ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

LAB MANUAL

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE,

FAISALABAD CAMPUS

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Experiment no.

Experiment Title

Page
no.

Basic Electronics, Introduction to Lab Equipment.

To understand the use of breadboard, DMM,CRO and the

difference between AC and DC.

01

Equivalent Resistance Measurements.

To find the equivalent resistance of a circuit theoretically and

using DMM,and reading resistance by colour code.

27

Resistor Combinations-----Series and Parallel.

To measure the equivalent resistance of series and parallel

combination ofresistors using digital multi-meter (DMM), and
compare with its theoretical value.

31

Voltage and Current Division Rules.

To investigate the validity of the voltage and current division

principles.

39

Kirchhoffs Laws.

To investigate the validity of Kirchhoffs voltage and current

laws.

43

Internal Resistance of a Voltage Source.

To Determine the internal resistance of a voltage source being

used in the lab.

48

Node Voltage and Mesh Current Method.

To study the validity of the Node-voltage and the Mesh-current

method.

52

Superposition Theorem.

To verify the superposition theorem through an experiment.

56

Thevenins Theorem.

To Verify the Thevenin,s theorem through an experiment.

To Find the Thevenins resistance RTH by various methods and
compare values.

60

Nortons Theorem.

10

To Determine the value of the Nortons current IN and the

Nortons resistance RN in a DC circuit.

67

To Experimentally verify the Nortons theorem.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

11

To Experimentally verify that maximum power will be delivered

to the load when
load resistance is equal to the total equivalent resistance of the
circuit.

72

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Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT # 1
INTRODUCTION TO LAB
INSTRUMENTS
Objective:

To get a comprehensive understanding of various laboratory instruments.

Equipment:

Oscilloscope, Digital Multi-meter, Function Generator, DC Power Supply.

General Laboratory Operating Procedures:

Listed below are the operating procedures that you are expected to follow in the
laboratory.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Please treat the instruments with care as they are very expensive.
Read the laboratory documentation prior to each lab meeting.
Follow the instructions carefully.
Return the components to the correct bin when you are finished with them.
Before leaving the lab place the stools under the lab bench.
Before leaving the lab, turn off the power to all instruments.

OSCILLOSCOPE:
We should be familiar to the following four things about oscilloscope.
1.
2.
3.
4.

What does an oscilloscope do?

How does it work?
Setting Up
Other Controls

What does an oscilloscope do?

An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing circuits
because it allows you to see the signals at different points in the circuit. The best way of
investigating an electronic system is to monitor signals at the input and output of each system
block, checking that each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next.

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Figure 1.1: An Oscilloscope

The diagram shows an oscilloscope, a popular instrument in

UK schools. Your oscilloscope may look different but will have similar controls.
Faced with an instrument like this, students typically respond either by
twiddling every knob and pressing every button in sight, or by adopting a glazed
expression. Neither approach is especially helpful. Following the systematic
description below will give you a clear idea of what an oscilloscope is and what it can
do.
The function of an oscilloscope is extremely simple: it draws a V/t graph, a
graph of voltage against time, voltage on the vertical or Y-axis, and time on the
horizontal or X-axis.
As you can see, the screen of this oscilloscope has 8 squares or divisions on the
vertical axis, and 10 squares or divisions on the horizontal axis. Usually, these squares
are 1 cm in each direction:

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Many of the controls of the oscilloscope allow you to change the vertical or horizontal
scales of the V/t graph, so that you can display a clear picture of the signal you want to
investigate. 'Dual trace' oscilloscopes display two V/t graphs at the same time, so that
simultaneous signals from different parts of an electronic system can be compared.

Setting up the Oscilloscope:

1. Someone else may have been twiddling knobs and pressing buttons before you.
Before you switch the oscilloscope on, check that all the controls are in their
'normal' positions. This means that:
all push button switches are in the OUT position
all slide switches are in the UP position
all rotating controls are CENTRED
the central TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV and the HOLD OFF controls are in the
calibrated, or CAL position
Check through all the controls and put them in these positions:

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2. Set both VOLTS/DIV controls to 1 V/DIV and the TIME/DIV control to 2 s/DIV, its
slowest setting:

VOLTS/DIV

TIME/DIV

3. Switch ON, red button, top centre:

The green LED illuminates and, after a few moments, you should see a
small bright spot, or trace, moving fairly slowly across the screen.

4. Find the Y-POS 1 control:

What happens when you twiddle this?
The Y-POS 1 allows you to move the spot up and down the screen. For the
present, adjust the trace so that it runs horizontally across the centre of
the screen.
5. Now investigate the INTENSITY and FOCUS controls:
When these are correctly set, the spot will be reasonably bright but not
glaring, and as sharply focused as possible. (The TR control is
screwdriver adjusted. It is only needed if the spot moves at an
angle rather than horizontally across the screen with no signal
connected.)

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6. The TIME/DIV control determines the horizontal scale of the graph which appears on the
oscilloscope screen.
With 10 squares across the screen and the spot moving
at 0.2 s/DIV, how long does it take for the spot to
cross the screen? The answer is 0.2 x
10 = 2 s. Count seconds. Does the spot take 2
seconds to cross the screen?
Now rotate the TIME/DIV control clockwise: With
the spot moving at 0.1 s/DIV, it will take 1 second to
cross the screen.
Continue to rotate TIME/DIV clockwise. With each new setting, the spot moves faster.
At around 10 ms/DIV, the spot is no longer separately visible. Instead, there is a bright line
across the screen. This happens because the screen remains bright for a short time after the
spot has passed an effect which is known as the persistence of the screen. It is useful to think
of the spot as still there, just moving too fast to be seen.
Keep rotating TIME/DIV. At faster settings, the line becomes fainter because the spot is
moving very quickly indeed. At a setting of 10 s/DIV how long does it take for the spot to
cross the screen?
7.

The VOLTS/DIV controls determine the vertical scale of the graph drawn on the
oscilloscope screen. Check that VOLTS/DIV 1 is set at 1 V/DIV and that the
adjacent controls are set correctly:

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The oscilloscope has a built in source of signals which allow you to check that the
oscilloscope is working properly. A connection to the input of channel 1, CH
1, of the oscilloscope can be made using a special connector called a BNC plug, as shown
below:

The diagram shows a lead with a BNC plug at one end and crocodile clips at the
other. When the crocodile clip from the red wire is clipped to the lower metal terminal, a 2 V
square wave is connected to the input of CH 1.
Adjust VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV until you obtain a clear picture of a 2V
signal, which should look like this:

Check on the effect of Y-POS 1 and X-POS:

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What do these controls do? Y-POS 1 moves the whole trace vertically up and down on
the screen, while X-POS moves the whole trace from side to side on the screen. These
controls are useful because the trace can be moved so that more of the picture appears on the
screen, or to make measurements easier using the grid which covers the screen.
You have now learned about and used the most important controls on the oscilloscope.
You know that the function of an oscilloscope is to draw a V/t graph. You know how to
put all the controls into their 'normal' positions, so that a trace should appear when the
oscilloscope is switched on. You know how the change the horizontal scale of the V/t graph,
how to change the vertical scale, and how to connect and display a signal.

