud separat
umbram
Silius Italicus, Piinicoriun lib.
H.
(ed.
Tempus
in
XIII.
11.
474-476
Occioni, Turin, 1889).
Balsama succo unguentaque mira feruntur

aeternum sacrum servantia corpus.
Corippi,
11.
De
22-25
lajidibus Jtistini, lib. III.
(efl-
Antwerp, 1581,
p. 4).
MUMMY.
179
charged their syrinc^cs with oil made from cedar, they fill the
abdomen of the corpse without making any incision or taking
out the bowels, but inject
it
fundament
at the
and having
prevented the injection from escaping, they steep the body

in natrum for the prescribed number of days, and on the last
day they let out from the abdomen the oil of cedar which
they had before injected, and it has such power that it brings
away the intestines and vitals in a state of dissolution the
natrum dissolves the flesh, and nothing of the body remains
but the skin and the bones. When they have done this they
return the body without any further operation.
" The third method of embalming is this, which is used
only for the poorer sort.
Having thoroughly rinsed the
abdomen in syrmsea, they steep it with natrum for 70 days,
and then deliver it to be carried away." ^
According to Genesis 1. 3, the embalming of Jacob
occupied 40 days, but the period of mourning was 70 days.
From Egj'ptian documents it is known that the length of the
period from the death of a man to his burial varied
in one
case the embalming occupied 16 days, the bandaging 35
and the burial 70 days, i.e., 121 days in all. In a
days,
^
second case the embalming occupied 66 days, preparations
in all 96 days.
for burial 4 days, and the burial 26 days
Elsewhere we are told that the embalming lasts 70 or 80
da}'s, and the burial ten months.^
The account given by Diodorus (I. 91) agrees with that
of Herodotus in many particulars, but some additional details
According to it, if any man died, all his relatives
are given.
and friends threw dust or mud on their heads, and went
round about through the town uttering cries of grief as long
during the interval between
as the body remained unburied
the death and the burial, they abstained from the use of
baths and wine, they partook of no choice foods, and they put
not on fine apparel. The methods of embalming were three
in number
the most expensive, the less expensive, and the
poorest of all. The first method cost one talent of silver, about
;
Third
"}'^gj^
balming.
Period of
f'T
balmment
varied in
"^"^^
Account of
^^'i^lo^"^
dorus.
Gary's translation, pp. 126, 127.
For the authorities see Wiedemann, Herodots
Ziveites
Buck,
p. 358.
Cost of
emljalming
a body.
FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYTT.
l80
;^250; the second twenty minae, about 60; and the third
cost very Httle indeed.
The people who practise the art
of
embalming belong
profession
is
to a class of
men
in
whose
they set down
hereditary, and
families this
writing a
in
statement of the various methods of embalming practised by
them and the
and ask the relatives of the dead

upon the method to be adopted. When this
question has been settled, the embalmers take the body into
their charge, and they hand it to those who are fully
man
cost of each,
to decide
acquainted with the process of embalming.

these called the " scribe " (ypa/xfiarevf;)
side of the
left
body, which
hidicate where the incision

called the
"ripper up"
is
is
to
The
first
of
makes a mark on the
upon the ground, to

be made. Next, a man,
laid
(7rapaa)(îaT7]<;),
Ethiopian
with an
stone {\l6ov AWlottikov) makes a cut in the side lengthwise

of the size indicated by the scribe.
Having done this, he

away in all haste, pursued by his assistants, who hurl
after him pieces of stone and call down curses, that vengeance
may come upon him for this crime for the Egyptians hold
in abomination anyone who wounds or commits an act of
violence upon the human body. The embalmers {rapi'êvral)
are held in high honour, and are treated with much consideflees
ration,
because they are friends of the
to enter the
sanctuary as
if
priests,
and are allowed
they were ceremonially pure.
Having assembled around the body, one of them puts his

hand into it through the cut that has been made, and draws
out everything that he finds inside, with the exception of the
heart and reins (lungs
TJetails
of
em-
balming.
})
others clean
the
and
Finally, having
intestines,
wash them with palm-wine and balsams.

body first with oil of cedar and other materials
of this nature, and then with myrrh, cinnamon, and other
sweetsmelling drugs and spices suitable for embalming
treated the
'
purposes, they bring
it
into such a state of completeness, that
the eye-lashes and eye-brows remain uninjured, and

is
so
The
little
changed that
greater
number of
it
is
its
form
easy to recognize the features.
the Egyptians
who keep
the bodies
of their ancestors in magnificent chambers, enjoy the sight of

those
feel
who have been dead
for several generations,
and they
great satisfaction in seeing the features and form of these
MUMMY.
bodies,
and look upon
l8l
contem-
thcni, to a certain extent, as
poraries.
With
little
away
reference to the fleeing
difficult to
of the paraschistes
understand what Diodorus had
in his
embalmers were great
further on he says that the
it
mind.
is
friends
of the priests, and as this was certainly the case, the
man
who performed
reli-
the operation probably merely fulfilled a
gious obligation in fleeing away, and had very
In
some
particulars
informed, and
mummies
to fear.
Diodorus appears to have been mis-
any case the knowledge he possessed of
in
could hardly have been at
late (about B.C. 40)
mummies were
little
to
know what
first
hand.
He
State-
ofodorus
lived too not wholly
Theban
the well-made
worthy.
experience therefore would only
and his
have familiarized him with the Egypto-Roman mummies, in
which the limbs were bandaged separately, and the contour
of their faces, somewhat blunted, was to be seen through the
thin and tightly drawn bandages which covered the face.
A
good example of a mummy made about this date is that of
the lady Mut-em-Mennu, which is preserved in the British
like,
Museum, No. 6704 in this mummy the features of the face

can be clearly distinguished underneath the bandages.
;
curious idea about the fate of the intestines taken from Fate
the body obtained
among
Plutarch ^
Greek writers.
says, in two places, that when the Egyptians have taken them
out of the body of the dead man, they show them to the sun
as the cause of the faults which he had committed, and then
throw them into the river, while the body, having been
Porphyry^ gives the same account at
cleansed, is embalmed.
Oj
t'hv
certain
VfKpov avaTf'fxvovTfS ebeiâv t<b
KariâXoVj rov be
aWov
aoniiaTos
V//. Sap. Cotiv., XVI., ed. Didot, p. i88.

AtyvTTTioi
Twv vfKpoiv
eK|3aXXov(Tiv,
TTjV
w aiTiav anavTUiv
'Ef7i/o pevToi
wj/ 6
aX\(t)v, u>u
Ti)i'
Cf. also 'ETrel koKcos
civOpanoi fjpapTfv.
Sxnrep
De CarniuDi
Plutarch,
on
tovs dno6<iv6vTas tcov
fii
yeyopoTuv
KoiXutv eêkovTes kuI els KifSoorov evBivrei fiera tcov
dimrpuTTOvrai vnep rov veKpov, Kal
rjXiov p.aprvpi)VTai, ivos
Plutarch,
f't-X^v,
p. 1219.
ov TrapanepnTeop,
orav Tapiyfvuxnv^ 18ia
eir aiiTci fiev fls tov TTOTajxov
Koikiav eêXoire? Kai npos rov tjXiov avaa)(îôvTii
Esu, Oratio Posterior, ed. Didot,

"
rjXtoi,
KnSapov yeyniH)Tos (mixeXovTai.
rjdr]
twv vnep tov
veKpoii
Tr)v
Kijimrov Kpurovvres npos rov
noiovpevov Xoyov twv
Tupi)(^tvTu>v.
of the
"iêstmes.
FUNEREAL ARCH.EOLOGY OF EGYPT.
82
greater length, and adds that the intestines were placed in a
box he also gives the formula which the embalmers used

when showing the intestines to the sun, and says that it was
translated by Ekphantos into Greek out of his own language,
which was presumably Egyptian. The address to the sun and
the other gods who are supposed to bestow life upon man, the
petition to them to grant an abode to the deceased with the
everlasting gods, and the confession by the deceased that he
had worshipped, with reverence, the gods of his fathers from
his youth up, that he had honoured his parents, that he had
neither killed nor injured any man, all these have a sound
about them of having been written by some one who had a
knowledge of the "Negative Confession" in the 125th chapter
of the Book of the Dead.
On the other hand it is difficult to
imagine any Greek acquainted with the manners and customs
of the Egyptians making the statement that they threw the
intestines into the river, for when they were not placed in jars
separate from the body, they were mummified and placed
between the legs or arms, and bandaged up with the body,
and the future welfare of the body in the nether-world
depended entirely upon its having every member complete.
An examination of Egyptian mummies will show that the
accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus are generally
correct, for mummies both with and without ventral incisions
^
r
are found, and some are preserved by means of balsams and
gums, and others by bitumen and natrum. The skulls of
mummies which exist by hundreds in caves and pits at
;
'~'
L.
General
of statements of
Hercdotus
and
Diodorus.
'Q heaiTOTa
TOiovTos.
npovrbiâaQe
/xe
ovs ol yovels
alS)vi
rjXie,
Kui 6eo\ irnvTts ol ttjv
i< ttjs
p.oi
Trapedeiâv, evcreâiv
biereXovv
avdpaTTcov
"
Trtui'
o)V
Ki^coTOv, iv
Trarpiov
'Eycb
yap
)(p6vov
ocrov
Tov ^'lov elxo", tovs T to awfid fiov yevufjactvras
T]
f]
BepiTov
6toX/ ktou,
fv t(o
rjv,
ov 81 ipavTOv TjpapTOV,
dWd
Porphyry, >e Abstinentia,
Kfiv(0
hXXojj/
aWo
Ei 6e rt apa Kara tov ffiavTOv ^tov fjp,jpTov
yaarfjp ^v).
Soj/rfff,
roiis Ofovs,
an' Tcovre
eTifxinv
ovre dneKTeiva, ovre nupaKaradrjKTjv drrearfprjcra, ovre
p-f)
toIs dv6pa>Trois
^coijv
kol irapdhoTf Tois aiSiois Qfois avvoiKov,
dvfjKeo'TOV SifTTpa^dfiTju.
fi
Xoyof, ov ijpfxrjvevaev "'E.KCpavTOS
8e KOI 6
EcTTi
r}
8ia TavTa (Seiâs rfjv
lib.
IV., lO, ed. Didot,
r- 75>
Wilkinson reads " Euphantos "
Wiedemann
{Ilerodots
(^'Ancient
Zweids Biich,
p.
Egyptians,
ovdiv
(âyuiv
iii.
479).
354) adds orSfia
in brackets.
MUMMV.
1S3
Thebes contain absolutely nothing, a fact which proves that

the embahners were able not only to remove the brain, but
also to take out the membranes without injuring or breaking
Skulls of mummies are
the bridge of the nose in any way.
found, at times, to be filled with bitumen, linen rags, or resin.
The
bodies which have been
with resin or some such
filled
substance, are of a greenish colour,
and the skin has the ap-
Such mummies, when unrolled,

pearance of being tanned.
Usually, however, the resin
perish rapidly and break easily.
and aromatic gum process is favourable to the preservation
of the teeth and hair. Bodies from which the intestines have
been removed and which have been preserved by being filled
The features are
with bitumen are quite black and hard.
preserved intact, but the body is heavy and unfair to look
upon. The bitumen penetrates the bones so completely that
it is sometimes difficult to distinguish which is bone and
which is bitumen. The arms, legs, hands, and feet of such
mummies break
with a sound like the cracking of chemical
and give out great heat,

Speaking generally they will last for ever. When a body has
been preserved by natron, that is, a mixture of carbonate,
sulphate, and muriate of soda, the skin is found to be hard,
and to hang loosely from the bones in much the same way as
it hangs from the skeletons of the dead monks preserved in
the crypt beneath the Capuchin convent at Floriana, in Malta,
glass tubing
they burn very
freely,
The hair of such mummies usually falls off when touched.

The Egyptians also preserved their dead in honey. 'Abd
Egyptian worthy of belief told him
that once when he and several others were occupied in
exploring the graves and seeking for treasure near the
Pyramids, they came across a sealed jar, and having
opened it and found that it contained .honey, they began to
Some one in the party remarked that a hair in the
eat it.
honey turned round one of the fingers of the man who was
dipping his bread in it, and as they drew it out the body of a
small child appeared with all its limbs complete and in a good
it was well dressed, and had upon it
state of preservation
The body of Alexander the Great
numerous ornaments.^
cl-Latif relates that an
'
'Abd
ol-Latii,
tr.
De
Sacy,
p.
199
Bodiespre-
bitumen^
natron,
matic substances.
A'
fV
Bodies
Kêy!
FUNEREAL ARCILEOLOGY OF EGYPT.
84
was
Bodies
preserved
by bitumen
and
salt
only,
preserved
also
melted."
The
"
in
white honey which had not been
by two very cheap

one method consisted of soaking in salt and hot
bitumen, and the other in salt only. In the first process every
cavity was filled with bitumen, and the hair disappeared
clearly it is to the bodies which were preserved in this way
The
that the name " mummy " or bitumen was first applied.
bodies of the poor were preserved
methods
and dried body
salted
is
easily distinguishable.
The
skin
is
and hair have disappeared, and the

bones are very white and brittle.
^
OlJest
The oldest mummy in the world about the date of which
mummy
is no doubt, is that of Seker-em-sa-f, ^ son of Pepi I,
there
in the
world.
and elder brother of Pepi II., B.C. 3200, which was found at
Sakkarah in 1881, and which is now at Gizeh. The lower
jaw is wanting, and one of the legs has been dislocated in
transport the features are well preserved, and on the right
side of the head is the lock of hair emblematic of youth.
An
examination of the body shows that Seker-em-sa-f died very
young. A number of bandages found in the chamber of his
pyramid at Sakkarah are similar to those in use at a later
date, and the mummy proves that the art of embalming had
like paper, the features
'
arrived at a very
high pitch of perfection already
in
the
The fragments of a body which were found

by Colonel Howard Vyse in the pyramid of Mycerinus at
Gizeh, are thought by some to belong to a much later period
Ancient Empire.
than that of this king

evidence for this
to a
woman,
as
belief,
there appears to be, however, no

and as they belong to a man, and not
;
Vyse thought, they may
quite easily be the
remains of the mummy of Mycerinus. The skeletons found

in sarcophagi belonging to the first six dynasties fall to dust
when
air is
admitted to them, and they emit a slight smell of
bitumen.
Characteristics of
mummies
of different
Mummies of the Xlth dynasty are usually very poorly

made they are yellowish in colour, brittle to the touch, and
The limbs are rarely bandaged
fall to pieces very easily.
;
periods.
separately,
'
and the body having been wrapped carelessly
Budge, History of Alexander the Great, p. 141.

jNIaspero, Guide dti Visiteur an Miisee de Boiilaq, 1883,
p.
347.
in
MUMMY.
number of
folded cloths,
On
large linen sheet.
scarab
is
amulet nor ornament.
the
Mummies
dry
little
finger of the left
but besides
The
period are found are often
bows and arrows,
covered over lengthwise by one
is
usually found;
185
coffins in
filled
hand a mummies
neither
is
which mummies of
of different
this
etc., etc.
of the Xllth dynasty are black, and the skin
bandages are not common, and
From
there
with baskets, tools, mirrors,
exist they are very loosely put on.

figures of
this
1
Character-
in the cases
is
'='/" ^
where they
Scarabs, amulets, and
mummies of this epoch.

XVlIth dynasties mumm.ies
gods are found with

the Xlllth to the
made and perish rapidly.

From the XVIIIth to the XXIst dynasties the mummies
Memphis are black, and so dry that they fall to pieces at
very badly
of
the slightest touch
amulets of
the
XXXth
the cavity of the breast
is
in colour
and
this period, the
mummies
slightly polished, the nails of the
'/oo
'^^-"'^
are
hands
and are stained with iieinia. The

and the art of
limbs bend in all
careful and dainty bandaging has attained its greatest perfection.
The left hand wears rings and scarabs, and pap}ri
and
with
filled
kinds,
At Thebes, during
the heart.
yellow
and the green stone scarab inscribed with

chapter of the Book of the Dead was placed over
all
er <f L
are
'
feet retain their places,
directions without breaking,
inscribed with chapters of the
the coffins, either
After the
mummy
in
by the
XXIst
Book
side of the
Dead are found

mumm}-, or beneath it.
of the
V'->-^^~-'
in
d}'nasty the custom arose of placing the
'
//(/<> f^
a cartonnage, sewn or laced up the back, and
painted in brilliant colours with scenes of the deceased adoring the gods and the
like.
In the period between
the
XXVIth
dynasty and the
conquest of Egypt by Alexander, the decoration of
mummies
its highest point, and the ornamentation of the cartonnage shows the influence of the art of Greece upon that of
Egypt. The head of the mummy is put into a mask, gilded
or painted in bright colours, the cartonnage fits the body very
reached
by a sheath.
closely,
and the
number
of figures of the gods and of amulets are found on the
feet are protected
mummy itself, and many

perty
when
alive
large
things which formed its private prowere buried with it. Towards the time of
L~)4
Character-
mummies
of different
86
the Ptolemies, mummies become black and heavy; bandages

^"^ body are made by the bitumen into one solid mass,
which can Only be properly examined by the aid of a hatchet.
Such mummies are often wrapped in coverings inscribed with
scenes and texts, copied, without any knowledge of their
meaning, by an artist who altered them to suit his own fancy
-f
or purpose.
About
B.C.
ICO
mummies were very
carefully
bandaged
each limb was treated separately, and retained

shape after bandaging, and the features of the
face,
its
natural
somewhat
blunted, are to be distinguished beneath the bandages.
About
A.D.
50 the desire on the part of relatives and
friends to see the face of the deceased resulted in the inser-
wood, painted with his portrait, over the

dead man. The mummies, from this time on to
the fourth century, are of little interest, for they become mere
bundles scenes were painted, athwart and along the bodies,
in which the deceased is represented adoring ill-shaped
Egyptian deities but little by little the hieroglyphic inscriptions disappear, and finally those in Greek take their place.
Grrecoremarkable example of a very late Graeco-Roman mummy,
probably
of the fourth century A.D., is British Museum
mummies,
The body is enveloped in a number of
No. 21,810.
wrappings, and the whole is covered with a thin layer of
Over the face is inplaster painted a pinkish-red colour.
serted a portrait of the deceased, with a golden laurel crown
on his head on the breast, in gold, is a collar, each side of
which terminates in the head of a hawk. The scenes painted
in gold on the body are
i. Anubis, Isis, and Nephthys at the
2. Thoth, Horus, uraei, etc., referring
bier of the deceased.
probably to the scene of the weighing of the heart. 3. The
soul revisiting the body, which is attempting to rise up from a
bier, beneath which are two jars; beneath this scene is a winged
disk.
Above these scenes in a band is inscribed, in Greek,
"O Artemidorus, farewell." APTEMIACOPH, CYS'YXI
on each side of which is a
and above the band is a vase
tion of a piece of
face of the
figure of
Maat
Mummies
of children of this period have
the hair curled and gilded, and hold bunches of flowers in

their hands,
which are crossed over their breasts.
wm.
Ov-
Ik-
m
Mummy
of
Artemidorus.
To face
p.
86.
w-
MUMMY.
187
In the early centuries of our era, mummies of wealthy people

were wrapped in royal cloth made wholly of silk.^ When
Pisentios, Bishop of Coptos, and his disciple John took up
their abode in a tomb in the " mountain of Tchemi " (niXCJOOlf
(ThjULI
ft
u--vi
^^ y\ ^
Descripn\'J,",niies
^;y
Piscn-
the necropolis of Thebes) they
found it filled with a number of mummies, the names of which

were written on a parchment roll which lay close by them.
The two monks took the mummies and piled them up one upon
the outer coffins were very large, and the coffins in
which the bodies were laid were much decorated. The first
mummy near the door was of great size, and his fingers and
his toes were bandaged separately (rteC|TH^ ft XIX rtGJUL
the other
êq(^^-X^.nfX KHC ft 0T^.I onr^,!) the clothes in which he Silken

mummy
Ml
was wrapped were made entn-ely ofr silk
(ÔAOCHpiKOrt^ cloths.
;
ftTe
rtlO'ifpCJOO'^').*
The monk who wrote
of mummies, and coffins, and
silk,
-v
this description
evidently described what
he had actually seen. The huge outer coffins to which he

refers belong to a very late period, as do also the highlydecorated inner coffins the fingers and toes being bandaged
separately also points to a late Roman period.
His testimony
;
'
Heb.
Silk,
xvii. 12), Syr.
"^tt"^
xvi.
(aVA, was common
century of our era.

the
(Ezek.
10,
13),
LXX.,
Greece and
in
rpixairrov, otipiKOQ
Rome
at the
(Rev.
end of the second
According to Aelius Lampridius (cap. 26), Heliogabalus was

cloth made wholly of silk, hoi serica veste, and an idea
in the early days of its adoption in Europe is gained from the
Roman who wore
first
of the value of silk
Aurelian denied his wife a shawl of purple silk because a pound of silk
one pound weight in gold (Flavius Vopiscus, Vit. Aur., cap. 45). The
custom of women wearing silk was railed at by Clement of Alexandria, TertuUian, Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, Ambrose, Chrysostom and others; yet Basil,
fact that
cost
about A.D. 370, illustrated the doctrine of the resurrection from the change of the
chrysalis into a butterfly.
The custom in Italy of wrapping dead bodies in silk
is
probably not earlier than the end of the third century, and in Egj'pt we
place
it
about one hundred years
later.
Yates, Texlrinum Antiquoi-tim, pp.
Tubingen,
Greek
6\o(T/jp(/ci>c.
'
Yo\ the complete
dcpromptiE
V-
et
143-
may
the use of silk by the ancients, see
161-249, and for the collected statements
of ancient authors on the subject, see
Bombyces, Serictim,
On
G.
D. Hoffman,
Observaiiones ciica
Moras, ex antiqiiilalttm, historiarum, jiiriumque Jienu

4to., 1757.
text see
Amclineau, Elude
siir le Christianisiiie
en Egypte^
FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY Of EGYPT.
88
was used
that silk
for
wrapping mummies
the fact that within the last few years a
wrapped
in cloths
the British
is corroborated by
number of mummies
covered with silk^ have been found.
Museum
In
a fine specimen (No. 17,173), in which

horseback, four dogs, flowers, etc., are woven
is
two men on
in green and yellow on a reddish ground.
The whole is
inside a circular border ornamented with flowers.
This piece
of silk is sewn on a piece of fine yellow silk which is in turn
sewn on a piece of ordinary mummy cloth to strengthen it.
Mummies of the Roman period were identified by small
r
r r
wooden labels, of an average size of five inches by two inches,
pierced at one end, and tied to the necks of the dead.
The
inscriptions record the name of the deceased, and sometimes
those of his father and mother, and the number of years of his
life
some are in Greek only, a large number are bilingual,
Greek and demotic, and a few also give the equivalent of the
Mummy
labels.
inscriptions in hieroglyphics.
Unfortunately they are very
easy to forge, for the natives use old wood from Egyptian
and are able to imitate the inscriptions very closely,

and many imitations are sold to tourists annually.
fhe Egyptian Christians appear to have adopted the
System of mummifying, and to have mixed up parts of the
old Egyptian mythology with their newly adopted ChristiAlready in the Ilird century of our era the art of
anity.
mummifying had greatly decayed, and althougli it was
adopted by wealthy people, both Christian and Pagan, for
two or three centuries longer, it cannot be said to have been
generally in use at a period later than the IVth century.
I believe that this fact was due to the growth of Christianity
The Egyptian embalmed his dead because he
in Egypt.
believed that the perfect soul would return to its body after
death, and that it would animate it once more he therefore
took pains to preserve the body from all destroying influences
The Christian believed that Christ would give
in the grave.
him back his body changed and incorruptible, and that it
was therefore unnecessary for him to preserve it with spices
coffins,
Decline
baiming
in
tcfchris-"^
tianiiy.
* For excellent coloured representations of Byzantine mummies, see Plates

and B, in Alemoires de la Mission Arclieologique Franâise au Caire, torn, iii.,
Paris, 1S90.
MUMMY
CLOTH.
89
and drugs. The idea of embalming the body and keeping

it in the house with the living .seems to have been repugnant
to many famous Christians in Egypt, and Anthony the Great
admonished his two faithful disciples not to allow his body to
be taken into Eg}'pt, but to bury it under the ground in a
place known to none but themselves, lest it should be laid up
in some dwelling.
He disapproved of this custom, and had
alwa}-s entreated those who were in the habit of keeping the
body above ground to give it up and, concerning his own
body, he said, "At the resurrection of the dead I shall
For the descripreceive it from the Saviour incorruptible."^
tion of a plaque, which must have come from the mummy
of a Copt, see under " Anubis " in the article " Figures cf
;
the Gods."
Mummy
The bandages with which
wrapped were,
are
made
of cotton.
until
Cloth.
the bodies of
comparatively
men and animals Mummy
lately, believed
to be thou'XTo
In 1646- Greaves stated in his Pyramido-
the " ribbands, by what I observed, were of

which was the habit also of the Egyptian priests," and
he adds, " of these ribbands I have seen some so strong and
perfect as if they had been made but yesterday."
Ronelle
in the Manoires de VAcadanie R. des Sciences, for 1750,
grapJiia that
linen,
mummy cloth that he had seen

was made of cotton, and Forster^ and Solander, Larcher^
and Maty, Blumenbach * and others accepted this opinion.
asserted that every piece of
a^CiTi Tirag to awyia. fiov XnjSfTv iig AtT'i'irrov,
\j.r\
dirodwvrai
wug
rcvTOV yap
ati ivtrpiirov
ffvrijdtias.
nap' Ifiov
imwv
'
prifj.a
f'^^^ôv
si'c
to opog, Kai
h)]-ituiq
7j\6o}'
Iv Tolg o'lKotQ
O'lSart Si Kai
<i)5c.
Tovg tovto iroioiivrag, Kai TrapqyytWoi' iravnaoQai
Qaypart ovv to
fxovwv.
SojTJjpoi;
x^P'-'"
j'jfiirfpov
VfJi'ig,
<pv\arTOfi.ivov irap' Vfur,
Kcii
wan
viro yF]v Kpu,paTt
/j.t]Sii'a
'
rrjg Toiavrrjg
ku'i
iaro) to
yivwuKtiv top toitov, ttXû
'E7W yap iv Ty avaoTaaii twv viKpwv diro\i]\l/f<âi wapd tou

See Life of Antony by Athanasius.
a<pdapTov uvto.
(Migne, Patrologiae, Ser. Grsec. torn. 26,

Bysso Antiqiiorum, London, 1776, pp. 70, 71.
De
Herodote, Paris, 1802, p. 357.
Beitrdge, Gottingen, 181
1, pt.
2, p. 73.
col. 972.)
be
made
cotton.
of
IQO
Jomard thought
bandages
and linen were used
that both cotton
mummies
of
Transactions for 1825,
Granville,
embraced
274, also
p.
for
Philosophical
the
in
The
this view.
who
question was finally settled by Mr. Thomson,
after a
twelve years' study of the subject proved in the Philosophical
Mummy
made
linen.
of
Magazine (Ilird Series, Vol. V., No. 29, Nov., 1834) that the
bandages were universally made of linen. He obtained for
his researches about four hundred specimens of mummy
cloth, and employed Mr. Bauer of Kew to examine them
"
with his microscopes.
The
surfaces
spirally
are
along
contact
in
round
axis
its
is
its
and also twisted
axis,
its
that of flax
is a
inward
ultimate fibre of cotton
transparent tube without joints, flattened so that
a transparent tube
jointed like a cane, and not flattened nor spirally twisted."^
The
coarse linen of the Egyptians was
and was used
for
of the
D^^P
is
The Greek
16.
vii.
Heb. pl^j ^^^ used to denote any linen
times cotton cloth
but the aivh6vo<i
mummies, according
certainly linen.
is
" byssus "
by
words
is
17).
Herodotus
to
'-^^ H
'
shens,
One
n<LT
060VLWV
with which
were bandaged,
(II. 86),
usually translated
Coptic ajsnc
ordinary
v ^^ ^
mdk,
v-
SivBcov
and some-
cloth,
/3vaaivr]<i
The Egyptian word
for linen are J^\^
nu, Coptic
Y5
1.
towels,
of Proverbs
ptO^^
of thick flax,
awnings and sail-cloth *

thought by some to be the equivalent
making
the fine linen, '066vr),
made
j3v(T(Tivoiv
(Rosetta
memini,
Stone,
piece of very fine texture of linen obtained at
Thebes had 152 threads in the warp, and 71 in the woof, to

each inch, and a second piece described by Wilkinson
{Ancient Egyptians, III. 165) had 540 threads in the warp,
and no in the woof* One of the cities in Egypt most
*
Description de FEgyfte
"
See Yates,
uhole subject
is
Mcfuoires
Comp. D^^l^tpr? nr2)?-}5. trty,
See also an interesting

in
Hyf ogees,
p. 35.
London, 1843,
p.
262,
where the
carefully discussed.
Egyptiennes "
stir les
Texirinttm Atitiqiionitn
Ecv. Arch.,
letter
t.
by
XXI,
De
Ezekiel, xxvii.
7.
Fleury to M. Deverin on " Les Etoffes
Paris, 1C70, pp. 217-221.
MUMMY
famous
for its linen
CLOTH.
industry was (jD

1
polis of the Greeks,^
and Akhniim
V^
Apu, the Pano-
_Zl
the ^juliajl or cyjULirt of the Copts,

but as Egypt exported great
of the Arabs
quantities of this material,

for
I9I
and
bandages of mummies,
also used
|^g^"ers.
quantities
probable that other
is
it
immense
Tanopolis
the great
centre of
cities
also possessed large linen manufactories.^
The
length and breadth of
by 2^
mummy
about
3 feet
made
with fringe at both ends, like
carefully
made
inches, to 13 feet
selvedges.
about 8
feet
by 4 feet.
linen cloth are used in
Large linen sheets several
The
square are also found in tombs.

of linen with which
bandages vary from Mummy
by 4^ inches some are

a scarf, and some have
mummies
are finally covered measure
Usually two or three

bandaging mummies.
Greek
the
times
that
the
fine
outer
etc., in
different kinds of
Mummy
and
are with very few exceptions quite plain,
decorated with figures of gods,
feet
saffron coloured pieces
linen
gaudy
is
it
cloths
only in
covering
colours.
is
Several
pieces of linen in the Museums of Europe are

ornamented with blue stripes, and it is pretty certain that the
threads which form them were dyed with indigo before they
were woven into the piece. As far back as the time of
Amenophis III. it was customary to inscribe texts in the
hieratic and hieroglyphic characters upon mummy cloths,
and at that period large vignettes accompany the chapters
from the Book of the Dead
after the XXV Ith dynasty
hieratic only appears to have been used for this purpose, and
the bandages, which are rarely more than four inches wide,
square
frequently so coarse that the text
are
is
almost
illegible.
Badly drawn vignettes, drawn in outline, usually stand at the

top of each column of writing.
The marvellous skill which the Egyptians displayed in
Duration
making
liên
did not die out with the
linen
fall
of the native
industry
'
Uaywi'
iroKic,
Akhmim
Xii'ovpywv Kal \i9ovpywv KaroiKta naXaia, Strabo, XVII.,
1.
42.
has a population of about 10,000 souls, and of these 1000 are
Christians.
In the
map
published by Yates {Textrimi7ti Antiquonitn,
p.
250) to show
the divisions ot the ancient world in which sheep's-wool, goat's-hair, hemp, cotton
camel's-wool, camel's-hair and linen are found, the only other

where linen was made besides Egypt are Colchis, Cinyps, and a district
near the mouth of the Rhine.
silk, beaver's- wool,
districts
in Egypt.
FUNEREAL ARCH/EOI.OGY OF EGYPT.
19-
sovereigns of Egypt, and the Copts, or native Christians of

that country, carried on the industry with splendid success
century of our
until the twelfth
mummify
their dead, for the
body given by
Christianity
era.
Although they ceased to
hope of the resurrection of the
practically
killed
the art
of
of Christian necro-
embalming, they continued to dress them in garments which

are remarkable for the beauty of the embroidery and
"
tapestries with which they are decorated.
great " find
of fine examples of this work was made at Akhmim, the
polis at
ancient Panopolis, in
Discovery
Panopolis.
1884.
The
graves at
Akhmim
are
and are not indicated by any mound.

appear
to
have
bodies
been buried with natron sprinkled
The
for
many
of
their
garments are covered with
over them,
and they appear also to have been
crystals of this substance
The head was provided
buried with their best clothes on.
with a band or cap, and was sometimes supported on a pillow.
The body wore a tunic, and the feet had stockings, sandals or
shoes upon them the head, breast, arms, and fingers were
about
five feet deep,
The condition in life of the

deceased was indicated by inscriptions on rectangular wooden
tesserae (see p. 188), or by his tools, which were buried with
decorated with ornaments.
The body was entirely covered over with linen and laid
upon a board, and thus dressed was then deposited in the
The chief ornaments found in the tombs at Akhmim
earth.
are: hair-pins and combs made of wood or bone; earrings of
silver and bronze
several shapes and forms made of glass
gold
balls,
and
iron with pendent
with
little
gold
filigree work,
amber,
coloured
glass, and blue
made
of
agates necklaces
torques,
or
neck-rings,
faience
beads
made
and green glazed
of bronze bracelets, open and closed, made of bronze, iron,
and bronze belt
finger-rings of bronze
glass and horn
him.
Ornaments
found upon
the bodies.
buckles
made
number of
Age
of the
necropolis.
in
the form of a Christian
ivory crosses are also found
cross.
large
the cross which
is
found so often on these objects was not used merely as an

ornament, but as a special symbol and emblem of Christianity.^
The most ancient and the greater number of the tombs which
1
owe
Panopolis.
these details to Forrer, Die Graber und Textilfunde von Achmim

This book contains 16 plates on
Strassburg, 1S91, pp. 12, 13.
vvhich are photographed, in colours, 250 pictures of the textile fabrics
other most interesting objects found at
Akhmim.
and the
MUMMY
CLOTH.
I93
contained these belong to the second or third century after
most recent to the eighth or ninth century;^ they
Christ, and the
are taken from bodies of Christians and heathen which were
common
buried with or without coffins, or in private or
The Museum
places.
the threads of the

this is
burial
of Gobelins possesses a piece of cloth,
woof of which are made of pure
silk,
and
said by M. Gerspach," the Director of the National
Manufactory
at Gobelins, to belong to a period subsequent to
the eighth century, because silk does not appear in Egyptian

tapestries until that century.
It
the Coptic linen work found at

eight centuries,
viz.,
may then
Akhmim
be considered that
covers a period of
M. Gerspach adds,
ii-ix.
probable que
les
siecles encore,
une fabrication dans laquelle
Coptes ont
continue,
" II
est fort
pendant plusieurs
excellaient
ils
ont vraisemblablement travaille a ces milliers de pieces
ils
hommes de
representant les grands
I'lslam,
montrant des
des paysages et des animaux que possedait
villes,
calif
le
Mostansser-Billah et qui furent brulees au Caire en 1062 avec
immenses
les
dards
"
richesses accumulees dans le
Of
(p. 2).
Depot des
eten-
the character, style, design, and antiquity Gerspach
Le style est plus ou moins pur, iinenwork

denote constammentunegrande liberte decomposition and de-
of Coptic linen work he says, "
mais
et
il
de facture
il
est
exempt de minuties
et
de
subtilites,
lorsque nous ne comprenons pas tres bien la pensee de
Ouand
ne se rattache pas a
il
oriental,
est original,
il
particuliere, qu'il soit
il
fin
la
comme
nos dentelles ou epais et
alors,
dans une manifestation intime
ornements des races inferieures
nommera
premiere vue, en
effet,
les plus simples, qui
ces
*
I'art
a un caractere propre, une saveur
comme
special qu'on
I'artiste.
decoration romaine ou a
obtus
les
meme
il
et populaire,
constitue
un genre
peut-etre bientot le style copte.
on retrouve I'antiquite dans
sont aussi
les
plus anciennes
les pieces
en general,
morceaux sont d'une seule couleur pourpre ou brune, avec

According to Forrer (p. 26), the foundation of the cemetery at Akhmim may
in the first or second century after Christ, and the decay of the art of the
be dated
best kind
is
to
be sought at the end of the seventh or
in the course of the eighth
century after Christ.

^
Les Tapisseries Coptes, Paris,
contains 153 reproductions in one or
found on
Akhmim
B.
M.
This most interesting work

1890, p. 2.
more colours of the most important designs
linen.
si^ns*
194
des
filets
sobre,
combine,
dans
plastique,
h^raldique
Le dessin est sommaire, net,

harmonieux, d'une grande franchise
en Hn 6cru.
clairs
bien
qu'adoptera
style
le
naturellement, dans
ult^rieurement
la figure
il
I'art
est plus faible
que dans I'ornement, car le tapissier, avec sa broche, ne trace

pas aussi facilement que le ceramiste avec son pinceau nous
devons excuser les tapissiers Coptes, leurs successeurs de tous
les temps et de tous les pays ayant comme eux fait plus ou
Les tapisseries polychromes^
moins de fautes de dessin
sont g6n6ralement posterieures a cette premiere serie, mais il
importe de faire remarquer que certains modeles primitifs
n'ont pas ete abandonnes et qu'on les retrouve dans les tissus
modernes du bas Danube et de I'Orient
Jusqu'ici ^ le
dessin est clair et lisible maintenant nous arrivons a une
suite inferieure
les lignes se compliquent et les formes
I'ornement est encore dans un
deviennent ^paisses
bon esprit, mais les figures sont faibles
Avec les si^cles
suivants, nous tombons dans une decadence relative, moins
profonde que celle de la mosaique au IX* si^cle le corps
;
humain est contourn^, strapass6 les tetes sont bestiales les

animaux sont difformes et fantastiques, pourvus de sortes de
;
tentacules
meme plus
ils
ornements
se transforment en
ornemanisee
incompr^hensibles
ni conventionelle
I'ornement,
des combinaisons int^ressantes

les
Coptes cotitinuent a prouver
mieux
.
la flore n'est
certains motifs sont
tenu, presente toujours
meme
dans leurs
fautes,
qu'ils sont decorateurs."
Canopic Jars or Vases.

"Canopic jars" is the name given to the series of four
in which the principal intestines of a deceased person
were placed. They were thus named by the early Egyptologists, who believed that in them they saw some confirmation
of the legend handed down by some ancient writers that
Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, who is said to have been
buried at Canopus, in Egypt, was worshipped there under the
form of a jar with small feet, a thin neck, a swollen body, and
jars
^
'^
Of the
Fiftli
fourth century.
century.
CANOPIC
a round back.
ijenii
Each
jar
of the underworld,
JARS.
195
was dedicated to one of the four
who
represented the cardinal points,
and each jar was provided with a cover which was made in
the shape of the head of the deity to whom it was dedicated.
The names and characteristic heads of each arc: i. Mestha
ra
n-\^^c\^s^
n
c\
or Amset
man-headed. 2. Hapi
IkPjO'fl^P^J'
Ad(J(]^, dog-headed.
headed.
4-
-^
J ?
(v
3.
Tuamautef^^
"^
Jj^genu
^.
jackal-^'
^^ Mi "^^^ J\ Qebhsennuf, hawk-headed.
olr
^ê dead.
Mestha represented the south, Hapi the north, Tuamautef

the east, and Qebhsennuf the west.
These four gods are, in
some texts, said to be the children of Horus, and in others
the children of Osiris.
Each jar was hollowed out and received one of the larger intestines after it had been steeped in
bitumen and wrapped up in bandages the covers of the jars
were then fastened on by plaster. Mr, Pettigrew examined
the contents of one set of vases, and it was found that the
vase dedicated to Mestha contained the stomach and large AlfcSfH'^
;
intestines
that dedicated to Hapi, the small intestines
that
and that dedicated to Qebhsennuf, the liver and gall-bladder. Canopic jars
first appear about the XVHIth dynasty, and they continue in
use until the XXVTth dynasty, after which time the Egyptians
appear to have been somewhat careless about them, and either
to have preferred to bury the intestines inside the body or to
have forgotten the significance of their use.
In the XVHIth
dynasty they are made of the most beautiful alabaster and
arragonite, and fine calcareous stone in the XXVIth dynasty
they are still made of these substances, but green and blue
glazed faience and wood also appear.
Later they are made
of terra-cotta, and the covers are all made in the same shape
sometimes they have the shape of a vessel of the same diameter at the bottom as at the top, the gods being traced upon
them, in outline, on the outside surface.
Frequently the jars
are made of wood, painted with bright colours, and sometimes
solid wooden models only are found in the tombs, a fact which
shows sometimes the poverty of the deceased, and somededicated to Tuamautef, the lungs and heart
times probably the dishonesty of the funeral furnisher.
When
the intestines were not buried in jars they were returned to the
2
-^ge ol
jars.
'You
196
body, and figures of Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf
made
wax, sheet
of
silver,
gold or porcelain, were
laid
upon the parts which these gods were supposed to protect.

On the alabaster and stone jars the inscriptions were incised,
and on wood and faience they were painted or traced in outline in ink.
In papyri of the
the vignettes
Dead show
chest,
the
17th
XVIlIth and XlXth dynasties,

chapter of the Book of the
that Canopic jars were placed
upon the
gods, in
of
in
a sepulchral
which were painted figures of the four

the form of men, but each having its characteristic
sides of
" Canopic
"
Jar.
CANOPIC JARS.
Out of the cover there
head.
arms of a man, and

{Papyrus of Ani,
sun with the head and
rises the
each hand he holds
in
On
pi. 8.)
197
diicJi, "
Hfe."
papyri and coffins of a later period
the jars are shown arranged in a row under the bier.
Dead
In the
151st chapter of the
Book of
the
shown standing
mummy
chamber, one at each corner;
in the
the inscriptions which refer to
them read
>
]y
i-'h)
Mesâ
an
met'
Says
the four gods are
Mest/ia,
^'-
nuk
Mesâ
1 am
Mestha
i^
se
Speech of
Mestha.
Ausar
son thy,
Osiris.
""
I
un
Come have
thai
may
serut
be
in
protection thy.
Make
U3
-
h\\
1^1
^^
pa
men
house thy,
hath cotnmanded Ptah,
firm, firm,
Ra
t'esef
Pa
himself:'
Hapi
an
met'
Hdpi,
Says
'
ma
en
utu
commanded
as
^^y^
"ii
Ptah
en
utu
sep sen
to flourish
^^
nuk
Hapi
se
/ a7n
Hdpi
son
Ausar
k
thy,
Speech of
Osiris.
\
i
un
na
Come have I that
may
at
em
in
sau
head and limbs
protection thy.
mr^
-Jl
III
tep
be
hui
thy,
smiting dotun
0es
z
nek
for
thee
Tie up [/]for thee
xefta
enemies
thy
'
198
xer
beneath
erta
Give
thee.
na
nek
to thee
tep
head
t'etta
for ever."
\th\-\
III.
met
Speech of
Tuamautef
an
nuk
se
Heru
thy
Horus
Tuamau-
Says
tef.
''/am
Tuamdute/,
W
-^1^- r;;
meriu
lovinz
na
avenge
to
Ausar
tef
net'
Come have I
thee.
soil
father
[;//;]
Osiris,
^^_D
em
ta
nek
ari
not allowing
to be
done
ret
under feet
IV.
tl
t'etta
sep
sen
for ever
and
ever."
an
met'
Speech of
Qebh-
ni
Qebh
sennuf
sennuf
Come have
^
kesu
bones thy,
be
it
nuk
'
se
/ am
Ausar
thy
Osiris.
son
em
may
su
i^
.tîj
that
Place
Qcbh
Says
sennuf.
II
thy
ta
destruction his.
to thee
A. i
xer
nek
in
sau
Gather
/WysAA
temt
protectioti thy.
together
AiWVNA
saq
collect
at
k
Jc
limbs thy,
an
na
bring
nek
for
thee
CANOriC JARS.
199
^
ab
ta
heart th}\
nek
place
for
su
thee
it
her auset
upon seat
cm
^^t
its
in
body
thy.
serut
nd
pa
make flourish I
house thy."
The inscriptions on the outsides of the jars, which are

sometimes accompanied by inscribed figures of the four gods,
vary considerably some consist of a few words only, but
others occupy several lines. These inscriptions show that
each of the four gods was under the protection of a goddess
thus Isis guarded Mestha, Nephthys guarded Hapi, Neith
guarded Tuamautef, and Selket or Serqet guarded Qebhsennuf.
The following are examples of the formulae inscribed on
;
these jars
I.
Amset.
n ,1 L [\%.'-^^
an
met'
Says
sa
protection
Amse0
over
Amseth
Ausdr
Osiris
'
[/>]
These
British
Amse0
sa
the protection
to
889
they were
i^-\
Amse^
[is]
Amseth."
Canopic jars exhibited

for the
commander
5^]k?@KP]r(i%(!ifi'
Nefer-ab-Ra-em-xut,
nub-hetep.
-
the
name and
in the
of soldiers
Psammetichus, son of Neith, son of Tata-
See Sharpe, Egyptian Inscriptions,
Here follow
make I
Tlie protection of
Ausdr
made
sa
Amseth, [for] Osiris
of
inscriptions are talcen from the set of
Museum, Nos. 886
in me.
is
^k=l
<2>-
the foe,
dm
enti
tvho
setep
t'et
" Conquer
Isis,
her
sam
Auset
titles
ist Series, pi. 114.
of the deceased.
Speech of
Isis.
200
Hapi.
II.
Y1
hap
Nebt-het
an
met'
Speech of
Nephthys.
Says
" Hide
Nephthys,
seseta
ari
make
the secret thing,
JP^
bessa
protection
her
Hapi
over
Hapi
is
\is\
Hapi,
the protection of
i-
5^
Ausar
pu
Osiris
\_is'\
\_for~\
(l 2.
Speech of
Says
semaser
Hapi
Hapi."
setua
Neith,
o
-
hru
the night
^''
^1
i<
Net
an
met'
Neith.
make pass
îy
O
TUMAUXE..
sa
The protection of
Hapi
Osiris
in me.
qy
D
Ausar
III.
am
enti
who
-<E>I
of day
neb
her
ari
every
in
making
maket
en
the protection
of
>ka
'Tuamautef
enti
Tuamdntef
which
a
am
The protection of
in me.
is
IV,
Osiris
D
Tuamautef
the protection
Ausar
sa
i<
[/V]
Make pass the morning I,
>ka
Ausar
pu
Tuamautef
of Tuamautef, [for] Osiris
[is]
Tuamautef."
Qebhsennuf.
1^
met'
Speech of
Serqet.
^
/\AAA/V\
an
Says
-^1
2
LJ
/-AAAAA
Serqet
seqetet
Serqet,
o
sa
^'protection
hru
my day
neb
every
ari
iti
making
maket
protection
en
Qebh-sennu-f
of
Qebh-sennuf
CHESTS FOR CANOl'lC JARS.
201
-<2>-
i
am
entet
sa
The protection of
in me.
7C'//h-/i IS
I
Qebh-sennnu-f
Ausar
sa
Osiris
the protection
\is'\
of
i^-\l
Ausar
Qebh-sennuf, [for] Osiris
Frequently the
pu
Qebh-sennu-f
[is]
Qebh-sennu-f^
these
of
parts
first
inscriptions
read, Variant
readings.
^1
"
d)n-d.
my
embrace with
vx^x
em adui her
(lend
two arms that which
(](|being
the variants for
rx,
| j-^%^
is
in
of the deceased preceded

"
by the words
\)
me
and
titles
(iJ'^X^
(1(1
;"
[J
dug ; frequently also they only contain the names and
enti
X^^
watchfully devoted to," which are followed by the names of
the four gods.
Often the same formula
is
repeated on
all
four jars.
Chests for Canopic Jars.
The chests, or coffers, which held Canopic jars were made

wood,
and were usually painted black they were fitted on
of
a kind of sledge with two runners, the ends of which were
rounded. They are about two feet square. On one end are
traced in outline figures of Neith and Serqet, and on the other
Isis and Nephthys
on the one side are Mestha and Hapi,
and on the other Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf. By the side of
each god is inscribed the formula Which is given in the
151st chapter of the Book of the Dead, and by the side of
each goddess is inscribed the formula which is found on
Canopic vases. (Excellent examples of chests on sledges are
Nos. 8543 <7, and 8543*^, 3rd Egyptian Room, British Museum.)
;
The
inside of the chest
wooden
chests
is
partitions,
and
is
divided into four equal spaces by
in
each stood a
certainly as old as the
jar.
The
Xllth dynasty.
use of such
FUNEREAL ARCH/EULOGY OF EGYPT.
202
The Book of the Dead.

The Book
Dead
not a
'Ritual.'
The
which
Egyptians inscribed upon pyramids, walls of
tombs, sarcophagi, coffins and papyri, amulets and other
objects which were buried in the tombs with the dead was
called " Rituel Funeraire" by Champollion, and this mislead^'^^
collection of chapters, or distinct compositions,
ancient
name was adopted by De Roug6, who,
ing
in his
Etudes sur
Rituel Funeraire des Anciens Egyptiens,^ brought forward
le
reasons for so doing, and considered that
all
he had said
"justifie sufifisamment, suivant nous, le titre choisi par
Cham-
Champollion's grammar shows that he had studied
pollion."
every part of the so-called Ritual, and the
many short
passages
which he translated prove that he recognized the nature of

its contents, and rightly appreciated its great value from a
it is quite clear, however, that he
religious point of view
never completely analysed a single chapter of it, and that he
never translated any passage from it of considerable length.
Had this remarkable man lived to examine the work further
This
he would have seen that it was not a " Ritual." ^
"
"
by
Lepsius,
entitled
Todtenbuch
chapters
was
collection of
;
and by the name

most generally known.
in 1842,
Early
P""^^'' r
copies 01
the Book
Dead.
"
BoOK OF THE Dead"
it
is
now
The earliest publications of parts or whole copies of the

Cadet (J. Marc),
Copie
Book of the Dead were made by
'
jr
j^
Jigurce d'uu rouleau de Papyrus, troicve a Thebes, dans un
^'
tovibeau des Rots, Strassburg, 1805
Fontana, Copie jigurce
par Fontana
par Joseph de Hammer, Vienna, 1822
Sen-
d'un rouleau de papyrus trouve en Egypte, publiee

expliquee
et
1
2
'
In Revue Archeologique, N.S., torn.

Dieser Codex
ist
Rituel Funeraire" zu erklaren scheint
Todtenkultus, keine
i.
i860, pp. 69-100, 234-249, 337-365.
kein Ritualbuch, wofur es Champollion's Bezeichuunif
Hymnen
es enthalt keine Vorschriften
fiir
den
oder Gebete, welche von den Priestern etwa bei der
Beerdigung gesprochen worden w'aren sondern der Verstorbene ist selbst die
handelnde Person darin, und der Text betrifft nur ihn und seine Begegnisse auf
Es wird entweder erzahlt und
der langen Wanderung nach dem irdischen Tode.
beschrieben, wohin er kommt, was er thut, was er hort und sieht, oder es sind die
Gebete un Anreden, die er selbst zu den verschieJenen Gottern, zu welchen er
:
gelangt, spricht.
Lepsius, Vorxvort {Todtenbuch), p.
3.
TIIK liUOK
kovvski, ExeDipluin
sua repertaui
OF THE DEAD.
Papyri Aegyptiacce
203
qiiani in peregrinatione
Universitati Cracoviensi dono dedit, PctropoH,
1826;* Youngy Hieroglyphics, 'London, 1823, fol., plates I.-VI.;

Hawkins, Papyri in the Hieroglyphic and Hieratic character
from the Collection of the Earl of Bebnore, London, 1843, fol.,
and Rosellini, ^r^z/^ notizia intorno un frammento
plates 1-8
di Papiro funebre egizio essistente nel ducale vmseo di Parma ;
Description de VEgypte, ed. Jomard, AntiParma, 1839, 8vo
The most important publication, however,
quites, torn. ii.
was that of Lepsius in 1842, who under the title of Das Lepsius
Todtenbuch der Aegypter, reproduced the complete text of ^ê Turin
a papyrus at Turin, which contained 165 chapters. The Papyrus,
custom of inscribing chapters of Books of the Dead upon the
walls of the sarcophagus chambers of tombs is as old as the
Vth dynasty, but at that epoch large, well-spaced hieroglyphics, arranged between lines, occupy the walls conjointly
with architectural decorations;^ towards the Vlth dynasty
the space allotted for decorative purposes becomes narrower,
the hieroglyphics are smaller, and the inscriptions overflow
into the passages and chambers, the walls of which, in earlier
times, were left blank.
The pyramids of the Vth and Vlth
dynasties which have inscriptions on their inner walls are
those of Unas, Teta, Pepi I., Pepi II., and Seker-em-sa-f this
set of inscriptions is usually called the " Pyramid Texts, " The I'yraand they have been published with a French translation by
Maspero in Reaieil de Travanx : Unas, tom. iii., pp. 177-224,
and tom. iv., pp. 41-78 Teta, tom. v., pp. 1-60; Pepi I., tom. v.,
pp. 157-199, tom. vii., pp. 145-176, tom. viii., pp. 87-119;
;
Pepi
tom.
ix.,
pp. 1-30, tom.
xii.,
II.,
pp.
177-190, tom.
x.,
pp. 1-28, tom.
xi.,
pp. 53-95, 136-195.
During the Xlth dynasty the custom of writing chapters

Books of the Dead upon wooden coffins or sarcophagi
became common examples of the texts of this period,
written upon coffins in the hieratic character, have been
of the
Texts inscribed up-
on
This book was publisherl at the expense of the Academy of
and never came into the market.
'
Maspero,
La
Rcli[;ion E^^yptienne, iCapres Ics
St. Petersburg,
Pyramides de
VI' Dyiiastie (in Ktvuc de CHistoire des Religious, Paris, 1S85,
p.
la
V et
124).
de la
coffins.
204
At this period Books

upon papyrus.^
After the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt by the
published by Lepsius
of the
Texts written upon
papyri.
Dead were
and
Birch.^
also written
kings of Thebes, copies of the
Book of
the
Dead were
usually
upon papyri, and these papyri are of various lengths

and widths. The roll of papyrus was often placed in a rectangular niche in the wall of the tombs, or in the coffin by the
side of the mummy; sometimes it was placed between the legs,
and sometimes it was fastened under the bandages. The length
and style of execution of the work depended entirely upon
the fancy of the relatives of the dead man. Books of the Dead,
illuminated and plain, formed part of the stock in trade of
the Egyptian undertaker. If the purchaser were rich he would
probably select the best copy he could buy if poor he would
written
be content with a simple undecorated text. In these "stock"

copies blank spaces were left to receive the names of the
deceased for whom they were purchased. Copies are extant
in
which, through omission or neglect, no
name whatever has
been inserted. The numerous badly-written and incorrect

copies which are so common in the museums of Europe are
probably the result of cheap work careless work, however,
;
Vignettes
and orna-
mentation
of papyri.
most beautiful papyri, and some of the finest

blunders which show not only that the scribe
contain
known
was careless, but also that he did not understand what he was
Books of the Dead are written in the hieroglyphic
writing.
and hieratic characters, and are ornamented with pictures of
the gods, sacred animals and birds, mythological scenes, reexists in the
presentations of the funeral procession,

times,
in
as
many
as thirteen colours.
chapters, catch-words,
and the text
in black.
etc.,
etc.,
The
painted, at
titles
and certain passages are written
of the
in red,
Hieroglyphic texts are usually written
and those in hieratic in horizontal lines.

The vignettes and scenes were probably executed by one
class of men, and the text by another, and it seems sometimes as if the relatives of the dead spent nearly all the
in
perpendicular
lines,
Aeltesle Texte dcs Todtenbiichs, Berlin, 1S67, 4to.
The Coffin of Ai?iainu, London, 1886, fol.

For the fragments found with the mummy of An-Antef,
Egyptian Room, Case D.
2
see
B.1\L
First
THE ROOK OF THE DEAD.
20$
money which they could afford to spend upon a copy of the

Book of the Dead on the artists' work for pictures, while they
left
the execution of the text to an inferior scribe.
man}' of the faulty readings which occur
Dead
is
in
the
Although
Book
of the
are to be attributed to the carelessness of the scribe,
quite certain that a ver}- large
his ignorance,
and
that, at times,
it
number were the result of

he did not know which was
the beginning or end of the text which he was about to copy.

In proof of this
M. Naville^ has reproduced from a papyrus
the 77th chapter copied from the wrong end, and on the
opposite page he gives the restored text in the right order.
An
examination of papyri shows that frequently more than

artist and scribe were employed in making a single copy
of the Book of the Dead but it is also evident that in some
instances both the vignettes and the text were the work of
one
one man.
According to M. Naville the Book of the Dead
to us in four recensions
1.
is
known
That of the Old and Middle Empires, which
is
usually The
2.
The Theban recension, which was much used from

the
XVIIIth-XXth dynasty, also written in
hieroglyphics.
3.
The
redaction closely resembling that of Thebes

which obtained after the XXth dynasty, and
which was written in hieratic in it the chapters
have no fixed order.
;
4.
text of the Saite and Ptolemaic periods written
both
in
hieroglyphic and hieratic characters
text shows that the
Book
of the
Dead
this
at this
epoch had undergone a thorough revision, and

in it the chapters have a fixed order.
The
texts of the earliest recension are, for the most part,
upon tombs and sarcophagi, but texts

hieroglyphic and hieratic characters
probably because they cost less money, and
written in hieroglyphics
written
upon papyrus
took their place,
recen-
sionsof the
written in hieroglyphics.
in
In his Eiuleitung, pp. 42, 43.
^^^ Dead.
2o6
make them
because the relatives of the deceased could

long or as short as they pleased.
of the
Dead were not
as
probable that Books
It is
XVIIIth
written in hieratic during the
dynasty.
I" September, 1874, at a special meeting of the second
Acorn-
,,,.,
plete edition of the
International Congress of Orientalists, a resolution was passed
Book of
the Dead
to the eriect that for the furtherance of
contemplated.
edition of the
Book
'
Egyptians," as
Kgyptian studies an
Old
and complete as possible, should be
It was further resolved that such an
of the Dead, or the "Bible of the
critical
steadily kept in view.
Book of the Dead in

Old Empire 2. Under the Theban
dynasties of the New Empire
Under the Psammetici
3.
(XXVIth dynasty).^ A Committee was formed which was
composed of Messrs. Birch, Lepsius, Chabas and Naville, and
M. Naville undertook the labour of this work. At the instance
edition should contain the text of the
three forms
i.
Under
the
M.
Naville
undertakes
^f Lcpsius
theedition.
marks for preliminary expenses, and the Prussian Government voted 4,800 thalers for its publication. When M. Naville
began to collect materials for his edition, he found that the
texts of the Old Empire were so few while those of the
XXVIth dynasty were so many, and had so few actual
variants in them, that he abandoned the idea of making an
edition of the texts of the first and third recensions, and at
the
Academy
Berlin
voted
sum
of
the Fourth International Congress of Orientalists

Florence, in September,
Change
allow
ofp-'^".t-ion
him
1878, he asked the
to alter the original plan,
held
at
Committee
to
and he stated
of confining himself to collecting carefully
sary texts for a critical edition of the
Book of the Dead.
He
Theban
3,000
all
his inten-
the neces-
recension of the
believed that in order to obtain a
correct text of this recension, accurate copies
written papyri must be published, from which,
of carefully
by comparison,
may be emended.
world the two volumes which contained the results of his
twelve years' labour, under the title of Das Aegyptische TodIn 1886 M. Naville gave to the
the text
tenbiich der
^
X VIII.
bis
XX. Dynastie,
Berlin,^ fol.
The
held in London, in September, 1S74, London, 1876, p. 442.

Lepsius unfortunately died before the work was issued. Egyptologists are
talists,
^
first
Transactions of the Second Session of the Liternational Congress of Orien-
indebted to Dr. Dillmann of Berlin for the issue of
this valualjle
work.
THE BOOK OF THE DEAD,
207
volume contains the text ^ and vignettes which were ably

drawn by Madame Naville, and the second contains the
variants. In a small quarto volume published a few months
later, we have four chapters in which are discussed the
Theban edition of the Book of the Dead, its history, its importance and the manner in which it was written the description of the texts used by M. Naville, remarks on each chapter
of the Book of the Dead, and a list of the chapters in hiero;
The
glyphics.
Theban
texts of the
corrupt readings, but
it
is
recension contain
many
of the greatest importance to have
may one
the material at hand from which a critical edition
day be made, and M. Naville has rendered invaluable service

to the science of Egyptology by bringing it together.^
Among the most valuable publications of texts of the
Theban recension of the Book of the Dead must be mentioned.
PJiotograpJis of the Papyrus of NebsetiP in the BritisJi Mtiseuvi,
Facsimile of the Papyrus of Ani (published by the
1876, fol.
Trustees of the British Museum, 1890, fol.); Papyrus Ftincraire
de Nebset, ed. Pierret, 1872 and the papyrus of Shuti-Qenna,
b}' Leemans, Papyrus Egyptien Fune'j-aire Hicroglyphique d?i
Musee a Leide, 1882, Livraison 5, Part III,
A useful example of a hieroglyphic text of the Book of
'
Recent
P^^**
copies ot
texts.
the
Dead not
earlier
Lepsius published
is
full
fact,
in
than the
XXVIth
dynasty,
is
that which
1842 from a papyrus in Turin
the text
of blunders and difficulties but, notwithstanding this
the work
derable value.
a standard one for reference, and
is
Of
is
of consi-
hieratic texts belonging to a period subse-
quent to the XXVIth dynasty, the copy published by De

Rouge is an excellent example.*
An English translation of the Book of the Dead was
published by Birch in the English edition of Bunsen's Egypt's
P/ace in Universal History, Wo\. V, pp. -161-333, and a French
translation by Pierret, entitled Le Livre des Morts des Ancieus
^
M. Naville bases
and the papyri which he
See the review of
his text
calls
this
chiefly
Qa and
upon
British
Museum Papyrus
9,900,
P/^.
work by Maspcro
in
Revue de rHis/oire
Paris, 1887, pp. 263-315.

^
B.M. No. 9900.
Riluel fnntraire des Anriens Egyptiens, Paris, i86t,
fol.
des Keh'gions,
Transla-
Bookôf^^
the Dead,
208
both these were, howTurin

papyrus.^
German
ever, made from the text of the
Egyptiens, appeared in Paris, in 1882
translation of
the
first
fifteen
chapters was pubHshed
by
Aeg. Zeitschrift, 1872, pp. 65-72, 129-134, and

specially interesting chapters have been discussed by Birch,^
Brugsch
in
number
Maspero,^ Lefebure,^ Guieysse,^ Pierret,ând others.
of " supplementary " chapters were published by Pleyte {Chadu Livre des Morts, 162, 162*, 164-174)
with translation and commentary, at Leyden in 1881, and
pitres sttpplevientaires
Schiaparelli has translated and
commented upon a
large por-
one of the Books of the Dead in // libro dei funerali

degli anticJii EgizianiJ
The age of the Book of the Dead is unknown, but it is
certain that parts of it are as old as the beginning of Egyptian
civilization, and Theban tradition in Egypt asserted that the
tion of
Antiquity
Book of
the Dead,
130th chapter was as old as Hesep-ti,
^^^
tj^^l
the
dynasty the 64th chapter is variously

fifth
stated to belong to the time of this king and to that
of Men-kau-Ra (Mycerinus) of the IVth dynasty.^
The
178th chapter must also be at least as old as the time of this
last king, because it is inscribed on the cover of his wooden
king of the
1st
which is now preserved in the British Museum (ist

Egyptian Room, No. 6647).^ The oldest chapters appear to
have been composed at Heliopolis, the great sanctuary and
home of religious learning in Egypt, which was to the
coffin,
'
complete
list
of the words in this papyrus
is
to be found in Lieblein,
Index
Alphabetique, Paris, 1875.

-
ibid.,
^
The Chapter of the Pillow, Aeg. Zeit., 1868, p. 52; the Chapter of the Heart,
and the Cliapter of the Tie, ibid.
1880, p. 56
Le Chapitre de la Boucle, in JMcmoire siir qtielques Papyrus du Loinnr,
;
Paris, 1875.
d Horus,
Les yeux
Rituelfuneraire Egyptien, Paris, 1876.
^
"
Paris, 1874.
Etudes Egyptologiques, p. 85.

dal Volume VIII delle
Esti-atto
liloiiorie delta
R. Accadcinia dei Lincei,
Torino, 1882 and 1S90.

8
Naville, Einleitung, p. 31.
I am aware that doubts have been thrown upon the age of this cover by a
French writer, but it seems to me that the appearance and condition of the wood
preclude any possibility of the theory that this cover was " restored " at a later
period of Egyptian history being correct.
^
THE ROOK OF THE DEAD.
209
Egyptians what Jerusalem was to the Jews and Mecca is to

The growth in the length of the chapters
and the increase in their number was probably slow but
sure
and that revisions should take place from time to time
is onl}' what was to be expected.
the Mussulmans.
The commonest name

^Sypt'^"
is
^^
g,
^!.
lU
for
the
Book of
the
Dead
^^^
^ pert cm hrn, which
is
in
by " coming forth, or going out, by day "

probably only a conventional name, and may
account for the difficulty which scholars have had in agreeing
rally translated
this
was
as to
its
Re
meaning.
Another name
is
,^^.
(I
Egyptian
name of
gene- the Book
Dead,
'^l^
"The Chapter of making strong the beatified

spirit."
(Naville, Einkitung, p. 24.) The author of the Book
of the Dead was said to be the god Thoth.
The Book of the Dead is composed of a series of chapters,^
en
sedqer')(ti,
each one of which formed a distinct composition, which could

be added to or omitted from a papyrus according to the
wish of those who were causing a copy to be made.^
ChampoUion divided the book into three parts: chapters 1-15,
16-125, ^rid 126 to the end
but had this scholar lived to
devote more time and attention to the subject he would have
seen that these divisions^ were purely arbitrary.
The Book of the Dead treats of the dead man's journey The
through Amenti, and
object
he speaks to the incorporeal gods Book of

and beings who reside there, uttering the formulae which will ^^^ Dead,
deliver him from the foes who wish to impede his progress,
in
it
and chanting hymns to the great gods, with

these compositions were supposed to enable him
reciting prayers,
of
all
whom
'
Es
Theban papyrus never contains more than ninety

ist
chapters.
aber auch eine unrichtige Vorstellung, dass dieses Buch ein einziges
Ganzes, eine in sich abgeschlossene von Anfang bis Ende fort schreitende
Beschreibung der Seelenwanderung sei, welche von emem Verfasser so und in
dieser Ausdehnung herriihre.
Es
ist
vielmehr eine
Sammlung verschiedener fiir sich
bestehender Abschnitte, die sich auf die Zukunft der Seele beziehen, unter denen
einzehie mehr oder minder wichtige Stellen einnehmen, auch im Allgemeinen
nach einer gewissen Regel, die aber nicht immer unverbriichlich ist, angeordnet
sind.
^
Lepsius.
This subject
is
discussed by Lepsius in the Voi-wort (p. 5) to his edition of
the Todtenbiuh.
B.
NL
210
to prevail.
scribed
it
contains texts which were ordered to be in-
It
upon amulets and bandages
contains a plan of the
ment of
mummy
dead
chamber and the arrange-
for the benefit of the
certain pieces of furniture in
it
it
contains the text
of the confession of the deceased in the presence of the forty-
two
assessors,
and the scene of the weighing of the heart
the judgment hall of Osiris
Elysian Fields,
Dead and
summary
their contents
in
has a representation of the
In our limited space here
etc.
to give the briefest
the
it
it is
impossible
of the chapters of the
Book
of
the above notes are only in-
tended to indicate the best books and chief authorities on a

work which is so often referred to in these pages.
Pillows.
Materials
xhc
pillows
^ which
pillows are
put under the heads of
made.
more
the Eg}^ptians were accustomed to
mummies were made
of
wood
(syca-
and calcareous stone.

ten
inches
in
height, and are often
They vary from six to
made in three pieces, viz., the curved neck-piece, the column
and base. The column is usually round or square, and the
base is oblong. The neck-piece is sometimes supported by
two columns or pillars, fluted (B.M. No. 17,102), but it may
be joined to the base by six supports (B.M. No. 2543), or
even by twenty-one (B.M. No. 18,155). Pillows are made also
in the shape of animals, e.g., B.M. No. 20,753, which is in the
shape of a stag, the horns being curved downwards to form
Neck-pieces and columns are sometimes
the neck-piece.
ornamented with ivory studs (B.M. No. 2541). The base is
frequently dispensed with, and the supports are made in the
generally),
granite,
alabaster
form of the necks of ducks, the ends terminating in their

heads and beaks. Such examples have usually the ends of
the neck-piece ornamented with carvings of figures of the god
Bes (B.M. No. 18,156), and sometimes with grotesque figures
(apes ?) wearing plumes, and being led along by chains (B.M.
No. 2256c). Such animals greatly resemble those represented
on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II. The column of a
Ornamen- wooden piUow is ornamented in various ways, and the name of
tation of
^j^g
deceased
phics.
is
often written
One example
upon
it
in hieratic or hierogly-
(B.M. No. 2529^:)
is
inscribed with lion-
Ushabti
To face f. 711.
fifnire
of Pa-mer-ahu.
USIIAP.TIU FIC.URES.
headed
go<^s,
e^^
T T
T^^,
and
iit'ixt
and
211
neferit
on the
front,
a figure of Bes Ps on the back, and a dog-headed ape holding
an eye
is
^-^
on each
side.
Another example (B.M. 2556^)
inscribed on the top of the neck-piece with lotus flowers
and an
nt'at
<^
^^ ^^'
O'^ each end of the base are also
and beneath are versions of the 55th,

6 1 St and 62nd chapters of the Book of the Dead this pillow
inscribed lotus flowers,
was made
for
Inscribed
Aaua, the son of Heru, a prophet of Menthu,

Nes-Mut.
'"
^^^
Aniiquity
lord of Thebes, the son of the lady of the house
-*-)
Aj^^^r^r
use of the pillow
is
very ancient, and goes
back at least as far as the Vlth dynasty the beautiful

example in alabaster from Abydos now in the British Museum,
;
No. 2533, made
high
for the
0^0 Atena,
probably
For the use of models of the pillow
belongs to this period.

as an
official
pillow,
amulet, see the article "Amulets."
Pillows
similar
and shape are in use to this day among the tribes of

Nubia, and they are found among the natives in several places
along the west coast of Africa that the ancient Egyptians
borrowed them from the peoples of the south is not likely,
but that the use of them by the Ethiopians, copied from the
Egyptians, spread from the Sudan southwards is most
in size
probable.
UsHABTiu Figures.!
Ushabtiu, -W) T^T^T Ir^
'
^^^^ ^ê
.^ <S 21 J
Egyptians to stone, alabaster, wood, clay,
1
name given by
the The work-
and glazed faience

figures of the god Osiris, made in the form of a mummy,
which were deposited in the tombs either in wooden boxes
sometimes they are found lying in
or laid along the floor
They were placed there to do
the sarcophagi and coffins.
deceased, who was supposed
the
for
works
certain agricultural
;
Observations on these figures by Birch have appeared in Aeg. Zcit., 1S64,
pp. 89-103, and 1865, pp. 4-20; Marieltc, Catalogue des jMouiiments (TAbydos,
pp. 46-48; and by Loret, Recneil de Ti-avaux, pp. 90, 91.
P 2
ing figures
in the
^vorld.
ij
212
to be
condemned
to
sow the
fields,
to
fill
nd to carry sand from the \Vest to the

figures of the
Ea st.
Xlllth dynasty are made of
calcareous stone
commonly
the canals with water,
used.
not to have been
The
granite,
ushabtiu
wood, and
the last substance was, however, that most
The use of faience for this purpose appears

known at that epoch. Generally the hands
are crossed over the breast, but sometimes they are covered
in
bandages.
The hands do not hold any
up
agricultural im-
plements as in the later dynasties and the inscriptions upon

them consist usually of the name and titles of the deceased,
and resemble very closely those on the stelae of this period.
The breasts of sepulchral figures of this period are sometimes
;
Description of
ttshabtiu
at various
epochs.
-
'I
inscribed with a scarabseus having

gi-een,
its
wings outspread.
Blue,
brown, and red glazed faience figures appear during the
XVIIIth dynasty, and continue

which time
or metal.
this
until the
XXVIth dynasty, by
substance has taken the place of stone, wood,
In this dynasty the figures
first
begin to carry a
During the XlXth dynasty the

dress of these figures changes, and they are represented as
wearing the garments which the people for whom they are
made wore during their lifetime. In the XXVIth dynasty
these figures still hold the hoe, mattock and basket, and they
stand on a square pedestal and have a rectangular upright
plinth down the back.
They were cast in moulds, and are
hoe, mattock
and basket.
distinguishable by their light bluish-green colour.

Between the XXI Ind and XXI Vth dynasties usJiabtiit
figures seem not to have been placed in the tombs, and
after the XXVIth dynasty they are made with less care, the
inscriptions grow gradually shorter, and finally the figures
become very small and bear no inscriptions whatever.
Ushabtiu figures are generally inscribed with the Vlth
chapter of the Book of the Dead, which appears on them in
easily
Ushabtiii
inscrip
tions.
three forms
the following, from Mariette, Catalogue des
uicnts d'Abydos, p. 48,
is
an example of the
first
form
Momi-
IISHAHTIU FIGURES.
213
^ffl.r.r-^
r^y~^
T
The second form
(Maricttc, Catalogue,
p.
58) reads:
fl^M"^^^j-|q^fcra^<=-(lE
^
^^
XVIITth
dynasty.
^7
A-w^
/www
/I
The
ushabtiuyf^/zrî'
XXVIth
apen
ar
these,
if
lisabti
^-Jx
(I
<::zr>
[I
form, which agrees with the text of the 6th
third
chapter found in papyri of the
Â^/^/v\
Here some copies add
^'^/wv <^
7PC
III
/\A^JVV\
is
dynasty, reads:
aptu
Ausar
er
decreed
Osiris
to
XXVIth
<o
>i' II
arit
kat
nebt
do
labours
any
^
astu
ci
111
arit
\i.i'hicl{\
hu
am
dynasty.
\_J_ \
_a5^
em
neter
;;y;ert
are to be done there in the underworld.
n L^
behold, be there smtten
nef
down for him
III
set'ebu
obstructions
iM^j^
am
there
em
'
so
for a person
214
>.
xert
maku
He7-e
beneath him.
ap
tu
ten
call ye.
ten
[7o//e;/]
D
I
ka
am I
Watch ye
er
ennu
neb
at
moment
every
arit
to
work
am
er
there,
to
A/V\AAA
serutet
sexet
er
plough
the fields.
to
\^
^
Z
sa
carry
sand
semehi
fill
111
xen
i^Jl
AAAAA\
^Xll/WWVN
with water
er
the canals,
to
fJ
of
111
ut'ebu
r\^-^
Abtet
er
Auientet
0es rer
the east
to
west.
Amin
A^/ÂA
I
maku
here
ka
am I
That
"
is
ten
[wheni call ye.
to say, the deceased addresses
tisJiabtiu figures,
if
the Osiris," that
each figure and says,

is,
the deceased,
decreed to do any work whatsoever in the underworld,

obstacles be cast
and
says, "
down
Here am
deceased next says,
in front of
"
him
"
The
ready whenever thou
ye
figures,
Here am
ready when thou
The 6th chapter
of the
coffin is laid.
chamber
in
callest."
The
The
figures
callest."
Book of
the Dead, which also
part text and part a

which the deceased in his
forms a part of the 151st chapter,

representation of the
figure answers
be ye ever watchful to
to water the canals, and
work, to plough and sow the fields,

to carry sand from t he e ast_ to the_west/'
reply, "
" is
may all
is
In the representation of the funereal
chamber
which accompanies the 151st chapter of the Book of the Dead,

two ushabtiu figures only are shown, and the same text is
written by the side of each of them. See Naville, Das Todtcnbuck, Bl. clxxiii, Einleitung, p. 180.
Ptah-Seker-Ausar
figure.
To face p. 215.
""~'^''^'2-"^''^JjU
ITAII-SEKER-AUSAR FIGURES.
tombs
UsJtabtiu figures were placed in

in the
tomb of
Scti
I.
21 5
in large
numbers
nearly
seven hundred were found.
'
The
was inscribed, in the later times, after the XXVIth

dynasty, and laid in the model of a coffin or sarcophagus
made of wood, terra-cotta, or stone. On the coffins were
painted figures of the four genii of the underworld, Anubis
and other principal sepulchral deities, with appropriate inscriptions, and these models bear a striking resemblance to
The inscripthe coffins made in Egypt from B.C. 500-300.
tions on figures of this period are frequently written in a very
somecursive and almost illegible hieratic, and in demotic
of
those
times, however, they have the form and brevity
inscribed on the ushabtiu figures of the Xlllth dynasty.
figure
Ushabtiu
^^*'?f,,,
AA.Vltn
and
j"
altkf
Ptaii-Seker-Ausar Figures.
This name is given to a large class of wooden figures,
standing on pedestals, made in the shape of the god Osiris as
a mummy. The god wears on his head horns, the disk and
plumes
[^
hands are crossed over
his
his breast,
and
in
The figures are

flail /\ and crook
sometimes hollowed out, and contain papyri inscribed with
prayers and chapters from a late recension of the Book of the
Dead. Frequently the papyri are found in hollows in the
pedestals, above which stand small models of funereal chests,
surmounted by a hawk in the hollows portions of the body,
mummified, were often placed. Many figures are quite black,
others are painted in
having been covered by bitumen
the most vivid colours, with blue head-dress with yellow
stripes, green, red and yellow collar, face gilded, and body
covered with wings of a blue and green colour.
them he holds the
The god Ptah-Seker-Ausar

on
stelae
in
company with
Osiris,
iiJ)
^Ppcars
Anubis and other gods of
made in his honour,

because he was supposed to be specially connected with the
the dead, and he

resurrection.
Osiris
is
He
addressed on figures
sometimes represented in the form of

pi. xcvii), and
with all the
god the other forms in which he appears
is
(Lanzone, Dizionario,
attributes of this
Descrip^>^ of
figures.
2l6
Forms
of
PtahSeker-
are
2.
As
As
i.
little
squat boy, with a -beetle on his head
hawk wearing a crown and
feathers
and
H^> standing on
Ausar.
a throne before which
form he
this
Behind him
The
is
is
down
a table of offerings in a shrine.
on the outsides of
painted
a winged uraeus wearing a disk, and
inscriptions
in length
is
often
upon Ptah-Seker-Ausar
tit'afs
^^'
figures vary greatly
at times they are written in perpendicular lines
the front and back of the figure, and continue round
each of the four sides of the pedestal
Be the
at others they consist of
inscription long
Contents
a very few words.
of inscrip-
deceased prays that Ptah-Seker and Ausar (Osiris)
tions.
In
coffins.
sepulchral meals of oxen, ducks, wine, beer,
oil,
or short, the
will give
and wax, and
bandages, and every good, pure, and sweet thing to his ka.
The formula
stelae
of these figures greatly resemble those found on
The
of a late period.
British
Museum
possesses a
remarkably fine collection of these figures, and as they come

from several distinct places, and have many varieties, they are
most instructive.
Sepulchral Boxes.
tombs to hold Canopic
Egyptians made use of a smaller class of wooden
boxes to hold usJiabtiu figures, papyri, articles of dress and
They vary in size from six or eight inches to
other things.
In addition to the chests placed in
vases, the
two
feet square.
Some
made
are
perfectly square, with sides
that slant slightly inwards like the pylon of a temple, being
higher than they are wide
Ornamentation
of sepulchral
boxes.
others are oblong in shape, and
Some have two

and others four divisions. The outsides are usually ornamented with scenes in which the deceased is represented
adoring Ra, or Anubis, or one of the principal gods of the
dead, and with figures of Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and
Oebhsennuf, painted in bright colours upon a black or white
ground. The boxes from Thebes are decorated in the same
each end
rises
above the
level of the cover.
style as the coffins from that place.
mentation consists of
in
u,
||,
Frequently the orna-
^^, 1 1 L
etc., etc.,
arranged
symmetrical rows, above them being figures of Osiris,
Isis,
Ptah-Seker-Ausar
fi<jure
which held the papyrus of Anhai,

a priestess of Amen, about B.c (;oo
To face
p.
216.
SEPULCHRAL BOXES.
2 17
Nephthys, and other gods of the dead. The inscriptions

sometimes resemble those found on chests for Canopic jars,
but frequently they contain prayers in which the deceased
entreats the gods to give him gifts of cakes, bread, beer, wine,
ducks, oxen, wax, oil, bandages, etc., etc.
Such inscriptions
are at times very brief, at others they cover the whole box.
An interesting class of sepulchral boxes comes from Boxes
Ahmim, the ancient Panopolis, which deserves special Akhmim.
mention.
The
18,210)
3-^
slightly
is
second by
is
in
the British
Museum
Each
(No.
side tapers
is in the shape of a pylon.

ornamented with yellow, black, and
upon a white ground. Beneath it are two rows of
ornaments
is
them
long and 3 feet high.
towards the top, and
The hollow
red lines
largest of
feet
cornice
the
bn
ill
is
first
is
formed by ^
^^
^'^peated several times.
a row of five-rayed stars
ornamented with
a winged disk '^^^.
^^^'^^.
"
and
Behind
is
ursei
^^^
^^^^
Beneath each
line
The
tititi'
front of the
box
wearing disks Jh and
hawk upon
a pedestal, before
an altar with offerings. On the right hand side is

Thoth with both hands raised, pouring out a libation and
on the left is a hawk-headed deity with both hands raised
also pouring out a libation.
On the back of the box is a
which
is
hawk, with extended wings, and sceptres
hand
having his
.
^.
On
the right
box is a figure of the deceased, kneeling,

hand raised, and above him are two cartouches
side of the
left
Behind him are three jackal-headed
deities, each
having his
hand is clenched and laid upon

hand side of the box the deceased
is represented in the same attitude, and behind him are three
hawk-headed deities. These six gods form the vignettes of
left
arm
raised, while his right
his stomach.
On
the
left
Book of the Dead the

Horus, Mestha, and Hapi, and
the jackal-headed Horus, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf they
In two sides
are figured in Lanzone, Disionario, Tav. xxvi.
of the box are two pairs of rectangular openings about six
inches from each end ^ the use of these is unknown to me,
the
1 1
2th and 113th chapters of the
hawk-headed were
called
'
For the description of a similar box see my
1886, pp. 120-122.
article in Proc, Soc. Bib.
Arch.,
PÛNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.
2l8
Funereal Cones.
This name
given to a large number of burnt terra-cotta
is
tombs chiefly at Thebes,

and Kurnah they were used
conical objects which are found near

in the districts called 'Asasif
Loaves of
bread in
the shape
of cones.
from the Xlth to the XXVIth dynasties. They vary in size,

but the ordinary length is ten inches, and the diameter three
The face, or flat part, of the cone at its thickest end
inches.
contains inscriptions in relief which record the name and titles
of the person in whose
tomb they were found
the inscriptions
appear to have been made by a stamp with the characters

The inscribed end of the cone is variously coloured
incuse.
Dr. Birch thought^ that they were used
working into ornamental architecture, or to mark the sites
it is more probable, however, that they are
of sepulchres
merely models of bread or cakes which were placed in the
blue, red, or white.

for
tomb
A A.
It is
not likely that they were seals, because they
have been found of a rectangular shape with several copies of

the same inscription stamped upon them.
Sepulchral Stelae or Tablets

Stelae is the name given to the tablets of granite, calcareous stone, wood, or faience, which the Egyptians used in
large
numbers
for inscribing with decrees
and
historical records
of the achievements of kings, biographical notices of eminent
and private persons, hymns to
officials, priests,
Use of
stelae.
gods, and notices of any events of importance.
Ra and
The
other
greater
number, however, of those which have been found belong to

the class called sepulchral, and are inscribed with the
and
titles
deceased
of
principal events
in
their
persons,
lives.
their
pedigrees,
names
and the
They were placed
tombs, either in the corridor leading to the
mummy
inside
chamber,
or at the door, or at the foot or the head of the bier, or let

into the wall
Stelae of
the
Ancient
Empire.
sometimes they are rectangular and sometimes
they are rounded at the top.
The
styles of stelae, the arrange-
ment of the scenes upon them, and the inscriptions, vary with
*
Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians,
iii;
p. 437.
CJZ7
crr>
cr^lrl iLvO
"ggeiA-^^f<^ôT,^glSsr^sf}s^3i
'^^^m^lMkMM^^MMiM^lM.
kllKî^PiBTji^fifP^ÎgHeSia^
Stele of Antef, son of Amen-set.
7b /ace p. 218.
r;
SEPULCHRAL STEL/E OR TABLETS.
From
the different dynasties.
the Ist-VIth dynasty^ stel.x are
rectangular in form, and sometimes are
outer fagade of a temple.
219
The
made
to resemble the
inscriptions are comparatively
and merely record the names of the relatives of the

deceased who are represented on the stele, and the prayers to
Osiris for cakes, bread, meat, wine, oil, milk, wax, bandages,
ducks, oxen, etc., which are put into the mouth of the
deceased. A remarkable inscription found in a tomb^ of
the Vlth dynasty is that of Una, who was born in the reign
of Teta, and held service under this king; under Pepi, the
successor of Teta, he brought stone from the quarries of
Ruau, and conducted an expedition against the nomad tribes
to the east of Eg}-pt, and in the reign of the following king,
Mer-en-Ra, he died full of days and honour. During the Xlth
dynasty the stelae have many of the characteristics of those of
the Vlth dynasty, but the execution is better. A large number
of the stelae of the Xllth dynasty are rounded, the inscriptions
and scenes are carefully executed, and are often painted with
many colours sometimes on the same stele the figures are in
short,
relief,
while the inscriptions are incised.
of the inscriptions are repetitions of the
As
a rule the contents
titles
of the deceased,
work he has done

sepulchral meals, and an
praises of the king, bald statements of the
him, prayers to the god for
for
address to those
the dead
man
who
pass by the stele to
make mention of
The scenes
in appropriate funereal formulae.
usually represent the several
members
of the family of the
deceased bringing to him offerings of the various things for
which he prays. From the Xllth-XVIIth dynasty, biographies

on stelae ^ are rare. Stelae of the Xlllth and XI Vth dynasties
are characterized
the workmanship
when painted
by
their uniformity of colour,
is,
however, poor, the inscriptions are badly
and the hieroglyphics are thin and small. The stela; of

the XVIIIth dynasty are usually rounded at the top, and have
cut,
'
The
oldest stele
known
is
preserved at Gizeh and at Oxford, and was
for Shera, a priest of Sent, the fifth

it is
figured in Lepsius,
Auswahl,
made
king of the Ilnd dynasty, about B.C. 4000
PI. 9.
Compare the interesting inscription published by Schiaparelli, Una toiiiba

egiziana inedita, Rome, 1892.
^ The inscription of Chnemu-h.tep, one of the most valuable of this period, is
^
inscribed on the walls of his tomb.
Stelae of
^^liddle
Empire,
220
very
little
in
common
earlier times the
with those of older dynasties.
In
deceased was represented as being surrounded
and sisters, wife and servants, but at

epoch the gods take their places, and he stands alone
In many stelae of
before Osiris, god and judge of the dead.
Amen
has been carefully
this period the name of the god
by
his parents, brothers
this
chiselled out,
A
Stele of
Amasis.
by order of the
" heretic king,"
remarkable characteristic of
stelae at this
Amenophis IV.
time
is
the length
and fulness of the inscriptions upon them. In the earlier times,

private matters in the life of the deceased were passed over
now, however, full biographies
with little or no mention
become the rule, and the inscriptions cover not only the
stelae, but the walls of the chamber in which the mummies
were laid. Sometimes such biographies are almost the only
authorities for the history of a period, and the inscription of
Amasis is an example of this class of documents. Amasis
was a naval officer who was born about the time of the
final war of the Egyptians against the Hyksos, and he was
present at the capture of the town of Avaris, during the
He was specially honoured
reign of Amasis I., king of Egypt.
by this king for his prowess in battle, and he served in various
campaigns undertaken by his successors, Amenophis I., and
Thothmes I. The stelae of the XlXth dynasty show a great
The figures of men
falling off both in design and execution.
and women are poor, and their limbs are made out of all
;
proportion to the rest of their bodies.
The mode of wearing
their clothes, too, has changed, a large portion of the
body is
by the dress, and the figures wear a heavy
head-dress, which falls squarely upon the shoulders.
The
entirely covered
are carelessly engraved, and lack the spirit

which indicates those of the XVIIIth dynasty. During the
XXth dynasty the use of stelae appears not to have been so
general, and from about B.C. 1000-650 they almost disappear.
The stelae which belong to this period are few and small, and
the designs are generally poor imitations of stelae of an older
hieroglyphics
The cause of this decline is not quite evident, but it

be either the result of the disquietude caused by the
unsettled condition of Egypt through foreign invasions, or
date.
may
the consequence of
some
religious schism.
It will
be noticed
SKPULCIIRAL STEL/E OR TABLETS.

that usJiabtm figures, as well
as
stel.ne,
The
poorer durinsf this same period.
221
become fewer and

of the
stelae
XXVIth
Stelae of
the
dynasty exhibit the features which are characteristic of the

sculptures of this period.
They occur in large numbers, they
are larger in
size,
New
Empire.
the hieroglyphics are small, but cleanly cut,
and they have a beauty which is in itself sufficient to proclaim

the time to which they belong. The inscriptions are copied
from ancient texts, and as neither the scribe nor the sculptor
understood at times what he was writing, frequent mistakes
After the
are the result.
of
all
XXVIth
and forms
possible designs
cut, the inscriptions are the
dynasty
stelae
were made
the hieroglyphics are badly
ordinary formulae, in which the
deceased prays for sepulchral meals, and
it is
quite clear that
tomb had become a mere matter

greater
number
of the Egyptians. In Ptolemaic
the
of form with
the placing of a stele in the
times ancient models were copied, but the inscriptions are as
Greek or demotic, or both, as
often in
in hieroglyphics.
Stelaa
bearing bilingual inscriptions, in hieroglyphics and Greek, or

hieroglyphics and Phoenician, are also known.
Subsequently
became the fashion to make the figures of the gods on

stelae in high relief, and the attributes and costumes of Greek
it
gods were applied to those of Egypt.
The greater number of the wooden stelae in European

museums belong to the XXVIth and subsequent dynasties.
They are rounded at the top, they usually stand upon two
pedestals having steps on each side, and they vary in size
The inscriptions and Ornamenby

4 in. to 3 ft. by
> 20 in.
} "^
tation of
are
usually
painted in white, green, red, stelse
scenes upon them
of the
^^^
On the XXVIth
yellow, or black, upon a light or dark brown ground.
from 6
in.
back are
-^
at times figures of the sun
standards of the east
7j<
and west
ft.
shedding rays
The
and
large tablets have
in the first are the winged disk ^szs?, with

wearing the crowns of the north and south,
the jackal-headed gods Anubis and Ap-uat, emblems of
three registers
pendent
" life "
uraei
and
"
power
"
"T"
|,
etc.
in the
second register are the
boat of the sun, in which stand a number of gods, Ra,

Horus, Chepera, Maat, Anubis, etc., and the deceased, or his
soul, kneeling at
a table of offerings in front of the boat
dynasty.
222
Ra
in the third register the deceased makes

number of gods, and below this comes the
The smaller, and more numerous, tablets have
in adoration of
adoration to a
inscription.
in
the rounded
Behutet,
divided into two parts

kneels
by the
machis ]
side of an
and
"^ZZ^
heaven."
of
lord
winged disk with pendent
the
part,
and the inscription ^-=^
in
p^^
The
scene which
follows
is
the one the deceased stands or
altar in adoration before
Ra-HarBelow
other he adores Nefer-Atmu.
in the
uraei,
Behutet neb pet "[Horus of]
the scenes are two inscriptions which read from the middle of
the tablet to the sides, and contain, the one an address or
Inlaid
stelte.
prayer to
Ra when he
he
Frequently a tablet
sets.
rises,
the other, an address to

is
Ra when
inscribed with the prayer to
Ra-Harmachis and Nefer-Atmu for sepulchral meals.