How does an oscilloscope work?

An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block
diagram shown below:

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Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube.
Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside the tube
is a vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of the tube is
accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of the tube, producing a
bright spot on the phosphorescent screen.
The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates
fixed in the tube. The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produce side to side movement.
As you can see, they are linked to a system block called the time base. This produces a
saw tooth waveform. During the rising phase of the saw tooth, the spot is driven at a uniform
rate from left to right across the front of the screen. During the falling phase, the electron
beam returns rapidly from right or left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing appears on
the screen.
In this way, the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph. The slope of the
rising phase varies with the frequency of the saw tooth and can be adjusted, using the
TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the oscilloscope screen into
squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds, milliseconds or
microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, s/DIV). Alternatively, if the squares are 1 cm
apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or s/cm.
The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually
kept in the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier.
In the AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path.
The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y- axis of
the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV
control, so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen
and can be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV.
The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section of
the input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect of this
is to give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen, making it easier to measure and interpret
the signal.
Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be
displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes.
This is possible using the X-POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no

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signal applied, the normal trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting YPOS allows the zero level on the Y-axis to be changed, moving the whole trace up or
down on the screen to give an effective display of signals like pulse waveforms which do not
alternate between positive and negative values.

Other oscilloscope controls:

The diagram below is a image map of an oscilloscope. Some controls are more
useful than others and one or two are rarely if ever used in an introductory electronics course.

Screen: usually displays a V/t graph, with voltage V on the vertical axis and time t on the
horizontal axis. The scales of both axes can be changed to display a huge variety of signals.

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.
On/off switch: pushed in to switch the oscilloscope on. The green LED illuminates.

X-Y control: normally in the OUT position.

When the X-Y button is pressed IN, the oscilloscope does not display a V/t
graph. Instead, the vertical axis is controlled by the input signal to CH II. This
allows the oscilloscope to be used to display a V/V voltage/voltage graph. The XY control is used when you want to display component
characteristic curves.
TV-separation: Oscilloscopes are often used to investigate waveforms inside television
systems. This control allows the display to be synchronized with the television system so that
the signals from different points can be compared.

You must not try to investigate television systems because of the

dangerously high voltages inside. The correct position for this control
is OFF.

TIME / DIV: Allows the horizontal scale of the V/t graph to be changed.

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Trigger controls: This group of controls allows the oscilloscope display to be synchronized
with the signal you want to investigate.

When the AT/NORM button is in the OUT position, triggering is automatic. This
works for most signals. If you change the AT/NORM button to its IN position, the most
likely result is that the signal will disappear and the oscilloscope screen will be blank.
However, if you now adjust the LEVEL control, the display will be reinstated. As you adjust
the LEVEL control, the display starts from a different point on the signal waveform. This
makes it possible for you to look in detail at any particular part of the waveform.
The EXT button should normally be in its OUT position. When it is pushed IN,
triggering occurs from a signal connected to the trigger input, TRIG INP, socket. The slide
switch to the left of TIME/DIV gives additional triggering options. AC is the normal position
and is suitable for most waveforms. In the DC position, you use the LEVEL control to select a
particular DC voltage on the signal waveform where triggering will occur. The +/- button
gives triggering on the upward slope of the signal waveform in the OUT position, and
triggering on the downward slope in the IN position.
The green TRIG LED illuminates when a trigger point is detected. HF gives
triggering in response to high frequency parts of the signal; LF gives triggering for low
frequency components and
indicates that triggering will occur at 50 Hz, corresponding
to UK mains frequency. You are not likely to need any of these slide switch positions.
The HOLD OFF control allows you to introduce a delay relative to the trigger point so
that a different part of the signal can be seen.

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Normally, you will want to leave the HOLD OFF control in its minimum
position, as illustrated. With more experience of using the oscilloscope, you
will develop a clear understanding of the functions of the important
trigger controls and be able to use them effectively.

Intensity and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the brightness of the
oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce a bright clear trace.
If required, TR can be adjusted using a small screwdriver so that the
oscilloscope trace is exactly horizontal when no signal is connected.

X-POS: Allows the whole V/t graph to be moved from side to side on the oscilloscope screen.
This is useful when you want to use the grid in front of the screen to make
measurements, for example, to measure the period of a waveform.

X-MAG: In the IN position, the horizontal scale of the V/t graph is increased by 10 times.
For example, if TIME/DIV is set for 1 ms per division and X-MAG is
pushed IN, the scale is changed to 0.1 ms per division.

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CAL outputs: The top terminal gives a 0.2 V peak to peak square wave, while the lower
terminal gives a 2 V peak to peak square wave, both at 50 Hz.
The signals from these outputs are used to confirm that the
oscilloscope is correctly calibrated.

Component tester: The output socket provides a changing voltage which allows
component characteristic curves to be displayed on the oscilloscope screen.
When the button is IN, the oscilloscope displays a V/V graph,
with the component tester voltage connected internally to
provide the horizontal axis. To get normal V/t graph
operation the component tester button must be
in the OUT position.
Y-POS I and Y-POS II: These controls allow the corresponding trace to be moved up or
down, changing the position representing 0 V on the oscilloscope screen.
To investigate an alternating signal, you adjust Y-POS so that the 0 V level
is close to the centre of the screen. For a pulse waveform, it is more useful
to have 0 V close to the bottom of the screen. Y-POS I and Y-POS II
allow the 0 V levels of the two traces to be adjusted
independently.
Invert: When the INVERT button is pressed IN, the corresponding signal is turned upside
down, or inverted, on the oscilloscope screen. This feature is sometimes useful when
comparing signals.

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CH I and CH II inputs: Signals are connected to the BNC input sockets using BNC
plugs.
The smaller socket next to the BNC input socket provides an
additional 0 V, GROUND or EARTH connection.

VOLTS / DIV: Adjust the vertical scale of the V/t graph. The vertical scales for CH I
and CH II can be adjusted independently.

DC/AC/GND slide switches: In the DC position, the signal input is connected directly
to the Y-amplifier of the corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position, a
capacitor is connected into the signal pathway so that DC voltages are blocked and only
changing AC signals are displayed.
In the GND position, the input of the Y-amplifier is connected to 0 V. This
allows you to check the position of 0 V on the oscilloscope screen. The DC
position of these switches is correct for most signals.

Trace selection switches: The settings of these switches control which traces appear on the
oscilloscope screen.