Wooden stelae were sometimes inlaid with glass figures
and hieroglyphics of various colours in imitation of the scenes
and inscriptions on tablets of an earlier date. A remark91
able
example of
this
class
of work
is
B.M.
25
which,
according to Dr. Birch,
is
inscribed with the
and represents this king
making
name
of Darius,
offerings to Anubis,
seated on a throne under a winged disk and stars
the god
is
Isis,
who
is
behind
with horns on her head, and a sceptre in her
hand.
Stelse in
glazed
faience.
were sometimes made of glazed

6133, a fine example of a
light blue colour, in which the deceased Amen-em-apt, a
royal scribe, is standing in adoration before the god Osiris,
who holds a flail and crook. This interesting object was
probably made about B.C. looo, when the art of making
glazed faience of a fine blue or green colour was at its
That sepulchral
faience,
stelae
we know from B.M. No.
greatest perfection.
Vases.
Egyptian tombs are made of
and other kinds of hard stone,
The
steatite, bronze, wood, terra-cotta, faience, and glass.
are
the
most
shapes of vases are various, but the following
The Vases found
in
alabaster, diorite, granite, basalt
VASES.
common:
tt,5,
k
iX
Q, g, O,
^,0,
223
'O
Z7
^ZI^
Vases were Use
of
vases.
placed in the tombs to contain the offerings of wine, oil,

unguents, spices, and other offerings made to the temples, or
dead
to the
in
their tombs.
Among
hard stones capable
of receiving a high polish, granite, diorite and alabaster were

Granite and
those most commonly used for making vases.
and were made

Vases of alabaster are
very much more numerous, and as this material was comparatively easily worked, and readily lent itself to form symmetrical and beautiful shapes, it was a great favourite with the
Egyptians. They were sometimes inscribed on the front, the
diorite vases are usually without inscriptions,
during
flat
periods of Egyptian history.
all
part of the rim, or the top of the cover, with inscriptions
recording the names and
titles
whom
thus they are valuable as giving the Value
they were buried
of the deceased persons with
names of kings and officials of high rank, pedigrees, etc., and as

showing at the same time the wonderful skill of the Egyptian
tions
of
on
'*'^^^^-
alabaster worker at a period nearly four thousand years B.C.
Alabaster vases were in use from the IVth-XXVIth dynasty,

and the Persian kings had their names inscribed upon them
in Egyptian and cuneiform.
Arragonite, or zoned alabaster,
was used for large vases and liquid measures a beautiful
example of this material is B.M. No. 4839, which has two
handles and a cover, and is inscribed with its capacity
;
" eight /len
rQ=0=
A/.AA/1
Steatite are not
No. 4762, which

B.C. 1633.
and three quarters."
Vases
in
glazed
common, and
is
Vases
believe the oldest to be B.M.
inscribed with the
in
name
of
Thothmes
I.,
bronze are ancient, tolerably numerous,
and of various shapes among them must be classed those,

in the shape of buckets with handles, which are ornamented
with scenes in relief, in which the deceased is represented
adoring various deities they belong chiefly to the period of
the XXVIth dynasty. Models of vases in wood were also
They were sometimes
made and placed in the tombs.
painted to resemble glass (B.M. No. 9529^^), and were sometimes covered with plaster and gilded, examples of which
are B.M. No. 9529^ and 95 29/"; both were made for the
;
tomb of Rameses
II.
the former
is
inscribed
])
O^
natcJm,
Models
^^^^^'
224
and the
"stibium,"
The
Glass
ml^
viestemet, "stibium.''
very ancient, and Dr. Birch

example of Egyptian glass is
a small dark blue fragment inscribed with the prenomen of
Antef III,, of the Xlth dynasty. The next oldest example is
use of glass for vases
states that
vases.
latter
is
the earliest dated
a small vase or jug with one
handle,
of a fine turquoise-
coloured, opaque glass, ornamented in yellow, with a border
round the neck, and three trees round the

with the prenomen of Thothmes
and inscribed
sides,
1600; the handle

has stripes of white and dark blue, and round the neck where
it
III.,^ B.C.
joins the thick part of the vase,
The
vase
is
in.
3I
and
high,
Museum number
its
is
a row of white spots.
greatest diameter
is
ly'':^
in.
Vases made of varie4762.

striped
glass
represented
and
are
gated
on the walls of tombs
XlXth
and
XXth
dynasties,
and
it seems that the
of the
and
vases,
or
wood
models
of
them,
belong to that
terra-cotta
The next oldest examples are the small black,
period.
opaque glass vases, \j, mottled with white spots, which formed
the British
is
part of the funereal paraphernalia of the princess Nesi-Chensu,
Vases in
glazed
faience.
about
B.C. 1000.
made
in
Vases
Transparent glass seems not to have been

earlier than the XXVIth dynasty.
Egypt much
faience glazed with a blue or green colour are at
in
XlXth dynasty a beautiful example of

B.M, No. 4796, with lotus leaves, rosettes, and a
of hieroglyphics around the outer edge, in white or light
least as old as the

this date
line
is
upon a lavender-coloured glazed ground. The inscription records the name and titles of Rameses II., about B.C.
About B.C. 1000, small vases \j and libation jars "Q
1333.
yellow,
were glazed with a beautiful light bluish-green the vases of

Nesi-Chensu are fine examples of this work (B.M. No. 17,402,
and 13,152). During the XXVIth dynasty flat, circular,
;
convex vases or bottles made of glazed faience became

common the neck and lip were in the form of the capital of
a papyrus column, with an ape at each side, and where the
;
'
Cafalogue of the Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick
Castle,
p.
179,
'^WVms.oi-^s Ancient Egyptians, No\. II; p. 142.
Jl
The No.
.^
rra
of the
/AT"
"Beautiful god, Men-cheper-Ra, giver of
B.M. vase
is
17,043.
life."
and
OBJECTS FOR THE TUILET.
body of the vase
22$
it is ornamented with rows of

and pendants. On the upper part
band which goes round the vase, is inscribed
joins the neck
inscribed papyrus flowers
of the
flat
'^'^
owner," and
its
^^^y Ptah open a happy new year for
"
happy new year
\/
I "^^^
"
^^Y
Sechet open a
These vases were probably

appear to come from Lower Egypt.
The oldest vases known are made of terra-cotta and red
They were
earthenware, and are of various shapes and sizes.
given as
gifts,
for its owner."
and they
all
sometimes glazed or painted and varnished, to imitate porphyry, diorite, and variegated stone and glass, and sometimes
they were ornamented with floral designs, figures of animals,
geometrical patterns, etc., etc. Vases in this material were
inscribed, in hieratic or hieroglyphic, with the names and
titles of the persons in whose tombs they were found, and
sometimes with sepulchral
inscriptions.
It is
not possible, in
the absence of inscriptions, to date terra-cotta vases accurately,
and
the evidence forthcoming tends to prove that the
all
various kinds of vases which were thought to belong to the
XVIIIth
or
XlXth dynasty
belong to the
XXIInd
or later.
Objects for the Toilet.
The
Eg}'ptian lady, in
following obj'ects
making her
Mirror, in Egyptian
-^^ ^ y
A
/vvAA/\A
face," or
face."
The
toilette,
made
use of the
\\ \\
^V
mirror was
un-hrd, " lifting

"
object for seeing the
of bronze, and in shape
was
nearly round (B.M. No. ijz'&a), or oval (B.M. No. 2733), or

oval flattened (B.M. No. 2732), or pear-shaped (B.M. No.
Mirrors were kept in bronze cases or wooden boxes.
2728(5').
The handles were made
of ivory (B.M. Nos. 22, 830, 2734),

wood, bronze, or faience (B.M. No. 2736), and were usually
in the
shape of the lotus
inlaid with gold
in flower |
Wooden
handles were
(B.M. No. 2'/2â), or were painted with the
colours of the lotus plant and flower (B.M. No. 18,179)

L.
M.
Egyptian
mirrors.
maa-hra,
made
up the
they
226
Descripniirrors.
were sometimes square, and sometimes terminated in a

hawk's head (B.M. No. 2733), or they were carved in the
shape of a figure of Bes (B.M. No. 2728Z'). Bronze handles
of mirrors were also made in the shape ox the lotus plant
and flower, but the flat space where the handle widens
out into the flower was ornamented with the head of Hathor
in relief (B.M. No. 27281^); they were also made in the form
of figures of women, with their arms raised (B.M. Nos. 20,773,
2718^). The mirror was further ornamented by supporting
the bronze disk on each side with a pair of uraei (B.M. No.
The
20,756), or with a hawk of Horus (B.M. No. 2731).
metal of which mirrors are made has been shown to be
almost pure copper, a very small percentage of tin and other
The use of mirrors in Egypt
substances being present.
appears to be of great antiquity, but the date of their first
appearance is not known exactly.
The greater diameter
of the mirror varies from three to twelve inches.
Tweezers. Pairs of tweezers, for removing hairs from
the head or face, were made of bronze, the ends being, at
they vary in length from
times, in the form of human hands
about two to six inches.
;
Hair-pins are usually made of wood, bone, ivory, metal,

alabaster, and vary in length and thickness
the heads
are sometimes ornamented with gold and silver bands or
heads, and sometimes terminate in the figure of an animal
or
or bird.
Combs
are
made
of
wood
or ivory, and
but a single row of teeth the back

edges, and
is
when they have
carved into serrated
ornamented with various devices,

annular or otherwise. Double combs, i.e., combs with two
rows of teeth, have the one row of teeth thicker and longer
Combs used for merely ornamental purposes
than the other.
its
sides
are
terminate with figures of animals,
etc., etc.
The
date of the
appearance of combs in Egypt is unknown, and it

has been thought that they were not introduced until a
comparatively late period.
Fan. The feathers of the fan were inserted in a handle
made of wood or ivory, or both, having the same shape as
first
the handles of mirrors I
both sides of
the handle were
OBJECTS FOR THE TOILET.
227
sometimes ornamented with heads of Hathor

No. 20,767).
Kohl
Of
pots.
relief
in
(B.M.
the necessaries for the toilet these Stibium
all
most commonly found, and the varieties

known are very many and very interesting. The object of
the kohl jar was to hold the kohl, or stibium, or antimon}^, or
copper, with which ladies were wont to stain the eyelids and
objects
are the
The
eyebrows.
tubel^"
simplest form consisted of a hollow tube of
from three to six
alabaster, steatite,^ glass,^ wood, or ivory,
inches high; alabaster tubes are usually uninscribed (B.M. No.

2574),
wooden tubes
are
made
shape of a column with
in the
a palm leaf capital (B.M. No. 2591), ivory or bone tubes are Different
%^ ^
sometimes made in the form of figures of Bes (B.M.
\
stibium
="
No.
2571),
and
sometimes are
ornamented
with
spirals
vases.
Faience tubes are white, blue, or green,

fine examples of
and have inscriptions on them in black
(B.M. No. 6184).
B.M. No. 2^y2b, inscribed with the prenomen

and B.M.
of Amenophis III., and the name of his wife Thi
No. 2573, inscribed with the prenomen of Tut-anch-Amen,
and the name of his wife Anch-nes-Amen. B.M. No. 2589,
is a fine example of kohl tube in glass, made in the form of
Kohl tubes were somea column with a palm leaf capital.
times made of the common reed, and carried in a leather bag
^^^ single tube was sometimes repre(B.M. No. 12,539)
this class are
sented as being held by a
monkey
or
some other animal
(B.M. No. 21,895). The tube was often formed of a hollow

sunk in a jar made of alabaster, stone, steatite, granite, or
porphyry
T
and
f)
in
steatite
jars
are
glazed,
and ornamented with
hollow work (B.M. No. 2645).
Such
jars often
had the rim, which supported the cover, turned separately,

was made
these jars rested upon
to enable it to rest firmly on the jar
The outsides of
square stands supported by four legs.
porphyry jars are sometimes ornamented with raised figures
Kohl jars had sometimes two tubes, and
of apes and ursi.
.and in the centre of the cover, inside, a small boss

;
B.M. No. .736
ii,
P ^l^^^l ^f -">
" Menthu-em-hat, son of Heq-ab, lord of watchful devotion."

2 See B.M. No. 24,391, made of light blue glass banded with gold.
Stibium
vases
l;riha
228
were made of wood, with a movable cover on a pivot (B.M.

No. 2595), of obsidian, with a figure of Bes in relief (B.M.
No. 2599), of ivory, with each tube in the form of a lotus
column (B.M. 22,839), and of stone. Kohl pots with three
tubes were also made, and an interesting example in terracotta is B.M. No. 2612, which is in the form of a "triple"
Kohl pots with four and five tubes are very common
B.M.
wood, and several examples exist in faience.
No. 2605 is inscribed on each tube,^ and contains two, or
more, different powders
and B.M. 2606a, with five tubes,
probably a votive offering by a friend or relative of the de-
crown.
in
ceased Amasis, a scribe and overseer of works,
'U^\ i^^^QLD
is
inscribed
f
I
AAAAAA
^^
Different
kinds of
eye-paint
used at
different
AAA/W, (.J
seasons of
the year.
VAAAA
AAAAAA
O"^
10
5o
The
1116O
60
following texts
are
brown wood stibium-holder,

Grenfell, G.C.B.
inscribed
upon a remarkable
in the possession of Sir
Francis
contains five tubes, each of which held
It
^ O
L=^
I
show that one kind of eye-paint was to be used from the

month of the inundation season a second from the first to the
fourth month of the season of coming forth
a third from the first to the fourth
month of the period of growing ; and also that a fourth was to be used every day.
-
first
These
inscriptions
to the fourth
OBTECTS FOR THE TOILET.
229
substance
on one side is a full-face
and on the other an ape. It came from Der
a different coloured
figure of Bes,
el-bahari.
V
VAAAA
Ci
Jin^
1=^
Si
111
Ci)
A set of four or more kohl tubes were also formed by the

compartments of a wooden box which was generally inlaid
with ivory. The studs in kohl tubes were used for fastening
the cover.
The stick with which the kohl was applied to the eyes was
made of wood, bronze, glass, etc., and was thicker and more
rounded at one end than at the other. The thick end was
moistened, and dipped in the powder in the tube, and then
drawn along the eyelid the stick generally remained in the
;
tube, but often a special cavity, either
was prepared for

The black powder
tubes,
mestem
COHJUL, CXHJUL,
(TTLfx/xi, stibium
;
(var.
between or behind the
it.
in
[T|
the tube
was
^^ ^\ ^
called
"
in
Egyptian
viest'enmi), Copt.
J^? whence the word Kohl, Gr.

seems to have been the sesquisulphuret
Arab.
it
of antimony, but sulphide of lead, oxide of copper, I
black
oxide of manganese, and other powdered substances were

also used.
The act of painting the eyes with kohl was called
'
^^^^
The custom
under
senitet,
and the part painted
i^:::;
semti.
of painting the eyelids, or the parts immediately
them,
is
contemporary with the
earliest
dynasties,
The
/.-o/il
230
Antiquity
of use
of eyepaint.
and we know that in the Xllth dynasty^ mestchem was

brought from the land of Absha, by people of the Aamu,
as an acceptable gift to the king of Egypt.
This custom
seems to have been common all over the East, and it will
be remembered that Jezebel "set her eyes in stibium"
(7^^ ^^33.
of Zion was
ntZî^ll
Kings
ix.
30),
and that the daughter
told that her lovers would seek her life, even

though "she rent asunder her eyes with stibium,"^ in allusion
to the wide open appearance which stibium gives to women's
eyes in the East.
Alabaster
vases of
Atena.
Oils, unguents, scents, etc., were kept in alabaster, diorite

and porphyry jars, or vases, of various shapes,
:^ '0' U x ^
Sets of alabaster jars and flat vessels were arranged on a table
in the tomb, and sometimes contained unguents, sweetmeats,
A fine
etc., and sometimes were merely votive offerings.
example of a votive set in alabaster is (B.M. No. 4694)
inscribed with the name Atena, from Abydos, which comprises a wide mouthed jar on a stand, five smaller jars with
pointed ends, and four flat saucers, the whole standing on a
The shapes of the jars
circular table of the same material.
are of great beauty, and the alabaster is of the finest.
The
custom of placing alabaster jars in tombs is, at least, as
ancient as the IVth dynasty, and it lasted until the XXVIth
dynasty examples are known inscribed with the names of
Unas (B.M. No. 4602), Pepi I. (B=M. No. 22559), Mentuem-sa-f (B.M. No. 4493), Amasis I. (B.M. No. 4671(7:),
Thothmes III. (B.M. No. 4498), Amenophis II. (B.M. No.
4672), Rameses II. (B.M. No. 2880), Queen Amenartas (B.M.
No. 4701), etc.
;
Necklaces, Rings, Bracelets, etc.

Judging by the enormous quantity of beads which are
found in Egyptian tombs, Egyptian ladies must have thought
very highly of the necklace as an ornament. Beads are of all
shapes, round, rectangular, oval, and oblong, and were
made
of
1 In the sixth year of Usertsen

II.
The scene of the presentation of the
mestchem is painted on the walls of the tomb of Chnemu-hetep at Beni-Hasan ;
see Lepsius,
Denkmiiler,
II.
ff.
31-133.
SCARAB.
mother-of-emerald,
carnelian,
231
agate,
lapis-lazull,
rock crystal, onyx, jasper, garnet, gold,
amethyst,
silver, glass, faience,
and straw. The necklace was ornamented with pendants

in the form of figures of the gods, or of animals sacred
to them, or of amulets to which magical powers were attributed.
Each kind of stone was supposed to possess special
properties, and the Egyptians arranged their necklaces in
such a way that the wearer was supposed to be protected
from the attack of all evil powers and baneful beasts. Breasts
of mummies and mummy cases are painted in imitation
of rows of beads of various precious stones, or of collars
made of beads, interspersed with pendants in the shape of
clay,
made
Egyptian
jewellery
flowers, etc.
Rings were made of gold, silver, bronze, precious stones or

sometimes the bezels were solid and did not move,
sometimes they were inlaid with scarabs, inscribed with various
devices, or the name of the wearer, and revolved. During the
XVIlIth dynasty, a very pretty class of ring was made at
Tell el-Amarna, in blue, green, and purple glazed faience
examples are very numerous, and every Egyptian collection
of importance contains several.
Bracelets were made of gold or silver, and were at times
after the
inlaid with precious stones and coloured paste
XXVIth dynasty the ends of bracelets, owing to Phcenician
faience
influence, terminated in lions' heads.
Scarab.
Scarab,^ or Scarabaeus,^ is the name given by Egyptolo- Descripgists to the myriads of models of a certain beetle, which are Egyptian
found in mummies and tombs, and in the ruins of temples and beetle,
other buildings in
Egypt and other
countries, the inhabitants
'
Scarab, from the Greek OKctpaôQ, or aKapaêtog, perhaps a transcription of the
Latin scarahaetis ; compare 5ij vpiov, a transcription of denarius. The Copts called
X ^
this
beetle
(T^SKOfKC
^y
Ô
Jjj>-,
plur.
Thes. Syr., col.

^
The
dung."
188,
the
Arabs
^nd ^^.J,
pl"!"-
and Duval, Lex. Syr.,
old plural scarabees
we
find
in
^ y
y
,
phir-
/^juiUr^,
^.1,J.
col.
i^
''\mJu^^
^
^,'
i,;^M>1
and
See also Payne Smith,
714.
" You are scarabees that batten
Elder Brother, Beaumont and Fletcher.
in
FUNEREAL
232
ARCH.^^.OLOGY OF EGYPT.
of which from a remote period had trading and other relathe Egyptians.
The beetle which was copied
by the Egyptians in this manner belongs to the family called
by naturalists Scaj-abceidce (Coprophagi), of which the ScarabcBus sacer is the type.
These insects compose a very
numerous group of dung-feeding Lamellicorns, of which,
tions with
however, the majority are inhabitants of tropical countries.
The
species are generally of a black hue
are
to
but amongst them
be found some adorned with the richest metallic
A remarkable peculiarity exists in the structure

and situation of the hind legs, which are placed so near the
extremity of the body, and so far from each other, as to give
the insect a most extraordinary appearance when walking.
This peculiar formation is, nevertheless, particularly servicecolours.
Habits of
the Egyptian beetle.
able to
its
possessors in rolling the balls of excrementitious
which they enclose their eggs

whence these
were named by the first naturalists Pilularise. These
balls are at first irregular and soft, but, by degrees, and
during the process of rolling along, become rounded and
harder
they are propelled by means of the hind legs.
Sometimes these balls are an inch and a half, or two inches
in diameter, and in rolling them along the beetles stand
almost upon their heads, with the heads turned from the
matter
in
insects
balls.
These manoeuvres have
for their object the
burying
dug
upon the dung thus deposited
of the balls in holes, which the insects have previously

for their reception
that the larvse,
and
it
is
when hatched,
feed.
does not appear that
It
own
these beetles have the instinct to distinguish their

as they will seize
they have
upon those belonging
lost their
own
of them occasionally
and, indeed,
See
Insects ;
2
ii.
p. 311.
assist
in
said that several
same
ball.
The
rolling the pellets.
the hottest part of the day.^
Latreille, in
Cailliaud's Voyage a Meroe, Paris, 1823-27,^
J. O. Westwood,
London, 1839, Vol.
Tom.
it is
assist in rolling the
males as well as the females
They fly during

the Appendix to
balls,
to another, in case
"Get
An
I. p.
hitroduction to the
204
Modern
Classification
insecte est d'un vert parfois ^clatant
son corselet
nuanc^ d'une teinte cuivreuse k reflet metallique." Compare ^lian,

Nat. Anitual., iv. 49; Aristotle, Hist. Animal.., iv. 7; Pliny, Nat. Hist.,
20 ff., and xxix. 6.
est
of
ff.
De
xi.
SCARAB.
233
named Atenchns Aegyptiand which is of a fine greenish colour,

as that which especially engaged the attention of the early
Egyptians and Dr. G. W. Clarke affirms that it is eaten by
the women of Egypt because it is considered an emblem of
Horapollo, and other ^ ancient writers, state that a
fertility.
female scarabaeus does not exist. According to Horapollo
(ed. Leemans, p. 11), a scarabaeus denotes an only begotten,^
It represents an only
generation, father, zvorld, and man.
considers the species which he has
oruDi, or ifkLOKiivdapo'^,
begotten,
because the scarabaeus
a creature self-produced,
is
being unconceived by a female. The male, when desirous of

procreating, takes some ox dung, and shapes it into a spherical/
form
like the
world.
He
next
rolls
buries
it
in
for
it
ball,
the scarabaei
come
and throws
forth.
from east to west,

hole, he
on the twenty-ninth day)

and from ii
The idea of generation arises from
twenty-eight days
he opens the
it
Having dug a
looking himself towards the east.

;
into the wâter,
it
The scarabaeus denotes a father because

its supposed acts.
by
a father only, and zvorld because in its
engendered
it is
generation it is fashioned in the form of the world, and man
because there is no female race among them. Every scarabaeus was also supposed to have thirty toes, corresponding
with the thirty days' duration of the month.^
Latreille thinks
one sex only existed among scarabaei

arose from the fact that the females are exceedingly like the
males, and that both sexes appear to divide the care of the
preservation of their offspring equally between them.
that the belief that
'O Karflapof a.Qr\Kv Z<^6v tan, Aelian,
Didot,
p.
172,
De
Naitira Ani7nal.,
YâvQapoq yap iraf dpprjv, VorY>hyry,
De
xv.
ed.
Absiiiientia, iv. 9,
ed.
x.
Didot, p. 74.
For the word scarabeus applied

et bonus vermis
Quid clamavit ?
clamavit e ligno.
Clamavit latroni Hodie viecmn eris
'
scarabeus in cruce
to
Christ
compare,
" Vermis in cruce
qui haesit in ligno bonus scarabeus qui
Domiue, ne statuas
illis hoc peccatmn.

Clamavit quasi scarabeus
Et bonus scarabeus qui lutum corporis
Deus, Deus meus, qnare me dereliqjtisti ?
bonus scarabeus, qui
nostri ante informe ac pigrum virtutum versabat vestigiis
See the exposition of St. Luke, by Ambrose,
de stercore erigit pauperem. "
Bishop of Milan (Opera, Paris edition, 1686, tom. I. col. 1528, No. I13).
:
in paradiso.
"
En comptant
pour un doigt chaque
article des tarses,
cet insecte avait ete bien attentivement
examine."
des Coleopteres de France, Lamellicornes
on reconnaitra que
Mulsant, Histoire Nalttrelle
Paris, 1842, p. 48.
Descripbeetle by
Horapollo.
234
The Egyptians
Egyptian
name
O
v^
called the scarabaeus
for
the beetle,
^ <=>
emblem
ot
Chepera.
> ^^
_5y*
1
insect represented
this
Che-
[I
"^^^
was
called
This god usually wears a beetle on
and sometimes he has a
with or without
beetle,
The god
Chepera was the " father of the gods," and the creator of all
He made himself out of the
things in heaven and earth.
matter which he himself produced. He was identified with
the rising sun, and thus typified resurrection and new birth
a J]
The word
which is usually translated
generally.
wings,
outstretched
scarab an
whom
Chepera.
*||f
his head,
The
god
perd, and the
the
in
place
of
head.^
" to exist, to
become, to make," also means " to roll," and the

was a fitting name for the sun,
according to the Egyptian ideas of that luminary. The
" roller,"
or " revolver,"
abstract
noun
rendered by
into three
for
well
be
3.
i.
Funereal scarabs
Of
Historical scarabs.
2.
Scarabs worn
the first class the
number found measure from half to two inches in

and they are made generally of faience or steatite,
greater
length,
glazed blue or green

are
very
convenience of consideration, be divided
for
classes
ornament
lazuli,
may
" evolutions."
Scarabs may,
Classes of
scarab.
cheperu,
\\
granite, basalt, jasper, amethyst, lapis-
ruby, carnelian, and in the
often
Egyptians
officials,
used.
Upon
engraved
the
private persons,
the
flat
Roman
period glass also,
base of the
scarab
the
names of gods, kings, priests,

monograms, and floral and other
Sometimes the base of the scarab takes the form

of a heart, and sometimes the scarab is united with the
it is also found united with a
u'tat ^^, or eye of Horus
frog, the emblem of " myriads " and of " revivification."
Rarely the back of the scarab is ornamented with a pattern
made up of a number of small scarabs. Such small scarabs
were set in rings, and placed upon the fingers of the dead,
or were wrapped up in the linen bandages with which the
mummy was swathed over the heart. They represented the
belief of the Egj^ptians in the revivification of the body, and
devices.
'
See Lanzone, Dizionmio,
pi.
cccxxix.
SCARAB.
the renewed
in
Sun,
life
who renewed
235
was
death, which
after
Amoncr
11 funereal
varieties,
by the
must be mentioned those of

made to 11-1
be laid upon
scarabs
-11
1-1
green basalt, which were specially
Of
mummies.
the breasts of
typified
his Hfe daily.
this
class
there
but the form most approved by the
many
are
Descrip'ion of
funereal
scarab.
Egyptians
seems to have consisted of a scarab of fine, hard basalt, let

into a gold border, to which was attached a fine gold wire
for hanging round the neck.
The folds of the \\ ings of the
beetles were indicated either by lines of gold painted on the
back, or
by
the scarab
of gold
pieces
itself
is
therein.
inlaid
into a
let
mount of
Occasionally,
(B.M.
solid gold
No. 7876), and sometimes the scarab is joined to a heart,

and pierced for suspension, the heart being ornamented
"
with hieroglyphics meaning " life, stability, and protection
"Th
(^-Î-
-^'o-
On
79-5)-
we
the back of the scarab
times have a figure of a benim bird and the inscription
^ ^Ô
"^
'
'^
at
'
others
<'
the boat of the
bennu or phoenix
^^
Sun LO^
and Ra
t^^
Ra" (B.M. No.
the mighty heart of

,
nt'ats
7878),
^^^^
(B.M. No. 7883)
at
the
and
sometimes the scarab is human-headed (B.M. Nos. 15,516

and 7999). One instance is known where the back of the
scarab is ornamented with incised figures of Greek deities
In late times this class of scarab was
(B.M. No. 7966).
faience, and inserted in pectorals of
green
made of blue and
which were painted the boat of the
upon
material,
the same
Nephthys, pne at each end of the
and
Isis
of
sun, and figures
the scarab occupied the middle of the boat (B.M.
boat
;
Nos. 7864 and 7865).
The
bases of large funereal scarabs
were usually inscribed with the text of the 30th chapter

Book of the Dead, but this was not always the case.
of the
Some
scarabs have only scenes of the
Osiris (B.M. No. 7931),
and others
deceased adoring
figures of Osiris, Isis,
Nephthys (B.M. Nos. 7930, 15,500 and
15,507).
At
and
times
the inscriptions are merely written with gold or ink (B.M.

As such scarabs formed part of
Nos. 7915 and 15,518).
the stock-in-trade of the Egyptian
undertaker, the
names
Descripfynerell
scarabs.
FUNEREAL ARCHyEOI.OGY OF EGYPT.
236
whom
of the persons with

inscribed
they were buried are not found
upon them, although blank spaces are
No. ^^TJ)
have
frequently scarabs
neither
left
(B.M.
nor
figures
remarkable example of
funereal scarab is B.M. No. 18,190, which was taken from
the mummy of Thothmes III., found at Der el-Bahari.
This object is made of steatite, glazed a greenish (purple
frame of gold runs round the
in some places) colour.
base, the two sides of which are joined by a band of the
inscriptions
upon
their bases.
same metal
across the back
back, but
the
mummy
of the
cloth
is
the crown
are hidden
which adhere to
inscribed with a figures of
head
a thin layer of gold covered
of this
parts
^^
Thothmes
in
by the remains
The base is
it.
III.,
kneeling
on
his
the right hand he holds the
whip /\ and with the left he is making an offering. Before

him is a dog (?) seated, and behind him a hawk. Above is
,
the sign T nefer, and the legend

before the gods
The
parts of which
still
Ra-men-cheper, triumphant
(^^^^^
for ever."
surface of the base
"
^ "^^
was covered with a layer of gold,
remain.
This scarab
is 3
inches long.
On
the upper end of the gold frame was a loop by which the
by means of a chain, was attached to a bronze collar

round the neck of the mummy.
The chapter from the Book of the Dead called 30 B by
M- Naville {Das Aegyptische Todtenbuch, pi. xliii.), engraved
upon scarabs, is one of a series of seven chapters, relating to
the heart, which are entitled
Chap- 26. Chapter of giving a heart to N.^ in the under-
scarab,
The
of^the'^^
heart.
world.
Chaps. 27, 28 and 29.
Chapter of not allowing his heart
him in the underworld.

Chap. 29 B. Another chapter of a heart of carnelian.
Chaps. 30A and 30B. Chapter of not allowing
to be carried off from
to be
According to a
Naville's edition, chap. 26 is
repulsed the heart of N. in the underworld.
papyrus
entitled
*
N.
in
"
Berlin,
Chapter
=name
Ba
of
in
a heart
of the person for
whom
of
lapis-lazuli
(__ J '^^\
the scarali or pa])yrus was made.
SCARAU.
chesbef) "
( 1^^^^
chap.
^M
"
27,
>'i^^'/ici) "
carneliaii(?)
<^> "^
(jl
Chapter
seherty
heart of green jasper
cxsk
B,
"
of
heart
(?),
"
Chapter of a
The most
meht)."
';^;^;f^
opal
Chapter of a heart of
and chap. 30 B,
/N ÂAÂA
portant of these chapters
of
chap. 29
237
im-
III
the 30th, which exists in two
is
30A and 30B, but it appears that

According
the former was never inscribed upon scarabs.
to the rubric found in a papyrus at Parma (see Naville,
Todtenbuc/i, ^ Bd. ii. bl. 99), this chapter was found during the
different versions, called
Mycerinus
reign of
Hermopolis, under the feet of the
in
majesty of this god, by Heru-ta-ta-f his son.

This interesting text reads
1^
To
met
her
x^PS''
en
be said
over
a scarab
of
\M^ JL
ant
meh
JJO
11
cmii
mesesbeb
em
with
Lh
11
its
[being]
^j^
bound round
green jasper
ring
??ietal,
c.
111
smu
smu
em
hot'
ertau
en
of
silver^
to be placed
on
D
xu
er
a blessed one^ over
xex
throat
his.
qementu
re
pen
em
Was found
chapter
this
in
Mil
xemennu
W0M-
11
nil
xer
hen
en
ret
Hermopolis under
the feet
Ten neter
pen
of the majesty of god
this,
-s
-I
L"J^"''''f't
1>
her
en
tebt
upon a slab
'
of
bat
First pulilished
" /.e.,
em
of the south with
steel
Quoted by Birch
qemau
in ^^^^.
ZeitscJirift,
na
neter
the luriting
of the god
1867, p
by Birch in Aeg. Zeitschrift,
the deceased.
17.
ii>6y, p. 54.
finding
of a
chapter
of the
heart.
238
ra
t'esef
em
himself
iti
\
ha
the time
hen
en
of the majest\
of the
suten net
r King of the North
and South,
\
]
maatxeru
an
suten se
Heru
triiDHphant^
by
the royal son
Het-u
Ra-men-kau
\ ATen-kau-Rd'\
{Myceriniis)
qein
he
it
7^
kfl
su
em
ta
tdtd
1^
Found
ta
em
ua
on
way
'<3>-
sap
er
arit
his
to
make
inspection
nil
pau
er
temples.
According to some copies of the 30th, or 64th chapter,

end of which this statement is sometimes added, it was
at the
found during the reign of Hesep-ti, the
fifth
king of the
first
dynasty.
Chapter
The
chapter
of the
heart.
^ô
B belongs to the Psychostasia, in which the
man is weighed against the feather, y

in
the vignette which sometimes
emblematic of Law
accompanies this chapter, the deceased is seen being weighed
heart of the dead
>
against his
own
heart, in the
presence of Osiris, the pointer
of the scales being watched by the cynocephalus ape of Thoth.
The
text of this chapter,
variants,
is
as follows
found upon scarabs with
en
re
Chapter
not allowing
of
He, e comes name

of deceased
'
Goodwin, On a
text
Naville,
Das
Lepsius,
Todtenlnich, bl.
xliii.
t'et
Says
en
of
ab
he,
^^
O Heart mine
Dead belonging to
Das Todtcnhuch, p.
of the Book of the

;
the heart
neter yoxV
in the underworld.
in Aeg. Zeitschrift, 1866, p. 55

"'
to be repulsed
1
em
ab
x^êf
ertat
tern
[Name]
many
the
12.
of
Old Kingdom,
SCARAT..
239
^1
sep
niut-a,
mother mine.
sen
hati
en
p^êper-a
em
of
evolution mine.
Not may
Heart mine
Twice.
\^
kS^ll
aha
be obstruction against
er
a.
em
to
me
by
em
meteru
em
sexesef
in
evidence.
Not may
be repulse
me
em
t'at'anuf-
ka-a
genius
at
in the presence
The
^
'
of the
chapter
of the
entek
Thou art
scale.
am
xat-a
Chnemu
seui'a
in
body my,
Chnem,
making sound
my
per
limbs my.
of tJic guardian
separation thy
maxet
embali
from me
made
be
m k
er
requ
ari
Not may
the Powers.
er
Mayest come forth thou
to
bu
nefer
the
felicity
hen
[to
which] go
<e=<
I
en
tve
am
there.
em
sexen
ren
Not may
overthrow
name
en
our
A
I
Jl
en
senit
the
Shenit
ariu
\jvho^
make
re0
ahau
men
firm.
Van
^--^ffi^
I.e.,
the four children of Ilorus.
heart.
240
^
Pleasant
pleasant
us,
to
the
[zV]
/^
hearing of
Joy of
ab
en
ut'a
metu
em
heart
at the
weighing of
tvords.
Not may
k^^
qemtu
ker
falsehood \against
be told
^=0
the presence
great art thou
near
the god,
mak
Amentet
lord of the underworld.
great,
How
^
un0a
em
matxeru
rising up
in
triumph
'
those worn for ornament,

The second class of scarabs,
many thousands. By an easy transition, the custom
z'.e.,
Scarabs
ornament.
god
eene
for
the
of
neb
aa
neter
worn
neter
embah
i:i
me']
erma
exists in
of placing scarabs on the bodies of the dead passed to the

living, and men and women perhaps wore the scarab as a
silent act of
homage
to the creator of the world,
who was
not only the god of the dead but of the living also. To
attempt to describe this class of scarabs would be impossible
anything but a special work on the subject. The devices

and inscriptions are very varied, but at present it is not
in
possible to explain one half of

Historical
scarabs
of Anicniiphis
HL
The
third class of scarabs,
them
i.e.,
satisfactorily.
the historical, appears to be
confined to a series of four, extant in many copies, which were

made during the reign of Amenophis III., to commemorate
SCARAB.
They
certain historical events.
are of considerable interest,
and the texts inscribed upon them

ten years of his reign
Heru
anx
the
live
-M
bull
x^
niaat
poiverful,
diademed
tuith
law,
P^l ^î
semen
'^^^'^blisher
VZifsZZt}'
of
3.=
l'^
fi
hepu
sekerh
laws,
pacifier of
taui
two lands,
the
i'
--
1^
^Kli:^
Heru nub
aa
x^P^^
^^^
^^t'
Horns
mighty of
the golden,
smiter of
valour,
Neb-maat-Ra
suten net
\^"V/dTou^k''''\
se
Amen-hetep heq Uast
er
x^*^
respect
of
Ra
anx
ta
an
^''''û
lions,
foreign lands,
en
son of the sun,
^^''^-^'^^'^^'^'^^
body
hemt
hen-F
em
from
his,
0\
royal spouse
majesty his
en
brought
\j.ind'\
x^'^'f
of
suten
Anienhetep, prince of Thebes, giver of life,
In
during the
next
ka
Horns,
III.,
l=J]
-f
J/ay
Amenophis
the text reads
refer to
102 lions by
The slaughter of
I.
first
241
Thi.
satet-f
shooting his
r-^r^^
hVi^ "=^ io ^ 5aV|
krîtflfl
1g
em
renpit ua neferit
t'esef
saa
own,
beginning
from year
[^\^
hesau
fierce,
B. M.
'
saa
first
II
sen
one hundred
and
ttvo.
jip
er
to
renpit met'
year
tenth,
mau
lions
Historica
scarabs
of Amen(
phis III.
242
The
II.
Egyptian Empire, and the names of
limits of the
Amenophis
the parents of Thi, wife of
Heru
anx
the
live
Borus,
.M
sSr'
^^'
of Amenophis IIL
Heru nub
powerful,
diademed
hepu
sekerh
taui
^^^^'^'
pacifier of
the tzvo lands.
U -^
<=> A
^^^^
b^
X^P^^'
smiter of
valour,
(i2SI
Ra Amen-hetep heq Uast
se
^=-
ta
anx
suten
hemt
ren
en
name
of
.^(1
(EEI
tef
father her \was^
\2Cias\
-XL
living one
rr'^
ywwv\
ren
the ?iame
the wife
^
pu
to
wit
AftAAy\A
luaa
hemt
anx^
Thi,
luaa,
-^M'-â
Thuau
f]
Oi
V\ M \0\
n(J
I
0uau
niut-s
mother her
O.
^^
{^'Z/nit'"}
urt
giver of life, \and'\ royal spouse, mighty lady,
r^N^J^N\
foreign lands,
Ne,,-,naat-Ra, son of the Sun,
the
semen
/VW\A/\
law
tuith
ra%(ljûj
""-^^ ^
Neb-maat-Ra
'"ISir"'}
maat
bull
^-CSI
suten net
cm
x^
aa
\%
next
mighty of
the golden,
ka
V"'ini%u/?^^'} ^^^^^^^^^^^^f
Horns
P^l
'
the text reads
^ ^ ^
f
May
III,
en
of
n
ent
suten
of
the king
SCARAB.
L=^
l-TT-l
next
X\>
i^^
Frontier his
meht
er
Horth [his
is]
The
III.
Karei
Karei,
as far as
south [zV]
111
er
resi
tes'-f
powerful.
243
[frofitier'\
harina
Neharina?
as far as
Amenophis
arrival of the bride of
III. in
Egypt
from Mesopotamia, with three hundred and seventeen of her
women
the text reads
C\
met
renpit
?\
Hi
xe""
Heru
en
b^*^
Year tenth u?idcr the majesty of
em maat
7i.'ith
la7ci,
V-^r.
'\fs
of
sekerh
laws,
pacifier of
"^
^^
Heru nub
taui
two lands,
Hums
Sati
foreign countries,
Neb-maat-Ra, setep
aa
x^P^s
the golden,
mighty of
valour,
suten net
neb
{ ^'"'i^{solî^'^^' }
Ra
^^^'^
se
^^^^
hu
smiter of
ari
x^t
making
things,
{^'"''^/nibeT'"'']
/j, ^ ^jiOU Aa^J Mesopotamia.
'
The
Published by Brugsch, Ae^. Zeitschrift, 1880,
4-
Ra Amen-hetep heq Uast
Neb-madt-Rd, chosen of the sim, son of the Sun,
land south of Nubia.
x^-
hepu
;;;
the
next
Horus, bull pozuerful, diademed
^^^(^^^^^^''^'''
//
ka
semen
\
p. 82.
Historical
of Amenophis III.
FUNEREAL ARCHÔLOGV OF EGYPT.
244
A f
6.(TM]
"?
anx
ta
suten
hemt
urt
giver of life, royal spouse^ mighty lady.

Historical
scarabs
of Amenophis III.
f]
anx^
e\
Thi,
the living one-
<^^^
en
ren
name
l//e
father
of
hen-f
his,
t\f\r\hT^
-^
anx
ut'a
senb
life,
sirefigth,
health,
an
ren
en
name
of
en
it
luonderful thing they brought
the
set
ser
daughter
to
en
of the prince
1^4
the
bait
fi- f
m
luaa,
Thuaa.
mother her \tuas\
AAAAAA
her \_was\
0uaa
mut-s
majesty
luaa
tef-s
n.1
Neherna
Saârna
Kirkipa
Mesopotamia,
Satharna,
Kirkipa
and
xenra
en
hetep
the chiefs of
of
set
rc'omen her.
III
e(3
INI
saa x^nit met' sexef
Women,
300
10
IV. The construction of the lake of Queen Thi in the

eleventh year of the reign of Amenophis. The text of this
scarab was first published in Rosellini, Mominienti Storici, tav.
xHv. No.
2.
It
was partly translated by
Rosellini, then
by
Hinks (in Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxi.

Dublin, 1848, Sec. "Polite Literature," On the age of the Eighteenth
and by Birch, Records of the

The text printed below is corrected
Dynasty of ManetJio,
Past, Vol. XII. p. 41.
p. 7),
from Stern's copy in Aeg. Zeitschrift, 1887, p. 87, note 2. The

^
scarab is dated in the first day, the third month of sowing
'
Ilathor.
SCARAB.
of the eleventh year of
The
245
Amenophis
III.,
-I
few Hnes of the inscription containing the king's
first
same as the beginning lines of the scarabs

The making: of the tank is described as follows
of the
are the
titles
series.
Historical
I
mer
utu
hen-f
arit
tHaJesiy his
the fnaking of
em
urt
Thi
mighty lady.
^
-
S>
her
T'aru
0/
T'dru
ab-f
3000
SJ
II
cubits
hemt
spouse,
en
(J)
meh
its [picas']
suten
royal
of Amenophis III.
\>
tema-s
toT.vn
i7i
A^
en
a lake for the
k ^l\
CiM]
au
scarabs
Ordered
Length
breadth
600,
meh
its
cubits
600.
o
hen
en
ari
Made
heb
majesty his
festival
o
I
tep
of the
\s^
III
L=/l
sat
hru
met'-sas
month third
of sowing,-
day
sixteen.
iM
em
neferu
{" A/enne/eru" (i.e.,!
the boat
''
hen
x^rit
Sailed
majesty his
en
in
x^nnu-f
withiti
Disk of Beauties") j
it.
the inscriptions found on scarabs
number
and
I'f" III
Aten
uaa
Of
em
of the waters on
efitra7ice
III
abet xeiît
111
set
consists of the
who took
ladies
names of
Hathor.
Stem
'wv>A
N^t^h.
by
far the greater Inscriptions on

of priests scarabs.
Names
part in the services connected with the
T'aruxa
2
kings.
(?).
aten texen, "disk of saffron."
246
various gods are
common enough
Amen-Ra.
singers of
so also are those of the
Scarabs inscribed with the names of
kings are important historically, because sometimes they form

nearly the only memorials of kings and royal personages,
and they
fill
up gaps
in
the
Egypt of whom,
The names of the kings
Thothmes III., Amenophis III.
lists
of kings of
otherwise, nothing would be known.
most commonly found are

and Rameses II., and of these that of Thothmes III. is the
The use of the scarab by the Egyptians to
commonest.
denote the idea of resurrection is probably as old as their
settlement in the Nile Valley, and scarabs are found
inscribed
with the names of nearly every king of every
dynasty, beginning with that of Mena, the

first
dynasty, and ending with that of the
first
king of the
Roman Emperor
Antoninus.
Publication of
Catalogue
of Scarabs
by Birch.
The
first
published classification of scarabs was
made by
the late Dr. Birch in his Catalogue of the collection of Egyptian

Antiquities at Alnwick Castle^ pp. 103-167, 236-242, in
The
which he described 565 objects of this class.
arrangement he followed in this subdivision was: i. Names
2.
Historical
of mythological personages and emblems.
historical
and
representations.
kings,
of
names
inscriptions,
Titles of officers.
In 1884, the Rev.
W.
Loftie published
Loftie's
3.
Essay.
his Essay of Scarabs,^ which contained a description of his

collection^ of 192 scarabs, inscribed with royal names, and
His collection, like those of the
excellent drawings of each.
Museum of the Louvre and the British Museum, was arranged
chronologically " the principle of the arrangement he ex-
J.
In my Catalogue of the
plained in his interesting preface.
Egyptian Collection of the Harrow School Museum,^ pp. 14-29,
gave a description of nearly one hundred and fifty scarabs,

and translations of most of the inscriptions. In 1888 a catalo"-ue of the scarabs and scaraboids from Egypt, Kamiros, and
I
Murray
and Smith.
'
Printed by the
Duke
of Northumberland for private distribution, London,
1880.
2
^
London, small 4to. , no date.

Purchased by the Trustees of the
"
Loftie, op. (it., p. xxxi.
Harrow, 1887.
British
Museum
in 1S90.
SCARAB.
247
Tharros was published by Dr. A. S. Murray and Mr. Hamilton

Smith, in their Catalogue of Gents, pp. 46-58.
In 18S9
Mr. Flinders Fetrie published a collection ^ of drawings of
The idea of
2,363 scarabs, with a few pages of introduction.
this work was excellent, but the plates should have contained
a tolerably complete set of examples of scarabs, carefully
indexed. The title Historical Scarabs was a misnomer, for
the
scarabs known, the

were omitted.
speaking, historical
only, strictly
series of the four of
Amenophis
III.,
Scarabs inscribed with certain kings' names were made

and worn as much as a thousand years after the death of the
This fact is indisputable,
kings whose names they bear.
proof
required
it
is
furnished by the scarabs
and if any
were
dug up at Naucratis by Mr. Petrie, From the scarab-moulds
found there, and the material from which they are made, and
from the design and workmanship, it is clear that the scarabs
of Naucratis are not older than the Vllth century B.C.; yet
many of them bear the prenomens of Thothmes III., Seti I.
and Rameses 11.,^ etc. As the paste of which these are made
is identical with that of scarabs bearing the names of kings
of the XXVIth dynasty, there is no possible doubt about
this fact.
Scarabs inscribed with the names of two kings
furnish another proof.
Thus in the British IMuseum, Nos.
and
bear
the
names
of Thothmes III. and Seti I.;
4033
4035
Thothmes I., Thothmes III.,
bears
the
names
of
No. 16,580
and Seti I.; No. 17,126 (a plaque) bears the names of
Thothmes III. and Rameses II. No. 17,138 bears the names
of Thothmes III. and Rameses III.; No. 16,837 bears the
names of Thothmes III. and Rameses IX.; and No. 16,796
bears the names of Thothmes III. and Psammetichus.
That
scarabs of a late period are found in tombs of the Vlth,
Xllth and XVIIIth dynasties is not to be wondered at, for
tombs were used over and over again for burial by families
.
Persis-
certain
names
upon
scarabs,
Double
"^"^^^*
who
hundreds of years after they were first hewn out,

and who had no connexion whatever with the people who
lived
Exact
scarabs"
impossible.
'
Historical Scarabs
Arranged Chronologically.
^
No.
series
of Drawings from the Principal Collections.
London, 1889.
Naucratis, \jQw\on, 1886, Plate

182,
XXXVII., No.
63,
etc.,
PI.
XXXVIII.,
248
were
first
When
buried in them.
mummy,
in a
a scarab
is
found bound up
the date of which can be ascertained from the
upon it, that scarab can be used with advantage

by which to compare other scarabs ^ when,
however, a scarab is dug up with a lot of miscellaneous stuff
inscriptions
as an authority
of
it is
little
From
value for the purpose of comparison.
the
lowest depths of the Vlth and Xllth dynasty tombs at Aswan,
dug up which could not have been a

dynasty, if as old.
In some of
scarabs have been
XXVIth
day older than the
these tombs, carefully closed with beautifully fitting blocks of

stone, were found also red terra-cotta jars inscribed in hieratic
which could not have been a day older than the XlXth
dynasty, yet the inscriptions on the walls proved beyond a
doubt that the tombs were made for officials who lived during
the Xllth dynasty.
It must then be clearly understood that
the objects found in a tomb do not, necessarily, belong to the
period of the tomb itself, and all the evidence known points
Chronological
arrangement of
names
possible.
to the fact that
nearly impossible to arrange a collection
it is
of scarabs chronologically, except so far as the order of the
names
Comparatively
concerned.
is
little is
known about
the
various local manufactures of scarabs, or of their characteris-
and hundreds of examples of them exist which can
tics,
neither be read nor explained nor understood.
What
Scarabs
of lalysos,
has been said of the scarabs of Naucratis applies
Kamiros,
equally to those found at lalysos and Kamiros in Rhodes,
and
and
Tharros
at
in
places
Sardinia,
Tharros.
Phoenicians
Of
steatite scarabs are rare.

in the British
One
Museum, two
inscribed with
which
is
tet,
is
\\ inch in length,
and
Amen-hetcp
'
rendered
is
illegible,
in
inscribed with
] ?
it is
Brit.
whereby the
and the other
faience
no;
is
measures
the prenomen
Scarabs are rare
found.
Mus. Reg. Nos. 72-3-15,
of faience.
is
of stability, on each side of
The example
is
and one
fractured,
Such a scarab, however, may quite well be older than the
wliich
2
III.,
the
and
the three found there preserved
emblem
an uraeus |X.
faience
lalysos,
are steatite
of the examples in steatite
design or inscription
with
associated
At
Carthaginians.
or
70-10-3, 130 and 131.
in
of
Kamiros
mummy
upon
SCARAB.
249
far as concerns the tombs, and in those in which

black and red vases were obtained no scarabs were found
also, SO
many specimens were, however, found

Acropolis,^ and among them were some
in
prenomen of Thothmes
the characteristics
having
III.,*
a well on the
inscribed with the
all
XXVIth
dynasty found at Naucratis. The

scarabs found at Tharros do not go farther back than the
period of Carthaginian supremacy, that is, not farther than the
of those of the
middle of the Vlth century
Thebes
B.C.*
in Boeotia, inscribed
with
dnch
-r-
found at
steatite scarab,
" life,"
and a winged
gryphon wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt

ij
belongs to the same period.*
At Kouyunjik
there were found two pieces of clay, of impres-
the same colour and substance as that employed
banipal
sions
the
for
his
inscriptions, probably
number
some instrument which
The
of captives.
enemies, and
his
on the heads of a
rests
inscriptions read
T
(
neter
7iefer
Shabaka, the
XXVth
the
are the signs

"
Shabaka neb dri
lord,
about
'W^
" protection,"
sa
increase [of power]."
some god
thee
all
/\
^^-^
B.C.
c^^^:^
dtieJi " life,"

is
and
The
Brit.
god,
"W ha
the speech of
td-na nek set nebu, "
^^
first king of
Behind the king
In front of the king
foreign lands."
J^T^T
Beautiful
(the
700).
"
yet,
maker of things"
dynasty,
The king
hand, and his
left
give to
Mus. Registration Nos. of
as
these interesting objects are 51-9-2, 43, and 81-2-4, 352
also
former
the
impression
the
of
of
is
on
the
seal
an
there
;
Assyrian king,
'
^
3
*
No. 132
in
it
has been
Table-Case
in the
thought
that
scarabs
impres- '^^^
from a scarab.
a club or weapon in his raised
right holds
by Assur-
bearing
library,
Egyptian king slaughtering
of an
hieroglyphic
holds
of
tablets
the impression
Kouyunjik Gallery.
Murray, Catalogue of Gems, p. 13.

Brit. Mus. Keg. Nos. 64-10-7, 895, 915, 1998.
Murray, op. cit., p. 13, and King, Antii/iie Get/is and Ri}iqs, Vol.
See Layard, Nineveh and Bahyhn, London, 1867, pp. 173, 174.
I. p.
124.
^*
250
formed the
Assyria.
seal of a treaty between the kings of Egypt and

Shabaka (Sabaco) was a contemporary of Senna-
cherib, B.C. 705-681.

Use of
scarab by
Phoenicians.
The Phoenicians borrowed the use of the scarab from

Egypt, and as their country was overrun by Shalmaneser II.,
King of Assyria B.C. 860-825, and by many of his successors,
it
only natural that the scarab inscribed with devices to

Assyrian market should find its way to Nineveh and
is
suit the
Babylon, the Phoenician adopting
commonly used by
of the Phoenicio-Assyrian scarab
made
is
On
the base
deity
V- dticJi,
is
form of gem
good example
No. 1029, exhibited
Room
table-case in the Phoenician

It
in return the
the Assyrians for seals.
of the British
in
the
Museum.
of green jasper, and measures if in. in length.

is inscribed a man, who stands adoring a seated
above
a seven-rayed
is
"life."
Beneath
is
star,
and between them
is
inscribed in Phoenician characters,
t^^CD 'Vr\rh " Belonging to Hodo the Scribe." For other

examples see the specimens exhibited in the same case. As
an example of the adoption of the chalcedony cone by the
Phoenicians, see No. 1022, on which is inscribed a man at a
Palzir-shemesh in Phoenician
fire
altar and the name
The scarab in relief,' with outstretched wings
characters.
inlaid with blue, red and gold carved upon an ivory panel
found at Abu Habbah, about five hours' ride to the southwest of Bagdad, together with a number of miscellaneous
ivory objects, is a proof of the knowledge of the scarab in
That the panel was not carved by an
Mesopotamia.
Scaraboids in agate
Egyptian workman is very evident.^
at
and cr^'stal, etc., are a small but very interesting class
times the device is purely Egyptian, and the inscriptions in
Phoenician letters are the only additions by the Phoenicians.
Brit. Mus. Nos. 1024 and 1036 are tolerably good examples
The former is inscribed on the base with three
of them.
hawks with outspread wings, and two of them have disks on
,
Use of
scarab in
Babylonia.
'
See Table-Case
The two
in the
Nimroud
rectangular weights
{Nineveh and Babylon, London, 1867,

of a scarab inlaid in gold in outline
of Phoenicinn handicraft.
Gallery.
found
(?)
at
Nimroud by
Sir A.
H. Layard
have each, on one face, the figure

the work is excellent, and is a fine example
p. 64)
SCARAB.
their heads
The
left is
gives
inscription
latter is inscribed
and
hawk of Horus.
name Eliam. The
these, of course, represent the
Phcenician
right
251
with a beetle
an ura;us Jh
in
the
a square frame, and on the
each end of the perpendicular
sides of the frame terminates in anc/i,
and above and below
a figure of Ra, or Horus, hawk-headed, holding a sceptre
it is
The name,
sekem."
inscribed in Phoenician characters,
is
"
Mer-
1891, while carrying on excavations at Der, a
In
place about three and a half hours to the south-west of Bag-
dad,
obtained a steatite scarab inscribed with an uraeus Th,

(lA.
anc/i
and an
illegible sign, together
gem
Gnostic
transparent
the
lion-headed
XNOYBIC. Both objects were probably brought

from Lower Egypt, and belong to a period after the birth of
serpent
Christ.^
Dr. Birch
describes
Nineveh and Babylon (London,
in
Scarabs
1853. PP- 281, 282) a series of eleven scarabs which Sir Henry A^Mnf^
Layard dug up at Arban, a mound situated on the western
bank of the Khabur, about two and a half days' journey north
of Der on the Euphrates, and about ten miles east of the
'Abd el-Aziz
With one exception they
hills.
are
Two
of steatite, glazed yellow or green or blue.
all
of
made
them are
with the prenomen of Thothmes HI. (Nos. 304,

309)^ one bears the prenomen of Amcnophis HI. (No 320),
with the titles " beautiful god, lord of two lands, crowned in
inscribed
;
every land
at
"
;
one
is
inscribed
t^^
Vrf
IVo men
(J
Chcperd
Amen, "established of Chepera, emanation of Amen"
(No. 322); two are inscribed
^^J
(No. 303) and
TRiS
(No. 318), and belong to the same period one is inscribed

with a hawk-headed lion and a hawk (No. 273) one bears
;
the legend, " beautiful lord, lord of two lands,"
and South (No. 321)

'
one
is
inscribed with a
The numbers are G. 475 and 24,314.

These interesting objects are exhibited
Room,
in the
in
i.e.,
the North
human-headed
the Assyrian and
Northern Gallery of the British Museum.
Baljyionian
IJiiuylonia.
with an oval green
with
inscribed
Scarabs
Scarabs
Arb'^n^'^
252
beetle, with outstretched wings, in the field are uraei
of beautiful workmanship (No. 302)

with
The
.<2=-
[)
and an uraeus
T)^
having
and one
"
on
its
is
and TT
inscribed
head (No. 307).
haematite (No. 313) is inscribed with the

figure of a king seated on a throne, and a man standing before
him
scarab in
in
adoration
between them
of this last scarab,

period of the
it
is
With the exception
is
pretty certain that
XVIIIth dynasty,
for
ance of such antiquity, and they possess
workmanship found upon scarabs of
belong to the
all
they have
all
all
the appear-
the delicacy of
The
this time.
design
on the haematite scarab appears to be a copy from an

Egyptian scarab executed by a foreign workman, but it may
be that the hardness of the material made the task of
engraving so difficult, that the character of the design was
altered in consequence.
Arban
is
The presence
not difficult to account
for.
of these scarabs at
Thothmes
XVIIIth dynasty, carried

Mesopotamia, and set up a tablet
the early kings of the
I.,
one of
his victorious
to mark the
arms into
boundary of the Egyptian territory at a place called Ni, on
the Euphrates, and the authority of the Egyptians in that
land was so great that when Thothmes III. arrived there
The
several years after, he found the tablet still standing.
kings who immediately succeeded Thothmes I. marched into
this land, and that their followers should take up quarters on
the fertile banks of the Khabur, and leave behind them
The
scarabs and other relics, is not to be wondered at.
antiquities
found at Arban
among
are
of
a very miscellaneous
an Assyrian
"Palace
of Meshezib-Marduk the king"
colossus inscribed
(B.C. 700), and a Chinese glass bottle ^ inscribed with a verse
it is possible
of the Chinese poet KEIN-tau, a.d, 827-831
that the scarabs described above may have been brought there
character,
and,
other things, include
subsequent to the XVIIIth dynasty, but, in any

appear to belong to this period.
Gnostics inscribed the scarab on the gems worn by
at a period
case, the objects themselves
Use of
Kcarab by
the
Gnostics.
The
them, and partly adopted the views concerning
British
Museum, No. N.
1380.
it
held
by the
SCARAB.
On
Egyptians.
Museum,
253
an oval slab of green granite/
the British
in
by a serpent having
his tail in his mouth.
The same design is found on another
oval,- but the beetle has a human head and arms
above the
head are rays, and above that the legend 6IAAMH'; to the
right is a star, to the left a star and crescent, and beneath the
is
inscribed a scarab encircled
hind legs three
The
scarab
native of
stars.
is
an antiquity which
Egypt by modern
readily bought from the
is
travellers of every nationality
it
worn as an ornament by ladies

in their necklaces, bracelets and rings, and by men in pins
and rings. As the number of visitors to Egypt has been
is
easily carried,
and
is
steadily increasing for
that the
demand
largely
many
for scarabs
years past,
follows of necessity
has increased also, and the price
of these objects has risen in proportion.
Wilkinson, during one of his
visits
The
late Sir
Modern
^^^^Q
^f
scarabs.
Gardner
to Egypt, anchored his
Kurnah at Thebes, and in the afternoon

brought him a bag full of scarabs, many hundreds in
dJiaJiabiyyeJi
a native
it
opposite
number, which he had that day taken out of the ground in

a tomb from under the coffin of a mummy. These scarabs
wêre of a fine green colour and made of steatite
they were
;
all
inscribed with the
name and
titles
of
Thothmes
III.
Sir
Gardner Wilkinson bought a handful of these for an English

pound, but each scarab might now easily be sold for two
The supply of scarabs varies year by year, some
pounds.
years but few are to be had, and some years they are very
common. The supply cannot be inexhaustible, although the
demand
them appears to be so. The native has discovered Modem

European not only wants scarabs, but that he wants re of*^
scarabs inscribed with the names of particular kings
and as scarabs,
for
that the
way
by the modern
years ago.
At first the
these are not always forthcoming, he has found out the

to
make them.
The
imitation
of scarabs
Egypt began about sixty

number produced was few, and they were so clumsily made
that it was soon apparent that they were forgeries.
In later
native of
'
G. 455, Tal)le-Case N, Fourth Egyptian Room.

G. 483, Table-Case N, Fourth Egyptian Room.
Arab.
<luuJ^ j
254
days, however, the native has brought skill and thought to
bear upon the matter, and he sets about his work in a syste-
He has seen what the old faience scarabs are

and he can now make a paste very much like
that of which they are made.
From the old broken usJiabtiu
figures, scarabs and beads, he chips off the thin layer of
matic way.
made
Process of
modern
manufacture of
scarabs.
of,
green or blue covering for his use.
genuine moulds for scarabs
have
been
large
found,
number
of
and from
makes like them, he turns out

numbers of scarabs ready for glazing.
For glaze he
uses the pieces which he has collected from broken genuine
scarabs, etc., and he spreads this over the paste with a
these and others which he
large
When
blow-pipe.
he wishes to make steatite scarabs he
obtains the steatite from the mountains where the ancient
Egyptians found
in
many
natives,
There is a large amount of artistic skill

and with a little practice they are able to
it.
cut very good scarabs.
The
discoloration of the genuine
by keeping them in wet sand, earth

and ashes, and if he wants to glaze them he makes use of the
same method as in glazing his paste forgeries. For inscriptions
scarab
is
easily imitated
slavishly those inscribed on genuine

which he keeps a good supply. In this matter,
however, he is greatly helped by the act of an English
traveller, who wrote out for one of these imitators a list of all
the most important kings of Egypt which he now imitates
with great success.
He sells hundreds, perhaps even thousands, of his scarabs yearly, and many of them bring a high
One has only to see the excellent way in which some
price.
of the natives can make a fine and correct reproduction in
stone from a sculpture in a tomb or temple, to understand how
well the native can imitate such things.
Colours and other
materials and tools can now be easily obtained in Egypt, and
through the support of numerous purchasers who have bought
usually follows
lie
scarabs, of
some years past, the production of forgeries of antigeneral, and of scarabs in particular,^ has become
readily for
quities in
And
this,
notwithstanding the statement, " Generally speaking, forgeries
except of one or two obvious kinds
amount of doubt
in the
rical Scarabs, p. 6.
are very rare,
matter which
is
and there
is
nothing like the
often supposed to exist."
Petrie, Hislo-
SCARAl?.
255
At more than one
a very profitable business.
place
Ecrypt Modem
have been so well imitated

Genuine
ushabtiii figures and bronze statues of gods are cast in moulds
found among the ruins of ancient Egyptian towns, wooden
Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures and boats are made from the
scarabs, bronze figures, etc.,
etc.,
that experts were deceived and purchased them.
planks of old
itself is
coffins,
and as
ture ot
^^g"^"''
evident that the substance
it is
genuine, the unwary collector
is
thrown
off his guard.
In certain dealers' houses at Thebes and elsewhere, the visitor
always find a large assortment of forgeries, even on the
will
and he will be able to

compare and judge for himself
The reverence shown by the Egyptians to the scarab, as
an emblem of the Creator, was not shared by neighbouring
nations.
Thus Physiologus, after describing how scarabs roll
up their eggs in balls of dung, and how they push them
backwards, and how the young having come to life feed upon
the dung in which they are hatched, goes on to say that we
tables set apart for genuine antiquities,
may
learn of a certainty that scarabs are heretics
polluted
by the
filth
of heresies
who
are
that these balls, which are
formed of filth and nastiness, and which they roll backwards

and not forwards, are the evil thoughts of their heresies,
which are formed of wickedness and sin, and which they roll
against mankind, until they become children of error, and by
being participators in the
other beings
*
is
and
The ignorance
like
filth
of their heresies they
unto them.
of the habits and
manner of
life
become
Land, Anecdota
See
of the scarabaeus which
displayed by certain Syrian writers upon natural history
is
marvellous
here
" The scarabseus receiveth conception through its mouth, and

when it cometh to bring forth, it giveth birth to its young through its ears. It
hath the habit of stealing, and wherever it findeth small things and things of
And if pulse be found in
gold and silver it taketh and hideth them in its hole.
the house it taketh [it] and mixeth [it] up with [other] things, chick-peas with
beans, and bears with lentils, rice with millet and wheat, and everything which
It thus doeth
it findeth it mixeth up together in ihe place where it hideth itself.
the work of the cooks who mix such things together to make to stumble those
who buy pulse at the shops. And if any man taketh note of it and smiteth it, it
If having collected pieces of money
taketh its vengeance upon [his] clothing.
and taken them forth to the race-course or to play with them, they be taken away
from it, it wandereth about and tumeth hither and thither, and if it findeth them
is
a specimen
not
it
straightway killeth
p. 41, translation, p. 62.
itself."
Ahrens, Das Buck der Naturgegemtdnde,
text,
Physioloscarabreus.
256
Bar-Hebraeus, commenting
Syriaca, torn. IV. p. ^J, cap. 56.

in
iôr^, on Psalm
rc'"i""if<'
words ,^_aiK' A^rô r<l\^cdM
ureCkev
insects
el<;
.^^coA^
among them
Ihi?, he sent
n^tt?"!
and referring to the
Ixxviii. 45,
avTov<i kwo/jlvluv), "
\xl. (Heb., Dn^-
LXX.,
the gad-fly,
'EâTre-
he sent against them crowds of
and they devoured them," inckides the scarab (lioimi.,
lABQaOx**
plur. liJoAriLM;
creatures like dog-flies, scorpions, ants,
r^Lxicu
rfaa.io
r<l2kix.o
among noxious
plur. I'AlaQAiiijl)
etc.
r^^.'ioî^c\
en
rtl\.cULM
KlxôiLcix.o
Amulets.
The
Buckle of
Isis.
I,
The Buckle
\^q
Egyptians
)l
among
or Tie \.
This amulet, called by the
one of the commonest objects found
6et, is
collections of
monly made of red
Egyptian amulets.
was most com-
It
jasper, carnelian, red porphyry, red glass
sometimes it was made

and sycamore wood
and sometimes, when it was made of substances other than gold, it was set in gold, or covered over
or
faience,
entirely of gold,
with gold
Buckles are usually uninscribed, but
leaf
fre-
quently when two or more are found together the 156th
Book of
Dead
engraved on them. The

mummy, which it was
supposed to protect the red material of which it was made
represented the blood of Isis. The formula which is inscribed
chapter of the
the
is
buckle was placed on the neck of the

;
on buckles reads
/vÂyw
Re
en
Chapter
of
en
of
^ ^\
/i|v
0et
the buckle
x^
the deceased.
LI
Vn
^^^^___^
ent
xe^î'îst
tata
er
x^X
of
red Jasper
placed
on
the neck
senef
ent
Auset
hekau
The blood
of
Isis,
the incantations
AMULETS.
isa-^^
III
iSlî^^.k
em
C^
ent
Auset
XUt
ent
of
Isis,
the p07ver
of
257
Auset
ut'at
Jsis,
a charm
for
the
D
-<s>-
mighty one
JDjiii^^
him
to
The
is
sau
protecting
this,
ari
\_hi/ii
the doing
froiii^
of
III
betaut
what
pen
ur
sa
protection of
pu
hateful.
rubric of this chapter reads:
111
t'et-tu
re
j)en
her
Is to be said
chapter
this
over
w
mes
AA/wv\
anoitited
a buckle
red jasper
of
_m^
em
mau
nu
anxam
with
water
of
ancham_/?i97(."vrx,
0\
Xenem
ent
êt
/VV\AAA
menxu
x^ti
ent
nehet
the heart
of a
syca?tiore tree,
her
0a
jnade of
O
er
x^X
the neck
6'^
X^
P^"^
î"
of
deceased person
this.
If
_^^
AAAÂA
ten
un
nes
this,'
is
"o^
'^
^^.
I\ writing \
J
Qol
and placed
it
the
M.
aritu
nef
makes one
XUt
en
Auset
power
of
Isis
See Birch, The Aimdet of the Tie, Aeg.

Qiielqties Papyrus dii LouTve, p.
Memoire sur
B.
III
f*
ât
'
erta
on
0^
Zeit., 1S71,
p.
em
13: and Maspero,
8.
Rubric of
156th
chapter
of Book of
the Dead.
FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT
258
o o
sau
haa
Heru
se
Auset
rejoices
Horus,
son of
Isis,
protecti7ig Jiim,
SU
an
it.
not
when
he
uat
nebt
er-ef
any
against him.
sees
way
t'era
blocked
is
maa
5il
D
a -f
hand
his
heaven,
is to
C^
//
rex
a-f
pet
is
AÂAÂ
his
ta
ten
un
book
this,
is
ar
earth
is to
/VNAAAA ^^--^^
ât
tu
known
hand
er
If
rp \\'
nef
em
he
in
'J
Un-nefer
Osiris
Unnefer,
maatxeru au
\\
/I\
em
neter-xertet
au
of the
underworld,
is
III
^
f^m
a
II
pertu beti
wheat and barley
tatu
the gates
to hi?n
ta
em
x^
him an allotment of ground 7vith
nef
given to
Mil
11::^^
em
Sexet
in
Sechet
enen
neteru
tiame his
like
that of those
gods
Aan
asex
unen
re
Aanre,
who
L=/l
-
enti
A\AyWN
is
:;
111
ren-f
foUmvers,
W Wr;
êsu
sebau
fl
ma
Heru
Horns
of
/vvvws
^m
nef
Are opened
triumphant
.
untu
en
the following
^l=/]'^jrK_
Ausar
ses
sen
thev \7vho^ reap.
are
am
an
there,
say the
AiMULETS.
The Tet
II.
ff
259
This object, which represents a mason's
and not a Nilometer, as a religious emblem symbolizes

god of the underworld. The
meaning of the word tet is " firmness, stability, preservation,"
etc,
The tet had on it sometimes the plumes, disk and horns,
table
Osiris the lord of Tettu, great
tAi_^,
and was painted on mummies and tombs.
The amulet
was placed on the neck of the mummy which it was

supposed to protect. Tets are made of faience, gold, wood
gilded, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, and many other substances,
itself
although the rubric of the 155th chapter, of which u

that
vignette, states
chapter
is
entitled
made
they are to be
the
is
This
of gold.
C
en
re
Chapter
*'
The
'^!
11
tet
of
tet
en
nub
tata
er
0/
sold
placed
on
Chapter of
en
the neck
XU
the deceased^''
and reads
uben
" Rise
nek
urtu
tip thou,
ab
pen
of heart
this,
resting
resting
ta
tu
^.
bring
'
nek
tet
to thee
Papyrus of Ani,
El. clxxx., differs
from
tet
pi.
en
nub
of
gold,
33
pest
nek
sJiine thou,
rejoice
it
k
tJwu
the text given by Naville,
na
Come
thy.
|--|^
ha
ma
her
of heart, place thou thyself upon place
I
an-na
si
(^
ab
urtu
^-
\^
I,
am
in itr
Das
f
'
Todtenhitch,
this.
S 2
the tet
26o
This chapter was to be
" said
over a tet of gold,
made
of
the heart of sycamore wood, which was to be placed on the
mummy."
neck of the
in
The
tet
enabled the deceased to enter
through the gates of the underworld, and
if this
chapter
were known by him, he would " rise up as a perfect soul in

the underworld, he would not be repulsed at the gates there,
and cakes would be given to him, and
joints of
meat from the
altars of Ra."
The
Vul-
ture of
Isis.
The Vulture "^x.

157th chapter of the Book
According
III.
was
of the Dead, a vulture of gold
mummy
to be placed on the neck of the
the funeral
it
of "Mother"
was supposed
to carry with
The chapter
Isis.
to the rubric of the
it
on the day of
the protection
come, she
reads, "Isis has
has gone round about the towns, she has sought out the
coming out from the swamp of

His son has stood against evil, he has come
hidden places of Horus
papyrus reeds.
in his
commanded
into the divine boat, he has
world, he has
made
a great fight, he
the princes of the
makes mention of what
he has done, he has caused himself to be feared and established terror of him.
His mother, the mighty lady, makes
Amulets of the
his protection and brings (?) him to Horus."
vulture inscribed with this chapter are very rare.
IV.
%fl^
The Collar
Dead
chapter of the Book of the
The
usex-
rubric of the 158th
orders a collar of gold to be
upon the neck of the deceased on the day of the

was to be inscribed
laid
It
funeral.
c^
mut
sent-a
atf-a
Father my,
sister
my,
AW
Auset
Isis !
sefexi
ua
Unbandaged
aiti I,
Alll
ikvi(ir:;:^7?TJ^
maa-ua
nuk
see I.
I am
Amulet
etc.
mother my,
ua
am
otie
among
collars are
sefexi
the
found
unbandaged ones [who]
made
Seb
maa-sen
see
Seb.
of red jasper, carnelian,
AMULETS.
261
The "Papyrus Sceptre"
V.
amulet
This
uat'.
is
made
usually
in
colour,
of mother-of-emerald or of faience like unto
and the hieroglyphic word which
uat\
|)
means "verdure,
The
papy-
rus sceptre
it
of Thoth.
represents,
it
flourishing, greenness,"
and the
was placed on the neck of the deceased, and indicated

it was hoped he would enjoy in the
underworld. This amulet was sometimes inscribed with the
159th chapter of the Book of the Dead, where it is described as
like
it
the eternal youth which
A nnn] ^-^^^^
,_,^_,
^^'-^^'
a figure of the
is
neck of the deceased

Thoth, and to protect
it
in
jj
"
nesevi^
^^^
The next chapter
emerald."
which
^y^
says that a rounded tablet, on

relief,
to be placed on the
is
was supposed
to be given to
him by
his limbs.
The Pillow ^^^fl"^ urs}
VI.
an uat' of mothcr-of-
This amulet
is
usually
made of haematite, and is generally uninscribed it is a

model of the large pillows of wood, alabaster and stone which
are placed under the heads of mummies to "lift them up."
;
When
in-^cribed the text
166th
a version of that of the
is
chapter of the Book of the Dead,
No. 20,647
r.i
Oq.%
Rise
in
r^^^/VNA
lip
tu
from
ft
er
they
head thy
at the
Ces
x'^'^
horizon
maatxeru
triiimphest thou
See Birch, The Chapter of the
The
Chapter
seres
st'er^
O prostrate
Watch over
one.
p<^^-
ri-s?
tep-k
xeft
^Tl
mentu
enemies thy,
reads
non-existence,
sen
>
Museum
the British
sexer
overthrotuest thou
exalted,
her
ari
over
what do
u
they
erek
against
Pillo'v, in A:\q. Zeif., 1868, pp.
52-54.
thee.
of the
Pillow.
262
<=^
"^
ari
nek
er
iitu
commanded
/las
[(?i-]
^^^
A^^yvvA
Ausar
pen
Osiris
this.
to be
sen
c:^^
nu
1\
x^ft
eJiemies his,
tef
thee
ari
x'^^
an
enemies thy,
of
er
heh
for
ever
erek
11
Ausar
slaughter
K^
"^^
J^\
(=^
nu
heads
from
sat
Verily
of
net'
tepu
shall ca?-ry azuay they
mak
Heru
111
Cuttest off thou
nehem
done for thee Horns, the avenger offather his
e^23 L=/l
at
"^
_M^
III
em
peru
7iot
apt
head (?) thy
tepu
Osiris makcth at the coming forth of the heads
an
7iot
nehem
may remove
sen
[tej)] f
they [head] his
er - f
from him
M
heh
er
for
ever I
VII.
made
The Heart
yO"
db.
Amulets of the heart are
of carnelian, green jasper, basalt, lapis-lazuH, and
other kinds of hard stone.
The
many
heart was considered to be
and thought, and
was the part of the

body that was specially taken care of in mummifying. It
was embalmed and put in a jar by itself, and it could not be
replaced in the body until it had undergone judgment by
being weighed in the balance against R, representing " Law."
the source of
The
all life
it
scarab, upon which the

were inscribed and sometimes
a heart amulet was inscribed with one of the chapters of the
heart on one side, and a scarab on the other (B.M. No. 8003).
heart was symbolised
formulae relating to the heart
by the
AMULETS.
Sometimes the heart
over
it
in the
263
liuman-headcd, with the hands crossed
is
(B.M. 15,598), and sometimes a figure of the soul,

shape of a hawk with outstretched wings, is inlaid
on one side of
Book of
the
The
(B.M. No. 8005).
it
Dead which
chapters
the
in
refer to the heart are the 26th, the
Chapter of giving to a person his heart in the underworld " The

the 27th, 28th, 29th A, " Chapter of not allowing the heart of g/'J'fe''''
a person to be taken away from him in the underworld " Heart.
"
29 B, " Chapter of a heart of carnelian " 30 A and 30 B,

" Chapter of not allowing the heart of a person to be turned
;
away from him
in
The most important

commonly found, 29 B, is
the underworld."
chapter of the heart, and that most
translated in that portion of this Catalogue which describes
the green basalt heart in the Fitzwilliam
Das
text of the others see Naville,
XLIII.
and
Museum for the

XXXVII.;
Todtefibuch, Bll.
for translations see Birch,
On formulas
relating
Aeg. Zeit., 1866, pp. 69, 1867, pp. 16, 54 and

An interesting
Pierret, Le Livre des Morts, pp. 103-114.
to the heart, in
example of the heart amulet

one side are 'xz^ Net,
with the legend

soul of Chepera,"
Neith
<^^
"
described
by Birch
and the bennu
Nuk
and on the other
The bennu
the heart.
"
is
is
common
on
^^
bird,
ba yeperd, "
the
^;
am
the
chapter of
was an emblem of the
bird or pha^nix
resurrection.
VIII.
The Amulet
of Life V- any-
This object
is
found
every material used by the Egyptians for making amulets,

and formed a very common ornament for the living and the
Necklaces were frequently composed of pendants
dead.
in
made
"
in
forms of
ir, U,
and
i),
and sometimes neferu TTT
good luck," were added.
The "Symbolic Eye"
IX.
or
^ i'^^ô
^^'^^
wood, granite,
and many other
Ut'ats are either right or left, and they are also
materials.
made double or quadruple they are sometimes made in
This amulet was made
of glazed
faience,
haematite, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, gold, silver,
Catalogue of Egyptian Antiquities in Alnwick Castle,
p.
224.
lij"^ .j
jy
264
hollow-work, and are sometimes ornamented with a number

in relief.
Some have on their obverse a head of
Hathor (B.M. No. 7357) or a figure of Bes (B.M. No. 21,547)
on their reverse they frequently have names of kings, private
They are sometimes made with wings, and
persons, or gods.
^
have an arm and hand holding - "life," projecting (B.M.
of others
The
amulet of
the ta'at
No. 7378); and some have a ram and two lions on them in relief.
ut'ats, right and left, represented the two eyes of the
The two
^^ ^^
sun
the one symbolising the northern half of the
sun's daily course,
and the other the southern half they also

On sepulchral boxes the ut'ats
;
represented the sun and moon.

are often accompanied
winged, with
human
legs,
to
The
^^
is
in
good
it.
health,
The word
iit'a
preserved
safe,
popularity of this amulet in
who wore
vignette
the 140th chapter
be recited over an ut'at made of lapis-lazuli, and
were to be made to
be
^^
the Dead contains two

and the vignette of the 167th
or " Chapter of bringing the ut'at,"
was
TTT
Book of
of the 163rd chapter of the

ut'ats,
^^
by neferu
\\
and
\\
offering.s
means
"
to
happy," and the
Egypt was probably due
to the
whether living or dead, were

safe
and
happy
supposed to be
under the protection of the
fact that those
it,
eye of Ra.
Miscellaneous
amulets.
X.
The amulet
Nefer
^^-^^ T
or
^ ^
"
Good Luck," was
*~
commonly made of glazed faience or of carnelian, and was

much used by the Egyptians for necklaces.
XI. The
"
union
"
;
amulet
sometimes
Sam
it is
made
or
thus
^^^
Vv l
and then probably
represents savi-ta, the union with the earth or
XII.
The amulet Chut
represented
" funeral."
cO: represented the disk of the sun
on the horizon, and was often made of jasper or hard
stone.
The amulet Shen Q represented the orbit of the

and is made of lapis-lazuli and of carnelian. It is often
found on sepulchral stelse and boxes, but its exact use is
unknown.
XIII.
sun,
AMULETS.
XIV, XV. The amulet of
and Het'
I'^-lî'^-
represented
Upper Egypt.
the crown of
XVI. The amulet of

"
Tesher crown V/
the
Lower Egypt
sented the crown of
265
the
Menat '^'^^.(t^f
"joy and health," and perhaps

by Ptah at the back of his neck, and
emblem of the goddess Hathor.
"
" life."
XVII. The Cartouche H
is
always worn
It is
it
signified Miscd-
frequently an
is
thought by Pierret {Du-t.

be nothing more than an
and to represent natural
(T ArcJic'ologic Egyptieniie, p. 118) to
elongated
(see
seal
No.
XIII),
reproduction and eternity.
XVIII. The amulet Neha [p or r
Kx*^
"
protection
"
;
it
was made
in the breast of the
jasper,
and
is
found
mummy.
XIX. The amulet

red
chiefly of haematite,
represented
of the Serpent's
or paste
head
is
made
imitate red jasper, and
to
of stone,
carnelian.
was placed on mummies to prevent their being bitten

by snakes and other reptiles in the underworld. The 34th
chapter of the Book of the Dead, entitled, " Chapter of not
allowing a person to be bitten in the underworld by a
serpent," is sometimes found engraved upon this amulet.
In
It
later times glass
and faience models of serpents (X
worn by men and women round the neck

connected in some way with Isis.
XX. The amulet
of
the
Disk
'
were
they were probably
and
Plumes
[^
probably represented the head-dress of Seker, the god of the

resurrection
The
is
the feathers
use of this amulet
is
(jK
often occur without the disk.
unknown.
XXI. The Frog ^^ represents "myriads." This amulet

made of steatite, jasper of various colours, faience, etc. it
;
For a discussion on
PP- 333-349-
this
amulet see Lefebure, Trans. Soc. Bib. Arch., 1S91,
amulets.
266
is
neck of the
these on the
and was probably placed with
mummy,
known which were taken from
of the
goddess
tion.
c- -
00
J^
I,
The frog
emblem
j^
resurrec-
and
often found with
the wife of
Heqt
Chnemu
with the resurrection.
is
although examples are
The frog-headed
the chest
a form
goddess Hathor,
of the
she was considered to be connected
On
lamps of the Greek and
Roman
Egypt the frog often appears on the upper

part, and one is known ^ which has the legend rU) IMI
ANACTACIC, " I am the resurrection," The use of this
amulet appears not to be older than the XVIIIth dynasty.
periods found in
cpL^yfi...^^:^
XXII. The Stairs

or 2
made of glazed faience, but the
df^-
This amulet
is
usually
unknown to me.
In the vignette of the iioth chapter of the Book of the Dead
it is figured placed in a boat (Naville, Das Todtenbuch, Bl.
in the 22nd chapter the deceased says, "I am
CXXIII.)
use of
it
is
lord of Re-stau (the passages of the tomb),
Osiris,
those
who
chapter the deceased says,
have made
and
are at the top of the stairs";
my
" I
am
in
and of
the 85th
the lord of the
stairs, I
nest on the borders of the sky."
XXIII. The amulet of the two Fingers, the index and

is found in the interior of mummies, and is generally
medius,
made of haematite
unknown to me.
Ring
amulets.
or obsidian.
The use
of the amulet
In every Egyptian collection of importance a large

of rings, having a gap in each, will be found
is
number
made
they are
of gold, red jasper, obsidian, red glazed faience,
shell, stone,
Those made of gold have a small ring at each

a wire to pass through (?), and they may thus have
and
end for
been used as earrings or pendants for necklaces on the other
hand they may have been used as amulets. Some believe
that they were used as buttons.
glass.
Figures of Gods.
The gold, silver, bronze, wooden and faience figures of

gods in Egyptian collections may be reckoned by thousands,
and they vary
in size
from half an inch to
Figured in Lanzone, Dizionario,
p.
fifteen inches or
853.
FIGURES OF GODS.
267
"
Bronze statues were usually cast in moulds, in one or

made of sand or earth. When
cast iri pieces the limbs were soldered together and the edges
smoothed with a file or scraper. The core is frequently found Method of
rnanulacr
mside the statue, where it was left by the workmen to tm-g.
Figures of gods in gold are comstrengthen the casting.
paratively few, the gods most often represented in this metal
figures of these
being Amen-Ra, Chensu, and Nefer-Atmu
also
made
of
silver
and
plated
with gold, and a
gods were
figure of the god Set, made of bronze plated with gold, is
Bronze figures of gods were
also known (B.M. No. 18,191).
sometimes inlaid with gold, and the eyes were made of gold
Glazed faience figures of
or silver with obsidian pupils.
gods are very common, and certain gods were made of this
substance, which up to the present have rarely been met
with in bronze. They were usually cast from moulds, and
follow fairly closely the design and patterns of the bronze
more.
more
pieces, the core being
they do
figures;
XXVIth
not occur earlier than
dynasty, and
XXVth
the
although wretched
copies of
or 'ôoti
them
were made for hundreds of years after, they do not appear

to have continued in use among all classes of people in
It may be mentioned in passing that the natives
Egypt.
of
Egypt
day make use of the old moulds,

Upper Egypt, to cast figures of the gods in
at the present
found chiefly
in
gold and silver which they
sell
to the traveller as genuine
antiquities.
Figures of the gods of Egypt are found
and
among
the ruins
temples and tombs.
According to M.
Mariette those found among the ruins of towns are of two
kinds: i, those placed in a niche, cut in the form of a
shrine, which represented the divinity to the service of which
the inhabitants of the house were attached, and before which,
on certain days, offerings were laid
2, those which were
walls
of
of
the
the
inner
crevices
chambers of the
in
placed
were
supposed
to be able by magical
house, and which
influence to protect the inhabitants of the house from spells
and the results of incantations, and from other malignant
of houses
in
The
influences.
*
use of this latter class of statues or small
Catalogue General des Moniiinents d'Abydos,
p.
i.
Uses
of
\^^l'^^
(^
268
figures
is
old
as
XVII Ith
as the
dynasty, at
least.
The
gods found in temples are very numerous and are

votive.
The Egyptians seem to have believed that the gods
inhabited statues or figures, made in their honour, and on this
account they often made them very beautiful, so that they
might form worthy habitations for them. On certain days
figures of
prayers were said before them, and offerings were
them.
As
many
made
to
gods are found in the

same temple, it follows that a worshipper wishing to place a
figure of a god in a temple was not bound to offer one of the
god to whom the temple was dedicated
supposing the
temple to be one of Ptah, he could offer a figure of Ra, or
Chnemu, or of any god he pleased. Figures of gods were
supposed to answer questions, for it will be remembered that
when Chensu was asked if he would go to the land of Bechten
to cure a daughter of the prince of that land of her sickness,
he inclined his head in assent. When he arrived in that land,
he held a conversation with the demon that possessed the
maiden, and when the demon agreed to come out from her,
provided that a feast were made in his honour, the god
through his priest, assented.
Figures of gods other than
Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys are not commonly found in tombs
it is true that many examples in faience are found in the
wrappings of mummies, but in these cases they were simply
used as amulets like the buckle, tet, pillow and many others.
Figures of gods made of every sort of material were also
buried in the sand around temples and tombs with the view
figures of
different
Funereal
bronzes.
of guarding them from every evil influence.
list
whom
figures
were made
Amen-Ra
great triad
Amen
the
!!odoT'
ligypt-
AAAAA'V
following
is
bronze and glazed faience
and Mut and Chensu formed the
of Thebes
was said
in
/
I
Amen
The
of the most important of the gods and goddesses of
the word
Amen means
to be the son of Ptah,
usurped the attributes of
all
" hidden."
and he seems to have
the other gods.
Before the ex-
Hyksos by Se-qenen-Ra his position was that

subsequently he became the
of the local god of Thebes
He was said to be the maker of
national god of Egypt.
things above and of things below, and to have more forms
pulsion of the
FIGURES OF GODS.
He made
than any other god.

out the heavens, and
eternity
gods, and
the
everlasting.
ONE,
the
stretched
he was lord of
The Egyptians affirmed
founded the earth
and maker of
of him that he was
269
ONLY ONE,
In bronze figures
he stands upon a plinth, he holds the sceptre
in his left
hand, and on his head he wears the disk and feathers jji
at
He is also
times he holds a scimitar (B.M. Nos. 28, 29).
represented seated on a throne, and the throne was sometimes placed inside a shrine, the top of which was ornamented
and the sides and back with

Nephthys, and Osiris (B.M.
No. 11,013). On the pedestals he is called "Amen-Ra, lord
of the thrones of the world, the president of the Apts (i.e.,
with
uraei,
winged
hollow-work
disk, etc.,
figures
of
Isis,
Karnak), lord of heaven, prince of Thebes."
^=ii:fi:iJiT-M|1
8,68
).
The
faience figures of this
times,
Ra
(B.M.
god are similar
flODD
DO m\
\o\oi
;t<.-'i>*'^^.
Amen-Ra.
"^3:7
He â't
one of a triad consisting of Amen, Amsu, and

No.
''ôC
Amsu.
to
2/0
bronze
the
m, and he
members of his
Ames
The god
or
triad,
"
Chem,"
tion
"
Amsu
(j
or the productive
bronze and faience,
Ra
O J|,
k-^, ^^Jj, commonly
Amen-Ra, and
a form of
is
other
Mut and Chensu.
of procreation.
appears together with the
power
in
read
represented " genera-
nature
figures of him, in
are tolerably numerous.
the Sun-god, was also the creator of gods
and men his emblem was the sun's disk. His worship was
very ancient, and he was said to be the offspring of Nut, or
the sky.
He assumed the forms of several other gods, and is
;
Different
forms of
Ra.
by the lion, cat, and hawk. In papyri

he has the head of a hawk, and wears a disk,
at times represented
and on
in
bas-reliefs
front of
which
is
an uraeus
% When
he rose
morning he was called Heru-chuti or Harmachis

night, when he set, he was called Atmu, or "the
in
and
Ra.
at
closer."
.7 :/J-^'
't.t.tj'/,
the
Heru (Horus).
FIGURES OF GODS.
71
During the night he was supposed to be engaged in fighting

Apepi, the serpent, who, at the head of a large army of
darkness, and cloud, tried
was renewed daily, but Ra
always conquered, and appeared day after day in the sky.
Bronze and faience figures of this god represent him hawkheaded and wearing disk and urseus.
fiends,
personifications of mist,
to overthrow him.
The
battle
Menthu-Ra ^^^^^s=3^
Jj in bronze figures
is
hawk- Ra
the
warrior.
headed, and wears the disk, in front of which are two uraei,
and plumes at times figures have two hawk's heads on a
;
single body.
Horus v\ ^,the morning

usually called
"
sun, son of Isis
and
Osiris, is
the avenger of his father," in reference to his
Figures in bronze and faience represent him

hawk-headed and wearing the crown of Upper and Lower
Egypt.
This god was distinguished in name only from
defeat of Set.
Heru-ur, the elder brother of Osiris.
Harpocrates, or Heru-pa-Chrat
the morning The god

of youth.
Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates),
Chensu.
2/2
sun, in bronze or
Lower Egypt YI
or
quite bald
is
and the
is
faience
wears the crown of Upper and
or the triple crown
|^^,
or the plumes m,
over the right shoulder a lock of hair
tip of a finger of the right
hand
rests
on his
lips.
represented naked, as being in the lap of his mother
Chensu
Mut
v wl
^^^^ associated with
falls,
He
Isis.
Amen-Ra and
In
triad, and was god of the moon.
human-headed, and wears a crescent and
disk in faience figures he is made like a mummy, and holds
sceptres of different shapes in his hands.
His second name
was Nefer-hetep, and he was worshipped with great honour
the
in
Theban
bronze figures he
is
Different
forms of
Chensu.
at
Thebes.
Chensu-pa-chrat
attributes of Harpocrates,
not
rare.
Tmu
Tlie night-
and
very fine specimen
^ ^^
^.
figures of
is
him
âs
in
all
the
bronze are
B.M. No. 11,045
|^^|,o.At.u^.|^^^ the "Closer"
of the day or night, usually represents the night-sun
Sun.
Chensu Nefer-Hetep.
AtmiL
He
FIGURES OF GODS.
273
wears the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt
hand he holds , and
in
the
left |.
in the right
Nefer-Atmu, the son of
Ptah and Sechet or Bast, represents the power of the heat of

the rising sun.
Figures of this god were made in gold, silver,
bronze, and faience.
In metal, he stands upright, wearing
lotus flowers and plumes on his head, in his right hand he
holds
in
and
in the left
gold with an
ut' at
Sometimes each shoulder
(B.M. No. 22,921).
is
Nos.
accompanied by
often
2501!^,
his
inlaid
In faience he has
the same head-dress, but stands on a lion
he
is
in faience, too,
mother Sechet or Bast (B.M.
260a).
Ptah
the "Opener," perhaps the oldest of
all
the The
gods of Egypt, was honoured with a temple and worshipped

at Memphis from the time of the 1st dynasty.
He is
said to be the father of the gods, who came forth from
his eye, and of men, who came forth from his mouth.
Nefer-Atmu.
B.
M.
oldest
god of
Pteh.
Egypt.
274
He
represented in the form of a
is
a sceptre composed of
^jy
fet,
" stability."
are tolerably
At
design.
The god
of the
resurrection.
With
mummy, and
zisr^ " strength," -t-
dnch, "
Bronze and faience figures of
common, and resemble each
he holds
life,"
and
this
god
other in form and
the back of his neck he wears the mendt
(W7.
connexion with the resurrection and

the nether world, he is called Ptah-Seker-Ausar, and is
represented as a little squat boy, with bent legs, and his
hands on his hips.
Sometimes he has his feet on the head
of a crocodile
on the right side stands Isis, on the left
Nephthys, at his back is a human-headed hawk emblematic
of the soul, on each shoulder is a hawk, and on his head
reference
to his
is
a beetle, the
emblem
of Chepera, the self-begotten god.
In faience figures of this
bronze they are

Imouthis
god are very common, but
I-em-hetep Q ^.
r^, the
Imouthis of the Greeks,
the scribe.
was the
in
rare.
first-born son of
Ptah and Nut.
He
is
represented
i-em-hetep.
Ptah-Tatenen.
(Imouthis).
FIGURES OF GODS.
2/5
both standing and seated, holding a sceptre | in the right

hand, and
an open
roll,
figures of this
the
in
left
at
having the inscriptions inlaid

this
times he holds on his knees
upon which is inscribed his name. The bronze

god are usually of very fine workmanship, often
god are very
Chnemu Q
^^
Xvovîs, Xvovî,
in
gold
the
"
in faience, figures
of
rare.
Kv)'j(fi
j),
Moulder,"
the
Xvov/xi';,
or Kvovîs of the Greeks,
is
one of
was especially worshipped

in Nubia, at Philae, where he is represented making man
out of clay on a potter's wheel, and at Elephantine.
Like
Amen-Ra he is said to be the father of the gods,^ and
the oldest gods of Egypt, and
Chnemu.
*
The
" mould-
Tehuti (Thoth).
Chepera.
Father of the fathers of the gods, the lord
of heaven, earth, the underworld, water,
who
evolveth from himself,
and mountains
I
maker
er " of
man.
2/6
with this god and Ptah and Chepera he shared the

" creator of men."
of the
Chnemu
dead body of
beautiful
Osiris,
name
of
put together the scattered limbs
and
woman who became
it
was he who created the
the wife of Bata in the Tale
Two Brothers. In bronze and faience, figures of

god represent him with the head of a ram, and wearing
of the
this
plumes,
Tholh the
accurate
scribe of
the gods.
l\l]}
Thoth,
these figures are tolerably
in
common.
Egyptian Tehuti g^^, the
"
Measurer," was
the scribe of the gods, the measurer of time and inventor of
In the judgment hall of Osiris he stands by the
numbers.
side of the balance holding a palette
and reed ready to record
the result of the weighing of the heart as announced by the
dog-headed ape who sits on the middle of the beam of the

scales.
In bronze figures he is represented with the head of
an ibis, but he has upon it sometimes horns and plumes. In
faience figures he has also the head of an ibis, and occasionally
he holds an lit'at
(B. M. No. 490^).
Set or Sut
'
^^
r||
>
hands
him
between
his
Gr. Si]d,
was one of the sons of Seb
in
front of
and Nut, and was brother of Osiris, and husband of Nephthys.

His worship dates from the Vth dynasty, and he continued
to be a most popular god in Egypt until the XlXth
dynasty
kings delighted to
call
themselves
"
beloved of Set,"
and to be compared to him for valour when the records of

He probably represented
their battles were written down.
the destructive power of the sun's heat. Between the XXIInd
A
The
murderer
of Osiris
and
opponent
of Horus.
and
XXVth
dynasties a violent reaction set in against this
god, his statues and
were smashed, his effigy was

in which it
appeared, and from being a beneficent god, and a companion
of Amen and his brother-gods, he became the personification
hammered
figures
out from the bas-reliefs and stelae
and the opponent of all good. His persistent

enmity of Osiris will be mentioned below. Set, or Sutech,
was chosen by the Hyksos for their god. Bronze figures of
Set are very rare indeed. The British Museum possesses two
examples, Nos. 18,191 and 22,897 each represents the god
of
all
evil,
standing upright, in each he has the characteristic animal's
FIGURES OF GODS.
head, and wears the crown of
2/7
Upper and Lower Egypt,
each figure was originally gilded, and each has a hole drilled
in a projecting piece of metal, from which it was suspended
When I bought the larger figure it was bent

double, evidently by a violent blow, given probably when the
and worn.
reaction against this god's worship set
Set
in.
Faience figures of
have never seen.
Ausar
Set.
Osiris, in
Egyptian Ausdr
A a\
(Osiris).
the great god and king of
was the son of Seb and

he was murdered by his brother
Set, who was in turn slain by Horus, the son of Osiris, and
According to Plutarch (De
the "avenger of his father."
Isz'de et Osiride, xii.-xx.) Osiris was the wise and good king
the underworld, the judge of the dead,
Nut, and husband of
of Egypt,
who
Isis
spent his
y?
y y^y
life in
civilizing his subjects
and
Plutarch's
Os[ris
in
Having brought them out oi <^ L^^^^^--^^ ^"^

their condition.
degradation and savagery, he set out to do the like for the I^^ u^.-^'^ ^^
Upon his return his brother Set, v (/'(^^ -^7'
other nations of the world.
improving
2;8
together with seventy-two other people, and the queen of

Ethiopia,
made
a conspiracy against him.
They
invited
him
and by an artful device made Osiris

get into a box which Set had previously caused to be made
to fit him.
As soon as Osiris had lain down in it, the
conspirators nailed the cover on it, and having poured molten
lead over it, they carried it by river to the sea, the waves of
which washed it up at Byblos. As soon as Isis heard of what
had happened, she set out to search for her husband's body,
and eventually found it but having carried it off to another
place, it was accidentally discovered by Set, who forthwith
broke open the chest, and tore the body into fourteen pieces,
which he scattered up and down the country. Isis then set
out to search for the pieces of her husband's body, and she
found all but one wherever she found a piece she buried it,
and built a temple over it. He was the type of all mummies,
and the deceased is made like unto him, and named after
him. Bronze figures of this god represent him as a muminto a banqueting room,
Nebt-Het
(Nephthys).
FIGURES OF GODS.
mified figure wearing the crown x,<7
holds the whip ,^\
god
this
and
in fafence are
Isis, in
the
in
not very
sent her
r,
.
|
hand he
Figures of
common.
,
of Osiris.
iJ.
standing and wearing
Bronze figures repre-
upon her head, and
seated suckling her naked child Horus,

knees, at her
breast,
left
upon her head.

found.
^^^ right
the crook
she married her brother Osiris.
""^
Egyptian Auset l\r^j\ was a daughter of Seb and The family

VJ
tL)
Nut
left
279
is
sitting
2,
on her
and wearing disk and horns X^X
In faience
In funereal scenes
who
many
Isis
figures of both kinds are
stands at the foot of the bier
mourning the deceased.