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QUESTIONS:
1. Calculate the frequency of waveforms with periods of (a) 10 s, (b) 5 ms, (c)
200 s.
2. What is the period of waveforms with frequencies of (a) 20 Hz, (b) 150 kHz, (c)
0.5 Hz.
3. Find values for the period, frequency, peak amplitude, peak-to-peak amplitude and rms
amplitude for the sine wave shown below:

4. Use graph paper and choose appropriate scales to sketch V/t graphs for sine waves as
follows:
(a) period 10 ms, peak-to-peak amplitude 5 V. (b)
frequency 250 Hz, peak amplitude 10 V. (c)

frequency 4 kHz, rms amplitude 6 V.

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DC POWER SUPPLY
DC Power Supply is used to generate either a constant voltage or a constant current.
That is, it may be used as either a DC voltage source or a DC current source. You will be
primarily as a voltage source. Recall that DC is an acronym for direct
current. DC means constant with respect to time.

DC power supply has digital display including 0-30vD C and 0-3A. Adjustable voltage
(coarse and fine) and current limiting (2 range meter). The voltage produced by the power
supply is controlled by the knob labeled voltage. The current is limited by adjusting the
knob labeled current. As long as the circuit does not attempt to draw more current than the
value set by the current knob, the voltage will remain constant. Current limiting can prevent
damage to equipment and parts which may be unable to handle excessive currents.

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FUNCTION GENERATOR:
We should know the following things about function generator;

What is a function generator?

A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a

variety of frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common
input signals. The electrical leads from the device are attached to the ground and signal input
terminals of the device under test.

Features and controls:

Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small
number of options.
Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.
Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.
The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between
the high and low voltage of the output signal.
The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies the average voltage
of a signal relative to the ground.
The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal
oscillates. On some function generators, the frequency control is a combination of different
controls. One set of controls chooses the broad frequency range (order of

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magnitude) and the other selects the precise frequency. This allows the function
generator to handle the enormous variation in frequency scale needed for signals.
The duty cycle of a signal refers to the ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a
square wave signal.

How to use a function generator?

After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to
the desired shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an
oscilloscope to check the controls. Adjust the function generator until the output signal is
correct, then attach the signal and ground leads from the function generator to the input and
ground of the device under test. For some applications, the negative lead of the function
generator should attach to a negative input of the device, but usually attaching to ground is
sufficient.

Connecting a function generator to an Oscilloscope:

The diagram shows the appearance of a general function generator.

Again, your function generator, or signal generator, may look different but is likely to
have similar controls.
The Thandar TG101 has push button controls for On/Off switching and for selecting
either sine, square, or triangular wave shapes. Most often the 600
output is used. This
can be connected to the CH 1 input of the oscilloscope using a BNC- BNC lead, as
follows:

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Switch on the function generator and adjust the output level to produce a visible signal on the
oscilloscope screen. Adjust TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV to obtain a clear display and
investigate the effects of pressing the waveform shape buttons.
The rotating FREQUENCY control and the RANGE switch are used together to
determine the frequency of the output signal. With the settings shown in the diagram
above, the output frequency will be 1 kHz. How would you change these setting to
obtain an output frequency of 50 Hz? This is done by moving the RANGE switch to '100'
and the FREQUENCY control to '.5':

Experiment with these controls to produce other frequencies of output signal, such as
10 Hz, or 15 kHz. Whatever frequency and amplitude of signal you select, you should be able
to change the oscilloscope settings to give a clear V/t graph of the signal on the
oscilloscope screen.
The remaining features of the function generator are less often used. For example, it is
possible to change the output frequency by connecting suitable signals

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to the 'Sweep in' input. The DC Offset switch and the Offset control allow you to add a DC
voltage component to the output signal producing a complex waveform .
The output level switch is normally set to 0 dB:

This gives an output signal with peak amplitude which can be easily adjusted up to
several volts. In the -40 dB position, the amplitude of the output signal is reduced to a
few milli-volts. Such small signals are used for testing amplifier circuits. The TTL output
produces pulses between 0 V and 5 V at the selected frequency and is
used for testing logic circuits.

DIGITAL MULTIMETER:

What do meters measure?

A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current, a

voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points, and an

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ohmmeter measures resistance. A multi-meter combines these functions and

possibly some additional ones as well, into a single instrument.
Before going in to detail about multi-meters, it is important for you to have a clear idea
of how meters are connected into circuits. Diagrams A and B below show a circuit before and
after connecting an ammeter:

to measure current, the circuit must be broken to allow the

ammeter to be connected in series
ammeters must have a LOW resistance
Think about the changes you would have to make to a practical circuit in order to
include the ammeter. To start with, you need to break the circuit so that the ammeter
can be connected in series. All the current flowing in the circuit must pass through the
ammeter. Meters are not supposed to alter the behavior of the circuit, or at least not
significantly, and it follows that an ammeter must have a very LOW resistance.
Diagram C shows the same circuit after connecting a voltmeter:

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to measure potential difference (voltage), the circuit is not changed:

the voltmeter is connected in parallel
voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance
This time, you do not need to break the circuit. The voltmeter is connected in parallel
between the two points where the measurement is to be made. Since the voltmeter provides a
parallel pathway, it should take as little current as possible. In other words, a voltmeter should
have a very HIGH resistance.
Which measurement technique do you think will be the more useful? In fact, voltage
measurements are used much more often than current measurements.
The processing of electronic signals is usually thought of in voltage terms. It is an
added advantage that a voltage measurement is easier to make. The original circuit does not
need to be changed. Often, the meter probes are connected simply by touching them to
the points of interest.
An ohmmeter does not function with a circuit connected to a power supply. If you
want to measure the resistance of a particular component, you must take it out of the circuit
altogether and test it separately, as shown in diagram D:

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to measure resistance, the component must be removed from the circuit altogether
ohmmeters work by passing a current through the component being tested
Ohmmeters work by passing a small current through the component and measuring the
voltage produced. If you try this with the component connected into a circuit with a power
supply, the most likely result is that the meter will be damaged. Most multi-meters have a fuse
to help protect against misuse.

Digital multi-meters:

Multimeters are designed and mass produced for electronics engineers. Even the
simplest and cheapest types may include features which you are not likely to use. Digital
meters give an output in numbers, usually on a liquid crystal display. The diagram below
shows a switched range multimeter:

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The central knob has lots of positions and you must choose which one is appropriate
for the measurement you want to make. If the meter is switched to
20 V DC, for example, then 20 V is the maximum voltage which can be measured, this is
sometimes called 20 V fsd, where fsd is short for full scale deflection.
For circuits with power supplies of up to 20 V, which includes all the circuits you
are likely to build, the 20 V DC voltage range is the most useful. DC ranges are indicated
by
on the meter. Sometimes, you will want to measure smaller voltages, and in
this case, the 2 V or 200 mV ranges are used. What does DC mean? DC means direct
current. In any circuit which operates from a steady voltage source, such as a battery, current
flow is always in the same direction. Every constructional project described in Design
Electronics works in this way. AC means alternating current. In an electric lamp connected
to the domestic mains electricity, current flows first one way, then the other. That is, the
current reverses, or alternates, in direction. With UK mains, the current reverses 50 times per
second.