Nephthys,
in
Egyptian Nebt-het TT^J), was also a
daughter of Seb and Nut

she married her brother Set.
Bronze figures, which are not common, represent her standing
;
draped
a long tunic, and wearing X\ on her head
in
in
goddess are very numerous, and follow

and design of those in bronze. A number of
rectangular faience pendants have been found in which Isis,
Nephthys and Harpocrates or Horus stand side by side.
faience, figures of this
the
style
Anubis,
some
in
Egyptian Anpit \\^\,'^, was, according to
legends, the son of
that goddess for Isis
He
Nephthys and
elsewhere he
is
Osiris,
who mistook
said to be the son of
always represented as having the head of a jackal,

one of the chief gods of the dead and the netherHe presided over the embalmfng of the mummy, he The god
world.
led the mummy into the presence of Osiris, and watched over \q^^
the ceremony of weighing the heart, and he is often represented standing by the bier with one hand laid on the
mummy. The belief that this god acted in this capacity
survived for some centuries after Christ, and a remarkable
Ra.
and he
is
is
proof of this fact
plaque
in
is
the British
given by a light green, glazed faience
Museum, No.
22,874.
On
the obverse
Anubis, jackal-headed, in relief, stands by the side of a bier

in the shape of a lion, also in relief; on the reverse, in relief,
PersistS"'^^ ^,
liefsamong
the Copts.
28o
are two lines of inscription in Coptic which read,
TtortK,
"
May
she hasten to arise."
At each end
^C
is
IHC 6
a pierced
whereby the plaque was fastened to the mummy.

interesting example of the survival of
is an
ancient Egyptian ideas among the Egj^ptians after they had
embraced Christianity. Anubis is sometimes confused with
projection
The pkque
Ap-uat
\J ^"^ m
'
"
>
^^
opener of the ways," another
jackal-headed god, and the attributes of the one are ascribed
Anpu
Shu.
(Anubis).
to the other.
Bronze and faience figures of this god represent
him standing and having the head of a

Shu,
in
Egyptian
()
Y^
r^f
jackal.
was the
first-born
and
moisture.
Ra
and Hathor, and brother of Tefnut

he is supposed to
symbolise the air or sun-light, and in papyri and on coffins he
is represented in the form of a man, standing with both arms
raised, lifting up Nut, or the sky, from the embrace of Seb
In bronze and faience figures he is in the form of
the earth.
,
Sunlight
son of
FIGURES OF GODS.
a
man
281
kneeling on his right knee and supporting the sun's
disk and horizon with his upraised arms on his shoulders.
There
the British
is in
Museum
(No. 11,057) ^ ^^^ example
of an jegis in bronze with the heads of
4\,
his sister,
upon
Shu
it.
is
Shu and Tefnut,
bearded and wears two
plumes upon his head Tefnut has the head of a lion

and wears a disk and urûs B.M. No. 389 is an example
of these gods in faience. Standing figures of Shu, in faience,
on his head.
have sometimes
pairs of
Hapi
man,
the god of the Nile,
depicted as a
is
sitting or standing, holding a table or altar
^^
are vases for libations, lymY' ^"d lotus flowers

fruits,
The
he also has a clump of lotus flowers
British
which
Museum
represents
^
^
on which
upon
god.
upright,
with
Hapi,
god
of the Nile.
The Apis
1,069,
a table
JTUcpeUrfpol.
the
his head. The Nile-
possesses a figure of this god. No.
him standing
and
Bull.
of
22
offerings of plants,- fruits
head he wears w
and
and flowers before him.
in front
Apis or Hapi
the
Antiquity
of Apis
worship.
incarnation
"
of
Osiris,
is
an
tit' at
of Ptah," and
life
name
the
his
^^
the second
was
On
given
to
the
sacred bull of Memphis, where the worship of this god was
most ancient, having been introduced from Heliopolis by

Kakau, a king of the Ilnd dynasty.
He is variously called
"
"
the son of Ptah,"
the son of
Tmu,"
"
the son of Osiris,"
and "the son of Seker." In bronze Hapi is sometimes represented in the form of a man with a bull's head, between the
horns of which are a disk and an uraeus wearing a disk.
Usually, however, he is in the form of a bull having a disk
on the back above the
and an uraeus between the horns
shoulders is engraved a vulture with outstretched wings, and
on the back, over the hind quarters, is a winged scarab. The
bull usually stands on a rectangular pedestal, on the sides of
which are inscribed the name and titles of the person who
on the same pedestal is frequently a
had the bull made
;
figure
of
this
person kneeling in adoration
before
him.
Figures of Apis in bronze are commoner than those in faience.

According to Herodotus (H. 27-29) Apis was the calf of a cow
"and the Egypupon the cow from heaven,

and that from thence it brings forth Apis. This calf, which
it is black, and has a
is called Apis, has the following marks
square spot of white on the forehead and on the back the
and in the tail double hairs and on the
figure of an eagle
incapable of conceiving another offspring;

tians say, that lightning descends
Description of the
Apis
bull.
tongue a beetle."
When Apis was

Q
^^>
dead he was called Ausar Hapi or
or Serapis
by the Greeks, and he
is
r|
represented
coffins in the form of a bull with disk and uraeus on

head on his back is the mummy of the deceased, above
which the soul in the form of a hawk is seen hovering.
The place where the Apis bulls that lived at Memphis were
buried was called the Serapeum, and Mariette discovered at
Sakkarah their tombs, dating from the time of Amenophis HI.
on
his
down
to that of the
Roman
Empire.
Above each tomb
of
FU;URKS OF GODS.
283
an Apis bull was built a chapel, and it was the series of

chapels which formed the Serapeum properly so called.
The Mnevis
is
bull,
^^LTl^^,
worshipped at Heliopolis,
thought by some to represent the same symbolism, and

Apis he is called the "renewing
to be identical in form with
of the
life
of Ra."
Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf, the four The gods

children of Horus (see Canopic Jars, p. 194), are common in ^^^^llf^jj^j
glazed faience, but rare in bronze.
J], together with
Sati
points.
Anqet
and Chnemu,
\f^
ill
formed the triad of Elephantine, and she seems to resemble
Nephthys
right,
in
some of her
holding
-ir
in
attributes.
She usually stands up-
her right hand, and
\ in
her
left.
The
British Museum possesses one example, No. 1 10, in bronze, in

which she is represented seated.
On her head she wears
the crown of Upper Egypt, in the front of which is an
The Mnevis
Bull.
Mestha.
284
uraeus
a pair of horns follows the contour of the white
above them is a star.

No. 11,143 is a fine
bronze figure of a woman, standing upright upon a pedestal
crown, and
Other
the right
Isis.
left arm is
upon her breast.
No. no, and I believe her
arm hangs by her
forms of
side,
her hand, holding an object,

the same head-dress as
same goddess, although she

or the
Dog
Star.]
thus labelling
Museum
it,
is
is
but the
but
is
it
to be the
labelled Hesi-Sept. [Isis-Sothis
Dr. Birch probably had
possesses one
and
She has
bent,
laid
unknown
example
some reason
to me.
The
for
British
also in faience, No, 13,664, in
which the goddess stands upright.
Sebek
jK=^^^^
represented the destroying power of
Xlllth dynasty.
example of this god in
bronze, No. 22,924, in which he stands upright, and has the
head of a crocodile surmounted with disk, plumes and uraei,
the sun, and his worship
The
British
Museum
is
as old as the
possesses one
which have disks and horns
Hapi.
Tuamautef.
Qebhsennuf.
FIGURES OF GODS.
Anher
I\
jj
which Shu supports,
"
the leader
is
m, and holding a dart

neb inab,
" lord
285
of the
celestial
regions,"
usually represented wearing plumes

;
of the dart."
he
is
The
at times called
British
Museum
'^^1:7
possesses a
glazed faience pendant, No. 11,335, upon which this god

represented
in his right
in
relief,
is
is
standing upright and wearing plumes
hand he holds
This sceptre
-j-
and
in the left the sceptre
usually composed of ",
u,
and
arranged
perpendicularly one above the other. He is sometimes called

An-Jier SJui se Ra, " An-her Shu, the son of Ra."
Bes
J
very remote
character.
a god whose worship in
],
period,
He
is
seems to
have
Egypt dates from a

possessed
a double
represented as a grotesque person with
horns and eyes on a level with the top of his head, his tongue
hangs
out,
and he has bandy
legs.
He
wears a crown of
ud.Zn<
Sati
Anqet
286
Worship
and a leopard's skin thrown round his

is armed with a
shield and sword, and sometimes he has a bow he was also
the god of music and the dance, and in this character he
is represented as a tailed creature, half man, half animal,
playing a harp, or striking cymbals together and dancing.
It is thought that he symbolized the destructive power of
nature, and in this capacity he is identified in the Book of the
Dead with Set as the god of joy and pleasure figures of him
are carved upon the kohl jars, and other articles used by
Egyptian ladies in their toilet.
The worship of this god
of Bes of
foreign
seems to have
feathers on his head,
body.
The
As
a warrior, or the god of war, he
various
aspects of
Bes.
origin.
Neter
ta,
i.e.,
been
introduced
into
Eerypt from
the land which was situated
by the eastern bank^
of the Nile, supposed by the Egyptians to be the
1 /^^
XJ-L^
home
of the gods.
are very
original
Figures of this god in bronze and faience
common, and they

made
Faience figures were
Sebek.
represent
as
much
him
as described above.
as fourteen inches long,
Anheru.
FIGURES OF GODS.
and were sometimes
The
British
used for making

Price, F.S.A.,
in relief
Museum
and sometimes "in the round."

mould (No. 20,883)
possesses a large
figures,
flat
who obtained
beautiful figure
287
it
the
in
presented
by
from Bubastis
round in blue
;
F.
it
G.
Hilton
also possesses
glazed
faience
about fourteen inches high. A remarkable

example of the use of the head and face of this god is
furnished by a bronze bell in the British Museum (No. 6374),
The plumes on his head form the handle, and the head,
hollowed out, forms the bell. Bronze and faience statues
(No.
28,112),
of this god, to which have been added the distinguishing

characteristics of
many
other gods,
B.M. No. 17,169 is a

ithyphallic
bird with two pairs
bronze
of outstretched wings and the legs of
a man, from the knees of which spring
serpents, the arms of a man, and the
head of Bes. Above the wings is a
also
exist
Various
forms of
Bes.
second pair of outstretched arms, with

clenched fists, and on each side of his
head, in
relief,
are the heads of a ram,
a dog-headed ape, a crocodile, and a

hawk (?). Above the head are two
pairs of horns,
two
is
a disk.
the
two
and
between which
pairs of uraei
pairs of plumes,
In this figure are united
attributes of
Amen-Ra, Amsu,
Horus, Chnemu, Sebek,

gods.
and other
Ji/J^dU-
No. 1205, a bronze cast from
a genuine bronze, makes this polytheistic figure stand upon crocodiles

enclosed within a serpent having his
Bes.
the whole group

tail
in his
mouth.
very interesting example of a similar kind of figure

is
described by Lanzone in his Dizionario,
21
p.
r,
is
in faience
tav. Ixxx.,
and compare B.M. No.
11,821.
It need hardly be said that
such figures belong to a very late period, and they are found
imitated on gems inscribed for the Gnostics see B.M. Nos.
G. 10, II, 12, 151, 205, etc. On the Metternich stele Bes is
;
represented in
much
the
same way
as in the bronze figures,
288
but in the pair of outstretched arms and hands he holds

of
sceptres
which hang by
head
\\\\,
H, 1, knives,
",
his side
and
etc.,
he holds j and
-r-
He
of years."
serpents,
"myriads
stands on an oval in which are a
jackal,
This
tortoise.
those
he has on his
addition eight knives and the figure
in
in
scene
is
lion, two
hippopotamus and
very accurately on a
scorpion,
crocodile,
repeated
Gnostic lapis-lazuli plaque in the British Museum, No.
on the back of which

rrib^l^
whom
with
fT^
is
an address to lAtO
this polytheistic deity
Figures of the god Bes are
12,
ZABAU)0 =
was
common on gems and
identified.
seals other
than Egyptian, and on a small Babylonian cylinder in the

possession of Sir Charles Nicholson he
Bes in
Baby-
form
Ionian art.
cylinder in the British
in
which he ordinarily occurs M>.
is
represented in the
On
a red carnelian
ill
Museum
(Reg. No. 6%) he
is
en-
wearing plumes, and holding a lotus flower

on each side of him is a male bearded figure,
with upraised hands and arms, supporting a winged disk.
This seal was inscribed for Arsaces, and belongs to the
graved,
in
full face,
each hand
Persian period.
Sechet
and was,
in
T-em-hetep
j)> also written
this capacity, the
was the wife of Ptah,
mother of Nefer-Atmu and
was the second
she
j],
person
of the
triad of
She represented the violent heat of the sun and

its destroying power, and in this capacity destroyed the souls
of the wicked in the underworld.
In bronze and faience
figures she has the head of a lion, upon which she wears the
Memphis.
disk and ur?eus, and she holds

in
her
left
she
is
" in her right hand and
sometimes seated, when her hands are
laid
upon her knees.

Bast U
rv^
j)
represents the heat of the sun in
form as the producer of vegetation.

of a
lion, but,
its
softened
She has often the head
properly speaking, the head of a cat
distinguishing characteristic
in
is
her
her right hand she holds a
FIGUKKS OF GODS.
289
arm she carries a basket, and in her left

She was chiefly worshipped at The
hand she holds an Kgis.
Rubastis, Pa-Bast, where a magnificent temi)le was built in ^jg
Bronze figures of this goddess
her honour.
are tolerably numerous, and she is represented, both sitting and standing, wearing the
In faience,
disk and uraûs on her head.
sistrum, on her left
Lady
standing figures hold a sceptre (B.M. No. 236),

(B.M. No. 233), or an ?egis (B.M.
or
^g
No. 11,297); when seated she often holds a

a fine large example
sistrum, B.M. No. 272
of the goddess seated is B.M. No. 277. Such
;
are sometimes inscribed with the

prayer, " may she grant all life and power,
figures
and joy of
heart,"
^-^'0')
"I
health,
all
^37
or,
am
'^~~
?-
^37
Bast, the lady
Cl
of
^ o
SSTf
life,"
t*^"^
Menhit
power of
she
(1
an
as
represented the
J)
light or heat, or
represented
is
(1
both
in faience
p^gt,
woman,
upright
walking, having a lion's head, upon which she wears a disk
and uraeus
in her right
Mut y\ ^,
_a?tJ V)
second
the
is -t",
and
in her left
|
mother," was the wife of Amen, and the The

universal
member
of Ashcr,"
"
hand
of the
1}
Theban
triad
the
name
she
is
called the " lady mother.
given to a district to the
south of the great temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak, where her

temple was situated.
She symbolized Nature, the mother of
all things.
In bronze and faience figures she is represented
as a woman, seated or standing, wearing a head-dress in the
form of a vulture, surmounted by the crowns of Upper and
Lower Egypt
Net
she holds - in her right hand, and I in her
^^^^
ci
J),
iJ
or Neith, the "
Weaver"
left.
or "Shooter," was a The Lady

of Sais.
counterpart of the goddess Mut, and was also identified with

B.
M.
FUNKREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.
290
Hathor
she wears the crown of
head, and
she
In bronze and
tolerably
common.
Maat
The goddess of
Right.
S^
-o
J)
the
"
daughter of
is
Ra and
are
shown
mistress of the
always represented with
madt, emblematic of Law, upon her head
Maat
goddess are
(Neith).
gods," symbolized Law, and she

[3
armed with bow and
faience figures of this
vÔC.-..</
j'i
Net
represented
often
is
arrows.
Lower Egypt >/ on her
together, each wearing
[3
in
but sometimes
this feather alone takes the place of the head.
bronze, lapis-lazuli, and
faience
she
is
papyri two
In figures of
represented sitting
down.
Hathor,
in
Egyptian '^|, or
-.^
Het-Hert, the
"
house of Horus," is identified with Nut, the sky, or place

which she brought forth and suckled Horus she was the
She is represented as a woman
wife of Atmu, a form of Ra.
in
FIGURES OF GODS.
291
cow-headed, with horns and a disk between them, and shares
and Mut many of their attribute?.^ She is often

cow coming forth from the mountain of the
The worship of Hathor is exceedingly ancient, and The godwest.
she was supposed to be the goddess of beauty, love, and joy, fine art.
and the benefactress of the world. The forms- in which she
is depicted on the monuments are as numerous as the aspects
from which she could be regarded. Full length figures of
this goddess in bronze and faience are comparatively few,^
but plaques and pendants of faience upon which her head is
with
Isis
represented as a
inscribed or painted are
For a
fine
example
common.
in
bronze of Hathor, cow-headed, wear-
ing horns, disk, uraeus and plumes, see

British
Museum
in
list
of the gods with
Iêt-Heru (Hathor).
whom
she
is
identified
is
given in Lanzone, Dizionario,
p. 863, 864.
^
On
For a
a pendant, B.
fine
The
two interesting bronze hollowwhich Hathor is represented in
Maat
No. 22,925.
also possesses
work portions of menats
B.J\I.
M. No. 302, she
is
represented at
full
length, in relief.
example, see B.M. No. 22,925.
U 2
292
No. 20,760 shows the goddess wearing an uraeus on

her forehead, and four uraei on her head she has the usual
profile.
head-dress of
a
Hathor-headed
Beneath
f^liS^.
Si
women
^ ^
^^^
in
falling
with
sistrum,
an oval
over her shoulders.
is
the
pendent
cow
ursei,
Beneath
resting
is
on
of Hathor, wearing XX>
FIGURES
standing
a boat.
in
OI<"
GODS.
Above, on each
at
Der
Lower Egypt.
and
el-Bahari,
Amenophis
III.
O^
is
^^37
and the other wears
This beautiful object was found

inscribed with
|.
the
X^-
Below,
Nu
v\
^ ^
'vZT' 1;=^]
AAAAAA
/wwv\
"
in
ornament
are a figure of the goddess, and a floral

I
prenomen of
No. 300 represents the goddess
with a vulture head-dress, wearing
inscribed
One
an ur.tus.
side, is
wears the crown of Upper Egypt, D

the crown of
29:
relief,
;
it
is
Hathor, lady of heaven."
was the god of the sky and the husband
of Nut.
Nut
^
,
the sky,
the wife of Seb,
and mother of The god-
Nephthys, Anubis, Shu, and Tefnut, was

represented by a woman having a vase of water Q on her
Osiris,
Isis,
Set,
head, and holding * in her right hand and |
She was painted on the outside of
Nut.
cofEns,
in
her
left.
and was supposed
Seb.
dess of
the sky.
294
wings the deceased within. Figures of

bronze or faience are unknown to me.
to protect with her

this
goddess
in
^^
Seb
J]
of Osiris,
father
figures of this
Serq
Isis,
god
in
and the other gods of that cycle
bronze or faience are unknown to me.
daughter of Ra, wife of Horus, and
rl|
with Sesheta and
identified
heat of
the sun.
Pierret,
Pantheon
tav.
was the husband of Nut, the sky, and
ccclxii.),
head of a
Isis,
bronze
Egyptien,
17
p.
her the body of
gives
woman
symbolized the scorching
figure
in
a scorpion, and
There is a similar figure

Museum, No. 11,629, on the base of which
-r",
(see
Dizionario,
the
wearing disk and horns, by which she
identified with Isis.
ij
Louvre
the
Lanzone,
" Isis,
Giver of
Life,"
is
in the British
is
inscribed
and a small bronze
B.M. No. 18,667 also gives her the head and

arms of a woman with disk and horns. The figures of this
scorpion.
goddess, other than bronze, are usually
made
of lapis-lazuli.
Serq.
Maahes
^^
'
^^
represented as a man, lion-
headed, wearing a disk and uraeus

tjod in faience are
*
a few figures
known.*
See Lanzone, Dizionario,
p.
272.
of this
FIGURES OF GOUS.
Neheb-ka
295
mentioned in
is a sod
| J
the Book of the Dead (chap. xvii. 61
chap. xxx. 3, etc.),
and pictures of him are found upon coffins. In bronze
figures he has the body of a man, and the head of a
serpent in wood he has the body of an animal, and the head
;
of a serpent,
in faience
and
either
and holds
^^
in
his
paws (B.M. No.
11,779),
he has an animal's body and a serpent's head,

holds O O outstretched in his paws (B.M.
No. 11,795), or raises them to his mouth (B.M. No. 1197).

He sometimes wears plumes and horns.
Maahes.
Seker
kz::^^] or
Socharis,
a form of the night-sun,
represented as a man, hawk-headed, holding

in his
hands
for
Ptah-Seker-Ausar
f \,
figures, see
and
is
page 215.
There are among the Egyptian gods in the British

Museum two examples (Nos. 1419 and 22,930) of a polyThey have hawks'
theistic figure of considerable interest.
Polytheis-
o/ggj"'^^
296
ithyphallic^ bodies, human legs and feet, each of which stands

on a crocodile, and human hands and arms the front of the
head is in the form of a jackal's head, surmounted by plumes
and disk, and the back is in the form of a ram's head, surmounted by a disk and uraeus. In the right hand is a whip
J\, and in the left an object which I cannot identify. Each
;
group stands on a pedestal with a circle formed by a serpent

having his tail in his mouth. These figures have much in
common with those described under the name Bes, and may
be variant forms of this god.
Another
figure of interest
is
woman, with the head
No. 24,385, which represents
by
and horns; behind this head-dress is the tail of a
The right hand is laid underneath her left breast,
scorpion.
which she touches with her finger and thumb, and the left
The Museum of the Louvre possesses
rests upon her knee.
a seated
of a sheep, surmounted
disk, uraeus,
iiU^-^
Ta-urt (Thoueris).
Thoueris, lion-headed. Sefech-Aabn, or Sesheta.
'
In No. 22,930, the hawk's body is more distinct, and has a head,
mounted by a disk, and the feathers of the tail rest upon a hippopotamus.
sur-
FIGURES OF BIRDS, ANIMALS, AND KEI'TILES.

a similar figure with the addition of a naked child
holds upon her knees,
whom
and
she
297
whom
L.dL.nzonc {Dhio/iario, p. 841, for the figure see tav. cccxi.)
that the sheep
she
about to suckle.
is
and scorpion headed god represents
thinks
Isis,
and
the child, Horus.
^^^ ^^ ^ Pn
Ta-urt
'
''
Thoueris, was the wife of Set,
and she is usually represented in bronze and faience with the

head and body of a hippopotamus, the hind-quarters of a
lion, and the tail of a crocodile.
On her head she wears a
modius which is sometimes surmounted by a disk, horns, and
plumes
Sefex-Aabu or Sesheta is a form of the goddess Hathor

which was worshipped in Hermopolis, and was also adored in
Memphis from
the earliest dynasties.
Figures of Animals, Birds and Reptiles, Sacred to
THE Gods.
The figures of animals found in
houses of Egypt may, like
ruined
the temples, tombs and
those of the
Votive
amulets either by the living or dead
divided into three classes
i.
2.
gods, be
Those worn as
Those which
3.
They are made of bronze, steatite, basalt,

faience, wood, wood gilded, lapis-lazuli, wax, and many other
materials.
Those in bronze, stone, and wood were usually
made for temples, and to stand in tombs those in faience,
stood in houses.
and other precious stones were placed on the

bead-work, or under the folds of the wrappings of mummies,
or were worn suspended to necklaces, by the living
those
placed in the walls of houses, but which are not sufficiently
well distinguished to give many details, were usually made of
faience cast in moulds.
The animals and reptiles of which
figures are most commonly found are
lapis-lazuli,
I.
Ape,
dog-headed,
<^
wearing
disk
and
crescent, Animals
^^^
sacred to
and
Thoth and Chensu.
faience, in
which he
is
s3.crGci to
Figures
in bronze, stone,
wood
represented sitting, sometimes on
a pedestal with steps, or standing, are
common
sometimes
the gods.
298
he holds
No.
^^^
(B.M. No. 1442), and sometimes a goat (B.M.
1,910).
Hippopotamus ^
2.
'^
^^^ ^
Ta-iirt,
Thoueris,
standing on the hind-quarters of a lion, and holding the tail

of a crocodile
figures in bronze and faience are common.
;
The most
beautiful
green basalt
which
is
is
example of
preserved in the
this
composite animal
Museum
in
at Gizeh, a cast of
exhibited in the Egyptian Gallery of the British
Museum, No. 1075.

3. Cow, sacred
to Hathor, with disk
between her horns,
4.
Lion -235> couchant or running, sacred to Horus.
Examples are very common in faience. Frequently the body
,
of the lion has a lion's head at each end of

there
other
sun,
is
;
on the back, between the two heads,
q^
The two
it,
and sometimes
a lion's head at one end, and a bull's head at the
is
the disk of the
the whole representing the sun on the horizon cQ]
heads, facing in opposite directions, are supposed to
represent the south and north,
z.e.,
the sun's course daily.
An
which each lion's head has two faces, one looking

towards the south and the other towards the north, is figured
in Lanzone, Dizionario, tav. cvi.
couchant or sitting on his haunches,
.^:a5
5. Sphinx
Figures in bronze and faience are
sacred to Harmachis.
example
in
tolerably
common.
Sphinx.
FIGURES OF BIRDS, ANIMALS, AND REPTILES.

6.
299
Bull ^^^, sacred to Apis or Mnevis, having disk and
uraeus between his horns, and the figures of a vulture with

outspread wings and a winged scarab on his back. Figures
in bronze and stone are more common than in faience.
7.
Ram, ^^.
sacred to
Chnemu
or
Amen-Ra
figures in
bronze and faience are tolerably common.

8.
Cat IV, sacred
to
Large
lady
^ of Bubastis.
Bast,
'
is)'
votive figures of the cat were
made
of bronze and wood, the
eyes being inlaid with obsidian and gold
B.M. No. 22,927

has the eyes, and a large number of the hairs of the body,
The
inlaid with gold.
smaller figures worn for ornament by
the votaries of Bast are

faience, &c.
made
in the smaller
of bronze, stone, rock-crystal,
figures the
cat
is
represented
with one, two, or more kittens, and the top of the T sceptre
is
often ornamented with a cat.

9.
Jackal
')fh,
Anpu
sacred to
(Anubis), or to Ap-uat.
In bronze figures, which are plentiful, he stands on a pedestal
which
fitted
are not very
on to the top of a sceptre or
common.
staff; faience figures
number of wooden models
large
from the top of sepulchral boxes are known.

10.
Hare ^^, sacred

common.
to
Osiris
Unnefer;
figures
in
faience are
Sow ^f^, sacred to Set

Horus
J ^ "^ "^ Mil ^^
11.
(1
1 1
2th chapter of the
animal
was the abomination of
^''^
according to the
Book of the Dead; figures of this

common. B.M. No. 11,897 has a
in faience are fairly
head at each end of

12.
(?),
its
Hippopotamus
body.
*î^
sacred to
Set
or
Typhon
many large and beautiful examples of this animal in glazed

faience and steatite exist in public and private collections.
13.
Stag ir^-
Figures
in
which the animal
is
repre-
tied together ready for sacrifice are

B.M. No. 1696.
14. Hedgehog, a few examples of which, in bronze and
faience, are known.
sented
known
with
its
legs
in bronze, e.g:,
Animals
sacred to
t'ê gods.
300
Shrew-mouse, sacred
commoner in bronze than
to Horus(?),
15-
are
examples of which
in faience.
1 6.
Ichneumon. Examples in bronze, in which the
animal wears disk and horns and plumes, are known, but
figures in faience are rare,

17. Crocodile -ss=-, sacred to Sebek
and faience are fairly common.
lîi^^^s
sacred to
the gods,
Vulture
i3_
\N,
_mf
Mut
sacred to
examples
fissures
in
bronze
of this bird in
bronze and faience are few,
Hawk ^v>
19.
sacred to Horus
of bronze, stone, and wood, and the
votive figures are
hawk wears
made
either the
crown of Upper or Lower Egypt, or both crowns united.

In smaller figures worn for ornament, it wears a disk (B.M.
No, 1889) or
1859)
is
it
(B,M. No,
^,
1850),
often man-headed,
when
^^, and sometimes two hawks

each has the head of a man,
in
in
material
plumes (B.M, No,

represents the soul,
it
are on
one pedestal, and
form of Horus, worshipped
Arabia under the name of Sept
found
or
A rC
is
often
hard stone and wood

figures made of the latter
generally found on the small chests which
;
are
cover the portions of
human
bodies placed in the pedestals
of Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures.
plumes on
When
complete they have
their heads,
20. Ibis
^^^
sacred to Thoth
figures in bronze
and
faience are not rare,
Frog and Toad. Figures
21.
in
of both reptiles are
common
bronze and faience,
The five kinds of fish of which figures in

Fish <&<.
bronze and faience are known are the Oxyrhynchus, Phagrus,
Latus, Silurus, and the Lepidotus of these the Oxyrhynchus,
The OxyrhynSilurus, and Lepidotus are the commonest.
chus fish, B.M. No. 1953, has on its back horns, disk, and
fish were sacred to Hathor, Isis, Mut, and other
uraeus
22.
goddesses.
FIGURES OF KINGS AND PRIVATE PERSONS.
3OI
Figures in bronze
23. Scorpion S#^, sacred to Serqet.
have often a woman's head on which are horns and disk, and if
mounted, the sides of the base have inscriptions upon them
which show that the scorpion was regarded as Isis-Serqct.
Faience figures of this reptile are tolerably numerous.
Uraeus
^"^
(al,or
or
T/n
serpent, sacred to or
Merseker,
'
JL;
emblem
of
Mehen,
figures in bronze
and
faience are not rare.
Scarab
emblem of
^,
the god
The largest scarab known

Museum (Southern Egyptian
of green granite
it
was
is
Chepera (see
preserved
in
p.
the
234).
British
Gallery, No. 74), and is

probably a votive offering in
made
some
was brought from Constantinople, whither it

was probably taken after the Roman occupation of Egypt.
The scarabs worn for ornament round the neck, and in
temple, and
were made of gold, silver, every kind of precious

to the Egyptians, and faience. B.M. No. 11,630
an interesting example of a horned scarab B.M. No. 2043,
faience, has the head of a hawk, and B.M. No. 12,040 has
finger-rings,
stone
is
in
known
the head of a
bull.
Figures of Kings and Private Persons.

Figures of
kings
and private persons were placed
in
temples or tombs either by the persons they represented,

or by those who wished to do honour to them.
Figures of
kings occupied prominent places in the temples, and services
were performed before them, and offerings made to them as

among the number of whom kings were supposed
The Rosetta Stone states (11, 39-42) that
to have entered.
to the gods,
all Egypt decreed that a figure or statue of

Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, should be placed in the most con-
the priests of
spicuous part of every temple, that the priests should thrice

daily perform services before
should be placed upon
figures in temples and tombs
at least, for
many examples
it,
and that sacred decorations
The custom
it.
is
of placing such
as old as the
of this period are
IVth dynasty
known
as
we
are certain that religious services were held in tombs during
Uses of
s'^^"'^'^-
302
The lady Nai.

[Museum of the
XlXth dynasty.
Louvre].
303
the earlier dynasties, figures of deceased persons must have
been placed
in
them, and
it
would seem that the custom
old as the settlement of the Egyptians in Egypt.
is
as
Votive
gods were rarely colossal, but figures of kings

were made of every size, and their heights vary from a few
figures of the
the colossi of Amenophis III., of

Heru-em-Heb, and of Rameses II., are examples of the
extreme size to which figures of kings attained.
In the
earlier dynasties there can be no doubt that the artist
endeavoured to make the form and features of the figure
exactly like the person for whom it was made
how well
they succeeded is evident from the most cursory examination
of the figures of the first six dynasties exhibited in European
museums, or in the IMuseum of Gizeh, which is particularly
inches to several feet
Woman
kneading bread.
[Museum
of Gizeh].
Votive
304
rich in figures of this period.
what may
figures of that date
the Egyptian
tion
The famous Shekh
well be termed a "speaking likeness,"
artist.
was adopted
in
show
that he
is
el-Beled
is
and the other
not a solitary success of
In later times conventional representa-
forming the
figure,
with the result that the
sculptor lost the art of portraiture once and for
all.
Figures
were made of granite, basalt, and other hard stones, limestone,

gold, silver, bronze, wood, steatite, faience, and terra-cotta.
Standing figures have the arms placed at the sides of the
body ,and the hands usually hold a roll sometimes, however,
;
T#ie scribe Kha-f-Ra.
[Museum
Vth dynasty.
of Gizeh].
Limestone statue.
[Museum
Vth dynasty.
of Gizeh].
305
and
figures
they hold a sceptre, or weapon, or flowers, or
made
in
the form of Osiris have the hands crossed over the
Figures
breast.
Ar,
kneeling or
on
sitting
the ground hold
with both hands tablets or altars, or shrines engraved with
them
figures seated on thrones

on the knees. All figures
were draped, and the pedestals or plinths on which they
stood were usually inscribed with the names and titles of
the persons for whom they were made at times the various
funereal inscriptions, before
or chairs have the hands laid
flat
Statue of Ti,
[Museum
B.
M.
Vth dynasty.
of Gizeh]
Statue of Ra-Nefer.
[Museum
Vth dynasty.
of Gizeh]
3o6
members
of the deceased's family were sculptured in
with their names on the
relief,
Groups of two or more

figures, husband and wife, brother and sister, father, mother
and child, were placed in tombs, and from the biographical
notices inscribed upon them many valuable historical facts
have been gleaned.
seat.
Coffins.
Egyptian
coffins
Oldest
coffin in
the world.
The
made
are usually
Romans hard
the Ptolemies and
of wood, but under
came
stone
into use.
probably that of
Mycerinus, a king of the IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3633,
which is preserved in the British Museum, No. 6647 it was
found, together with the remains of a wrecked mummy, by
oldest
coffin
in
world
the
is
Howard Vyse
was presented by him
in the
Colonel
pyramid of Gizeh, and
third
Museum
to the British
in 1837.
The
stone sarcophagus of Mycerinus, of which only a very small
fragment has been preserved (B.M. No. 6646), and parts of

the coffin and mummy, were lost by the wreck of the ship
being brought to England, on the
in which they were
Spanish
coast,
human
on
The
Gibraltar.
face,
the
western
side
of
the
Strait
of
without paintings, had originally a
coffin,
formed of several
together on to the cover, and
pieces
of
the well-cut
wood pegged
inscription
in
" Osiris,
two perpendicular lines down the cover reads
King of the North and South, Men-kau-Ra, living for ever.
Heaven has produced thee thou wast conceived by Nut
thou comest of the race of the god Seb. Thy mother Nut
:
(the sky) spreads herself over thee in her form of heavenly
She grants that thou
mystery.
have enemies,
more
the North and South,
shalt
thou
living for ever."
mummy,
over the knees of the
resembling knees.
It
be a god
never
Men-kau-Ra, King of
shalt
On
the cover, just
are two raised
projections
has been stated^ that this coffin was
made during the New Empire at the expense of some pious

who wished to keep fresh the memory of Mycerinus.
Of the coffins of the Vlth dynasty, the fragments of that
person
belonging to Seker-em-sa-f ^ appear to be the only remains

^
See Aegypdsche Zcitschrift, 1S92,
Maspero, Guide du
Visiteiir
au
p. 94.
Jl/usee de Botilaq, p. 31 1.
COFFINS.
but
tolerably certain
is
it
that
307
coffins
during the
first
six
made of plain wood, that they had a human

and that the inscriptions were short and cut into the cover.
Coffins during the Xlth and Xllth dynasties are usually
rectangular in form, with a cover consisting of one flat
plank about 2^ inches thick. Both coffin and cover are very
rough, and the paintings consist of large stripes of blue, red,
white, green, and yellow colours, interspersed with lotus
flowers and pictures of funereal offerings, sometimes very
rudely drawn. IMany of the coffins of this period are, however,
of the greatest interest, and B.]\I. 6654 and 6655 are good
The former is inscribed on the outside
typical examples.
with one line of well-cut hieroglyphics, and is inlaid with
dynasties were
face,
^^
the inside of the coffin and both inside and outside of
number of chapters
Book of the Dead of the period of the Ancient
Empire this coffin was made for an official called Amamu.^
The latter, made for Mentu-hetep, is of the same form, and is
also inscribed in hieratic with chapters from the Book of the
Dead.^ At the same period, coffins with human faces were
they were formed of rough pieces of wood, badly
also made
put together, and are characterised by a rude, gaudy style of
the cover are inscribed in hieratic with a
of the
ornamentation.
wooden
coffin of
who
striking contrast to these
is
the gilded
An-antef, B.M. No. 6652, a king of the Xlth
Thebes about B.C. 2500.

The hardcarved, and is intended to be a
portrait of the deceased
the eyes and eyelids are made of
black, white, and blue obsidian, inlaid
the feather work and
star ornaments on the coffin appear to have originated at this
dynasty,
wood
face
is
ruled at
beautifully
;
The
period.
is
ordinary ornamentation of coffins at this period
a large collar, beneath which are figures of the ura;us and
emblematic of dominion over the north and south,

and under the feet are kneeling figures of Isis and Nephth}'s,
who mourn the dead Osiris.
The coffins of the period between the Xllth and the
vulture,
'
facsimile of the text
Coffin of
^
and an English translation were published by Birch,
A/uamu, London, 1886.
For facsimiles of other
hieratic texts
on
coffins of the
Xlth dynasty, see
I.epsius, Aelteste 7'exte dcs Todtenbiichs, Berlin, 1867.
Coffins
^ ^
'>i;oo
Ornamen
^^^^^
coffins.
3o8
XVIIIth dynasties
are imitations of those with the gilded

featherwork and bright colours of the Xlth and Xllth
dynasties
at this period many articles of furniture, vases,
etc., were placed in the mummy chamber, either near the
;
arranged by the walls.

During the XVIIIth dynasty coffins were made very
much larger, and were painted inside and outside in black
coffin or
Coffins
about
about B.C.
1700.
the face
either gilded or coloured a bright red, the eyes
is
on the breast is a vulture, and the inscripwhich divide the lower half of the cover into a series
are often inlaid

tions,
of rectangular sections, are painted in yellow.
With
the
XlXth dynasty
very beautiful to behold.
there appears a class of coffin
Inside and outside both coffin and
cover are profusely decorated with scenes of
all
kinds, large
from the Book of the

Dead with appropriate inscriptions, and a number of emblems
and decorations formed of rows of amulets, all painted in the
brightest colours, and covered with a bright, yellow, shining
varnish.
Immediately over the mummy of a royal person,
or of a wealthy man, was laid a slightly convex covering of
figures of
gods and
wood, made
in the
genii, vignettes
form of a
mummy,
covering the boat of the sun, the
finest
coffins
mnde
about E.c
1400.
mummy
the
inside
of this
with plants growing
and other scenes were traced in yellow, on a

The mummy and this covering
were placed in a coffin with a cover having a human face, and
the hands, in relief, were crossed upon the breast. The lower
part was ornamented with scenes in which the deceased is
out from
The
painted with the scenes
On
alluded to above, and varnished.
mauve
it,
or purple ground.
represented adoring various gods in shrines
these scenes are
divided into two groups by one or more perpendicular lines
of
inscription
deceased.
covering,
which
This
coffin,
record
name and
the
with the
mummy
was then placed inside a larger
and
titles
of the
wooden
upon the
its
coffin,
outside and inside of which were painted scenes similar to
those on the inner
The
but with
less
attention to details.
was often left blank.

and the wooden
is that of Nesi-pa-ur-shefi, which
the "Catalogue of the Egyptian
very fine example of a set of two
covering of the
is
coffin,
inside of the cover of the outer coffin
described
in
mummy,
detail
in
coffins,
COFFINS.
309
Museum." A third, and even

was sometimes used for one mummy.
The coffins of the XXth d}^nasty are good imitations of
the best examples of the XlXth dynasty the paintings are,
Antiquities in the Fitzwilliam
a fourth,
coffin
however, neither so fine nor so carefully executed.
From the XX 1st to the XXVIth dynasty coffins

many varieties of decoration they are sometimes
;
black, or the
wood
is left
altogether in
exhibit
painted
Coffins
g (?"Lq_
natural colour, and
its
Sometimes they are painted with

on a white ground, and the
inscriptions in many
scenes on the covers are divided into two groups by perpendicular inscriptions between them.
Faces of coffins of this
period are also flesh coloured and gilded, and the eyes, made
of obsidian, are inlaid between eyelids of the same material
the faces are often red.
colours
or of bronze.
Notwithstanding the fact that mummies of

by cartonnage cases, they are laid
this period are protected
in
two and even three
coffins.
Akhmim
coffins of this period
are covered with rows of gods and elaborate collars, and are
Book of the Dead

them have gilded masks and are usually
covered with a network of glazed faience bugle beads, upon
which are laid figures of Nut and the four children of Horus
These coffins belong to a class which
in smaller bead work.
profusely inscribed with extracts from the
the
mummies
has
little in
inside
common
either with those of
Favourite scenes on coffins from the
Memphis
XXIInd
or Thebes.
to the
XXVIth
dynasties are the weighing of the heart, and the soul visiting
the body.
After the
XXVIth
dynasty the
art
of coffin
making
Decay of
degenerated, and as a result the examples of this period r^^^'^^T

known to us exhibit rough and careless work, the scenes of coffins.
the weighing of the heart, etc., spread right across the cover,
'and the inscriptions show that the copyist had very little or
no knowledge of their meaning. On the other hand very
handsome coffins, in the form of a man, in granite and basalt,

became fashionable, and the high polish and beauty of the
cutting of the figures, inscriptions, etc., show that although
the art of mummifying was decaying, and the national religion of Egypt changing, attempts were made to imitate
ancient art in
its
best forms.
3IO
Under
and
the Ptolemies and
Romans
their decorations altered very
made
the forms of coffins
much.
now
Coffins are
of thin pieces of wood, and are usually rectangular in
shape, and the inscriptions upon them, like those on coffins of

the earlier dynasties, are rarely extracts from the
Grreco^'ffins'and
their
Book of the
Sandals, pillows, red pottery, and papyri were often
Dead.
buried with the dead at this epoch.
Stone
coffins,
covered
with figures and inscriptions, are also common, but they are
found chiefly
our
in
Lower Egypt.
the decay
era,
In the early centuries
of the art of
making
coflfins
of
followed
mummifying, and the coffins are large, badly shaped

and ugly, the inscriptions upon them are copies of old
formulae, but so carelessly written and so full of mistakes that
The custom of laying mummies in
they are unintelligible.
old tombs increased greatly, and chapels, serdabs, pits and
sarcophagi-chambers were alike used for piling up mummies
by hundreds and thousands and one single roll of papyrus or
parchment laid in a tomb contained the names of all those
who were buried there. This was practically the end of the
Egyptian system of mummifying and burial. Within a
hundred years of the preaching of Christianity at Alexandria
by St. Mark, a large part of the population of Egypt had
that of
become Christian
made
the resurrection of the
body of Christ
own
the Egyptians hope for the resurrection of their
and though they could not eradicate from themselves

all traces of their old belief, they abandoned gradually the
making of their dead into mummies, and were content to lay
their bodies in the earth, wrapped in linen cloths only, to
bodies,
await revivification.
by dowels, let into

and cover, through which pegs of wood
these were covered with plaster and painted, and
of
Coffins
all
periods were closed
cavities in the sides
were driven
were thus
invisible.
Sarcophagi.
Sar^^^
the
Ancient
Empire.
Egyptian sarcophagi are made of black or green basalt,

and limestone. During the first six
are
rectangular,
and the cover is either flat
they
dynasties
,.,
t,
11
Runnmg
round the edge of the
like a plank, or vaulted.
granite, agglomerate
/-
SARCOPHAGI.
inside of the cover
which
is
311
a projection about two inches deep,
is
carefully chiselled to
fit
a hollow corresponding in
and after the cover was lowered upon

cement was run in between, and the sarco-
size in the sarcophagus,

it,
a layer of fine
phagus became hermetically sealed. Not content with this,

holes were drilled sideways through the cover and the
sarcophagus, and into these pegs of wood were driven.
Covers have usually at each end one or more projections,
whereby it is easy to lift them the magnificent sarcophagus
of Chufu-anch (IVth dynasty), preserved at Gizeh,^ has two
The sarcorounded projections at each end of the cover.
phagus of Mycerinus (IVth dynasty) found in his pyramid
it
was beautifully
at Gizeh resembled a small building
sculptured, but was absolutely without ornament.
Sarcophagi of this period have their sides made to represent the
openings, vestibules, and doors of mastabas, and the inscriptions upon them usually contain only the names and
titles of their owners, and prayers that sepulchral gifts may
be made to the deceased on the specified festivals. Of the
sarcophagi of the Vll-Xth dynasties nothing is known.
During the Xlth and Xllth dynasties, rectangular wooden
cofifins seem to have superseded, in some measure, stone
sarcophagi, royal examples of which of this period are
unknown. A granite sarcophagus of this period at Florence
;
resembles in form, style of inscription,
etc.,
those of the
first
six dynasties.
Sarcophagi from the Xlllth to the XVIIth dynasty are
unknown.
In the
XVII Ith dynasty the sarcophagi of Memphis are

mummy, and are made of granite they
the form of a
in
very sparingly ornamented.
are
inscription runs
from the breast to the
of the cover on each side of

lines of inscription
at
which are inscribed
Ai
is
a good example
For a
For a
cast see
scale
perpendicular line of
right
it
is
angles
to
figures of gods.
of the
feet,
and the surface
divided by three or more
work of
it
into
sections on
The sarcophagus
of
this period.^
B.M No; nil.

.
drawing and inscriptions, see Lepsius, Denhmaler,
Bl.
ii3d-g.
Sar^f^î^g^
Middle
"^^"^
'
312
In
XlXth dynasty
the
smaller, but
They
preceding dynasty.
Sarof Seti
are
from those of the
little
usually
made
of
granite,
was also used. This

.J
magnihcent object and its cover were mscnbed mside and
out with scenes and inscriptions from the " Book of being in
the Underworld," inlaid with a pigment of a light greenishblue colour.
The cover was broken in trying to open it,
sarcophagus
but the
itself is intact, and is preserved in Sir
the inscriptions were published by
John Soane's Museum
Bonomi, Sarcophagus of Oi Meneptah, London, 1864, and
but alabaster, as in that of Seti
cophagus
somewhat
sarcophagi become
otherwise differ very
I.,
..,,..,
Records of the Past, vol. X., pp. 79 ff. The

which underlies these scenes is that, just as the
life of a man is identified with the course of the sun by
day, so the life of the soul after death is identified with
the passage of the sun in the nether-world, through which
for translations see
chief idea
The
he was supposed to travel during the night.

represent the various
beings
who
son of
Isis
Horus, are
parts
dwell in them
and
all
Osiris,
scenes
of the nether-world, and

Isis
the
and Nephthys, Horus the
Seb and Nut, the
four children of
inscribed on sarcophagi of this period, and
were supposed to
assist in protecting the deceased,
identified with Osiris.
all
who was
In this dynasty, large, painted, wooden
sarcophagi, in the form of
mummies,
are also
common
at
Thebes.
In the
Cover of
cophaeus
ofRaTTIGSCS
HI
XXth
dynasty, granite was
much used
for sarco-
P^^Sij but the form has changed, and the deceased is

represented lying on the cover.
He wears a thick, square
beard, his hands

in
them
-t-,
h,
are freed
and
from their bandages, and hold
beneath the long tunic the
feet
appear, and on the sides of the sarcophagus are figures of
the four children of Horus and of other funereal gods.
most interesting example of this period is the sarcophagus

of Rameses III., which is made in the form of a cartouche
C
:>
the cover
a description of
is
in the
is
preserved in the Fitzwilliam
it
see the Catalogue),
Museum
of the Louvre.
On
Museum
(for
and the sarcophagus

the head, outside,
is
the figure of Nephthys, with outstretched wings, emblematic
SARCOPHAGI.
of her protection of Osiris
and
the inscriptions give the
On
in the nether-world.
the other side,
also with outstretched wings
by the
on one side
is
feet, is
sun
I sis,
Ap-uat, and on
The two
the other Anubis, each jackal-headed.
names
of the king, and refer to the course of the
titles
sides are
ornamented with scenes and inscriptions referring to the

passage of the sun, who is being towed along in his boat
through the various divisions of the nether-world by their
gods, and to his attack, defeat, and slaughter of Apepi,
Two scenes at the feet, in which Neith
his chief enemy.
and Isis promise to put together the limbs of Osiris,
complete the ornamentation of the outside.^
At the
head, inside, are the solar disk, a mummy with a disk and
star on his head, and a head of a goddess on each side
holding out an arm, the hand of which supports a being
who pours out water on the head of the deceased in the
form of a
On
mummy.
phallic god, hawks,
etc.,
the sides
are figures of an ithy-
forming scenes from the
"
Book of
Under- world." At the foot is the god Chepera

which are twined the folds of a serpent
around
in a disk
above is the head of a ram being adored by figures of the
king, by the sides of which are the cartouches of Rameses III.
On the bottom of the sarcophagus is the figure of Hathor,
goddess of Amenta, with wings outstretched to receive the
being
in the
deceased.
of the XXVIth dynasty are usually
and are made of green and black basalt, and
variegated hard stone. Many of the scenes and inscriptions
upon them are copied from sarcophagi of the XlXth and
The
sarcophagi
rectangular,
XXth
Dead
dynasties,
but long extracts from the Book of the
are characteristic of this period, and
some sarcophagi
Sar-
such funereal inscriptions,^ with ^heNew^

the exception of the spaces occupied by the figures of the Empire,
deceased and Nut, on the outside and inside of the cover
are covered
entirely with
respectively,
and the
For a
fuller description
Monuments au
Miisee
Beitrdge, 2-5, Bl.

*
figure of
Hathor on the bottom
of this sarcophagus see
du Louvre,
Paris,
1872, pp.
De Rouge,
173-175, and
6.
E.g., the sarcophagus of Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra,
B.M. No.
32.
inside.
Notice
des
Seyffarth,
314
Such sarcophagi are beautifully sculptured, carefully inscribed,

and the attention given to detail is marvellous.
After the XXVIth dynasty sarcophagi are sometimes
rounded at the head, and the covers have human faces they
are ornamented with rows of figures of gods, the four
;
number of genii of the netherworld, and

which state that they have taken the deceased
under their protection. Rectangular sarcophagi which taper
slightly towards the feet, and are narrower at the base than
children of Horus, a
inscriptions
at the top, are also
common.
XXXth
dynasty massive sarcophagi of granite,

highly polished and beautifully
sculptured, become very plentiful
they are found chiefly
The inscriptions and scenes upon them
in Lower Egypt.
In the
basalt
and
agglomerate,
more or
are extracts,
in
the
less
complete, from the "
Under-world," and, in
resemble those of the earlier dynasties

this period is the
Sar-
Under
of^the^^
sarcophagi became very
Grasco-
parts, viz., the
period.
common
they
greatly
a fine example of
sarcophagus of Nectanebus
I.,
B.M. No.
lo.
and Romans wooden
rule of the Ptolemies
the
Book of being
arrangement,
they consisted of two
board upon which the deceased
and the rectangular, vaulted
in his coffin
which is, at
times, as much as eighteen inches high.
The planks from
which the covers are made are rarely more than an inch thick,
and they are let into four rectangular uprights, which are
was
laid,
often
made
of a hard
cover has, at times,
cover,
wood with a fine texture. The vaulted

a gilded hawk upon the top, and a
cornice running round the four sides
board, upon which the
coffin stood,
it
by
was fastened
its
to the
uprights, one at
each corner, which, projecting slightly below the lower edge

of the sides, fitted into four rectangular cavities cut in the
board.
The
inside
and outside of the vaulted cover are
painted in gaudy colours with figures of the gods, the signs
when the
name and that of his father were
The mummies which belong to
of the Zodiac, and inscriptions in hieroglyphics
deceased was a Greek, his

also inscribed in Greek.
such
coffins are
covered over with a linen cloth on which
is
painted the god Osiris, with the features of the deceased,
wearing the atef crown, and holding
and
\;
on each
THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS.

side of
and
315
him are two of the children of Horus.
The
inscriptions on the sarcophagi of this period
scenes
show
that
the people of Eg}'pt had ceased to attach any importance

to
their
meaning,
and
they
simply
appear
decorations, without which the sarcophagi
as
funereal
would have been
incomplete.
The Egyptian Tombs,

The extreme
care which the Egyptians took to preserve
the bodies of their dead would have been
all in vain, if
they
had not provided secure resting places for their mummies.

To guard the mummy intact and ready for the return of the
soul, it was necessary to provide tombs which should be
safe from the attacks of human beings and from the
prowlings of wild animals, and also out of the reach of the
infiltration
itself.
of the waters of the Nile, or of the inundation
If the preservation of a
mummy
was regarded as a
sacred duty to be performed by the relatives of the deceased,
who were morally bound to show all honour to it, and

spend their money freely on whatever was necessary for
adornment,
follows of a necessity that a house or
it
to
its
tomb
meet for the habitation of the ka, and for the soul after it
had been decreed triumphant in the judgment hall of Osiris,
must also be provided. The size and beauty of a tomb and
depended, as much
as the making of the

means at the disposal of the relatives of
a deceased person.
Every person in Egypt knew perfectly
its
furniture
mummy, upon
the
well that to ensure the resurrection of his body, after the
pure soul had returned to inhabit

every part of
it
it,
it
was necessary that
should be preserved in a fitting state, but
was not able to afford the costly

embalming, and the still more costly furniture and tomb and
procession which were, no doubt, held by the wealthy
to be absolutely necessary for " living a second time."
The burial of the very poor of Egypt must have been
much the same in all times and in r.ll dynasties. The body,
having been salted only, was laid in the sand to a depth
of three or four feet, without covering, without ornament,
and even without a coffin sometimes even the salting was
nevertheless, every person
Double
R^JP^^
Eg)'ptian
tomb.
3i6
Drying
qualities of
Egj'ptian
sand.
The drying up
dispensed with.
of the sand of
few years ago Sir C.
Rolled Smith, K.C.B., while making some excavations among
Egypt
are very remarkable.
the ruins of a temple at
qualities
Some
Wady
Halfah, on the west bank of
the river, dug up a box, which, having been opened, was
European
on making
inquiries he found that an English engineer had died there
about a dozen years before.
The hair and beard and
seen
to
contain
the
body
of
features were unaltered as far as appearance went, but the
skin had dried up like parchment, and the
much
smaller.
-S
U)
body had become
In tombs of the lower classes of the Ancient
THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS.
I.
Three Mastabas
z^^y
at Gizeh.
3.
2.
Entrance to a Mastaba at Sakkarab.
Plan of a Mastaba
with four serdabs.
3^8
Empire, the remains of the dead consist chiefly of light

yellow bones.
Sometimes the body of the dead was
protected by walls of poorly
The tombs
made
the wealthy were
of
and a vaulted roof
bricks,
made
in
mastabas, pyramids, and series of chambers
The mastaba tomb.
the shape of
hewn
in
the
mountains on the eastern and western banks of the Nile.

One of the earliest forms of the building which marks
the site of an Egyptian tomb is the mastaba,^ the finest
examples of which were built at Sakkarah it was called
;
4.
Longitudinal section of a Mastaba.
Transverse section of the chamber of a Mastaba.
mastaba by the Arabs because its length, in proportion to

height, is great, and reminded them of the long, low seat
common in Oriental houses, and familiar to them. The
mastaba is a heavy massive building, of rectangular shape,
the four sides of which are four walls symmetrically inclined
its
towards their
^
From
common
the Arabic
centre.
vL-^
The
The
facts here given
are derived from the excellent articles of

S.
2'"'=, t.
xix. p. 8
fir.
exterior surfaces are not

on the subject of mastabas
M. Marietta
in
Kcvue Archiologiqiu^
THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS.

flat,
laid
for the face of

vertically,
is
319
each course of masonry, formed of stones

little behind the one beneath it, and if
these recesses were a
deeper, the external appearance
little
of each side of the building would resemble a flight of steps.

The stones which form the mastabas are of a moderate size,
and with the exception of those used for the ceiling and
The
architrave, have an average height of 18 or 20 inches.
height and length of the mastaba vary the largest measures
about 170 feet long by 86 feet wide, and the smallest about
26 feet long by 20 feet wide they vary in height from 1 3 to
The ground at Sakkarah is formed of calcareous
30 feet.
the
rock covered to the depth of a few feet with sand
foundations of the mastabas are always on the solid rock.
The plan of the mastaba is a rectangle, and the greater axis
of the rectangle is, without exception, in the direction from
Plan and
^Tstabas?
Moreover,
pyramids of Gizeh,
where the mastabas are arranged symmetrically, the
plan of their arrangement
north to south.
at the
is
like
chess-board,
the
squares of which are uni-
formly
towards
Mastabas then
elongated
the north.
6.
Transverse section at the

3^^^^,^
bottom
,^^^^^ of
^j a
^ serdab.
are oriented astronomically
towards the true north, and
Orienta-
in the cases
where they are a
fewj
^""^^bas
degrees out, this diflerence must be attributed not to design
but to negligence.
It
has been asserted that mastabas are only
unfinished pyramids, but properly considered,
it is
evident that
they form a class of buildings by themselves, and that they
have nothing in common with the pyramid, save in respect of

being oriented towards the north, this orientation being the
result, not of a studied imitation of the pyramid, but of a
religious intention, which at this early period influenced thej
construction of all tombs, whatever their external form. Thel
mastabas at Sakkarah are built of stone and brick the stone
employed
is
of two kinds, the one being very hard, and of a
bluish-grey colour, and the other being comparatively
of a yellowish colour.
The
soft,
and
bricks also are of two kinds, the
320
one yellowish, and the other black
The
only.
both sorts were sun-dried
bricks of a yellowish colour
seem
to have been
used entirely during the earliest dynasties, and the black

ones only appear with the second half of the IVth dynasty.
However carefully the outside of

is composed of sand, pieces
the mastaba was built, the

of stone thrown in without
inside
design or arrangement, rubble, rubbish,

outside walls holding
perished long since.
the most important,

,
rf^/yy/y^-r^y/
all
together
The
for,
face of the
eastern
north-east
five,
mastaba
Some
corner
is
the entrance
sometimes,
is
it
rarely, bare.
for the
of them must have
four times out of

is in it
/'--X'^^y/A '''f////
and but
etc.,
many
very
biit
yards from the

is,
at
times,
very high, narrow opening, at the
bottom of which the masonry of

the mastaba itself assumes the form
of long vertical grooves, which distinguish the stelae of this epoch

stele,
sometimes takes the place of

The
in
At
opening.
stele
mas-
feet
tabas.
is
from
larger,
;
south-east
this
some
corner
deeper and more carefully

at the
ous stone
upper chamber, the
and the sarcophagus
chamber of a Mastaba.
a distance of
the
sometimes a
pit,
generally another opening, but
made
The
with or without inscription,
bottom of
this
is
fine inscribed calcare-
stele,
and sometimes a
small architectural fagade,

centre of which
is
a door.
in
the
When
the eastern face has the opening

which has just been described, the
mastaba has no interior chamber, for this opening takes its
When the mastaba has the facade in the place of the
place.
at the south-east corner
a chamber within.
opening, there
is
the mastaba
made on
is
When
the entrance to
the north side, the facade
is
brought
back to the end of a kind of vestibule, and at the front of

this vestibule are set up two monolithic columns, without
abacus, and without base, which support the architrave,
which supports the ceiling. The entrance to the mastaba is
THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS.
321
sometimes made from the south, but never from the west j ^ . ^
the top of the mastaba is quite flat.
r
The interior of the complete mastaba consists of three The
parts, the chamber, the serdab, and the pit.
Having entered ^^mbe^
the Chamber by the door in the side, it is found to be either
without any ornamentation whatever, or to be covered with
sculptures.
At the bottom of the chamber usually facing the
;
'
8.
east, is a stele,
is
Mastaba
which, whether the walls are inscribed or not,
always inscribed.
ground,
is
at Gizeh with double pit.
At the
foot of the stele, on the bare
often a table of offerings
or calcareous stone
are often found at
two
obelisks, or
made
each side of this
table.
things the chamber has no furniture, and

B.
M.
of granite, alabaster,
two supports
it
for offerings,
Besides these
rarely has a door,
322
Not
from the chamber, oftener to the south than to the

and oftener to the north than to the west, is a lofty but
narrow nook hidden in the thickness of the masonry, and built
with large stones this nook is called the Serdab.'
Sometimes
the serdab has no communication whatever with the other
parts of the mastaba, but sometimes a rectangular passage, so
far
north,
Use of
the serdab.
^^^^^^^^^M
9.
Figfures in relief in
a Mastaba at Gizeh.
Vth dynasty,
narrow that the hand can only be inserted with difficulty,

leads from the serdab into the chamber
in the serdab statues
;
of the deceased were placed and the narrow passage served

Âserddb, c_->L^-j5
strictly
chamber, with a large opening
speaking,
is
a lofty,
in the north side to
admit
vaulted,
subterranean
air in the hot weather.
THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS.
323
;';;s^^^\xS^^, v.^ssîSisssimsssssjsis?^
10.
West
wall of a chamber
in the
tomb
of Ptah-hetep.
Vth dynasty.
Y 2
324
to conduct to
them the smoke of incense or perfume.
The
never inscribed, and nothing but

statues, inscribed with the names and titles of the persons
whom they represented, have ever been found in them.
interior
of the serdab
is
Statues were at times placed in the court in front of the
DU
The
mastaba.
pit,
square or rectangular in form, but jiever
round[, leads to the
chamber where the
mummy
was
laid
situated in the middle of the greater axis of the mastaba
it is
nearer to the north than the south, and varies in depth from
The mastaba pit
and sarcophagus
chamber.
40 to 80 feet. The top part of the pit where it passes

through the platform on which the mastaba stands, is built of
There was neither ladder nor staircase,
fine large stones.
leading to the funereal chamber at the bottom of the pit,
hence the coffin and the mummy when once there Avere
inaccessible. At the bottom of the pit, on the south side, is an
opening into a passage from four to five feet high
this
;
passage leads obliquely to the south-east, in the same direction

as the upper chamber, and soon after increases in size in all
and thus becomes the sarcophagus chamber. This

exactly under the upper chamber, and the
the
deceased in standing there, would have the derelatives of
ceased beneath their feet. In one corner of the lower chamber
directions,
chamber
is
stood the rectangular sarcophagus
made
of
fine calcareous
stone, rose granite or black basalt; the top of the cover
rounded.
The upper chamber contained no
was
statues, ushabtiu
figures, amulets, canopic jars, nor any of the numerous things

which formed the furniture of the tomb in later times in the
sarcophagus were, at times, a pillow or a few vases, but little
When the body had been placed in the sarcophagus,
else.
and the cover of the sarcophagus had been cemented down
on it, the entrance to the passage at the bottom of the pit
was walled up, the pit itself was filled with stones, earth and
sand, and the deceased was thus preserved from all ordinary
;
chances of disturbance.
Characteristics
of the
earliest
mastabas.
The tombs
of the
first
of the mastaba class stop suddenly at the end
six dynasties
of
tombs belonging
to
one of the
M. Mariette found 4 at Sakkarah of

of the Vth dynasty 61
and of the
the IVth dynasty 43
Vlth djmasty 25. The mastabas of the first three dynasties
first
three dynasties,
THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS.
325
have but one upper chamber, which is built of brick, the

stelae are very deeply cut, the hieroglyphics and the figures
are in relief, and display more vigour than at any other time
the inscriptions are terse, and the use of phonetic signs less
common than in later times. These tombs can hardly be
said to be oriented at all, for they are, at times, as much as
In the second half of
twelve degrees west of the true north.
the IVth dynasty, mastabas have a size and extent hitherto
unknown they are either built entirely of black brick or of
Their orientation becomes accurate, the figures and
stone.
;
hieroglyphics are well executed, the formulae
become
fixed,
which are very numerous, unite

the vigour of those of the first half of the IVth with the
The famous wooden
delicacy of those of the Vth dynasty.
and the statues
statue of the
in the serdabs,
Shekh el-Beled belongs
dynasty mastabas are not so

of stone
In the
Vth
they are always built
more chambers than
inside there are
to this time.
large, but
one, approached
by long passages, and the statues are not so characteristic

as those of the latter half of the
IVth dynasty. The mastabas

decided decadence, and lose
of the Vlth dynasty show
their fine proportions
figures
become
formulas
the
are
in
light
and the chambers are
longer,
and covered with thin sculptured slabs of
the
relief,
built of brick
stone.
The walls of the upper chambers of mastabas were

frequently
Mariette,
religious
ployed
covered
with
scenes
which, according
M.
lo
are without any representation of divinities and

emblems, the names of deities, and characters em-
in
the course of writing naturally excepted.
The
which asks the god Anubis to grant a happy

burial to the deceased, after a long and happy old age, to
make his way easy for him on the roads in the underworld,
and to grant the bringing to the tomb a perpetual supply
inscription
of funereal
gifts, is
inscribed in bold hieroglyphics over the
and upon the most conspicuous

on the stelae in the upper chamber. The scenes
depicted on the walls of the mastabas are divided by
entrances to the tomb,

places
Mariette into three classes:
and
3,
are
found
Biographical,
i.
those relating to funereal

in
tombs
of
all
gifts.
periods.
2,
Sepulchral,
Biographical scenes
The deceased
is
Ornameu^^}^^
mastaba.
326
represented
hunting
or
fishing,
taking
part
in
pleasure
excursions by water, and Hstening to music played before
him accompanied by the dancing of women

he is also
represented as overseer of a number of building operations
;
which many workmen are employed.
tolerably
Scenes
in
and
and that they

were painted while the person who hoped to occupy the tomb
was still alive, and could direct the labours of the artist.
The prayer that the deceased might enter his tomb after a
in-
scriptions.
certain that
these scenes
are
not
It
is
fictitious,
ni
>>
a
J3
>
S
THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS.

long and prosperous
not possess
if
the
life
327
has a significance which
tomb were made
after
sepulchral scenes refer to the passage of the
boat to Amenta.
The
scenes
relating
to
it
his death.
mummy
sepulchral
could
The
in
gifts
Bakers making Bread.
From a Vth dynasty Tomb
at Sakkarah.
Cattle on the March.
From a Vth dynasty Tomb
at Sakkarah.
328
represent the deceased, having colossal proportions compared
with the other
figures,
table before him,
upon which
sitting
or
standing with a round
fruits, flowers,
vegetables, ducks,
haunches of beef, etc., etc., are placed. These offerings are

sometimes carried in before the deceased on the head or
hands of servants and others, who often lead beasts appointed
for slaughter
they were brought into the tomb in an
appointed order, and an endowment to ensure their presentation in the tomb on the specified festivals and seasons
The scenes in the tombs which
was specially provided.
;
represent agricultural labours, the
making of wine,
have reference to the bringing of funereal
Endowment of
all
tombs.
seems
that certam estates
Â/wv\
gifts
etc., etc.,
and
it
<:j__^^^
^^.1
nut ent pa
t'etta,
"estates of the house of everlasting" {i.e., the tomb), were

set apart to supply palm branches, fruit, etc., for the table
The
tomb
was probably connected with
some religious ceremony, which seems to have consisted in
pouring out libations and offering incense, bandages, etc., by
of the dead.
the
at
appointed
the
f^
the
tomb
act of bringing
seasons
^'k:s^^^ cher heb or
^1
these gifts to the
pa
t'etta, "
"priest.
The Egyptian
called
the everlasting house," and he
believed that the ka LJ or "genius" of the deceased resided
there as long as the
mummy
of his
The ka might go
perishable body, tT^
was
and out of the tomb,
and refresh itself with meat and drink, but it never failed
to go back to the mummy with the name of which it seems
there.
cha,
to have been closely connected
'^
;'
the
in
^^
ba or
soul,
and the
c/m or intelligence did not live in the tomb.
The Pyramids.
The royal tombs of the early dynasties were built in the
form of pyramids, and they are, to all intents and purposes,
merely mastabas, the greater parts of which are above
^
Herz und Leib vereint bilden das
oder die Personlichkeit des Menschen,
das
mit
dem Individuum eigenthiimliche Wesen, die ihn von andern unterscheidet und
seinem Namen in engster Verbindung steht. Brugsch, Die Aegyptologie,
p. i8i.
THE PYRAMIDS.
329
ground they consist of the chamber in which funereal gifts

were offered, the passage and the sarcophagus chamber. The
actual pjTamid contamed the passage and the sarcophagus
chamber, but although the chamber, sometimes called temple
or chapel, in which funereal gifts were offered, was a building
separate from the pyramid, it nevertheless formed an integral
part of the pyramid plan.
On the western bank of the Nile,
from Abu Roash on the north to Medum on the south, is
a slightly elevated tract of land, about twenty-five miles
long, on the edge of the Libyan desert, on which stand the
;
E
a
>>
PU
E
0)
E
oi
u
>,
0.
Pyramids
are tombs.
330
pyramids of Abu Roash, Gizch, Zawyet el-'Aryan, Abusir,

Sakkarah, and Dahshur.
Other places in Egypt where
pyramids are found are El-lahun in the Fayyum, and Kullah
near Esneh. The pyramids built by the Ethiopians at Meroe
and Gebel Barkal are of a very late date (B.C. 600-100) and
are mere copies, in respect of form only, of the pyramids in
Egypt.
There is no evidence whatever to show that they
were built for purposes of astronomical observations, and the
theory that the Great Pyramid was built to serve as a
standard of measurement is ingenious but worthless.
The
significant fact, so ably pointed out
mids are only found

theories.
until
the
in
cemeteries,
Tomb-pyramids were
Xllth dynasty.
The
by Mariette, that pyra-
is
built
an answer to all such

by kings and others
ancient writers
who have
described and treated of the pyramids are given by Pliny

(Nat. Hist., xxxvi. 12, 17).
If
we may
believe
some of the
on them during the Middle Ages, their outsides must

have been covered with inscriptions these were probably
of a religious nature.^
In modern times they have been
examined by Shaw (172 1), Pococke (1743), Niebuhr (1761),
Davison (1763), Bruce (176S), Denon and Jumard (1799),
Hamilton (1801), Caviglia (1817), Belzoni (1817), Wilkinson (183 1), Howard Vyse and Perring (1837-38), Lepsius
(1842-45), and Petrie (1881).
j^ appears that before the actual building of a pyramid
was begun, a suitable rocky site was chosen and cleared,
a mass of rock if possible being left in the middle of the
The chambers and
area to form the core of the building.
galleries leading to them were next planned and excavated.
Around the core a truncated pyramid building was made,
the angles of which were filled up with blocks of stone.
Layet after layer of stone was then built round the work,
which grew larger and larger until it was finished.
Dr.
Lepsius thought that when a king ascended the throne, he
built for himself a small but complete tomb-pyramid, and
that a fresh coating of stone was built round it every
writers
The
build-
pyramid,
"
their
surfaces
exhibit all kinds of inscriptions written in the
characters of ancient nations which
writing
is
or
what
it
signifies."
no longer
Mas'udi
(ed.
exist.
No
one knows what
Barbier de Meynard),
t.
ii.
this
p. 404.
THE GREAT PYRAMID.

year that he reigned
when he died the
that
33
sides of the
pyramid were Hke long flights of steps, which his successor

filled up with right-angled triangular blocks of stone
and
that the door of the pyramid was walled up after the body of
its builder had been laid in it, and thus it became a finished
;
The explanation
tomb.
but at least
it
of Dr. Lepsius
may
not be correct,
answers satisfactorily more objections than do
the views of other theorists on this
matter.
has been
It
pointed out that near the core of the pyramid the work
more
carefully executed than
near the exterior, that
say, as the time for the king's death
is
is
to
approached the work
was more hurriedly performed.

During the investigations made by Lepsius in and around
the pyramid area, he found the remains of about seventyfive pyramids, and noticed that they were always built in
groups.
The pyramids
were opened by the Persians
of Gizeh
violation
of Pyâduring
it is
the fifth and fourth centuries before Christ
mids by
probable that they were also entered by the Romans. Khalif the
;
Mamun
813-833) entered the Great Pyramid, and

found that others had been there before him. The treasure
which is said to have been discovered there by him is
probably fictitious. Once opened, it must have been evident
to every one what splendid quarries the pyramids formed,
and very few hundred years after the conquest of Egypt
(a.D.
by the Arabs, they were
under contribution for stone to

At the end of the twelfth
century Melik el-Kamil made a mad attempt to destroy the
pyramid built by Mycerinus but after months of toil he only
succeeded in stripping off the covering from one of the sides.
It is said that Muhammad 'Ali was advised to undertake the
senseless task of destroying them all.
The most important
pyramids and groups of pyramids are the following
build
mosques,
etc.,
laid
Cairo.
in
The Great Pyramid.

This, the largest of the three pyramids at Gizeh,
by Chufu
lYth dynasty,
^'<^=
B.C. 3733,
was
built
or Cheops, the second king of the

I
who
called
it
^ [-^ ^ Cha.
His
^"^^^"^
332
name was found

Pyramid
inside
it.
written in red ink
upon the blocks of stone
All four sides measure in greatest length about
755 feet each, but the length of each was originally about
its height now is 45 1 feet, but it is said to
20 feet more
originally
have been
about 481 feet. The stone used in the
construction of this pyramid was brought from Turra and
;
Mokattam, and the contents amount to 85,000,000 cubic feet.

flat space at the top of the pyramid is about thirty feet
square, and the view from it is very fine.
The entrance (a) to this pyramid is, as with all pyramids,
on the north side, and is about 43 feet above the ground.
The passage ABC is 320 feet long, 3^ feet high, and 4 feet
wide at 1? is a granite door, round which the path at D has
been made. The passage at D E is 125 feet long, and the
large hall E F is 155 feet long and 28 feet high
the passage E G leads to the pointed-roofed Queen's Chamber H,
which measures about 17 x 19 x 20 feet. The roofing in
of this chamber is a beautiful piece of mason's work.
From
the large hall E F there leads a passage 22 feet long, the antechamber in which was originally closed by four granite
doors, remains of which are still visible, into the King's
Chamber, j, which is lined with granite, and measures about
The five hollow chambers K, L, M, N, O
35 X 17 X 19 feet.
were built above the King's Chamber to lighten the pressure
of the superincumbent mass.
In chamber O the name Chufu
was found written
The air shafts P and Q measure 234
feet X 8 inches x 6 inches, and 174 feet x 8 inches x 6
inches respectively.
A shaft from E to R leads down to the
subterranean chamber S, which measures 46 x 27 x 10^ feet.
The floor of the King's Chamber, j, is about 140 feet from
the level of the base of the pyramid, and the chamber is a
little to the south-east of the line drawn from T to u.
Inside the chamber lies the empty, coverless, broken, red
granite sarcophagus of Cheops, measuring 7j x si x Si feet.
The account of the building of this pyramid is told by
" Now, they told me, that to the
Herodotus^ as follows
reign of Rhampsinitus there was a perfect distribution
The
J3
Bk.
ii.
124-126.
THE GREAT PYRAMID.
335
d.
^
.:sy
43
.-y\
a
-^y
E
2
-y
>
J3
u
o
o
E
g
a.
(0
334
of justice, and that

prosperity
Herodotus
building
of the
Great
Pyramid,
all
Egypt was
high
in
state
of
but that after him Cheops, coming to reign over
them, plunged into every kind of wickedness.

For that,
having shut up all the temples, he first of all forbade them to
and afterwards he ordered all the Egyptians

-' ^
work for himsclf; some, accordingly, were appointed to
draw stones from the quarries in the Arabian mountain
offer sacrifice,
to
down to the Nile, others he ordered to receive the stones

when transported in vessels across the river, and to drag
them to the mountain called the Libyan.
And they worked
to the number of 100,000 men at a time, each party during
three months. The time during which the people were thus
harassed by toil, lasted ten years on the road which they
constructed,
my
in
length
five
is
they drew
along which
much
opinion, not
less
stades (3,021
the
feet),
and
its
a work,
stones,
than the pyramid
for its
width ten orgyae
and its height, where it is the highest, eight orgyae

and it is of polished stone, with figures carved on
(48 feet)
it
on this road then ten years were expended, and in
forming the subterraneous apartments on the hill, on which
the pyramids stand, which he had made as a burial vault for
himself, in an island, formed by draining a canal from the
Nile.
Twenty years were spent in erecting the pyramid
itself: of this, which is square, each face is eight plethra
it is composed of
(820 feet), and the height is the same
polished stones, and jointed with the greatest exactness
none of the stones are less than thirty feet. This pyramid
in the form of steps, which some call
was built thus
When they had first built it in
crossae, others bomides.
this manner, they raised the remaining stones by machines
made of short pieces of wood having lifted them from the
ground to the first range of steps, when the stone arrived
there, it was put on another machine that stood ready on
and from this it was drawn to the second
the first range
range on another machine for the machines were equal in
or they removed the
number to the ranges of steps
machine, which was only one, and portable, to each range in
succession, whenever they wished to raise the stone higher
(60
feet),
for
should relate
it
in
both ways, as
it
is
related.
The
THE SECOND PYRAMID.
335
it, therefore, were

first finished, and afterwards they completed the parts next following but last of
all they finished the parts on the ground, and that were
low<:st.
On the pyramid is shown an inscription, in
Egyptian characters, how much was expended in radishes,
which the interpreter,*
onions, and garlic, for the workmen
well
remember,
reading
the
inscription, told me
as I
amounted to i,6oo talents of silver. And if this be really
the case, how much more was probably expended in iron
tools, in bread, and in clothes for the labourers, since they
occupied in building the works the time which I mentioned,
and no short time besides, as I think, in cutting and drawing
the stones, and in forming the subterraneous excavation.
[It is related] that Cheops reached such a degree of infamy,
that being in want of money, he prostituted his own daughter
in a brothel, and ordered her to extort, they did not say
how much but she exacted a certain sum of money,
and contrived
privately, as much as her father ordered her
to leave a monument of herself, and asked every one that
came in to her to give her a stone towards the edifice she
designed of these stones they said the pyramid was built
that stands in the middle of the three, before the great
pyramid, each side of which is a plethron and a half in
highest parts of
length."
(Gary's translation.)
The Second Pyramid.

The second pyramid
(Qj!L~_o|,
at
Gizeh was
built
by Cha-f-Ra,
or Chephren, the third -king of the IVth dy-
nasty, B.C. 3666,
who
called
it
'^=?
,^,
7ir.
His name has
not been found inscribed upon any part of it, but the fragment of a marble sphere inscribed with the name of Cha-f-Ra,
Herodotus was deceived by his interpreter, who clearly made up a translaWilliam of Pjaldensel, who
which he did not understand.
lived in the fourteenth century, tells us that the outer coating of the two largest
pyramids was covered with a great number of inscriptions arranged in lines.
(Wiedemann, Aeg. Geschichte, p. 179.) If the outsides were actually inscribed,
*
tion of an inscription
the text must have been purely religious, like those inscribed inside the pyramids
of Pepi, Teta,
and Unas.
Herodotus
ûiidhie
of the
pyramid,
336
which was found near the temple, close by this pyramid,

the statements of Herodotus
and
Diodorus
confirms
Siculus, that
Pyramid
of
Chephren.
Chephren
built
it.
statue of this king,
now
Gizeh Museum, was found in the granite temple

close by.
This pyramid appears to be larger than the
Great Pyramid because it stands upon a higher level of stone
foundation it was cased with stone originally and polished,
in
the
but the greater part of the outer casing has disappeared.
An
ascent of this pyramid can only be
was
made with
difficulty.
by Belzoni (born 1778,

died 1823), the discoverer of the tomb of Seti I. and of the
temple of Rameses II. at Abu Simbel. In the north side of
It
first
explored
in
i8i6
the pyramid are two openings, one at the base and one about
50 feet above
it.
The upper opening
105 feet long, which descends into a
leads into a corridor
chamber 46^ x
i6g- x 22^
which held the granite sarcophagus in which Chephren
was buried. The lower opening leads into a corridor about
100 feet long, which, first descending and then ascending,
ends in the chamber mentioned above, which is usually called
The actual height is about 450 feet, and
Belzoni's Chamber.
the length of each side at the base about 700 feet.
The rock
upon which the pyramid stands has been scarped on the
The
north and west sides to make the foundation level.
history of the building of the pyramid is thus stated by
Herodotus^ " The Egyptians say that this Cheops reigned
and when he died, his brother Chephren sucfifty years
and he followed the same practices
ceeded to the kingdom
as the other, both in other respects, and in building a
which does not come up to the dimensions of his
pyramid
nor has it subbrother's, for I myself measured them
nor does a channel from the Nile flow
terraneous chambers
but this flows through an artificial
to it, as to the other
aqueduct round an island within, in which they say the body
Having laid the first course of variegated
of Cheops is laid.
feet,
Pyramid
of
Chephren.
Ethiopian stones, less in height than the other by forty feet,

he built it near the large pyramid. They both stand on the
same hill, which is about 100 feet high. Chephren, they said,
reigned fifty-six years.
Thus 106 years are reckoned, during
1
Bk.
ii.
127.
THE THIRD PYRAMID.

M'hicli
the E{]^yptians suffered
this length of
From
337
kinds of calamities, and for
all
time the temples were closed and never opened.
the hatred they bear them, the Egyptians are not very
mention their names
willing to
Philition, a
who
shepherd,
those parts,"
at
but
call
the pyramids after
that time kept his cattle in
The Third Pyramid.

The
f
oeiî^
third
l][^,
pyramid
at
Gizeh was built by Men-kau-Ra,
the fourth king of the IVth dynasty, about
Herodotus and other

3633, who called it <;^ ,^, Her.
ancient authors tell us that Men-kau-Ra, or Mycerinus, was Pyramid
B.C.
buried in this pyramid, but Manetho states that Nitocris, a

queen of the Vlth dynasty, was the builder. There can be,
however, but little doubt that it was built by Mycerinus, for
the sarcophagus and the remains of the inscribed coffin of
this king were found in one of its chambers by Howard Vyse
The sarcophagus, which measured 8 x 3 x 2-|- feet,
in 1837.
was lost through the wreck of the ship in which it was sent to
England, but the venerable fragments of the coffin are
preserved in the British Museum, and form one of the most
valuable objects in the famous collection of that institution.
The formula on it is one which is found upon coffins down to
the latest period, but as the date of Mycerinus is known, it is
possible to draw some interesting and valuable conclusions
from the fact that it is found upon his coffin. It proves
that as far back as 3,600 years before Christ the Egyptian
religion was established on a firm base, that the doctrine of
immortality was already deeply rooted in the human mind.
The
cerinus
human body by embalming was

and generally practised at that early
art of preserving the
also well understood

date.
The pyramid
1-1
built
Men-kau-Ra,
I'llof
like that of
r
upon a rock with a sloping surface
the surface in this case has been

courses of large blocks of stones.
Chephren,
is
the inequality of
made level by building up

Around the lower part the
remains of the old granite covering are visible to a depth of

B.
M.
Pyamid
"^f
^y'
cerinus.
338
from 30 to 40 feet. It is unfortunate that this pyramid has

been so much damaged
its injuries, however, enable the
;
it
was built, and it may be
concluded that the pyramids of Cheops and Chephren were
built in the same manner.
The length of each side at the
visitor
to
see
how
exactly
base is about 350 feet, and its height is variously given as

210 and 215 feet. The entrance is on the north side, about
thirteen feet above the ground, and a descending corridor
about 104 feet long, passing through an ante-chamber,
having a series of three granite doors, leads into one chamber
about 44 feet long.
In this chamber is a shaft which leads
down to the granite-lined chamber about 20 feet below,
in which were found the sarcophagus and wooden coffin
of Mycerinus, and the remains of a human body.
It is
thought that, in spite of the body of Mycerinus being buried
in this pyramid, it was left unfinished at the death of this
king, and that a succeeding ruler of Egypt finished the
pyramid and made a second chamber to hold his or her body.
At a short distance to the east of this pyramid are the ruins
of a temple which was probably used in connexion with the
In A.D, 1196 a
rites performed in honour of the dead king.
deliberate and systematic attempt was made to destroy this
pyramid by the command of the
Muhammadan
ruler
of
The account of the character of Mycerinus and of

pyramid as given by Herodotus is as follows: "They said
Egypt.
his
that
after
Egypt
him,
Mycerinus,l son of Cheops, reigned
that the conduct of his father was displeasing to
over
him
and that he opened the temples, and permitted the people,

who were worn down to the last extremity, to return to their
employments, and to sacrifices and that he made the most
;
Pyramid
of
My-
cerinus.
i^g^ decisions of all their kings.
On
this account, of all the
kings that ever reigned in Egypt, they praised him most, for
he both judged well in other respects, and moreover, when

any man complained of his decision, he used to make him
some present out of his own treasury and pacify his anger.
This king also left a pyramid much less than that of
on each side 20 feet short of three
father, being
his
quadrangular, and built half way up of
it is
plethra
;
'
Bk.
ii.
129, 134.
THE PYRAMIDS OF ABU ROASH AND ABUSIR
Some
Ethiopian stone.
339
of the Grecians erroneously say that
work of the courtesan Rhodopis but

they evidently appear to me ignorant who Rhodopis was
for they would not else have attributed to her the building
pyramid
this
is
the
such a pyramid, on which, so to speak, numberless thousands

of talents were expended
besides,
Rhodopis flourished in
for she was very
the reign of Amasis, and not at this time
many
years later than those kings
who
left
these pyramids.'
In one of the three small pyramids near that of Mycerinus
the
name
of this king
is
painted on the ceiling.
The Pvra^hls of Abu Roash.

These pyramids lie about six miles north of the
Pyramids of Gizeh, and are thought to be older than they.
Nothing remains of one except five or six courses of stone,
which show that the length of each side at the base was
about 350 feet, and a passage about 160 feet long leading
down to a subterranean chamber about 43 feet long. A pile
of stones close by marks the site of another pyramid
the
Of the age of these pyramids
others have disappeared.
nothing certain is known. The remains of a causeway about
a mile long leading to them are still visible.
;
The Pyramids of Abu sir.

These pyramids, originally fourteen in number, were Other
by kings of the Vth dynasty, but only four of them are S\h'vth
built
now
standing,
probably because of the poorness of
the
workmanship and the careless way in which they were

put together. The most northerly pyramid was built by
M3
o11%
dynasty,
B.C.
Sahu-Ra,
3333
its
the
second
actual height
is
king
of
about 120
the
Vth
feet,
and
The
the length of each side at the base about 220 feet.
sepulchral
chamber
are
exceptionally
the
in
stone
blocks of
large.
Sahu-Ra made war
in
the
peninsula of Sinai, he
z 2
dynasty,
340
founded a town near Esneh, and he

at Memphis.
The pyramid
to the south of that of
C.1P-==> 1"^(
by
built a
11^1
temple to Sechet
Sahu-Ra was
"Usr-e-Ra, son of the
This king, like Sahu-Ra, also made war
Still,
An."
The
largest of these
four
the
and 330 feet square
unknown. Abusir is the Busiris of
;
in Sinai.
now about 165 feet

name of its builder is
pyramids
high
built
is
Pliny.
The Step Pyramid of Sakkarah.

This pyramid
is
generally thought to have been built
the fourth king of the
Manetho, and
is
(]
^ "^
said to have built a
near Sakkarah.
oldest
pyramid,
Ata
by
dynasty (called Uenephes by

in
pyramid
the tablet of Abydos),

at
Though the date
Kochome
{i.e.,
who
Ka-Kam)
of this pyramid
is not
probably
right
to
known
assume that it is
The door which led into
older than the pyramids of Gizeh.
^j^^ pyramid was inscribed with the name of a king called
Ra-nub, and M. Mariette found the same name on one of
the stelse in the Serapeum. The steps of the pyramid are
accurately,
The
1st
it
is
and 29! feet

from six to seven feet.
The lengths of the sides at the base are north and south 352
feet, east and west 396 feet, and the actual height is 197 feet.
In shape this pyramid is oblong, and its sides do not exactly
The arrangement of the chambers
face the cardinal points.
six in number,
in height
and are about
38, 36, 34^, 32, 31
the width of each step
is
inside this
pyramid
is
quite peculiar to
itself.
The Pyramid of Unas r^^tjpj,
with
funereal
known
as
Mastabat el-Far'un," i.e., " Pharaoh's Mastaba," called in

Egyptian Nefer-as-u, lies to the south-east of the Step
Pyramid, and was reopened and cleared out in 1881 by M.
Maspero, at the expense of Messrs. Thomas Cook and Son.
Its original height was about 62 feet, and the length of each
Owing to the broken blocks
sjê at the basc 220 feet.
of sand which lie round about it, Vyse was unable to
Several attempts had been
gj^g exact measurements.
"
Pyramids
better
THE STEP I'VRAMID OF SAKKAKAII.

made
break
to
into
it,
34
and one of the Arabs who took
one of these attempts, " Ahmed the Carpenter,"

seems to have left his name inside one of the chambers in
red ink.
It is probable that he is the same man who
opened the Great Pyramid at Gizeh, A.D. 820. A black
basalt sarcophagus, from Avhich the cover had been dragged
off, an arm, a shin bone, and some ribs and fragments of
the skull from the mummy of Unas were found in the
sarcophagus chamber.
The walls of the two largest
chambers and two of the corridors are inscribed with ritual
texts and prayers of a very interesting character.
Unas, the
part
in
king of the Vth dynasty, reigned about thirty years.

The IMastabat el-Far'un was thought by Mariette to be the
tomb of Unas, but some scholars thought that the " blunted
pyramid " at Dahshur was his tomb, because his name was
last
written
upon the top of
it.
The Pyramid of Teta

Tet-asu,
opened
lies
in
("
I]
called
in
Egyptian
to the north-east of the Step Pyramid,
The Arabs
1881.
call
it
and was
the "Prison Pyramid,"
because local tradition says that it is built near the ruins of

Its
the prison where Joseph the patriarch was confined.
actual height
base
50
is
is
about 59
feet
the length of
its
sides at the
and the platform at the top is about

The arrangement of the chambers and passages
210
feet.
feet,
and the plan of construction followed is almost identical

This pyramid was
with that of the pyramid of Unas.
broken into in ancient days, and two of the walls of the
sarcophagus chamber have literally Ueen smashed to pieces
by the hammer blows of those who expected to find
treasure
inside
them.
The
inscriptions, painted
in
green
have the same subject matter as those

inscribed upon the walls of the chambers of the pyramid of
Unas. According to Manetho, Teta, the first king of the
upon the
walls,
Vlth dynasty, reigned about

by one of his guards.
The Pyramid of Pepi
I.,
fifty years,
or
and was murdered
f^TÎ %S C^Wj
"
R^-
meri, son of the Sun, Pepi," lies to the south-east of the
342
Step Pyramid, and forms one of the central group of

pyramids at Sakkarali, where it is called the Pyramid of
Shekh Abu Mansur; it was opened in 1880. Its actual
height is about 40 feet, and the length of the sides at
the base is about 250 feet
the arrangement of the
chambers, etc., inside is the same as in the pyramids of
Unas and Teta, but the ornamentation is slightly different.
It is the worst preserved of these pyramids, and has suffered
most at the hands of the spoilers, probably because having
been constructed with stones which were taken from tombs
ancient already in those days, instead of stones fresh from
The granite
the quarry, it was more easily injured.
sarcophagus was broken to take out the mummy, fragments
of which were found lying about on the ground the cover
too, smashed in pieces, lay on the ground
close by.
A small rose granite box, containing alabaster jars, was also
The inscriptions are,
found in the sarcophagus chamber.
like those inscribed on the walls of the pyramids of Unas
and Teta, of a religious nature some scholars see in them
evidence that the pyramid was usurped by another Pepi,
who lived at a much later period than the Vlth dynasty.
The pyramid of Pepi I., the second king of the Vlth
dynasty, who reigned, according to Manetho, fifty-three
years, was called in Eg)/ptian by the same name as Memphis,
;
i.e.,
Men-nefer, and numerous priests were attached to
its
service.
The Pyramids of Dahshur.

The
plramfd
These pyramids, four of stone and two of brick, lie about

^^^^^ ^"^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^ so\x\\\ of Mastabat el-Far'un.
The largest stone pyramid is about 326 feet high, and the
length of each side at the base is about 700 feet beneath
;
it
are
three
subterranean
chambers.
The second
stone
about 321 feet high, and the length of its sides

it is usually called the " Blunted
at the base is 620 feet
Pyramid," because the lowest parts of its sides are built at
one angle, and the completing parts at another. The larger
of the two brick pyramids is about 90 feet high, and the
pyramid
is
length of the sides at the base
is
about 350
feet
the smaller
TOMBS OF THE
is
is
about 156
about 343
feet high,
TIIEI5AN EMPIRE.
and the length of
its
343
sides at the base
feet.
The Pyramid of Medum.

This DATamid, called by the Arabs El-Haram el-Kaddah, Tombs of
Early and
or " the False Pyramid," is probably so named because it is Middle
unlike any of the other pyramids
to
have been built by Seneferu
of the IVth dynasty, but there

that he was the builder.
known
to
them
fpj^^^l,
is
the
it is
first
said
king
no indisputable evidence
is about 1 15 feet high,
The pyramid
and consists of three stages the first is 70, the second 20,
and the third about 25 feet high. The stone for this building
was brought from the Mokattam hills, but it seems never to
have been finished as in all other pyramids, the entrance is
on the north side. When opened in modern times the sarcophagus chamber was found empty, and it would seem that
this pyramid had been entered and riflled in ancient days.
:
Tombs of the Theban Empire.

Egyptian tombs belonging to a period subsequent to
i.e., about the Xllth dynasty,
usually have the three characteristic parts of these forms
of tomb, viz., the chapel, the passage to the sarcophagus
chamber, and the sarcophagus chamber itself excavated in
the mastabas and pyramids,
the solid rock
sometimes, however, the chapel or chamber
which the relatives of the deceased assembled from time to

time, is above ground and separate from the tomb, as in the
case of the pyramid. Tombs having the chapel separate
are the oldest, and the best examples are found at Abydos.^
On a brick base about 50 feet by 35 feet, and four or five feet
theohigh, rose a pyramid to a height of about 30 feet
retically such a tomb was supposed to consist of chapel,
in
Abydos
herissaient la necropole et
de
une necropole du Moyen Empire, c'est la petite

ces monuments, disposes sans ordre,
devaient lui donner un aspect pittoresque bien different
etant surtout
pyramide qui y domine.
Des centaines de
I'aspect des necropoles d'un autre temps.
18&0, p. 39.
Mariette, Abydos, lom. II.
Paris,
j^'^j^j^^j
^'^ P^'''"-
344
Tombs
passage and
at
^ ^'
pit,
but at Abydos, owing to the friable nature of
mummy was laid either

ground between the foundations, or in the masonry
itself, or in a chamber which projected from the building and
formed a part of it, or in a chamber beneath. This class of
tomb is common both at Thebes and Abydos. Tombs hewn
entirely out of the solid rock were used at all periods, and the
best examples of these are found in the mountains behind
Asyut, at Beni-Hasan, at Thebes, and at Aswan, The tombs
at Beni-Hasan are about fifteen in number, and they all
belong to the Xllth dynasty they have preserved the chief
characteristics of the mastabas at Sakkarah, that is to say,
they consist of a chamber and a shaft leading down to a
corridor, which ends in the chamber containing the sarcophagus and the mummy. The tombs rise tier above tier, and
the most
follow the course of the best layers of stone
important here are those of Ameni and Chnemu-hetep,
which are remarkable for possessing columns somewhat
resembling those subsequently called Dori c, hewn out of the
solid rock.
The columns inside the tomb have sixteen sides.
the rock, these do not exist, and the
in the
Tombs
at
HaTan.
'
The bold headland which

hills
rises up in the low range of

which faces the whole of the island of Elephantine, just
modern town of Aswan, has been found to be

honeycombed with tombs, tier above tier, of various
epochs.
In ancient days there was down at the water's edge
opposite to the
literally
a massive stone quay, from which a broad, fine double staircase, cut in the living rock,
about
1 50 feet higher.
ascended to a layer of firm rock

at Beni-Hasan, where
At Thebes and
such staircases must have existed, they have been destroyed,

Tombs
Aswan.
at
and only the traces remain to show that they ever existed.
At Aswan it is quite different, for the whole of this remarkable staircase is intact.
It begins at the bottom of the slope,
well above the highest point reached by the waters of the
Nile during the inundation, and following the outward curve
of the hill, ends in a platform in front of the highest tombs.
Between each set of steps which form the staircase is a smooth
slope, up which the cofiins and sarcophagi were drawn to the
tomb by the men who walked up the steps at each side. At
the bottom of the staircase the steps are only a few inches
TOMBS OF THE THE15AN EMPIRE.

deep, but towards the top they are
each side of the staircase

later date
way up
is
than the staircase

a break
345
more than a
On
foot.
a wall which appears to be of
itself,
and about one-third of the
each wall, which appears to be a

specially constructed opening leading to passages on the right
and
there
left
is
respectively.
in
The
walls probably do not belong to
the period of the uppermost tier of tombs, and appear to
have been made during the rule of the Greeks or Romans.