For safety reasons, you must NEVER connect a multimeter to the mains supply.
You are not at all likely to use the AC ranges, indicated by
multimeter. An alternative style of multimeter is the auto-ranging multimeter:

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The central knob has fewer positions and all you need to do is to switch it to the
quantity you want to measure. Once switched to V, the meter automatically adjusts its range
to give a meaningful reading, and the display includes the unit of measurement, V or mV.
This type of meter is more expensive, but obviously much easier to use.
Where are the two meter probes connected? The black lead is always
connected into the socket marked COM, short for COMMON. The red lead is connected into
the socket labeled V mA. The 10A socket is very rarely used.

Analogue multi-meters:

An analogue meter moves a needle along a scale. Switched range analogue

multimeters are very cheap but are difficult for beginners to read accurately, especially
on resistance scales. The meter movement is delicate and dropping the meter is likely to
damage it!
Each type of meter has its advantages. Used as a voltmeter, a digital meter is usually
better because its resistance is much higher, 1 M or 10 M , compared to
200
for a analogue multimeter on a similar range. On the other hand, it is easier to
follow a slowly changing voltage by watching the needle on an analogue display.
Used as an ammeter, an analogue multimeter has a very low resistance and is very
sensitive, with scales down to 50 A. More expensive digital multimeters can equal or
better this performance.
Most modern multimeters are digital and traditional analogue types are destined
to become obsolete.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is electric current?
2.
3.
4.
5.

What units are used to measure current?

Which materials allow current to flow easily?
Which materials prevent the flow of electric current?
What is a circuit?

6.
7.
8.
9.

What is potential difference (voltage)?

What is a battery?
How is the capacity of a cell measured?
What is the direction of flow of conventional current?

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Lab Manual Handout #1

10. Can the behavior of electronic circuits be analyzed by assuming current flow in this
direction?
11. Which part of the torch limits the flow of current?
12. What units are used to measure resistance?
13. What symbols are used to represent current, potential difference (voltage), and
resistance?
14. If the potential difference (voltage) across a wire is constant, reducing the
resistance of the wire causes the current to . . . ?
15. If the potential difference (voltage) across a wire is increased, without changing its
resistance, the current will . . . ?
16. Calculate the resistance of a lamp filament if 150 mA of current flow when the lamp
is connected to 3 cells in series (4.5 V).
17. In the circuit below, which switches should be closed . . .

(A)
(B)
(C)

to light lamp L1 only?

to light lamp L2 only?
to light lamps L1 and L2?

18. What would happen to lamps L1 and L2 if switches S1, S2 and S3 were all closed at the
same time? Why should closing all three switches be avoided?
19. What are the important features of ammeters, voltmeters and ohmmeters?
20. Which type of meter is used most often?

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Lab Manual Handout #2

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT # 2
Equivalent Resistance Measurement
Objective:
To understand how to find the equivalent resistance of a given circuit
experimentally and compare it with theoretical result.

Apparatus:
DMM
Resistors
Breadboard
Connecting wires.

Prerequisite:
Before coming to the lab, student should practice how to calculate equivalent
resistance of a given circuit.

Circuit diagram:

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Lab Manual Handout #2

Figure 2.1

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit on the bread board according to circuit diagram.
2. Measure the equivalent resistances at all circled nodes enclosing Req and write their
values in the table.
3. Now calculate the equivalent resistances theoretically and write these values in the
corresponding empty space in the table 2.1.
4. Compare both values and write your comments on the end of manual.

Safety Precautions

Ask your instructor to check the circuit before turning on the power.
Set the DMM on the resistance sign and select appropriate range.
Do not connect your hands directly to the ends of resistors at the time of
measurement so that your body resistance should not come parallel to
resistance.

Table (observations):
Resistance

Measured value

Calculated value

Table 2.1

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Lab Manual Handout #2

Calculations: (show your theoretical work here)

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Lab Manual Handout #2

Lab Exercise:
Q #1:How can a resistor in series with open circuit be treated in equivalent resistance
calculations?

Q#2: how can a resistor in parallel with short circuit be treated in equivalent resistance
calculations?

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Electric Circuits (EE-100)

Lab Manual Handout #3

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
RESISTOR COMBINATIONS SERIES AND
PARALLEL
Objectives:

1. To learn how to connect the resistors in series and parallel on breadboard.

2. To measure the equivalent resistance of series and parallel combination of resistors
using digital multi-meter (DMM), and compare with its theoretical value.
3. To verify that same amount of current flows through each series circuit
element.
4. To verify that equal voltage appears across each parallel circuit element.

Apparatus:
Resistors,
DMM,
Breadboard,
DC power supply,
Connecting wires.
PART 1: RESISTORS IN SERIES

Theory:

The circuit in which the current remains the same and the voltage is different across
each resistor is called a series circuit, as shown in Figure 3.1. In a series circuit the
total resistance is the sum of individual resistance values. If k number of
resistors is connected in series then the equivalent resistance Req is given by,

Or

Req = R1 + R2 + ... + Rk
k
Req = Ri
i =1

Electrical Engineering Department UET Fsd.

(3.1)
(3.2)

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Lab Manual Handout #3

Figure 3.1: Resistors in series

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Lab Manual Handout #3

Procedure Exercise # 1:
Safety Precautions

Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.

Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your instructor to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what
you need to measure.

1. Take any three resistors of your choice. Resistance values are marked onto the
body of the resistor using a series of colored bands. Find their individual resistance
values through color code identification [Lab Experiment 2]; and record these in
Table 3.1.
2. Connect the three resistors in series as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Resistors connected in series on the breadboard

3. Calculate the value of equivalent series resistance Req and record the value in
Table 3.1.
4. Measure the equivalent resistance of the circuit on breadboard using the
Digital Multi-meter (DMM) being set for resistance measurement; and record the
value in Table 3.1. Do the measured and calculated equivalent resistance values
agree?
5.

Apply 12V across the terminals of the series combination of three resistors on
breadboard. The terminals are circled and shown in Figure 3.2.

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Lab Manual Handout #3

6. Use Ohms law to calculate the value of current iT flowing in the circuit.
Record this value in Table 3.1.

7. Use DMM being set as ammeter to measure the value of total current iT
flowing through the circuit as shown in Figure 3.3. Record the value in Table
3.1. Do the measured and calculated current values agree?
8. Connect the ammeter in series with the first resistor R1. The value would give the
current I1 flowing through R1. Record the value of current in Table 3.1. Similarly,
connect the ammeter in series with the remaining two resistors R2 and R3; and
record the I2 and I3 current values in Table 3.1. All these values should be same,
which shows that when connected in series, the resistors
have same amount of current flowing through them. Comment on the results.

Figure 3.3: Ammeter connected to measure the total current flowing in the circuit

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Lab Manual Handout #3

R1 ()
calculated

R2 ()
calculated

R3 ()
calculated

Req ()
calculated

Req ()
measured

iT (mA)
calculated

iT (mA)
measured

I1 (mA)
measured

I2 (mA)
measured

I3 (mA)
measured

Table 3.1: Resistors in Series

PART 2: RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Theory:

In a parallel circuit voltage across all the resistors remains the same and the supply
current or total current is the sum of the individual currents in different parallel paths. The
sum of the reciprocal of parallel resistances connected in the circuit is equal to the reciprocal
of the equivalent resistance connected in the circuit. If k number of resistors is connected in
parallel then the equivalent resistance Req is
given by,
1
Req

1
R1

1
R2

+ ... +

1
Rk

(3.3)

Figure 3.4: Resistors in parallel

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Lab Manual Handout #3

Procedure of Exercise 2:
Safety Precautions
Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.
Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your TA to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what
you need to measure.

1. Take any three resistors of your choice. Find their individual resistance values
through colour code identification [Lab Experiment 2]; and record these in Table
3.2.
2. Connect the three resistors in parallel as shown in Figure 3.5.
3. Calculate the value of equivalent parallel resistance Req and record the value in
Table 3.2.
4. Measure the equivalent resistance of the circuit on breadboard using the
Digital Multi-meter (DMM) being set for resistance measurement; and record the
value in Table 3.2. Do the measured and calculated equivalent resistance values
agree?

Figure 3.5: Resistors connected in parallel on the breadboard

5. Apply 12V across the terminals of the parallel combination of three resistors on
breadboard. The terminals are circled and shown in Figure 3.5.
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Lab Manual Handout #3

6. Use DMM being set as voltmeter to measure the voltages across the three resistors.
Record the values in Table 3.2. All these values should be equal to the supply
voltage. Do the individual resistor voltages is equal to the supply voltage?
7. Use Ohms law to calculate the total amount of current iT flowing in the circuit.
Record this value in Table 3.2.
8. Connect the ammeter in series with the parallel combination of resistors to measure
the total current flowing through the circuit, as shown in Figure 3.6. The value would
give the current iT flowing through equivalent parallel resistance. Record the value of
current in Table 3.2. Do the measured and calculated current values agree? Comment
on the results.

Figure 3.6: Ammeter connected to measure the total current flowing in the circuit

Observations:
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Lab Manual Handout #3

R1 ()
calculated

R2 ()
calculated

R3 ()
calculated

Req ()
calculated

Req ()
measured

iT (mA)
calculated

iT (mA)
measured

V1 (V)
measured

V2 (V)
measured

V3 (V)
measured

Table 3.2: Resistors in Parallel

Conclusions:

Lab Exercise:
Q#1:How can a resistor parallel to short circuit be treated to find current through it?

Q#2:Write formulas to calculate currents through two parallel resistors if the input current
is given?

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Lab Manual Handout # 4

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT # 4
Voltage and Current Division rules
Objectives:
To practically verify the formulas developed for voltage and current division.

Equipment:
DMM
Resistors
Breadboard
Connecting wires
DC supply

Theory:
Before coming to the lab, student should practice how to calculate equivalent
resistance of a given circuit.

Circuit diagram:

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Lab Manual Handout # 4

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit on the bread board according to circuit diagram.
2. Measure the equivalent resistances at all circled nodes enclosing Req and write their
values in the table.
3. Now calculate the equivalent resistances theoretically and write these values in the
corresponding empty space in the table.
4. Compare both values and write your comments on the end of manual.

Safety Precautions

Ask your instructor to check the circuit before turning on the power.
Set the DMM on the resistance sign and select appropriate range.
Do not connect your hands directly to the ends of resistors so that your
resistance should not come parallel to resistance.

Table (observations):
Resistance

Measured
value of
voltage

Measured value
of current

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Calculated
value of
current

Calculated value of
voltage

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Lab Manual Handout # 4

Calculations:

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Lab Manual Handout # 4

Conclusion:

Q#1:what is the voltage across a short circuit and open circuit?

Q#2:How will you measure the current through a short circuit?

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Electric circuits EE (100)

Lab. Manual Handout#5

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS AND VOLTAGE-ANDCURRENT DIVISION
Objectives:

1. To study the validity of Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws.

2. To study the validity of the voltage and current division principles.

Apparatus:

Resistors, DMM, breadboard, DC power supply, and connecting wires.

Theory:

Kirchhoffs Laws are based on energy and charge conservation. Kirchhoffs voltage
law is based on energy conservation and states that the algebraic sum of the potential
(voltage) drops around a complete path is equal to zero. For example, in the circuit
shown in figure 4.1, the relations between the circuit elements and
resistances for the path ABCDA is:
V + I1 R1 + I 2 R2 + I 5 R5 =
0

(4.1)

Figure 4.1: Example circuit to illustrate the experiment

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Lab. Manual Handout#5

While Kirchoffs current law states that ,

I1 I 2 I 3 = 0

(4.2)

while at node E the relation is:

I3 I4 I6 = 0

Lab Exercise # 1: Validation of Kirchhoffs Voltage Law and Voltage

Divider Rule

(4.3)

Safety Precautions

Look at each exercise carefully before connecting circuits.

Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your instructor to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what you
need to measure.

Procedure:
1. Using the provided equipment, construct the circuit as shown in figure 4.2.
Make sure that every connection is clean and accurate.
2. Turn the power supply on. Adjust the supply voltage to 15V.
3. Use the DMM to measure the power supply output voltage and the potential drops
across each of the 5 resistors. Record these measurements in Table 4.1.

Figure 4.2: Circuit to validate Kirchhoffs voltage law

and the voltage divider rule.

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Lab. Manual Handout#5

Object

Potential across object (V)

Power supply

R1

V1

R2

V2

R3

V3

R4

V4

R5

V5

Table 4.1: Data to test the validity of Kirchhoffs voltage law

and the voltage divider rule.

4. Use the following relationship to verify Kirchhoffs voltage law:

Conclusion:

V = V1 +V2 +V3 +V4 +V5

Electrical Engineering Department UET Fsd.