In the
hill
of the tombs at
Aswan
there are three distinct Tombs
of stone which have been chosen by the ancient dynasty

Egyptians for the purpose of excavating tombs. The finest Aswan.
and thickest layer is at the top, and this was chosen princilayers
of
at
Vlth dynasty for the sepulchres

The tombs here belong to
the Vlth and Xllth dynasties, and of the former period the
most interesting is that of Sabben, which is situated at the
top of the staircase.
Sabben was an official who lived in the
pally
by the
architects of the
of the governors of Elephantine.
time of Pepi
II.,
whose cartouche
(oIU|
found on the right hand side of the doorway.

to this
is
tomb
a small
ing, that
is
made through
Nefer-ka-Ra
is
The entrance
a rectangular opening, in which
doorway about one-third of the height of the openis
to say through a door within a door.
The
walls
inside were covered with a thin layer of plaster, and upon them
were painted scenes in the life of the man who was buried
there.
Of the Xllth dynasty tombs, the most interesting Tombs of
is that of Se-renput, in the front of which there originally dynasty at
stood a portico.
The scarped rock was ornamented with
inscriptions, rows of cattle, etc., etc., and passing through the

doorway, a chamber or chapel having four rectangular pillars
was reached. A passage, in the sides of which were niches
in them, leads to a beautifully painted shrine
which was a black granite seated figure of the deceased
thus the serdab and the stele ot the mastaba became united.
On the right hand side was a tunnel, which, winding as it
descended, led to the sarcophagus chamber which was
situated exactly under the shrine containing the figure of the
Se-renput lived in the time of Usertsen I., and
deceased.
was an officer in the service of this king when he marched
having figures
in
Aswan.
34<5
thus the date of the tomb is well known.^

Like the tombs of the Vlth dynasty the walls inside were
covered with a layer of plaster upon which scenes and inscrip-
into Ethiopia
were painted.
During the XVIIIth dynasty tombs on the plan of the
rock-hewn tombs of the Xllth dynasty were commonly built,
but the inscriptions, which in ancient days were brief, now
become very long, and the whole tomb is filled with beautifully painted scenes representing every art and trade, every
agricultural labour, and every event in the life of the
tions
Tombs
of
the Xllth
and
XVIIIth
dynasties
similar in
plan.
deceased.
length
part
if
are
The biography
of the deceased
is
given at great
a soldier, the military expeditions in which he took

carefully
descriptions are
depicted,
appended
from the various countries
and
appropriate hieroglyphic
the tribute brought to the king

is
depicted with the most careful
and form.
The
chamber was made exactly under the chapel, but
Under the
the position of the pit which led to it varied.
dynasties
the
tombs
of
kings
XlXth
and
private
XVIIIth and
persons possessed a size and magnificence which they never
attention to the
slightest detail of colour
mummy
attained either before or since.
periods are the famous

in
Biban
el-Muliik.
the living rock
in
Tombs
The
finest
specimens of these
of the Kings which are
the eastern and
hewn
western valleys at
Thebes; those in the latter valley belong to the XVIIIth

dynasty, and those in the former belong to the XlXth
The royal tombs here consist of long inclined
dynasty.
planes, with chambers at intervals, receding into the
mountains according to Strabo these tombs were forty in
number, but at the time of the death of M. Mariette, only
The tomb which we may
about twenty-five were known.
consider to have been the model during the palmy days of
the
the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, is that of Seti I.
walls of the staircases and chambers are covered with
inscriptions and scenes from the " Book of being in the
;
1 For a full account of this tomb, see my paper in Proc. Soc.

Bib. Arch.,
November, 1887, p. 33 ff. A tomb of great importance was discovered at
Aswan in 1892 by Signor E. Schiaparelli, who published the hieroglyphic text
with a commentary in his valuable paper Una Tomba Egiziana Iiicdita della
Via Dinastia, Roma, 1892.
TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE.
347
Underworld," and their excellence and beauty is such that

they cannot be too highly praised.
Under this king,
Egyptian funereal art seems to have been at its culminating
point, for neither sculptor nor painter appears to have
,,<-
produced anything so
after
fine
r,-
this date.
r
The tomb
is
11
the bottom
The tomb
ofSetil.
by means of two flights of steps, at

of which is a passage terminating in a small chamber.
Beyond this are two halls having four and two pillars
respectively, and to the left are the passages and small
chambers which lead to the large six-pillared hall and to the
vaulted chamber in which stood the sarcophagus of Seti I.
Here also is an inclined plane which descends into the
mountain for a considerable distance from the level of the
ground to the bottom of this incline the depth is about
entered
150 feet;
the length of the
designs on the walls were
The
is nearly 500 feet.
sketched in outline in red,
tomb
first
and the alterations by the master designer or artist were

made in black this tomb was never finished. Each chamber
in this tomb has its peculiar ornamentation, and there is
little doubt that each chamber had its peculiar furniture
it
is
thought that many articles of furniture, pieces of
armour, weapons, etc., etc., were broken intentionally when
they were placed in the tomb.^ Of the tombs belonging to
the period between the XXth and the XXVIth dynasty,
nothing need be said, for they call for no special notice
in the XXVIth dynasty, howêver, the renaissance of Egyptian
art naturally showed itself in the tombs of the period, and in
some few instances an attempt was made to reproduce tombs
after the plan and with the elegance of those of the XlXth
dynasty.
It must be noticed that the inscriptions on the
walls are of a funereal character, and consist usually of
a series of chapters of the Book of the Dead.
That the tombs described above are those of wealthy
people goes without saying it now remains to refer to the
tombs of the extremely poor. They were sometimes buried
in the crevices of the rocks, and at other times in the
desert, either near the great necropolis of the town or in
;
On
I'auire
les tuait
monde.
de
la sorte afin
Maspsio,
que leur ame
allat servir
L'Arc/teologi'e yph'eiiu,
\),
Tame de rhomme dans
159.
Theienais^^"^^
548
The tombs solitary places.

of the
poor.
cave or hollow
in
the mountains afforded
a place of sepulture unto many, and numerous rock caves

the mountains to the west of Thebes and other
where the mass of decayed mummies and bones is
several feet deep, and where skulls and skeletons, some with
their skins shrivelled upon them, and others with bare
bones, line the sides up to the ceiling.
Sometimes pits were
dug as common graves for the whole town, and sometimes
the pit and passage of a forsaken tomb served to accommodate hundreds of bodies. The absence of valuable furniture and ornaments rendered the bodies of the poor of
no account to the pillager of tombs, and the inaccessible
situation of the places where they were buried made it unlikely that they would be disturbed that others might be
exist in
places,
put
in
their places.
Graeco-
Roman
tombs.
Christian
monies.
funereal furniture
of
the
poor
little
life
Egyptian
tombs
used by
The
more than what they wore day by

day, and, provided they were protected by a few amulets
and figures of the gods in faience to guard them against
the attacks of evil-disposed demons, and by a scarab, the
emblem of the resurrection and the new life, they probably
laid down the burden of this life with as firm a hope in the
mercy of Osiris as did the rich man in the mastaba or pyramid.
Under the Ptolemies and the Roman Emperors the
the outer
arrangement of the tombs changes greatly
chapel or chamber disappears entirely, and the character
of everything appertaining to the service of the tomb
shows that a great change has taken place in the religious
views of the people, for although ancient forms and observances are kept up, it is clear that the spirit which gave them
consisted of very
has been forgotten.
the Christian era the tombs

Egypt formed dwelling-places for a
number of monks and ascetics, and it would seem that the
statues and other objects in them suffered at their hands.
An instance of the use of a rock-hewn tomb by Pisentios,
Bishop of Coptos, is made known to us by an encomium
The tomb in which
on this saint by his disciple John.^
In the early centuries of
the mountains
in
of
For the Coptic text and a French translation, see Amelineau, Etiide sur
Egypt e au Septiivie Sikle, Paris, 1887.
Christianisine tn
le
EGYPTIAN WRITING MATEPaALS.
349
uas rectangular in shape, and was fift}'-t\vo

had six pillars and contained a large number of
mummies. The coffins were very large and profusely decorated, and one of the mummies was clothed in silk, and
his fingers and toes were mummified separately
the names
buried
there
were
written
those
on
small
parchment
roll
of
a
Pisentios lived
feet
wide
it
(ft
OTXOJUL^.pIort
XOJJm. JUL JULeAJLB.p^.rtort).
ft
conversed with one of the mummies,
Pisentios
who begged
the saint
when Pisentios had promised

him that Christ would have mercy upon him, the mummy
to pray for his forgiveness
lay
down
in his coffin again.
Egyptian Writing Materials.

The writing materials chiefly used by the ancient
Egyptians consisted of papyrus, palette, reeds, and colours.
The papyrus was
hai,
l]<=^
<Â/^>
\j/
called
etc.,
The
'^-^
"^ Q
^"^
(]
^f"
and was made from the byblus
hieraticus, or Cyperus papyrus,
pools near the Nile.
^='
which grew
^^^^(/i
in the
marshes and
height of the plant was from twelve
and the largest diameter of its triangular stalk

was about four or six inches. The roots were used for firewood, parts of the plant were eaten, and other and coarser
parts were made into paper, boats, ropes, mats, etc., etc.
It
will be remembered that the boat in which Isis set out to seek
for Osiris was made of papyrus,^ and the " ark of bulrushes"^
in which Moses was laid was probably made of the same
When it was intended to make paper from the
material.
outer
rind was removed, and the stalk was divided
the
plant,
"
into layers.
flat
needle
These layers, the length of
with a
which depended upon the width of the roll to be made, and
the width upon the thickness of the stalk of the plant from
which they were taken, were then laid upon a table, side by
side, and upon these another series of layers was laid in a
horizontal direction, and a thin solution of gum was then run
the two series of layers thus united were
between them
to fifteen feet,
'
'
Prepara^^" ^
papyrus
'
Plutarch,
Exodus
De hide
ii.
3.
et
Onride, Squire's translation,
p.
22,
for writing
P""^!'"^^^*
350
pressed and afterwards dried.
number
It
is
clear that
of such sheets of pap3Tus together, a
by joining a
roll
of almost
any length could be made.

The quality of the papyrus
depended entirely upon the class of plant used in its manufacture.
The colour of the papyri that have come down to
us varies greatly, from a rich brown to a whitish-grey the
texture of some is exceedingly coarse, and of others fine and
silky.
The width of papyri varies from six to seventeen
inches, and the longest papyrus known (Harris, No. i,
B.M. 9999) measures 135 feet in length.
The finest hiero;
Book of the Dead are about fifteen

and when they contain a tolerably full
number of chapters, are from eighty to ninety feet long. The
glyphic papyri of the

inches
Dimenpapyri.
in width,
papyri upon which contracts in
Greek and Demotic are
written are of a coarse fibre, and vary from ten to fourteen
inches in width
is
their lengths vary
of papyri employed
usual width
The common name
about eight inches.
papyrus was
from one to ten feet. The

for literary compositions
a
for
c=>'^-^ fatna, Copt. xuOJtX,
^^^
of
roll
hook."
"3.
Papyrus letters and legal documents were fastened by being

round with a piece of papyrus string, and upon this a
piece of clay was laid, which, being impressed with a ring or
tied
The
British
Museum
^^
Egyptian
scarab, formed a seal, called in
possesses
among
its
Q,
febdt.
seals impressions in
Kouyunjik (see p. 249)

5585) ascribed to Shashanq by Dr. Birch (in
Layard, Babylon and Nineveh, London, 1853, p. 1857), which
clay of the seal of Shabaka, found at
seal (No.
T\
1 1 1
reads
the
JT}T T^T^T
name
-A^
of a private person
an oval seal (No. 5584) bearing
and the prenomen of Amasis
fo'^'O']; and an oval seal (No. 5583), bearing the

Naifaarut, the
The
inesthd,
first
king of the
XXIXth
II.
name
of
dynasty.
palette of the Egyptian scribe, called
was made of basalt (B.M. No.
^"^
"
li
""
']
12,778), calcareous
No. 24,576), and ivory

(B.M. No. 5524), but more commonly of wood. In shape it
was rectangular, and its size varied from 10 in. x 2 in. to
stone inlaid with lapis-lazuli (B.M.
16
in.
X 2^
in.
its
thickness was usually | of an inch.
At one
EGYPTIAN WRITING MATERIALS.
35
end were circular, or oval, hollows to hold ink, the former

being in the shape of ^, and the latter of a cartouche
y
About a third of the length of the palette from this end
a sloping groove was cut, which from about the middle of

the
palette
the
to
end
other
holding the reeds for writing.

place either
had an equal depth, for

These were kept in their
by a piece of wood gummed
into the palette
about a third of the way above the groove, or by a piece

of wood, forming a bridge, under which the reeds could
pass freely, and
was made.
which was
left
uncut when the groove
cover over the longer part of the
sliding
groove protected the ends of the reeds from damage. The

hollows in the palette for holding the ink are usually two
these being
in number, one for red ink and one for black
;
the colours most
Some
commonly used
palettes have as
probably belonged
ornament
The
to
upon papyri.
many as a dozen hollows, and these
scribes whose business it was to
papyri with
for writing
painted
scenes
in
many
colours.
dates of palettes can often be determined with accu-
name
racy because, in addition to the
name
of the
of the king in whose reign he lived
B.M. No. 12,784 was made
in
the reign of
is
owner, the
given.
Amasis
I.,
Thus
B.M. 5513
Amenophis
III.,
and B.M. 5514 in that of
from these three examples we see that the
form of the palette changed very little in a whole dynasty.
The inscriptions upon palettes were usually in hieroglyphics,
but B.M. No. 5524, made of ivory, is inscribed in hieratic,
and B.M. No. 5517, made of wood, also has upon it an
in
of
that
Rameses
II.
The palette of a scribe was sometomb with its owner (see in the Papyrus
inscription in hieratic.
times placed in the
of Ani,
under the bier), and votive

example B.M. No. 12,778. This
made of green basalt, and at the end where the
pi.
palettes are
object
is
7, where
known, as
lies
it
for
coloured inks wêre placed
deceased
whom
is
is
a scene in outline in which the
represented making an offering to Osiris, behind
stand a goddess and Thoth.
are outlined, but not hollowed out,
cut a part of the length
The
places for the ink
and the groove is only

still remain are
the reeds which
fastened in with plaster, and
it
is
perfectly clear that this
Royal
P^êttes.
352.
On each side is an
which records the name and
titles of the deceased, and which prays that appropriate
sepulchral meals may be given to the deceased, and that
he may enter in, and come out from the underworld,
without repulse, whenever he pleases.
Inscriptions on
was never used by a
palette
scribe.
inscription in hieroglyphics,
god Thoth, "lord of

Stone and faience palettes with eight, ten,
or twelve small vases for ink were also used.
palettes are often dedications to the
divine words."
^^^
danê^^'
^m
rccd, in Egyptian
qes/i,
Copt.
K^.cy, with
which the Egyptian wrote, was about ten inches long, -iVth
the end used for writing
was bruised to make the fibres flexible, and not cut. After
the XXVIth dynasty an ordinary reed, similar to that
which the Arabs and other Oriental nations use for writing
at the present day, was employed, and the end was cut
or ^th of an inch in diameter
like a
quill,
or steel pen.
The average
sized palette will
hold about ten writing reeds easily.
The ink which
the Egyptian used was
made
of mineral
and vegetable substances, mixed with a little gum and

water.
The substance which coloured the ink, black, red,
blue, green, white, or yellow, was carefully rubbed down
on a rectangular slab of granite, basalt, or marble, with a
hard stone muller, and then thrown into a vessel, where the
necessary quantity of water and gum was added to make
it
the consistency of moderately thin cream.
sional
scribe
colour
similar
the
to
which are preserved
down
little
The
profes-
about with him pieces of

specimens in blue, green, and red
probably carried
in
European museums, and
at a time according to his need.
rubbed
The green
and blue colours are preparations from copper, which can,

I understand, be successfully imitated at the present time
and small prepared
fine examples are B.M. 5565, 5571
lumps of colour exhibited in bronze bowl, B.M. 5556. The
red and bronze colours were preparations from red ochre
mixed with chalk an interesting example of the former is
B.M. No. 18,337, and of the latter B.M. No. 5572.
<^,
EGYPTIAN
\VKITIx\G.
353
Egyptian Writing,
The system
of writing employed
by the people
called Great
Eg)-ptians was probably entirely pictorial either at the time
when they
first
^ 'hien^
arrived in Egypt, or during the time that they glyphic
home. We, however, know of no

which pictorial characters alone are used, for the
earliest specimens of their writing known to us contain
alphabetical characters.
The Egyptians had three kinds of
writing
Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic soon after the
still
lived in their original
inscription in
preaching of Saint
lation
made
Mark
at Alexandria, the Christian
popu-
use of the Greek alphabet, with the addition of
which they borrowed from the demotic

was called Coptic.
Hieroglyphics, from the Greek ipoy\v(}iiK6<i, were commonly employed for inscriptions upon temples, tombs, coffins,
statues, and stelae, and many copies of the Book of the Dead
were written in them. The earliest hieroglyphic inscription
at present known is found on the monument of Shera,
parts of which are preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at
Oxford and in the Gizeh Museum; it dates from the Hnd
dynasty. Plieroglyphics were used in Egypt for writing the
names of Roman Emperors and for religious purposes until
certain characters
this
method
of writing
Oldest
giyphic in
scnption.
the third century after Christ, at least.

Hieratic, from the Greek lepariKo^, was a style of cursive
writing
much used by
the priests in copying literary com-
during the Xlth or XHth dynasty

wooden coffins were inscribed in hieratic with religious texts.
The oldest document in hieratic is the famous Prisse papyrus,
positions on papyrus
which records the counsels of Ptah-hetep to his son the composition itself is about a thousand years older than this
papyrus, which was probably inscribed about the Xlth
dynasty. Drafts of inscriptions were written upon flakes of
calcareous stone in hieratic, and at a comparatively early date
hieratic was used in writing copies of the Book of the Dead.
Hieratic was used until about the fourth century after Christ.
Demotic, from the Greek hrjfioTLKo^, is a purely conventional modification of hieratic characters, which preserve
little of their original form, and was used for social and business
2 A
D. M.
;
Oldest
jnscrip^
tion.
354
purposes
in the early
days of Egyptian decipherment it was

The demotic
enchorial, from the Greek iyx^P^^s.

writing appears to have come into use about
called
The
kinds of
writing
Egypt.
it
B.C.
900, and
survived until about the fourth century after Christ.
In
^^^ time of the Ptolemies three kinds of writing were inscribed
by
side
side
upon documents of public importance, hieroexamples are the stele of

up in the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy III.
Greek, and Demotic
glyphic,
Canopus, set
Euergetes I., B.C. 247-222, at Canopus, to record the benefits
which this king had conferred upon his country, and the
famous Rosetta Stone, set up at Rosetta in the eighth year of
the reign of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes (B.C. 205-182), likewise
to
commemorate
the
hieroglyphic
writing
is
On
etc.
etc.,
sdi,
^
A
"
Egypt by
the Rosetta Stone
nd en neter met,
called
"writing of divine words," Demotic,
nd en
upon
conferred
benefits
himself and his family,
>/
api
writing of letters," and Greek H T OO ^^==^ t/
sexî en Haui-nebu,
"
Xw
writing of the Greeks."
century or two after the
Christian
era
Greek had
obtained such a hold upon the inhabitants of Egypt, that

the native Christian population, the disciples and followers
of Saint Mark, were obliged to use the Greek alphabet to

down the Egyptian, that is to say Coptic, translation
of the books of the Old and New Testaments, but they
write
borrowed six signs from the demotic forms of ancient

Egyptian characters to express the sounds which they found
unrepresented in Greek. These signs are
ojm^SH;
X
Coptic
writing.
TCH,
q^^^^F;
like
Turk, s-
(T
^^=^ K.
The knowledge
^^^^
^^^
^j^g
of the ancient hieroglyphics was fast dying

phonetic values of many of those in use at this
period were altered.
The name Copt
is
derived from
LjJi,
the Arabic form of the Coptic form of the Greek name
for
MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, REPTILES,

Egyptian, AlyvTrrm^
dialect of ancient
BIRDS,
AND
FISHES.
355
The Coptic language is, at base, a

many of the nouns and verbs
Egyptian
texts remain unchanged in

and a large number of others can, by making
proper allowance for phonetic decay and dialectic differences,
found
in
hieroglyphic
the
Coptic,
be identified without
The Coptic
difficulty.
Upper Egypt,
dialect of
called
"
Sahidic
(from
Arab. Sj^x^}, or Theban, was the older and
dialect
that of
Lower Egypt was
"
richer
called Boheiric, from the
The latter dialect has

Bashmuric,
and
as it appears to have
been wrongly called
been exclusively the language of Memphis, it has obtained
province of Boheira in the Delta.
name
Memphitic " the dialect of Bushmur

on the Lake of Menzaleh appears to have become extinct
about A.D. 900, and to have left no traces of itself behind.
The Coptic translation of the Bible was considered by
Renaudet, Wilkins, Woide, and George, to be as old as the
second century of our era more modern scholars, however,
generally the
"
is
not older than the eighth
For an account of the
revival of Coptic studies in
are inclined to assert that
century.
it
Europe, see Ouatremere, Recherches Critiques et Historiqiies

Langue et la Littt'mture de VEgypte, Paris, 1808, and
siir la
for a list of the printed literature of the Copts, see Stern,
Koptische Grammatik, pp. /iî-/i^y. The recognition of the

fact that a knowledge of Coptic is most valuable as a pre-
liminary to the study of hieroglyphics, probably accounts for

the large and increasing share of the attention of scholars
which
this
language receives.
Mummies of Animals, Reptiles,

AND Fishes.
The most common
Birds,
of the animals, reptiles, birds, and

which the Egyptians regarded as emblems of or sacred
to the gods, and therefore mummified with great reverence
Bull, Antelope, Jackal, Hippopotamus, Cat,
and care, were
Monkey or Ape, Crocodile, Ichneumon, Hedgehog, Shrewmouse, Ibis, Hawk, Frog, Toad, Scorpion, Beetle, Snake, and
the Latus, Oxyrhynchus and Silurus fishes.
2 A 2
fishes
Dialects of
Coptic.
356
Apis Bull,
tolerably
common
and buried
Egyptian
in
;
^^
'^-'j
Hap, mummies
The
sarcophagi at Sakkarah.
in
are
they were mummified with great honour,

oldest are pro-
bably those of the XVIIIth dynasty.
Antelope,
I
%^
inahet'
in
,
Egyptian
S ^\
mummies
are
fi
rare
1^
kahes or
NKv
a good specimen
is
B.M. No. 6783^.

Cat,
in
Egyptian
common, and
exhibit
of two colours
made
in the
ylJ
y^
man, mummies are very
1^
many methods
of bandaging with linen
they were placed in bronze or wooden cases,
form of a
cat,
the eyes of which were inlaid with
obsidian, rock-crystal, or coloured paste.
Wooden
cat-cases
often stand on pedestals, and are painted white, green, etc.
Greek
Mummified kittens were placed in rectangular bronze or

wooden cases, which, at times, are surmounted with figures
Diodorus says (I., 83) that when a cat died all the
of cats.
con^cerning
the cat.
iumates of the house shaved their eyebrows as a sign of

mourning, and although the statement by the same writer
Egyptians slew a Roman who had accidentally

killed a cat may be somewhat exaggerated, there is no doubt
that the animal sacred to Bast was treated with great
respect in Egypt, and that dead bodies of the animals
were sent to be buried, after embalmment, to Bubastis. The
cat was fed with specially prepared bread soaked in milk,
and chopped fish.
that
Mummies
the
Crocodilc,
in
Egyptian
of animals,
etc.
t\
_m^
common
I
of a large size are not
%A
^3=^ emstih,
mummies
_i!l
;
small crocodiles, lizards,
and other members of that family
were embalmed and
placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, the tops of

which were frequently surmounted by a figure of this reptile
in relief.
Ichneumon mummies were

in the
shape of
Shrew-mice mummies
in rectangular
animal.
placed in bronze cases,
made
this animal.
are not common they were placed

bronze cases, surmounted by a figure of this
;
MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, REPTILES,

Ibis,
Egyptian
in
embalmed, and buried
The Hawk,
in
mummies,
^^bii,
jars,
357
stopped with
in
Scorpion,
\v\^^\\
mum-
either in a rectangular bronze case or in a
^^
Egyptian |
Egyptian
in
"^^"^
f
and Toads, when em-
hcqet,
made
in cases
I
they were placed
^^^^
Jfl^^^'^
the form of a hawk.
in
balmed, were placed
very rare
earthenware
in
Egyptian
was placed
bronze case
Frogs,
^ ,z^
FISHES.
very common.
plaster, are
mified,
"^ J
f[]
AND
BIRDS,
in
of bronze or steatite.
'^^
mummies
Serq,
are
rectangular cases, inscribed
which were surmounted by

figures of the scorpion, with the head of a woman wearing
disk and horns (B.M. No. 11,629).
name of
with the
Isis-Serq,
Beetle, in Egyptian
rarely
a,
dbeb,
or
mummies were
^^
deposited
in
X^P^^y
cases
of
wood (B.M. No. 8654^) or stone (B.M. No. 2880).

Snake mummies are very common, and were either Mummies
^^'
placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, or wrapped
etJ"^^''
in
many bandages and
laid
in
Bronze snake-cases
pits.
up
usually have a figure of the snake coiled
in
relief
upon
them, but sometimes the head, which is human and erect,

wears the double crown and uraeus (B.M. No 6881^); one
example having the head of a hawk
The
No. 6879).
uraeus serpent, in
Arart, was the most
also
is
Egyptian
known (B.M.
<=:
commonly mummified.
Fish were mummified
largely,
and were either placed
singly in cases of bronze or wood, or several were bandaged
up
a bundle and laid in a
in
Many
sorts
fish
were
jLi^
pit prepared for the purpose.

were known to the Egyptians, and the commoner
X^
(J
bctu ;
the
dnnu
usual
= <f)dypo<;,
name
for
Q/^
fish
in
^^ VL
aba,
general was
358
The %
rem.
[1
^vwwv
\^
v\
c:^:^
^^
and the
abtu
ant were mythological fishes which accompanied
the boat of the Sun.
CiPPI OF HORUS.
These curious and interesting objects are made of basalt

and other kinds of hard stone, and calcareous stone they
are in the shape of a rounded tablet, and vary in size
from 3 in. X 2 in., to 20 in. x 16 in.; the Metternich stele is,
however, very much larger. The scenes engraved upon them
represent the triumph of light over darkness, the victory of
good over evil, and cippi were used as talismans by those
who were initiated into the mysteries of magic, to guard
them from the attacks of noxious beasts, and from the
baneful influence of Set, the god of all evil. To give an
;
idea of these magical objects, a description of an example,

in a
good
(No.
state of preservation,
957^)
is
now
here appended.^
in
On
the British
the
front,
Museum
in
relief,
naked, standing upon two crocodiles, which are supported by a projecting ledge at the
Horus has the lock of hair, emblematic of
foot of the stele.
is
a figure
of Horus,
youth, on the right side of his head, and above him, resting
on the top of his head, is a head of Bes, also in relief His
arms hang at a little distance from his sides in the right
hand he holds two serpents, a scorpion, and a ram or stag.
and in the left two serpents, a scorpion, and a lion. On the
right is a sceptre, upon which stands the hawk of Horus
wearing horns, disk and feathers,^ and on the left is a lotusheaded sceptre with plumes and two mendts'^ (see p. 265).
To the right and to the left of the god, outside the sceptres,
are eight divisions those on the right represent:
I. Oryx, with a hawk on his back, in front is inscribed
;
Scenes on
liomsr
Vv
"
^^3:7 Q
Horus, lord of Hebennu,"
polis of the sixteenth

'
pi.
faulty
copy
is
nome
of
i.e.,
Upper Egypt.
given in Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, Vol. III.,
XXXIII.
^
The
inscription reads
<=^^
I
'
The
the metro-
inscription reads,
'
" Behutet, great god."
v^^
,^=-^
*
I
OF iiORUS.
cippi
2.
Chemennu,
<3-^^^,
3.
god, Thoth, ^^=^
Ibis-headed
"
==
hawk-headed, wearing the
Heka, lord of enchantments,"
headed, holding- a serpent
'^^^
words," and
of divine
lord
359
^^-^
"
each hand
in
U '^^
divine mother, lady of Sais"
'
Her-shef
the god
triple
" ^^''^
'^ |.
A^-
crown
^37
hawk-
8 LJ,
Neith, mighty lady,

"^^^^
X^^^
""^ "^t -
Hawk-headed god, mummified, wearing disk and hold 1 "^^"-^

ing a serpent in each hand the inscription is
4.
"
Chensu, lord of Sam-behutet."
O'
S-
Isis,
with the body of a hippopotamus.
jj
holding a snake
6.
Ptah,
on her head she wears a disk and horns.

form of a squat child standing on a
the
in
pedestal with four or five steps; the inscription
Ptah
7.
ser da,
The goddess
with both hands
lady of
ft
ra
j:-/f<',f?$.
Serqet, scorpion-headed, holding a serpent
the inscription
is
"
Ptah, prince, mighty
''
is
^^37
"
Serqet,
life."
Goddess, wearing disk and serpent, ?Q, on her head.

standing between two serpents; the inscription reads "^^^-^^
8.
"
Nebt hetep."
The
sent
eight scenes on the
left
hand
side of
Horus
repre-
Goddess, having a disk and two scorpions on her head,

is in the form of two serpents' heads, standing on a
she holds a serpent in her right hand, and a
crocodile
1.
which
serpent and a scorpion in the

a
bird.
2.
The
left
inscription reads,
on the crocodile's head
'^=f
c^ 8
LJ
^^zzp
Crocodile, with disk and horns, on a stand
a serpent Usert,
'i
The
inscription reads,
A
j
behind
^^
is
^
it
" great
"
god
3.
Isis
suckling Horus
among papyrus
canopy formed by two serpents,

and Uatchct
Ir^^,
called
plants,
Nechebet
under a
11
wearing the crown of Upper and Lower
Scenes on
a cippusof
360
Egypt
respectively
under each serpent
inscription reads nrv,,^^37
>
Crocodile-headed
scene
The
a scorpion.
" Isis, lady of
Cheb."
\I/
4.
is
god Sebek
This
seated.
^:zi>5
rendered incomplete by a break in the cippus.

Hawk-headed god wearing the crown of Lower Egypt,
is
5.
and holding a serpent

jTj/wwsArj
"
Hawk
6.
VÔ
rj'^
wearing horns and plumes
JJJ,
hands
in his
he
is
Horus, son of Osiris, born of

of Horus
^^>
called
Isis."
on pwf^
behind him is
sen, and a goddess,
wearing disk and horns, and having the body of a scorpion,
standing
"Isis-Serqet" Jl'^P'^^-
called
Horus,
7.
in
the form of a boy, holding
over his
f\
left
shoulder, seated on a crocodile, under a canopy formed by two
serpents
Egypt, on a papyrus sceptre

.^^1, each holding a knife.
Above
that to the right of
that on the
"Hidden
Hu
behind her
r^^'^lt-
Lower
of
<^
and Sau
the two crocodiles on which Horus stands are two
small scenes in each of which
in
Till
The goddess Uatchet I ^.wearing crown
8.
stand
^^^"^
the inscription reads,
left
his
is
^J
is
a crocodile, one being on a
Horus has on
the former
name," and the
is
latter
his
called
K\
head .J^ and
IT^
r
^^
n^
"2,
"Horus
Uu."
The
which covers the front and base of the

back and sides of the cippus, contains an
invocation to the god from whom the person for whom it
was made seeks to gain power.
inscription,
pedestal and
Late date
lloms!
Cippi of Horus belong
probably to the period which
XXVIth
soon after the end of the rule of the

dynasty over Egypt, and the inscriptions on them
followed
executed.
They
are generally found broken in
not broken, the head of Horus has been

the features
ai-e
half,
hammered
badly
or
if
to deface
these injuries probably date from ancient tijues.
CIPPI OF HORUS.
The
and
largest
that preserved in the
warth
Bohemia.
in
361
specimen of the cippi of Horus is The Metof Metternich Castle at Konigs- ^^^^^^^
was found in the beginning of this
finest
Museum
It
century at Alexandria during the building of a fountain
in
Franciscan convent there, and was given to Prince Metternich
Muhammad
by
'AH
in 1828.
It is
green stone upon
made
of a hard, dark-
of the gods and the
which the
and beautifully cut. The inscriptions
have much in common with the magical texts inscribed upon
papyri in London, Turin, and Paris, and are of great interest
figures
inscriptions are finely
Nectanebus I., about B.C. 370. A

and the text was published with a
German translation and notes by \V. Golenischeff, jCzV J/f/Zt'/'-
this stele
was made
fac-simile of the
zum
nidistele ....
for
stele
ersteii
Mai
heraiisgegebeii, Leipzig,
long article
in
Arundale and Bonomi, Gallery of Antiquities,
1877.
devoted to the consideration of the cippi of

Horus by \^zx\zonQi, Dizionario, pp. 583-594; and see Birch
is
The Egyptian Year.
p.
39
ff.
I. The vague, or civil year,

The ancient Egyptians had
it was
divided into twelve
which consisted of 360 days
months of thirty days each, and five intercalary days ^ were
added at the end. II. The Sothic year of 365 1 days. The
first year of a Sothic period began with the rising of Sirius
or the dog-star, on the ist of the month Thoth, when it
coincided with the beginning of the inundation.
III. The
solar year, which was practically the same as the civil year,
and which was a quarter of a day shorter than the Sothic
year, an error which corrected itself in 1460 fixed years or
vague years. The true year was estimated approxi1 46 1
mately by the conjunction of the sun with Sirius, Dr. Brugsch
:
'
The whole
subject of the origin of the Egyptian year has recently been
discussed with excellent results in Nature, Vol.
Lockyer
^
first
"
and Vol. XLVI.,
p.
104
XLV.,
1892, p. 4S7, by Prof. N.
fF.
Called in Egyptian m ||| ra

ml |, "five days over the year." The
was called the " birth of Osiris," the second "the birth of Horus," the third
the birth of Set," the fourth
Nephthys."
Copts
The Greeks
"
the birth of Isis,"
called these
rtIi..OX rtKO'^'ZI,
" the
and the
days, itrayofjuvai
little
mouth."
fifth
t'lfxlpni
the " birth of

zturt, and the
362
thinks {Egypt under the Pharaohs, Vol.

early as B.C. 2500 four different
already in use, and that the
" little
the lunar year, and the "great year"
having intercalated
Egyptians were
^Q
"hour,"
"year,"
UU
hru,
"period,"
XI
"second,"
l^^f,
t'etta,
"
The
days.^
î^
"period
heh,
"millions
immeasurable
with a lunar year

of time of the
divisions
at,
"day," ^-^
dbct,
of
of
17) that as
p.
"one-sixtieth
ant,
sed,
II.,
forms of the year were

year " corresponded with
"minute,"
unmit,
|^
renpit,
years,"
or
tt^
hen,
Jieh,
and
|o|
years,"
" eternity."
Egyptian week consisted often days OH.

*
second,"
^=^
"month,"
thirty
time,"
of a
See Lepsius, Die Chronologie der Aegypter,
p.
147
(T.
The
THE EGYPTIAN YEAR.
363
^^
k*
5^ "a,
^.
a
cxxK
CCo< 000<
>to
ai
>
:J
"3
CO
"3
-H
<:!:,
.^
;ik
.5-
^;
S
^
<
H
<
02.
3
o
a,
a s
a,
P
o
a.
W
w
u
5
a;
a,
cO
3
o
cp
<^
:i
oo
5?
cu
a.
:i
HA
>;
I:
ci
uouBpunui JO
U0SB3S aqj JO
-SuiiViOS
sijiuoj^
A,
VO
fr-i
to
u-1
uoseas Qq) jo
A
jo
t'-i
siiiuoj^
,
CN
CO
CO
-^
t-
-SuimojS jo 'qwoj guiuioo

am jo t-i sqjuoj^
jo uosBas
o
_0
_Q
;<
VO
364
Egyptian and Coptic Numbers.

HIEROGLYPHIC.
COPTIC.
Masculine.
ma
'
4)^.cJI,
Feminine
xoc, (5^c
7ieb
II
"^
mil
IIMII
lillllil
=
=
111111111=
mini
_fl
iiat)
Xetnt
nil
lllllll
^.
0-rA.I
OTI
CrtA-T
crtoiff
cyoJULT
ajo>i.t
II
III
(fem.
tiil
or
a//,
f(u
i< tua
^ qxcwoT
qxoe
fe
coe
sexef
nnn
/az^/
= f=^
met
niet
^ S
'^VT
JULHT
iua
le
JULeXTOT
faut
'if
XCOT
mab
jmuL^
heinent
AJL
&JULe
A-^^
VVVNAA
nnnnn
iaiu
It
Teonfi
60
^^^
sau
ce
'
15
'
zonrtjoxe
50
p.
cyi.cyqi
CyjULKItl
and
nnnn =
4'j
cyA.ajq
yemennu
(3
30
i~0T
See Eisenlohr, Ein mathematisches Handhuch der alten Aegypter, Leipzig, 1S77,
ff.
For ihe variants see Stern,
K<^plische Gramiitatik, p. 131
ff.
EGYPTIAN AND COPTIC NUMBERS.
nnnn
nnn
0111
nnnn
nnnn
nnnnn
nnnn
So
90
\emennui
ai
((5
v^
iaa
(5
=:^
nicTeoTi
ae
c'
cit^.T
ego
v/
Xa
10,000
365
ft
eye
tab
^^^
100,000
hefennu
p^. Oje
It
OJO
(^
1,000,000
X=
,^^/!
3oo, I"
= 400,
c^
^.^.
ojo
cyo
= 5oo, ^=600, 1^=700 CU = Soo, ^=900.
List of the
Commonest Hieroglyphic Signs and
THEIR Phonetic Values.^

A.
-i?-
"^
at
'
aa
(Njr
I '
u-~si
at
anient
'
amsu
an
-=3oi=-
""^^
-^^
aau
c^=)
'J\'ll-
aah
ab
..'^'^
abet
af
e,
aneb
anem
aner
msi
9
ari
afet
ausar
i^ri.
auset
am
^=:^
"Q
^^
am
^,
as
'^, ^,X
at
^Vj,
-(^
_ju.
ateh
ater
amen
'
ifv^
This
in the
list
kei
does not contain the values assigned to certain of the hieroglyphics
Greek and Roman
periods.
LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS
Z^7
A.
Tllllllll
aa
am
^r'^:^,
an
^,
cinx
ar
.,.,>,
arq
|,
Q^,
.^^,/\
^1
aha
aba
Q^
ahet
ax
aper
xzx:
at
hni
aq
af
I.
nil,
la
r?s,
I
i
J,A
E{.
"J
ba
^ ^
^, (^
bener
bennu
beh
beha
i^^, Q-^
behutet
k^^t^j
bah
"^
bex
beti
^^
*=,
u)
^,
^,
LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS.
368
continued.
betu
bek
bet
bak
'<^,"i^
^,
beq
P.
p
pa
pat
pex
IC
pest
pes
IC
pet
p=
peteh
c^
pet
pek
>
1>
J^\
O
paut
papa
per
LJ
peh
^^ K^
^'
-7-
p.
fent
fa
U.
uah
uu
uas
JaXSu
,X
uat
usr
uat'
ua
uar
'
:,
*=2-
usex
(y|,0
uteb
uês
369
cofitinued.
uten
/=^,
ut'eb
tVTn
;^
^
-Si::!.
M.
menat
meni
maa
maa
^îsn
ma
ma
mer
D,
fl,
meh
("=0)
A/VV\AA
maU
AAAAAA
male
LJ__J]
mesen ^
,
met
i^^:^,
crai6=i
(^'^^'tI)
mut
i-^'j'l
mat a
N.
>y
na
nu
neb
K37,{^q),^g,je:^,
nub
i^w^
nef
133
-@^,
O
B.
M.
2 B
LIST OF
37Q
HIEROGLYPHIC
continued.
nefer
next
^,
nes
nest
I'
nem
//,
nemmat
r-^
enen
ij.^,
nini
^TJi g^
ner
^, ^
neh
SIGNS.
net
V'
nut
!U=/]
lotj
net'
net
[p^
em
c
neter
nehem
nexeb
1.
or\
<r:
_a^
neqer
'-P
(f'i'^-^
ra
ru
re%
remen
,-r-~Si
res
ren
KZZ)
ret
ji'p^
5,^4,e>?^
H.
h
Q]
hen
^^
heb
"J
^^
hru
N^
LIST OF HIKROr.LVPIIIC SIGNS.
2>?^
'S.io/ilinued.
hap
hra
hu
<
heb
^::2:7,
hep
hefen
hem
ben
.,
^^
<^
heh
heseb
5^
N^, ^,
hesep
TffFF
^,g,^.^,f,^
het'
j,
henk
her
9",
bet
j]
V,
f>>
heq
hetep
,-^^
hetem
heter
^^
heka
g=^
J,S^
or
CH.
xeper
xa
xepes
<i^;^
xai
xem
'^xS'
xemt
tl:;',
^^^^
'
1,
Xi
XU
^'/^'|4
,0
xnem
xeb
xent
S,f[[h,
xep
xer
^,/I^,
xabes
J,
i<:
2 B 2
372
or
CH- continued.
xerp
xet
-^^,Z\,/
xus
xut
fOl
xesef
4-
xaker
smer
sen
^,?,
sun
<
s.
^' %
X,
ae
sent
seb
-rr
sab
sebt
sebex
sebek
"=ssa.
sper
^ô^
sept
i<
sent
^5'
serq
gigp
seher
|-^
sexem
<>,
se^
X,
sesep
:^^,'^sa,fei
seset
=*=^
seêta
^^,
sta
~(?~
1^
su
1^
sam
^^
LIST OF HIKROGLYPHIC SIGNS.
S
sati
set
continued.
set'eb
jT^
0:^:^, ^^-,
373
setep
^55.' ^-^'
i>
seteni; set'em
sek
set
>^
seq
Jj,
-ss^.,
^^\
SH.
sem
sef
semer
>--'
sen
_2aE.,5,f,Q
seps
serau
^^^^
sep
ses
5.^.^.^
sa
P4
sat
'
/j
\J,\J
T.
tef
Ci
(^
ta
taui
...
,
II
ter
ta
ti
tab
tep
ten
\
r^
\
Bs
tra
I
teh
teh
374
T
tex
=0=."^
continued.
texen
or
tut
f]
TH.
(?ehen
0es
\'
êt
tern
-^r-,
ta
Â
ten
tu
c^
tena
tua
^'^
tenten
teb
l'"^'!
tes
\^
teben
c^^, c=i
teser
teser
x/
tet
n,
tep
tebh
\,
^,^
T
or
JC,
^4v>
X^'/W^
{>
4^
TCH.
t'aut
t'es
t'eser
eba
jl
t'et
ef
"^
t'etta
er
Br
t'at'a
.o
LIST OF DETERMINATIVES.
375
K.
kat
yr\,
\l^
katu
"
^v
Q-
qenbet [j
qa
qens
qebh
qent
S'P
.A^, =1
qem
cj=o
qer
qema
'^'4"
qers
k.=,,
qen
^,^
qes
^,5>'^>
qet
"(^
i
E.
ka
List of the
Character.
to
ker
address,
to
f
back
IJ
of.
to
bow down
make an
agree-
ment
form,
to exalt, to rejoice
to skip
to
adore
to turn
<f
Determinative
Character.
of.
to cry, to call
\\%
[j^^
Commonest Determinatives.
Determinative
1>^
keb
t=iifc=a
image,
mummy,
to
establish
majesty, dignity
to
dance
ft
old age
37^
Character.
Determinative
Character.
of.
Determinative
of.
millions of years
to beat, to strike
to write
'i
dead body
joy
>^
overthrow, defeat
to
plough
to
make an
soldier
'
Û'
offer-
child,
f^'M4{
to
sow
youth,
growth
king, prince
to bear, to carry
rancestor,
the
blessed dead
divinity
wickedness,
,>
Osiris
enemy
Ptah
to build
Ptati-tenen
to support
Amsu
to pierce
Amen
to
to
run
pour
Shu
out
Chensu
libation
man
Ra
["to
eat, to think,
to
Heru (Horus)
speak
Anpu
inertness, to rest
-"to
[
hide,
be
(Anubis)
Chnemu
hidden
libationer
Hapi
(Nile)
Delerminative
Cliaractcr.
i-t
Z77
Determinative
Character.
of.
of.
eye painted with

feye
Sot
k
kohl
Tehuti (Thoth)
to weep, to grieve
Bes
eye of Horus
Jeyes of Sun and
woman, goddess
t^"^
Moon
eyebrows
Auset
(Isis)
jNebt-het
(Nephthys)
ear, to listen
[nose,
fHet-Hert
(Hathor)
smell,
lips
Nut
Maat
to
joy
teeth
blood
Sechet
back-bone, to cut
Bast
breast
Sesheta
an
Serqet
to
(to
to suckle
0^
battle, to fight
[to seize, to beat,

to strike
to
ne-
want,
need
birth
prohibit,
S''^^'0"'
''/\l
pregnancy
embrace
dandle
to write, paint
head, chief, best

fhead-dress, skin,
to
(.
colour, grief
make an
offer-
ing, or gift
j^^
fto see, to watch.

to sleep
List of determinatives.
378
Determinative
Character.
Determinative
Character.
of.
to grasp
ti
of.
to shoot
and bone,
|flesh
finger
heir, offspring
[phallus, the front

of,
)y
walk,
stand,
buted
attri-
to Set
birds, to fly
to enter
actions
all
testicles
fto
end
tail,
male
fto turn back, to
to hover, to stop
return
leg, foot, to
run
^^
("small
I
and
foot
to
leg
size,
wickedness
wing, to
break into
[egg,
L
fly
feminine
gender
knee
<5<
fish
flesh
("crocodile,
animals
serpent
birth
the front
(behind,
goddess, urseus
Bt
power,
tree
to arrive at
(.
wood
fthroatjtobreathe,
(horn,
flower
resist,
taste,
to eat,
to speak
ftalon,
^'1
to
to attack
rto
to eat
(.
de-
struction
to
seize,
to carry off
skin,
(sweetness,
animal
sure
(year,
time,
growth
field
plea-
Determinative
Character.
379
Determinative
Character.
of.
f.
river,
to
[a
collection
of
water
water,
fjWater,
AAA/VV\
QQQ, ooo
of.
graill
wheat, barley, efc
liquid
house,
[store
granary
vineyard
'
[
sky
lake,
basin
of
water
(^^^^
house
night, darkness
"T^"
wa
*-ash
AAAAAA
71227
pylon
'rain,
storm,
wall
cloud
sun, time
light, brilliance
to overturn
a fortified place
,0
angle
moon
staircase
star,
god
pyramid
A. A
earth, land
obelisk
11
mountain
foreign
(^/^^
.
foreign people
island,
nome,
1'.
land,
sea-coast
tablet
to establish
festival
district
door, to
iiiiiiiii
town
^^2
road, to travel
CD,
stone
una
metal
c^.n
metal
open
a bolt
funereal coffer
boat
38o
Determinative
Character.
Character.
of.
Determinative
of.
boat of Seker
to
IL
up
sail
CTOwn and head-
the
dress
river
wind, breath
collar
to steer
buckle,
seat
dead
fbier,
son,
per-
tie
tongue, to taste
mummy
ring
pillow
to seal
8
to
bandage
I
seat,
throne
>\
funereal
tomb,
to arrive, foreign
people
box,
to cut, to
and
j block
sarco-
wound
hatchet
phagus
weapon
I't
arrow
chariot
.'^
plough
to
f
cord, to bandage,
to
(.
{book,
wrap
to
to read,
write,
know-
ledge
oil,
perfume
libation
crown and headdress
=0=,^='
-5-
oil,
perfume, wine
milk
Determinative
Character.
381
Determinative
Character.
of.
of,
book,writing,pic-
vase
ture, account,
thought,
offering
fthe
[
heart,
telligence
ab-
stract idea
inI,
plural
III
offering
fire,
to
burn
to repeat
toaddjtoincrease
incense
vase
'
>
'5'
half, to
0,0
death,
divide
wicked-
ness
name
pouring out
fto stink, to
C3
cake, bread
(X3
em-
balm
(.
scent
cutting tool, to
e.e.>fl
ia
scribe, writing
make to shine,
bone
INDEX.
The
principal references are indicated by blacker-faced type.
Aah-hetep 29
Aelius Gallus 66, 112
Aahines, see Amasis
Aahmes
Aamu
the naval
17, 18, 21,
Aelius Lampridius 187
officer 29, 30,
220
230
Africa 39, 57
Agesilaus 63, 64
Aamu-kehak 29
Ahmed
Aaua, pillow of 211
Ahrens quoted 255

Ai 37
Aauput 50
'Abd
'Abd
el- Aziz
251
el-Latif 174,
341
AtyuTTTos, dei'ivation of 11
183
Akati 33
Aboccis 44
Akauasha 45
Absha 21, 230