(4.4)

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Lab. Manual Handout#5

Lab Exercise # 2: Validation of Kirchhoffs Current Law and Current

Divider Rule
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 4.3 and make sure all the connections are
appropriate.
2. Turn on the DC supply. Adjust the source voltage to 15V.
3. Use the DMM to measure the total current flowing through the circuit.
Similarly measure the current flowing through each of 3 resistors. Record these
measurements in Table 4.2

Circuit diagram:

Figure 4.3: Circuit to validate Kirchhoffs current law

and the current divider rule.

Observations:

Object

Current flowing thru object (mA)

Supply current

R1

I1

R2

I2

R3

I3

Table 4.2: Data to test the validity of Kirchhoffs current law

and the current divider rule.

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Lab. Manual Handout#5

Conclusions:

Lab Exercise:
Q#1:Can kirchhoffs laws be applied to AC circuits?

Q#2: kirchhoffs laws are based on what universal laws?

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Electric Circuits EE (100)

Lab Manual Handout #6

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
DETERMINE THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A
VOLTAGE SOURCE
Objective:
Determine the internal resistance of a voltage source being used in the lab.
Equipment:
Resistors, DMM, breadboard, DC power supply, and connecting wires.
Theory:
Any linear electric or electronic circuit or device which generates a voltage
may be represented as an ideal voltage source in series with some impedance. This impedance
is termed the internal resistance of the source. The internal resistance of a source cannot be
measured using a conventional ohmmeter, since it requires a current to be observed. However,
it can be calculated from current and voltage data measured from a test circuit containing the
source and a load resistance. Since both the internal and load resistance (Rv and Rl) are in
series with the ideal voltage source, Kirchhoffs
laws and Ohms law give
vl = (Rv + Rl )il
This equation can be solved for internal resistance:
v
Rv = l Rl
i

(6.1)

(6.2)

where vl is the voltage and il is the current associated with the load resistance Rl.

Safety Precautions

Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.

Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your instructor to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what
you need to measure.

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Lab Manual Handout #6

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Construct on breadboard the circuit shown in Figure 6.1. Leave nodes a and b
open to connect different values of resistance Rx between them.

2. Use DMM to measure the voltage and current for each value of the Rx resistance and
record the data in Table 6.1.

3. Plot the values of current against voltage. Make sure that the values of current are
measured in Amperes, not milli amperes. The graph should be approximately a straight
line (linear). Find out the slope of the graph. Take absolute value of the slope, if
negative, and subtract 100 from it. Take again the absolute value of the answer, if
negative. This is the value of the internal resistance Rv of voltage source in ohms.
4. Support your answer by showing the calculations.

Observations:

Value of the test

resistance Rx ()

Measured value of the

current through Rx
ix (A)

Measured value of the

voltage across Rx vx
(V)

0 (short circuit)
100
220
470
1k
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Lab Manual Handout #6

3.3k
4.7k
10k
33k
100M
(open circuit)
Table 6.1: Current and voltage data to determine internal resistance

Graph:

Figure 6.2: Graph to plot current vs. voltage

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Electric Circuits EE (100)

Lab Manual Handout #6

Lab Exercise:
Question #1:
What is the difference between terminal voltage and EMF? And how can you find EMF. of a
generator?
Answer:

Question #2:
In case of a DC or AC Generator you will follow the same procedure to find internal resistance or
there is another simple method for that?
Answer:

Question #3:
How can u make a generator of low internal resistance while number of turns of winding remain
constant?
Answer:

Question #4:
What will be the effect while your load current is increasing but your emf. is constant for the
given generator?

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Electric Circuits (EE 100)

Lab Manual Handout # 7

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
THE NODE-VOLTAGE AND MESH-CURRENT
METHOD
Objective:

To study the validity of the Node-voltage and the Mesh-current method.

Apparatus:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Resistors
Digital MM
Breadboard
DC power supply
Connecting wires

Pre-requisite
Before coming to the lab, students must study and practice the node-voltage and
mesh-current methods. Also review the theoretical concepts relating Kirchhoffs voltage and
current laws.

Safety Precautions

Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.

Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your Instructor to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what you
need to measure.

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Lab Manual Handout # 7

Procedure:
PART 1: NODE-VOLTAGE METHOD
The node-voltage method uses KCL equations that are written at all non- reference
nodes. Recall that KCL states that the sum of all the currents at a node is zero. The nodevoltage method is comprised of the following steps:
1. Identify all the nodes in a circuit.
2. Choose one of the nodes as the reference node (usually a low potential node).
3. Assign variable names to each of the essential (non-reference) nodes. Mark
voltages as per the variable names assigned to each node e.g. va, vb, vc, etc.
4. Determine the direction of currents i.e. mark voltage polarities across each circuit
element.
5. Write a KCL equation in terms of node-voltages at each of the non-reference nodes. The
result will be (n-1) equations where n is the number of essential nodes plus a
reference node.
6. Solve the equations and verify values through measurements.

Circuit Diagram:
100k

R4

3.3k

3.3k
R3

R1
10V

R2

10k

5V

Figure 7.1

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Lab Manual Handout # 7

Calculation & Observation:

Resistance
values

Calculation results
Voltage (V)

Current (A)

Measurement results
Voltage (V)

Current (A)

R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
R4 =

PART 2: MESH-CURRENT METHOD

The mesh-current method, like the node-voltage method, provides a systematic

means to specify the equations needed to solve a circuit. The method uses the meshes in a
circuit. A mesh is a loop in the circuit that does not contain any other loops within it. The
mesh-current method uses KVL equations that are written for each mesh in the circuit.
Recall that KVL states that the sum of all the voltages drops and rises around a closed
path (or loop) is zero. The mesh-current method can be broken into the following steps:
1. Identify all the meshes in a circuit. To do this draw a curved arrow to identify the
direction (clockwise, conventionally) of the current flowing in the mesh.
2. Assign variable names to each of the meshes. Mark currents as per the variable names
assigned to each mesh e.g. ia, ib, ic, etc.
3. Write a KVL equation in terms of mesh-currents for each of the meshes in the
circuit. The result will be n equations where n is the number of meshes.
4. Transform all the equations into standard form. The resultant equations can be solved
using matrix method.
5. Solve the equations and verify values through measurements.

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Lab Manual Handout # 7

i2

i1

i3

Figure 7.2: Example circuit to test the validity of the mesh-current method

Calculation & Observations

Resistance
values

Calculation results
Voltage (V)

Current (A)

Measurement results
Voltage (V)

Current (A)

R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
R4 =
R5 =
R6 =

Lab exercise:
Q#1:what law is used in Mesh current method?

Q#2:If there is capacitor at some node in ac circuit does node current method applies there?

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Electric Circuits (EE 100)

Lab Manual Handout #8

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Objective:

To verify the superposition theorem through an experiment.

Equipment:

Resistors
DMM
Breadboard
DC power supply
Connecting wires

Prerequisite:

Before coming to the lab, students must study and practice the superposition
theorem, and also review the concepts relating Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws.

Theory:

The superposition theorem allows us to determine the voltage across (or current
through) a circuit element due to several energy sources, connected within the circuit and
acting simultaneously, by analysing the effect of each source acting alone, and then summing
(superimposing) those effects to know the overall voltage across (or current through) that
particular circuit element.

Safety Precautions
Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.
Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your Instructor to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what
you need to measure.

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Electric Circuits (EE 100)

Lab Manual Handout #8

Figure 8.1: Example circuit to test the validity of the superposition theorem

Procedure:
1.

Calculate the voltage across and current through the 10k resistance R2 using
superposition. Let v = v1 + v2 and i = i1 +i2, where the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the
variables associated with the 10V and 5V source respectively. Record the calculated
values in Table 8.1.

2. Construct on breadboard the circuit shown in Fig. 8.1. Measure the voltage across
and current through the 10k resistance R2. Be sure to turn off the power whenever you
move wires in the circuit. Record the voltage (v) and current (i) values in Table 8.1.
3. Replace the 5V source with a short-circuit and leave the 10V source intact. The resultant
circuit is shown in Fig. 8.2. Measure the voltage across and current through the 10k
resistance R2. Record the voltage (v1) and current (i1) values in
Table 8.1.

Figure 8.2: The circuit with only 10V source considered

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Lab Manual Handout #8

4. Replace the 10V source with a short-circuit and leave the 5V source intact. The resultant
circuit is shown in Fig. 8.3. Measure the voltage across and current through the 10k
resistance R2. Record the voltage (v2) and current (i2) values in Table 8.1.

Figure 8.3: The circuit with only 5V source considered

5. Verify if the measurements are in accordance to the superposition theorem i.e.

v = v1 + v2 and i = i1 +i2.
6. Compare the calculated and measured values. Do they agree?

Observations:
Voltage /
Current

Calculation results

Measurement results

v1 =
v2 =
v =
i1 =
i2 =
i =
Table 8.1: Data to test the validity of the superposition theorem

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Lab Manual Handout #8

Comments and conclusion:

Lab Exercise:
Q#1:what we do when we remove current source from the circuit?

Q#2:is it feasible to use this method while the number of sources is very large?

Electrical Engineering Department UET Fsd.

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Electric Circuits (EE-100)

Lab Manual Handout # 9

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT NO. 9
THEVENIN THEOREM
Objectives:

1. Verify the Thevenin theorem through an experiment.

2. Find the Thevenins resistance RTH by various methods and compare values.

Equipment:

Resistors
DMM
Breadboard
DC power supply
Connecting wires.

Prerequisite:

Before coming to the lab, students must study and practice the Thevenin theorem,
and also review other circuit analysis techniques.

Theory Overview:

Thevenin theorem states that any linear two-terminal circuit (Fig. 9.1a) can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit (Fig. 9.1b) consisting of a voltage source VTH in series
with a resistance RTH where

VTH is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals, and

RTH is the equivalent resistance seen thru the terminals provided that all the
independent sources are turned off.

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Electric Circuits (EE-100)

Lab Manual Handout # 9

Linear twoterminal
circuit

Load

Figure 9.1a: A linear two-terminal circuit

Load

Figure 9.1b: Thevenin equivalent circuit

Finding VTH: Determine the output voltage Vab in open-circuit condition (no load
resistor meaning infinite resistance). This is known as the Thevenin voltage VTH.
i.e. VTH = Vab = VOC (open-circuit voltage)

a
Circuit

+
V

Voltmeter

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Electric Circuits (EE-100)

Lab Manual Handout # 9

Finding RTH: There are different methods to find value of RTH as described below.
1. Method A: (By measuring ISC short-circuit current)
Short the points a and b, then measure the short-circuit current ISC using an
ammeter. Calculate RTH as follows,
RTH = VTH / ISC

(9.1)

ISC
a
Circuit

Ammeter

2. Method B: (By measuring the equivalent resistance)

Remove all sources from the circuit, i.e. replace all voltage sources with a short- circuit
and current sources with an open-circuit. Then with the help of a multimeter find the
resistance between the points a and b, denoted by Req.

(9.2)

RTH = Req

Turn-off all
the sources

a
b

Req

Multimeter

3. Method C: (By applying known voltage and measuring source current)

We can also find RTH by applying a known voltage to the circuit between points a
and b, then measuring the current from the voltage source. Suppose 1 Vdc is
applied as the test voltage then,

RTH = Vtest / I
Ammeter
Turn-off all
the sources

a
b

Req

Electrical Engineering Department UET Fsd.

(9.3)
I
+

Vtest

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Electric Circuits (EE-100)

Lab Manual Handout # 9

4. Method D: (By inserting two different resistors and measuring current)

There is another method to find the value of RTH, by inserting two different loads
between points a and b i.e. insert resistors R1 and then R2 one by one and write
expression for the current through that particular resistor as given below,
Current through the resistor R1 :I1 = VTH / (RTH + R1)

I1
a

(9.4)

Circuit

Current through the resistor R2 :-

I2 = VTH / (RTH + R2)

R1

I2
a

(9.5)
Circuit

R2

Simultaneously solving equations (9.4)-(9.5) will give the value of RTH.

Procedure:
1. Connect on breadboard the circuit shown in Fig. 9.2. The aim is to determine the current
through and the voltage across the 1k resistance R1 connected between the two nodes
A and B.
Safety Precautions

Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.

Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your TA to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what
you need to measure.

Follow the following procedure to validate the Thevenins theorem.

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Electric Circuits (EE-100 )

Lab Manual Handout #9

Finding VTH:
1. Remove the resistor R1 from the circuit on breadboard.
2. Determine the open-circuit voltage (voltage between points A and B i.e. VAB) using
a voltmeter. This is the required Thevenin voltage VTH. Record the value in Table 9.1.

R1

R3

2.2k

1k
R5
10k
5Vdc

V1

R6

10Vdc

V2

2.2k
R4
5k

E
0

Figure 9.2: Example circuit to test the validity of the Thevenins theorem

R3

2.2k
R5
10k
5Vdc

V1

R6

10Vdc

V2

2.2k
R4
5k

E
0

Figure 9.3: Finding VTH

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Finding RTH:
1. Determine RTH by method A. Connect an ammeter between load points A and B

to measure the short-circuit current ISC. Use equation 9.1 to find the value of RTH.

2. Determine RTH by method B. Replace the voltage sources with short-circuits.

Then using an ohmmeter find the equivalent resistance between load points A
and B. This is RTH.
3. Determine RTH by method C. Apply a known DC voltage (1V) between points A and B.
Then using an ammeter find the current through the test voltage source. Use equation
9.3 to find RTH.
4. Determine RTH by method D. Insert resistors R1 and R2 (between points A and B) one
by one and complete equations (9.4)-(9.5). Simultaneously solving these two resultant
equations will give the value of RTH.