Abu Habbah 250
Abukir G8
Abu Mansur, Pyramid
Abu Roasb 330, 339
Akerblad 109, 126, 132138, 140,

143
Akhmim
Alabastronpolis 37
Abu
Alexander the Great
Simbel 40, 44
Abusir 330, 339
Abydos
9,
Tablet of
191, 192, 217, 193
Akita 44
of 342
64, 65,
9,
10, 17, 24,
Alexandria 68, 108, 113
340
Alexandrian Library 66
39, 56, 71, 157, 168, 211, 230,
Abydos, Tombs at 343

Accadians 7, 26
Alisphragmuthosis 27, 38
Altekeh 53
Achaeans 45
Amada
Achoris 62
Amamu
Acropolis at Kamiros 249
Amasis
Adikran 58
Adrammelech 54
Aelian 232, 233
183,
184
22
204, 307
I.
29, 32, 220, 230,
II. 58, 59,
350
Amasis the naval officer 220

Ambrose 187, 233
351
INDEX
383
cu
Ameilhon 110
Anch-nes-a^fer-ab-Ila 59, 313
Aiuelineau 187
An-her 75, 285, 286 illustration

Ani, papyrus of 207, 351
Amen
39, 49, 65, 158, 220, 221,
Aineniirtris
251
Ani
230
Amen-ein-hat
21
II.
III. 22
IV. 23
Amenlietep, see Ameuopliis
Ameni 344
Ameni Ainen-em-hiit
A men-em-apt
222
Amen-mes 45
Amenophis I.
29,
II.
III.
33,
21
Antef, stele
Amen-Ea
of, illustration
32
230
3436, scarabs
of
tration,
313
Apaclinas 25
303, 351
Apapus 26
Apepa I. 26
36, 37, 44,
220
19, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36, 37,
II.
26,
157, 171, 246, 267, 268, 269 illus-
Aphroditopolis
Apion 9, 26
Apis Bull 11,
(Amyrtaeus) 61
219
28
Apepi 271, 313
tration
8, 71,
51, 60, 65, 281 illus-
Amenta 313
Apis, town of 73
Apollinopolis
Ammianus Marcellinns
Amnis Tiajanus 67
'Amr ibn el 'Asi 68
73
tration, 282
Amenti 209
Ames, see Amsu 270
Magna
71
Apollonia 174
3,
118,
119
71, 269 illustration, 270,
Apophis 25
Apries
58,
59
Apts 158, 171
Amset, see Mestha 195
Amsu
219
Antoninus 246
Antony the Great 66, 189
Anubis 73, 158, 164, 165, 160,170,
186, 189, 216, 221, 279, 280 illus-
227, 246,248,251,
39, 42,47, 50, 51, 71,73,75,119,
A men-rut
A men-set
301
Antelope 356
34,37,39,43, 191,
IV.
the scribe 157
Animals sacred to the gods 297

Animals mummied 355
Anpu, see Anubis
Anqet 283, 285 illustration
Antef Kings 18
III. 224
19
I.
Apu
363
191
Ap-uat
71, 165, 166, 221,
313
Amulets 256
Amyrtaeus Gl, 62
'Arabi Pasha 68
An
Anastasius 68
Arabs 191, 231, 318, 331, 341

Aradus 33
Arban, scarabs from 251, 252
Anch-nes-Amen 227
Arcadius 68
15
An-antef 207, 307
Arabians 25
INDEX.
384
Arcesilaus 59
Ba, or Soul 328
Aristotle 232
Baal 54
Arsaces 288
Baba 29
Arses 65
Babylon
Arsu 46
Artabanus 61
Babylonians
Artaxerxes
I.
Bachmann
8, 18, 33,
114, 118
Bactria 112
61
11.
62,
Bagdad 250, 251
64
III. 65
Artemidorus, mummy of 186
Bagoas 65
Ai-temisium 61
Bak-en-ren-f 52
Arundale 109, 361

Aryandes 60
'Asasif 218
Bakers 327
Ascalon 43
Baqet 8
Bar-Hebraeus
Asia
28, 29, 39,
Bailey 127
Ba-neb-Tettet 75
176
Barth^lemy
Lake 174
Bast
Aissurbanipal 54, 55
Bata 276
Asyut
,,
256
143
Basil 187
Assyria 30, 53, 54, 55, 250
Aswan
26, 27,
4,
Bashmuric 355
Assa 15
Assis 25
Assyrians
illustration
Baldensel 335
Asiatics 19, 43, 44
Asphaltites
250
58
36, 57, 58, 65,
8, 28, 36, 53,
250
8, 17, 22, 31, 34,
58
75,
288 illustration
Battus 59
Bauer 190
Beaumont and Fletcher 231
tombs of 344, 345
Bechten 48
24, 71
Beetle 357
tombs of 344
Begig 21
Ata 11, 340

Ataka 46
Belmore, Earl of 203
A ten
Benfey quoted 3
36
Atena 211,230
Aten-neferu 36, 245
Belzoni 330, 336
Beni-hasan, tombs of 20 illustration,

21, 230,
344
Athenians 61
Bentresh 48
Athens 63
Beon 25
Athribis 75
Beqet 7
Bes 229, 264, 285, 287
Bet el-Wali 44
Berenice 66, 108
Atmu
75, 272 illustration
Augustus 119
Aurelian 67, 187
Avaris 25, 27, 28, 29, 220
Berlin
Academy 206
Beyrut 43, 54
illustration
INDEX.
385
Bezold 36
Burton 10
Biban el-Miiluk 47
Busiris 75, 340
Buto 75
Bible, Coptic translation of 355
Birch, the late
Dr Samuel
1, 27,
47,
113, 124, 148, 149, 207, 204, 20G,

208, 211, 218, 222, 224, 237, 244,
Cadet 202
246, 251, 257, 263, 284
Caesar Augustus GG
mummied 355
Birds
Cailliaud 232
Birket el-Kurun 22
Cairo 331
Bitter Lakes 56
Caligula 67
Black Obelisk 210
Cambyses
Blemmyes 67
Blumenbach 189
Canaanites 50
110
10,
65
Candace 66
Canopic Jars, 171, 192201
Bocchoris 52
Bockh
59, 60,
,,
Oanopns
Boeotia 249
Boheira 355
67,
354
Caracalla 67
Bonomi 109, 119,

Book of the Dead
120, 312, 361

11, 159, 163, 171,
Carchemish 33, 57
Carians 56
172, 182, 185, 191, 196, 199, 202
Carthaginians 248
210,
Cartouche, amulet of 265
211,
214,
217, 236, 238,
256, 260, 307, 309, 350, 353
Cat, sacred to Bast 299
mummied 356
Book of the Underworld 312
Cats
Boussard 108
Cattle marching, illustration
Boxes, sepulchral 216
Caviglia 14, 330
Museum
15, 28, 47, 108, 181,
Cha 12
186, 188, 201, 204, 208, 210, 211,
Chabas
217, 224, 246, 247, 250, 251, 252,
Chabbesha 61
Cha-em-Men-nefer 29
Chaeremon 112, 113, 115,
124
British
^^
194
Stele of 108, 109,
Boheiric 355
'
chests for 201
261, 297, 306, 327
Bruce 330
15, 109, 150,
of,
327
206
117, 118,
'
Brugsch, E. 49
Brugsch, H.
1, 3,
10, 19, 51, 69, 71,
.109, 149, 208, 243, 328,
361
Bubastis 11, 56, 64, 75, 287
Budge 15, 36, 184

Bulak Museum founded 68
1, 3,
sketch of his
works
10, 121,
131,
M.
life
132,
Rosetta Stone 133

to Dacier
207
B.
Baron
Chaldeans 27
Champollion Figeac 1, 10, G9

Champollion le Jeune quoted 120,
Bruns 27
Buiisen, the late
Chafra, see Chephren
129131, his
his work on
ff.,
his letter
142, his Egyptian al-
2 C
INDEX.
386
144
phabet
scholars of
147,
opinions
of
148152, 203
Claudius 67, 112
Clement of Alexandria
Charon 155
Cleopatra 66
Chemennu 359
Coffins
Chensu (Chonsu) 47,
48, 267, 268,
271 illustration, 272
306310
amulet of 260
Collar,
Colossi, the 34,
Chensu-pa-chrat 272
Colossus of
12, 15, 331,
332, 333, 334,
335, 338
38 illustration
Memnon
34
Combs 226
Cones, Funereal 218
Chepera 221, 234, 251, 275
illustra-
Constantino 67
Constantinople 33, 68
tion
Chephren
13, 14, 15, 335, 336, 337,
Constantius 68
Cook, Thomas 340
338
Cher-heb 162
Cheta
121,
Colchis 191
Chensu-nefer-hetep 272 illustration
Cheops
112,
122, 187
Ghaptal 109
Coptic language
37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44,
49
dialects
3, 4,
354
354
Chetam 39
Coptos 18, 46, 71, 187, 348
Cheta-sar 40
Copts 191, 192, 231
GMliades quoted 113
China 65
Chirebu 42
Chnemu
,,
era of 67
literature of
355
Corippus 178
71, 73, 266, 268,
275
illus-
Cory 124
Critoboulos 59
tration
Chnemu-hetep
Chnoubis 251
21, 219, 230,
344
Crocodilopolites 8
Choiak 36
Cusae 71
Cush 30, 51
Chois 23, 73
Chosroes 68
Christianity in
Crocodile 356
Cushites 26
Egypt 310
Cynopolites 8
Chronicles quoted 58
Cyprian 187
Chrysostom 187
Cyprus
Chu, or intelligence 328
Cyrene 60
Chu-en-aten, see
Amenophis IV.
54, 59, 62,
64
Cyrenians 58
Chufu, see Cheops
Chut 331
Dahshur 330, 341, pyramids of 342

Damascus 32
Chut, amulet of 264
Damietta 175
Cinyps 191
Darius
Chufu-anch 311
Clarke, G.
W. 233
I.
II.
60, 61,
61
222
INDEX.
387
Egypt, history of
Darius III. 05
Davison 330
Decius 67, 111
land of
,,
Delta
tics of
was neither Negro
nor Semite 3
Egyptian chronology, systems of

funeral
55, 61,
11, 24, 28, 46, 50, 54,
64
69
language
9,
37
,,
race 1
,,
writing, three kinds of 122
Eileithyia 29, 71
Democritus 112
Eisenlohr 364
Demotic 353
Denderah 11,
12,
Denon 330
Der el-bahari
31,
Ekphantos 182
Ekron 53
126
32, 44, 49,
169,
Elagabalus 67
229, 236
Der on the Euphrates 251
Elephantine 15, 17, 22, 33, 67,
Deveria 190
El-Haram el-Kaddab 12
Dillmann 206
Dindorf 121
Eliakim 57
71,
275, 345
Eliam 251
El-kab 17, 34
Diocletian 67
Diodorus Siculus
112, 118, 155,
2, 8,
179, 181, 183, 336,
356
Diogenes Laertius 112
El-lahun 330
El-Magar 174
Eiysian Fields 210
Epiphi 45
Dioscorides 174
Diospolis
9,
77107
153173
dynasties
73, 202, 207,
109, 125, 126, 133, 183
8, 10,
68
Egyptian, the, physical characteris-
313
De Sacy
names of 8
nomes of 8
De Fleury 190
De Guignes 4, 125
De Hammer 202
De la Fontaine 175
De Kobsi 4
De Rouge 3, 45, 50,
7,
magna 75
Erasmus 124
Diospolis parva 71
Erman
Disk-worshippers 37
Esarhaddon 54
5,
149
Domitian 67
Esneh'l5,
Drumann
Ethiopia 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 51, 54,
110
Dulaurie^ 120
Diimichen
1, 9,
55, 64,
71,
150
Duval 231
Dynasties, Egyptian 9
71, 330,
340
346
Ethiopians 37, 43, 44, 51, 53, 55,

57, 66, 211,
330
Etruscans 45
Ebers
3,
151
Euphantos 182
Euphrates 30, 251, 252
Edfu
65,
66
Europeans, massacre of 68
2C
INDEX.
388
Gods of Egypt
Eusebius 9, 113
Evagoras 62, 63
Exodus
27, 45,
Amen
39, 49, 65, 158, 220, 221,
251
113
Amen-Ra
Eye, symbolic 263
19, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36,
37, 39, 42, 47, 50, 51, 71, 73,
Ezekiel quoted 190
157,
119,
75,
171,
246,
267,
268, 269
Fabricius 178
Amsu
Fan, the Egyptian 236
An-heru 285, 286
Fayyum
Anpu
330
21, 22, 72,
Fingers, amulet of 266
Fishes
71, 269,
270
(Anubis) 73, 158, 164, 165,
166, 170, 186, 189, 216, 221,
mummied 355
279, 280, 313
Flaminian Obelisk 119
Anqet
Flavius Vopiscus 187
Apis
Floriana 183
Apuat
Fontana 202
Atmu
Forrer quoted 192, 193
Bast
Forster 189
Bes 229, 264, 285, 287

Chensu (Chonsu) 47, 48, 267, 268,
271, 272
Chensu-nefer-hetep 272
Franz 110
Frog 265, 357
283, 285
11, 51, 60, 65, 281,
282
71, 165, 166, 221,

75,
75,
313
272
288
Chensu-pa-chrat 272
Gaisford 113
Chepera 221, 234, 251, 275
Gallus 66
Hapi (Apis)
Gaza 32
11, 51, 60, 65, 281,
282
Genesis quoted 179
Hapi (Nile) 281

Hapi 284
Harmachis 14, 34, 270
George 355
Harpocrates 271
Gebel Alaki 44
Barkal 51, 55, 330
Germanicus 67
Hathor
Gerspach 193
Heru-behutet 71
Gezer 50
^Heru-chent-chati 75
71, 73, 264, 266, 290,
Gibraltar 57
Heru-pa-chrat 271
Gilukhipa 36
Heru-shefit 73
Giorgi 4
Horus
Gizeh 34, 184, 219, 311, 317

pyramids of 12, 14^ 15, 331
mastabas at 330
Gnostics 252, 287

Gobelins,
Museum
193
221, 251,
270, 271
Hu
75
I-em-hetep (Imouthis) 274

Isis
of
71, 73, 75, 186,
291
67, 75, 156,
166,
256, 268, 278, 279
186, 216,
INDEX,
Gods
Gods of Egypt
Maahes 294, 295
:
Maat
Mut
276
Tuamautef 284
TJatch 75
290
Golenischeff 301
Net (Neith)
Goodwin 238
Gordon 68
Goulianoff 152
Granville 190
Greaves 189
268, 278, 279, 307

58, 60, 73, 161, 199,
Greece 185, 187
Greeks 34, 40, 58, Gl, G3, 65, 191,

their trade in Egypt 59
289, 290
292, 293
165, 166, 293, 306
Grenfell, Sir Francis
Osiris 44, 156, 159, 162, 170, 175,
177, 211, 216, 219, 238, 268,
Guieyesse 208
Gutschmid 111
Gyges 55
21,
43, 45,
47,
225,
265,
228
Gronov 178
277
Ptah
Thoueris 296, 297
42, 71, 211, 271
34, 116, 268, 289,
Nut
Egypt
Thoth 71,75, 186, 209, 239, 275,
Necheb 71
Nefer-Atmu 222, 267, 273
Neheb ka 295
Nephthys 161, 166, 186, 199, 217,
Nu
of
Tefnut 281
165, 221, 290, 291
Meuhit 289
Menthu-Ra
Mestha 283
Mnevis 281
389
268, 273
Ptah-Ta-tenen 274
Hadrian 67
Hair pins 227
Qe))hsennuf 284
Haker 62
Ptah-Seker-Ansar 125, 274
Ra
36,
75,
170, 216, 221, 251,
Ra Harmachis
Hamilton 330
Hamitic 6
268, 270
15, 44,
Sati 283, 285
Seb 165, 166, 293, 294

Sebek 284, 286
Sechet 225, 288, 340
222
Hammamat
18, 21, 23, 47, 59,
Hapi (Apis) 11, 51,

Hapi (Nile) 281
Hapi 161, 195, 196,
60, 65, 281,
197,
Harmachis
Selket 199
Harpocrates 271
199, 200,
14, 34,
270
Sept 75
Harris Papyrus 47
Serapis 67, 282
Harrow School Catalogue 246
Serq 294
Hathor
Set 29, 40, 276, 277
Hatshepset 30,
Hawk 357
165, 166, 172, 280
Sut 73
282
216, 217, 284
Seker 295
Shu
65
71, 73, 264, 266, 290,
Hawkins 203
31, 32,
44
291
INDEX.
396
Heart, amulet of 262
Hezekiah
Hebennu
Hibbert Lee Lures 7
164, 358
53,
54
Hebit 165
Hieraconpolis 71
Hebrew language 4
Hebrews 8
Hieroglyphics 353
Hecataei;s 112
Hieroglyphic Signs,
Hieratic 353
Heliogabalus 187
Heliopolis 19, 33, 34, 36, 39, 43, 46,
52, 56, 65, 75, 119, 208,
282
Hellanitus 112
list
of 366
ff.
Determinatives 375
381
Hincks 152, 244

Hipponus 73
Henna 162
Hennu 18
Hittites 39
Heptanomis 8
Heq-ab 227
Hoffmann 187
Hodo
the scribe 250
Heracleopolis 22
Homer
Honey
Heracleopolites 8
Hophra' 58
Heraclius 68
Horapollo 112, 115, 116, 123, 124,

233
Her-Heru-se-Anien 52
113, 114, 117
used in embalming 183
Herniaun 113, 118
Horse, the, in Egypt 29
Hermapion 112, 118120
Horus
Hermonthis 71
Hermopolis 52,
71, 75,
237
Hermopolites 8
Herodotus
71,
73,
75,
186, 221,
251,
270, 271
Horus, king 37
cippi of 358
112, 177, 183,
children of 160, 164, 315
190, 282, 332, 335, 336, 337, 338
followers of 9
3, 22, 59,
Her-shef 359
Hoshea 53
Heru 211
Hu
Heru-bebutet 71
Hycsos 25
Hyksos 9,
Heru-chent-cliati 75
75
26, 29, 158, 204, 220,
Heru-em-heb 37, 303

Heru-men-kau 15
Hypselis 71
Heru-pa-chrat 371
lalysos 248
Heru-sba
Ia6 Sabadth 288
17,
18
Heru-ta-ta-f 237
Ibis 357
Hesep-ti 11, 208, 238
Ibn Betar 174

Ibrahim Pasha 68
Het-Hert-hent taui 49
He1>Heru 52
Ichneumon 356
Het-Ptab-ka 11
I-em-hetep 274
Het-suten 37
Inarus 61
Heyne 110
India 112
276
INDEX.
391
Ink, Egyptian 352
Kallimma-Sin 36
lonians 56
Ka-mes 29
Kamiros 246, 248
Il)hicrates
63
Isis 67, 75, 156, 166, 186, 216, 256,
268, 278, 279
Karaduniyash 36
Karbanit 54
Egypt 27
Karei 34
Issus 65
Isthmus
Kantai'ah 39
Isis-Sothis 28-1
Israel in
Kanit
of
Suez
Karnak
10, 21, 31, 33, 34, 37, 39,
40, 51, 53, 67
Kash 21
Kehak 45
Kem-tau 252
Kerama 50
Khabur 251, 252
Jablonski 124
Jacob 21, 179

Janelli 153
Jehoahaz 57
Jehoiachin 58
Jehoiakim
58
57,
Jeremiah quoted
Jeroboam
Jerusalem
Jews
Kiessling 113
58,
230
King 249
Kings
50^
28*,
50, 58, 67,
209
44, 53, 57, 174, 175,
of Egypt, cartouches of ar-
ranged chronologically
209
First
Jezebel 230
Meua (Menes)
John 187, 348

Jomard 190, 203, 330
Ate^ 77
Ata 77
Joseph 27, 341

9, 24,
26, 28, 113
Semen-Ptah 77
Josiah 57
Judah
Hesep-ti 77
Mer-ba-pen 77
Joshua 29
Judaea
77
Teta 77
Jonias 25
Josephus quoted
Dynasty
50, 53, 54,
Qebh 77
174
28, 53, 54,
57
Second Dynasty
Julien, Fort Saint 108
Julius Africauus 9
Neter-baiu 77
Justinian 68
Ka-kau 77
Ka, or " double," the 328
Uatch-nes 77
Kabasos 75
Kadesh 32,
Per-ab-sen 77
Ba-en-neter 77
Senta 77
33, 39, 40,
42
Ka-kam 340
Nefer-ka-Ra 77
Ka-kau 282
Nefer-ka-seker 77
Kalabshi 40, 44
Hetchefa 77
INDEX.
392
Kings
Egypt
of
Third Dynasty
Kings of Egypt
Seventh Tenth
Tchatchai 78
Neferka 80
Neb-ka 78
Neferseb... 80
Ser (Tcheser) 78
Ab 80
Neferkaura 80
Teta 78
Dynasties
Setches 78
Cbarthi 80
Serteta 78
I^Teferkara
Ahtes 78
Neb-ka-Ra 78
Nefer-ka-Ra or Hnni 78
Neferkara-ISTebi 80
Fourth Dynasty
Seneferu 78
Chufu (Cheops) 78
Chafra (Chephren) 78
Menkaura (Mycerinus) 78
80
Tetkaramaa... 80
Neferkara;(entu 81
Merenberu 81
Seneferkara 81
Kaenra 81
Neferkaratrer(?) 81
Neferkaberu 81
Neferkara-Pepi-senb 81
Tetfra 78
Shepseskaf 78
Sebekkara 78
lemlietep 78
Neferkara-annu 81
Nefei'kaura 81
Neferkauberu 81
Neferkaarira 81
Fifth Dynasty
Usrkaf 79
Sahura 79
Kakaa 79
Sliepseskara 79
Heruakau 79
An
79
Menkauhei'u 79
Assa 79
Unas 79
Sixth Dynasty
80
Heruemsaf 80
Pepi
II.
(?)
81
Antef 81
Antef 81
Antef (?) 81
Antef 81
An-aa 82
Antuf 82
Antuf-aa 82
Antef 82
Ati 80
I.
Antef 81
Mentu-betep
Antef-aa 82
Teta 79
Pepi
Eleventh Dynasty
80
Riimerensemsaf 80
Nelerkara 80
Netagerti (Nitocris) 80
Seneferkara 82
Ra... 82
Usr-en-Ra 82
Nebnemi-a 82
Mentbuhetep
Mentbuhetep
I.
II.
82
82
INDEX.
Kings of Eg3'pt
393
Kings of Egypt
Mentluibetep III. 82
Sebekhetep V. 85
Menthuhetep IV. 82
Menthuhetep V. 83
Mercherpra 85
Seauchkara 83
Sebekemsaf
A nab
85
Twelfth Dynasty
Amenemhat
Usertsen
I.
Anienemliat
Usertsen
I.
83
II.
86
86
Cherpuastia 86
Rahetep 86
83
II.
I.
II.
Fourteenth Dynasty
83
83
Ai 86
Usertsen III. 83
Ana
Amenemhat III. 83
Amenemhat IV. 83
Seanchensehtu-Ra 86
Sebekneferura 83
Seuatchenra 86
Thirteenth Dynasty
Chu-taiu-Ra 84
Cherp-ka-Ra 84
[Amenjemhat 84
Sehetepabra 84
Aufna 84
Ameni-Antef-Amenemhat 84
Semenkara 84
Sehetepabra 84
86
Mercherpra-anren 86
Chakara 86
Kamerira 86
Seliebra 86
Stakara 86
Mertchefara 86
Nebtchefara 86
Ubenra 87
Herabra 87
Nebsenra 87
Seuahenra 87
ka 84
Netchemabra 84
Sebekhetepra 84
Ren... 84
Tetcherura 87
Setchef...ra 84
Nubset 87
Sebekhetep I. 84
Mermenfitu 84
Sebekhetep II. 84
Abehenchepesh 87
Neferhetep 85
Hetheruse 85
Secheperenra 87
Fifteenth Dynasty
...Banan 87
Apepa 87
Sixteenth Dynasty
Apepa 87
Sebekhetep III. 85
Sebekhetep IV. 85
Seventeenth Dynasty
Chachenira 85
Nebfaamerra 85
Tauaa 87
Tauaaaa 88
Tauaaqen 88
Neferabra 85
Kames 88
Uahabra-aaab 85
INDEX.
394
Kings of Egy])t
Kings of Egypt
Aalilietep 88
Twenty-first Dynasty
Aaliinessepaari 88
Eighteenth Dynasty
Amasis I. 88
Amenophis I. 88
Thothmes I. 88
Thothmes II. 89
Se-Mentu 93
Pasebchanu 93
93
Amenemapt 93
Pasebchanu 93
Her-Heru 93
Hatsliepset 89
Pa-anch 93
Thothmes III. 89
Amenophis II. 89
Thothmes TV. 89
Amenophis III. 89
Amenophis IV. 89
Painetchem
Heruemheb 90
Nineteenth Dynasty
90
I.
94
I.
94
II.
Masaherth 94
Mencheperra 94
Painetchem
Seaakanechtcheperuva 90
Tutanchamen 90
Ai 90
Rameses
III.
94
Twenty -second Dynasty
Shashanq I. 94
Osorkon I. 94
Thekeleth
Osorkon
95
I.
95
II.
Shashanq 95
Setil. 90
Thekeleth
Rameses II. 90
Meneptah I. 91
Shashanq
II.
95
III. 95
Pamai 95
Amenmeses 91
Tiuenty -third Dynasty
Seti II. 91
Meneptah
II.
91
Setnecht 91
Peta-Bast 95
Osorkon
III. 91
IV. 91
V. 91
VI. 92
VIT. 92
VIII. 92
Bakenrenf 96
Kashta 96
P-anchi
I.
96
II.
96
Twenty-sixth Dynasty
Sabaco 96
IX. 92
Shabataka 96
X. 92
XI. 92
XII. 92
Tirhakah 96
XIII. 92
95
Twenty-fourth Dynasty
Twentieth Dynasty
Rameses
III.
Amenrut 96
Psammetichns
Necho II. 97
I.
S7
INDEX.
Kings of Egypt
395
Ladike 59
Psammetichus
II.
97
Lagarde
175
4,
Apries 97
Lagus 66
Amasis II. 97
Psammetichus
Lamellicorns 232
III. 97
Ticenty-seventh Dynasty
Cambyses 97
Darius Hystaspes 98
Xerxes 98
Land quoted 255

Lanzone 215, 217, 234,
291, 294, 361
Larcher 189
26.5,
287,
Lateran 33
Latopolis 71
Ai-taxerxes 98
Darius Xerxes 98
Ticenty -eighth Dynasty
Cbabbesha 98
Twenty -ninth Dynasty
Latreille 232, 233
Latus
300
fish
Lebu 45
Leemans
Naifaarut 98
Leitch, J.
Haker 98
Psemut 98
Leku
133
45, 46
Lenoir 126
Lenormant
Thirtieth Dynas'y
Lepidotus
Nectanebus
115, 124, 207, 233
7,
Lefebure 208, 2 Go
I.
99
II.
Lepsius
1,
fish
110
300
1, 4, 6,
10, 19, 09, 109, 152,
99
203, 204, 206, 219, 230, 238, 307,
Kircher 119, 124, 175
Klaproth 152
Kochome
11,
340
AWt^pots 227
Konosso 18, 24
Kopp
311, 330, 331, 3G2
Letopolis 73
Letronne 110, 120

Libya 61, 65
Libyans 43, 45, 57, 58

Lieblein 10
Kosseir 46
Kouyunjik 53, 249, 330

Krumbacher 113
Kiihn 174
Kullah 330
Kummeh 22,
Kumah 218,
218
253
Kynopolis 73
Limanen 39
Loftie, his work on Scarabs 246
Loret 211
Loudon 33
Louvre 246
Lucian 179
Luxor 34, 47
Lycians 45
Lycopolis 71
Labyrinth
22,
23
Lydia 55
Lacedaemonians G2
Lacour 126
Maahes
294,
295
INDEX.
396
Maat
Memphis
165, 221, 290, 291
8,
9,
10,
19,'^
21, 24, 25,
Maat-ka-Ra 49
29, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 46, 52, 54,
Maa-ur-neferu-Ra 43
55, 56, 59, 61, 63, 64, 73, 109,
Macedon 64
110, 185, 282, 309, 341, 342
Macedonians 15
Macrinus 67
Memphites 8
Memphitic Coptic 355
Mafkata 12
Mena 246
Mahdi 22
Menat amulet 265
Malta 183
Menat-Chufu 21
Mendes 56, 62, 64,
Menelaus 194
Mamun
331
Manetho
9,
10, II, 23, 24, 20, 27,
28, 37, 66, 77, 176, 340, 341,
342
Marcianus 68
Marcus Aurelius 67
Marietta
1, 9,
10, 14, 23, 69, 211,
Menes 9, 10, 11
Menhit 289
Menkaura, see Mycerinus
Men-nefer 342
212, 213, 282, 318, 324, 325, 330,
Men-nefert 10
340, 341, 343, 346
Menthu-em-hat 227
Mark, Saint
67, 310,
353
Maroi 45
Marusar 40
Menthu-Ra 42, 71,

Menzaleh, Lak 355
45, 46, 50
Mer-ba-pen
49, 151, 164, 165, 184,
Mercati 125
203, 209, 257, 306, 340, 347
317328
jtlastabas
Mentbu-em-sa-f 230
Menthu(Mentu)-hetep
Ma'sara 62
Mashuasha
Maspero 1,
Mercator 8
Matui 19
Mer-sekem 251
Merseker 301
Mesopotamia 7,
Maty 189
Meh
32,
30, 32, 33, 34, 39,
48, 50, 57, 243, 250,

47, b^, 60, 67
Mediterranean 32
Medum, pyramid
Mesopotamians
252
32, 33, 34,
of 12, 343
57
Mestha 161,
195, 196, 197, 199, 216,
217, 283
21
Metelis 75
Metternich Stele 287, 361
Melik el-Kamil 331
Meyer
Memnon
Migdol 39
67
Colossus
43
Mesori 51
Meben 301
307
Mer-en-Ptah 45
Mer-en-Ra 17
Meroe 112, 330
Mautenure 40, 43
Mecca 209
Medinet Habu 46,
18, 21,
211, 271
10, 11
Mastabat el-Far'un 340, 341, 342

Mas'udi 330
Megiddo
65, 75
of"
34
Miletus 112
INDEX.
Mirrors 225
Naville
206,
205,
Neb-set (Nebqet), Papyrus of 207
Mucvis Bull 281, 283

Moeris, Lake
Nebt-hetep 359
67
22, 23,
Mokcittam 332, 343

Momemphis 58
Nebuchadnezzar
Mommsen
Nechebet 359
II. 57,
68
Necheb 71
quoted 111, 112
Month, the little 361

Months, the Egyptian 363
names in Arabic 363
names in Coptic 363

,,
names in Greek 363
,,
Necho
Moses 340
Nefer-as-ii
Mostansser-Billah 193
Nefer-Atmu 222, 267, 273
Mithammad 'Ali 68,

Mukattam Hills 56
Nefer-hetep 24
Miiller,
Max
Nectanebus
Nefer-ka-Ra 17
Negative Confession 182
Neha amulet 265

Neheb-ka 295
Nehern 30
Neherna 34
fF.
247
Mushezib-]\[arduk 252
Neith 58, 60, 73, 161, 199, 289, 290
Mnsur 8
Nemart 50
34, 116, 268, 289,
290
Nepherites 62
Mut-em-Mennu 181
Mycerinus
340
Nefer-ka-Seker 11
189
S.
63, 64
Nefer amulet 264
331, 361
Mummies, how made 174

Murray, A.
60
62, 63, 314, 361
I.
II.
5, 7
cloth
II. 56, 57,
Necht-neb-f 62
Mulsant 233
Mummy, meaning of the word 173
Mut
214,
Nebseni, Papyrus of 207
36
8,
172,
163,
236, 237, 238, 259, 263, 266
Misraini 8
Mitani
397
15,
17,
Nephthys
184,
208,
237,
306, 311, 331, 337, 338
Mytilene 112
161, 166, 186, 199, 217,
268, 278, 279, 307
Nero
67, 112
Nesi-Chensu 224
Nesi-pa-ur-shef 165, 308
Nes-Mut 211
Nahr
el-kelb
New York
54
Nai, illustration 302
Naifaarut
I.
11.
62
1 1 2,
33,
33
252
Nicholson, Sir Charles 288
62
Niebuhr 330
Napata 43, 51, 52

Napoleon 68
Naram-Sin 18
Naucratis 59,
Ni
Nikii 55
Nile
7, 8, 10, 19, 22,
56, 58, 61,
247, 248, 249
6.3,
33, 39, 46, 52,
67, 108, 110, 168,
170, 315, 318, 334, 336,
344
INDEX.
398
Palzir-shemesh 250
Nilopolis 73
Nimrod
50,
Nineveh
Pamai 51
52
32, 53, 54,
55
Panopolis 71, 191, 192, 217
Nitaqert 17, 59
Papremis 61
Nitetis 59
Papyrus, Egyptian 349
Nitocris 17
Papyrus amulet 261

Parma 237
Nomes
Nu
of
Egypt 7176
292, 293
Nubia
Pa-seb-cha-nut
21, 29, 30,
33,
39, 40, 44, 46, 54, 56, 211, 243,
I.
II.
34, 36, 37,
49
49
Patchetku 29
Pausiris 61
275
Nubians 33, 60
Nubti 26, 27, 43
Numbers, Egyptian and Coptic 364,
365
Nut 165, 166, 293, 306
Nut- Am en 55
Peka 168
Pelusium 43, 59, 64
Pen-ta-urt 40, 43
Pepi
I.
17, 184, 203, 219, 230,
II. 17, 184, 203, 219,
341
345
Perring 330
Persia 59, 61, 62, 65
Persians 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 68, 174,
Oases, the 8
331
Oasis 60
Peta-Bast 51
Ochus 64
Oi Meneptah 312
Peteti 363
Orontes 33, 39, 40, 42
Petrie 330
Orpheus 155, 156
Pettigrew 175, 195
Osiris 44, 156, 159, 162. 170, 175,
Phagrus
177, 211, 216, 219, 238, 268, 277

Osiris,
Tomb
Owen, the
of,
at
Abydos 9
late Prof.
fish
300
Phakussa 75
Pharaoh, meaning of the name 76
Pharnabazus 63
Oxyrhynchites 8
Pharos 66
Oxyrhynchus 73
Oxyrhynchus fish 300
Philae 65, 275
Pa-aru-shep 45
Phoenicia 53, 58, 63, 64
Philip 123
Philition 337
Pa-Bairo 45
Phoenicians 26, 54, 248
Pa-Bast 289
Physiologus quoted 255
Padi 53
Pianchi,
Pahlin 126
Palestine 30, 39, 50, 54, 57
Palette, the
Palmyra 67
King
of
Egypt
51, 52, 53,
55
Egyptian 350
Pianchi 52
Piazza del Popolo 119
Pierret 207, 208, 263, 265
INDEX.
Ptolemy VI. 101
VII. 101
Pillows 210
Pi-netchem
49
I.
399
49
II.
III. 49
VIII. 101
IX. 101
X. 102
XI. 102
XII. 102
Pisentios 187, 348, 349
Pithom
44, 56
Pleyte 208
Pliny
8,
XIII. 102
232, 330
Plutarch 181, 277, 3-19
Punt
Pococke 330
Pyramid, the Great 331, 333

the Second 335
the Third 337
Pompey's
Pillar 67
Poraponius Mela 178
18, 23, 31, 32, 39,
46
Porphyry 123, 181, 233

Price, F. G. Hilton 287
the Step 340
the Blunted 342
Prisse 10, 15
of
Probus 67
Proverbs quoted 190
ofTeta 341
Psammetichus
I.
55, 56,
II.
III.
247
Pepi
341
I.
of
Unas 340
of
Medum
343
Pyramid texts 203

Pyramids 67, 183, 328343;
58
59
Psammuthis 62
battle
of 68
Pythagoras 123
P-se-mut 62
Pseudo-Callisthene.s 64
Qebhsenuuf
Psych ostasia 238
Ptah 21,
273
43, 45, 47, 225, 265, 268.
161, 195, 196, 197, 199,
200, 216, 217, 283, 284
Quatremere
4,
355
Ptah-Seker-Ausar 125,215,216,255,
Ra
274
Ptah-Ta-tenen 274
Ptah, temple of at
Memphis 10
Ptah-hetep 323, 353
III. 66, 100, 108,
9,
I.
II.
37, 40,
9,
44
27, 37, 39,
4045,
51, 54, 118, 119, 230,
66, 100
II.
222
44
Ra-meri 341
Rameses
348
Ptolemy the Geographer 8
Ptolemy I. 9, 66, 99
15, 44,
city of
Rakbti 65
66, 186, 306, 310, 314,
Ra-Harmachis
Raamses,
Precepts of 15
,,
Ptolemies
36, 75, 170, 216, 221, 251, 268,
270
247,
246,
354
IV. 100
V. 101, 109, 110, 301, 354
351
303,
plans
tomb 316
III. 46, 47, 312
of
330,
his
400
INDEX.
Rameses IV. 47
Sabben 345
V. 47
Sahidic Coptic 355
VI. 47
VII. 47
VIII. 47
Sabu-Ra 15, 339

Sa'id Pasha 68
IX. 47
X. 48
XI. 48
XII. 48
Sakkarah 9, 11, 17,

mids of 330, 342
XIII. 48
Salatis 25, 26
Sais 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,
73
Salt 148
Ra-nefer, illustration 305
Salvolini 109
Ra-neferu 48
Sam-behutet 359
Ra-nub 340
Rawlinson, G. 2
Sam
Sam
Re-ant 29
Sapalel 40
Rech-ma-Ra 33
2, 18,
184; Pyra-
Salamis 63
Ramesseum 67
Red Sea
34,
amulet 264
168
priest
310315
Sarcophagi
46, 56, 60, 66, 67
Sardinia 248
Reed for writing 352

Rehoboam 50
Renan 4, 5, 6
Renaudot 355
Sardinians 45
Rennutet 363
Resurrection, the 266
Satumkhipa 36
Scarab 231256, 301
Scarabs of Amenophis III. 240 245
Scaraboids 250
Retenuu
Schiaparelli 208, 219, 346
Reptiles
Sarginu 50
Sargon
mummied 355
Reseph 39
33, 39,
18, 50,
49
Rhampsinitus 332
Schrader 53
Rhodopis 339
Roman Emperors 103
Schwartze
Romans
Rome
107
66, 306, 310, 314, 331,
33, 67,
53
Sati 283, 285
139, 141
4,
Scorpion 301
345
119
Ronelle 189
Scythia 112
Se-aa-ka-Ra 37
Se-anch-ka-Ra 18
153, 244
Rosetta Stone 108153, 190, 354
Seb 165, 166, 293, 294

Sebek 284, 286
Ruau 219
Sebek-hetep
Rosellini
1,
Rut- A men 55
II.
III.
24
24
Ruthen 30
IV. 24
V. 24
Sabaco 52, 53, 55, 250
VI. 24
INDEX.
401
Sebek neferu 23
Sebennythos 75
Seyffarth 152
Sebennytus 9
Sbabaka
Sechet 225, 288, 340
Shabataka 53
Sefex-Aabu 296, 297
Shabtun 42
Seker 282, 295
Sbalmaneser
Seker-em-sa-f 184, 203, 306
Sharetana 45
Sbaisu
Select
Papyri quoted 28
Selim
I.
26, 30, 33, 37, 39, 42,

53, 249, 250,
II.
210,
Sharbana 29
Selket 199
Shai-pe 109, 124, 199
Se-mench-ka 23
Sb^ruben 29
Shashanq I. 50
Semites 24, 26, 50
Semneh 22
50
II.
Seneferu 11, 12
III.
Senehet 19
TV. 51
51
Shaw 330
Senkowski 203
Sen-mut 31
Sbekelasba 45, 46
Sennacberib 53, 54, 250
Shekb el-Beled 16,

Shen amulet 264
Sent 11, 176, 219

Sept 75, 300
28, 29,
268
Shepherd Kings
Shera 219, 353
Septimius Severus 34, 67
Shesh 177
Septuagint 66
Shishak 50
34, 282,
340
Shu
Serdab 317, 322
Shuti-Qenna 207
Se-Eenput 345
Sicilians
Serq (Serqet) 294, 301

Sesheta 297
Sidon 58, 64
Sidonians 64
Sesostiis 8, 40
Silco ,68
45
Silius Italicus
Setil.
Silurusfish 300
215, 247, 312, 336, 346, 347
Setill. 45
Set-Necht 46
178
Sinai 12, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 32,

33, copper
mines of
46,
339
Sirius 361
27?^ 276
Smith, A. H. 247
Sethroe 75
Smith, Sir C.
Severus of Antioch 41
Smith, Payne,
Sextus Empericus 178
Smith, Philip 1
B. M.
28
165, 166, 172, 180
Set 29, 40, 276, 277, 297

39, 40, 43, 44, 119,
25, 26,
Shrew-mice 356
Serapis 67, 282
9, 37,
304, 325
Sbep-en-apt 55, 56
III.
Se-Ptah 45
Serapeum
250
Sharezer 54
68
Seqenen-Ra
43
350
HoUed 316
Dean 231
2
402
f)
Snake 357
Soane Museum 312
L^
INDEX
f1
Tchahi 29
Tcharu;(a 245
Sogdianus 61
Tchehra 63
Solander 189
Tchemi 187
Techi 363
Soleb 34
Solomon
49,
Tefnut 281
50
Somali land 39
Sphinx, the
Avenue
Sphinxes,
Tehuti-em-heb 48
14, 15, 34,
298
218222
117, 244, 355,
4,
36, 37,
230
Tentyris 71
Step Pyramid 11
Stern
el-Amarna
Tennes 64
Spohn 152
Stelae
Tell
Tell el-Yahudiyeh 46
of 34
Teos 63
364
Tertullian 187
Strabo 112, 113, 191, 346
Tet amulet 259
Strassmaier 7
Teta 11, 17, 176, 203, 219, 341
Sudan
68, 211
Tet-asu 341
Suez Canal 56, 68
Tet-ka-Ra 15
Suidas 113
Thannyros 61
Sut
Tharros 248, 249
27,
73
Sutech 27, 276
Syene
8,
67
Syria 23, 28, 30, 32, 33, 36, 39, 43,

53,
63
Thebaid 8
Thebes 19, 23,
54, 56,
Syrians, 33, 37, 39, 43
28, 29, 30, 31, 33,
36, 37, 40, 42, 43, 46, 49, 51, 52,
157,
62, 65, 67, 71, 112,
56,
187,
218,
268,
255,
307,
309, 344
Tachos 63
Thebes in Boeotia 249
Tacitus 67
Thekeleth
Tafnecht 52
Taharqa, see Tirhakah
Tale of
Two
50
I.
II. 51
Theodosius
Brothers 158
68
I.
II.
68
Ta-meh 8
Thi
Ta-mera 7
Thierbach 121
Tanis 21, 22, 23, 27, 32, 43, 75
This
Ta-qema 8
Thomson 190
Ta-res 8
Thoth*,71, 75, 186, 209, 239, 275, 276
Ta-she 22
Thothmes
Ta-ta-nub-hetep 199
296298
Tcliah 40
9,
10
I.
30, 220, 222, 247,
II.
Tau-aa-qen 28
Ta-urt
244
36, 37, 227, 242,
39,
252
30, 31
III.
10,
40, 46,
119,
14,
30, 31,
32,
224, 230, 236,
246, 247, 251, 253
INDEX.
Thothmes IV.
14, 33,
403
Unas
34
17, 203, 230, 340,
Thummosis 28
Ur 335
Urdamanah 55
Ti 305
Tiberius 67
Tiglath 50
Usarken (Osorkon)
Tiglath-Pileser
I.
III. 51
Userkaf 15
Usertsen I.
Time, divisions of 362

54, 55
III. 21, 22
see
Atmu
Ushahtiu figures 171,
Todtenbuch 202
Tomb, the Egyptian 315
Tombs
Tombs used by
211 215
Utcha-Heru-en-pe-resu 60
Utchat 264
ff.
of the kings 67, 159,
Tombs, Theban 343
346
Valerian 30
flF.
Christians 348
Valerianus 67, 125
Van, Lake 33
Vases 222
Tomlinson 120
Trajan 67
Tuamautef 161,
*
345
230
19, 21,
II. 21,
45
Tmu,
50
II.
Timaus 24
Titi
50
I.
36
Tigris 30, 33
Tirhakah
341
Underworld, Book of 313, 347

Ungarelli 119
Thoueris 296, 297
195, 196, 197, 199,
200, 216, 217, 283, 284
Vatican 60
Vespasian 67
Vulture amulet 260
Tukulti 50
Tuman Bey 68
Vyse 184, 306, 330, 333, 337, 340
Tunep
Turah
Wadi Habib 39
Wadi Halfah 22, 316
Wadi Ma'arah 12, 17
33,
42
17,
62
Turin 203
papyrus
9, 23,
207, 208
Tursha 45
Tushratta
'
8,
36
Tut-anch-Amen
37,
227
Tutu 157, 170, 171

Tweezers 226
Tyre
54,
Warburton 126
Westwood, 232 ^ ,
J
Wheat, winning of 326 /^
Whiston 26, 28
White 175
Wiedemann
58
1,
3,
^^
27, 49, 62, 150,
155, 173, 179, 182, 335
Wild
Tzetzes 113, 117
fowl, netting of 326
Wilkins 355
Uatch (Uatchet)
Uauat 19
Uenephes 340
Una
17,
219
75, 359,
360
Wilkinson
69,
190, 218, 224, 253,
330
William
of Baldensel
335
Woide 355
-jh/
7\
^
INDEX.
404
Wright, the late Prof.
W.
4,
his
Writing, Egyptian 353
Xerxes
I.
II.
141;
upon 148
opinions of
152
Zawyet el-'Aryan 330

Zedekiah 58
^. D. M. G. quoted 5
Zeno 68
61
61
Yates 187, 190, 191.

Year, the Egyptian 361
Zenobia 67
Young, Thomas 109, 126; sketch

of his life 127129; his work
on the Rosetta Stone 132 ff.;
account of his discoveries
cambbidqe: printed bt
alphabet
scholars
c. j.
Zion 230
Zodiac 314
Zoega 120, 125, 143
138;
clay, m.a.
and sons, at the university pkkss.
Accession no.
18U<i5
Author
Budge:
The Mummy,
Hist.
Call no.
Tvp
89AB
''''Am
1.
.V
'1 .:V.-,*i>A,
,-'*,
.j-.f.4,;..V
-1.,
/\!l
:'j:v!is

Egyptian Funereal Archaeology

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YALE

JOHN FARQUHAR FULTON

Digitized by tine Internet Arcliive

Open Knowledge Commons and

Yale University, Gushing/Whitney Medical Library

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,

DEIGHTON, BELL AND

Litt. D., F.S.A.,

KEEPER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN AND

WITH EIGHTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Messrs Harrison & Sons, London.

XI, "2. c^r.

MASTER OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

A MARK OF GRATITUDE AND REGARD

Syndics of that institution

intended to supply the information

In the hope, however, that they

to all such as are interested in the antiquities of

been decided to publish them

necessary for under-

The monuments and remains of ancient Egypt preserved

body, and to the care, consequent on this belief, with

resist the action

of decay, and be ready for the return

the chief end and aim of every Egyptian

for everlasting life.

might resemble as much as possible his old home. Following

Frequent reference has been made to the great

national collection in the British

account of an Egyptian funeral beginning with the process

mummifying the body and ending with

In the somewhat lengthy chapter on the Rosetta Stone,

Greek writers on Egyptian

connected with the history of Egyptian decipherment,

as well as the extracts from the papers on this subject col-

by Leitch in his edition of the Miscellaneous Works by

Egyptologists quoted at the end of that chapter will indicate

The Shekh el-Beled

Egyptian Funeral Procession.

Egyptian Funeral Procession.

The Rosetta Stone

From the Papyrus of Ani

" Canopic " Jar

Ushahti figure of the Scribe Pa-mer-ahu

Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure with stand for holding a portion of a

Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure which held the papyrus of Anhai,

Stele of Antef, son of Amen-set

Egyptian gods {continued)

Plan of a Mastaba with four serdabs

Transverse section of a Mastaba

Transverse section at the bottom of a serdab

and sarcophagus chamber of

Gizeh with double

Netting wild fowl

Bakers making bread

Figures in relief in a Mastaba at Gizeh

West wall of a chamber

The Egyptian Race and Language