Points

Repeat the whole experiment for resistances R6 and R4 connected between

C-D and D-E points.

RTH ()

VTH
(volts)

Method A

Method B

Method C

Method D

A-B
C-D
D-E
Table 9.1: Data to test the validity of the Thevenins theorem

5. Compare the values of RTH being found using different methods. Do they agree?
6. Solve the given circuit for VTH and RTH for each pair of terminals. Compare the
calculation and measurement results. Do they agree?

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Finding RTH:

Comments ant Conclusion:

Lab Exercise:
Q#1:does the thevenin equivalent dependent upon load resistance?

Q#2:write the importance of thevenin theorem?

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Electric Circuits EE(100)

Lab Manual Handout #10

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Nortons Theorem
Objectives:

1. Determine the value of the Nortons current IN and the Nortons resistance
RN in a DC circuit.
2. Experimentally verify the Nortons theorem.

Equipment:

Resistors
DMM
Breadboard
DC power supply
Connecting wires.

Prerequisite:

Before coming to the lab, students must study and practice the Nortons theorem,
and also review other circuit analysis techniques.

Theory Overview:

Nortons theorem states that any linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistance RN where
IN is the short-circuit current flowing through the terminals, and
RN is the equivalent resistance seen thru the terminals provided that all the
independent sources are turned off. RN is exactly the same as RTH.
Please note that the Thvenins and Nortons equivalent circuits are related by a
source transformation.

Finding IN: Determine the short circuit current ISC flowing through the load terminals.
This is known as the Nortons current IN.

IN = ISC (short-circuit current)

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(10.1)

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Electric Circuits EE(100)

Lab Manual Handout #10

ISC
a
Circuit

Ammeter

Finding RN: Remove all sources from the circuit, i.e. replace all voltage sources with a

short-circuit and current sources with an open-circuit. Then with the help of a multimeter find
the resistance between the points a and b, denoted by Req.

RN = Req

Turn-off all
the sources

(10.2)

a
b

Req

Multimeter

Please note that RN is exactly the same as RTH and can be determined through many
ways as discussed in the last experiment [Thevenins Theorem].

Safety Precautions

Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.

Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your TA to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what
you need to measure.

Procedure:
1. Find the Nortons equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 10.1. Draw the Nortons
equivalent circuit in the space provided in Fig. 10.2. Record the calculated values in
Table 10.1.
2. Calculate the current IL flowing through the load resistance RL and record the value in
Table 10.1.
3. Connect on breadboard the given circuit (Fig. 10.1). The aim is to measure the Nortons
current IN, Nortons resistance RN, and the amount of current flowing through the load
resistance RL, denoted by IL.
4. Measure the current IL flowing through the load resistance RL and record value in
Table 10.1.
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1k

Electric Circuits EE(100)

470

Lab Manual Handout #10

R4

R2
100

R1
R3

1k

RL

470

10V
b
Figure 10.1: Example circuit to test the validity of the Nortons theorem

(a). RL = 470

(b). RL = 1000

Figure 10.2: Nortons equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 10.1

Follow the following procedure to validate the Nortons theorem.

Finding IN:
1. Short-circuit the load terminals a and b.
2. Use ammeter to measure the current flowing through the short-circuited load terminals.
This is the required Nortons current IN. Record the ammeter reading in Table 10.1.

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1k

470

IN

R4

R2
100

R1
R3

1k

10V
b
Figure 10.3: Finding IN

Finding RN:

1. Turn off all the independent sources. Replace the voltage sources with shortcircuits and current sources with open-circuits. Then using an ohmmeter find the
equivalent resistance between load points a and b. This is RN.

1k

470
R4

R2
100

R1
R3

1k

b
Figure 10.4: Finding RN

Finding IL through the Nortons equivalent circuit:

1. Calculate the current flowing through the load resistance RL shown in Fig. 10.2.
This must coincide with the current values determined in step 2 and 4 of the lab
exercise [Page 2].

Repeat the whole experiment for RL = 1k . Comment on the results.

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Electric Circuits (EE-100)

RN ()

RL
()

Lab Manual Handout #10

Calc.

Meas.

IN (A)
Calc.

Meas.

IL (A)
original
circuit

equivalent
circuit

470
1000
Table 10.1: Data to test the validity of the Nortons theorem

Lab Exercise:
Q#1:Does the Norton resistance equal to thevenin resistance?

Q#2: Can the Norton equivalent circuit be derived from be derived from thevenin circuit?

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Electric Circuits EE (100)

Lab Manual Handout # 11

Name
Reg. No
Marks / Grade

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

Objectives:

To experimentally verify that maximum power will be delivered to the load when
load resistance is equal to the total equivalent resistance of the circuit.

Equipment:

Resistors
DMM
Breadboard,
DC power supply
Connecting wires

Prerequisite:

Before coming to the lab, students must study and practice the Maximum Power
Transfer theorem, and also review other circuit analysis techniques.

Theory Overview:
If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenins equivalent circuit except for the
load, the power delivered to the load is
2

VTH
p L = i RL =
RL
RTH + RL
2

RTH

(11.1)

a
RL

VTH
b

Figure 11.1: A linear two-terminal Thevenin equivalent circuit

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Electric Circuits EE (100)

Lab Manual Handout # 11

From elementary calculus maximum power will be transferred to load when

RL = RTH
PL max =

Figure 11.2: The power

transfer profile

(11.2)

VTH 2
4RL

(11.3)

pL (W)
pLmax

RTH

RL ()

Safety Precautions
Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.
Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your TA to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the DMM is correctly set for what
you need to measure.

Procedure:
1. Connect on breadboard the given circuit in figure 11.1 with VTH = 10V and RTH

= 5.6k. The aim is to measure the current i flowing in the circuit and prove that
maximum power is delivered to load when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenins
resistance of the circuit.

2.

Insert different values of the load resistance and measure the current i flowing
through the circuit. Record value in Table 11.1.

3. Use equation 11.1 to determine the power delivered to the load.

4. Observe that the maximum amount of power is delivered to the load when RL is equal
to RTH. Verify your result using equation 11.3.
5.

Draw a graph between the power delivered to the

loadpLand the load resistance

RL. Graphically determine the value of RL for which maximum power theorem is
satisfied. Do you agree with the result?
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Electric Circuits EE (100)

Lab Manual Handout # 11

Observations:
VTH =

RTH =

Load resistance
RL ()
100

Current flowing thru circuit

i (A)

Power delivered to the load

pL (mW)

220
680
1000
2200
3300
5600
10k
12k
68k
100k
150k
470k
Table 11.1: Data to test the validity of Maximum Power Transfer theorem

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Electric Circuits EE (100)

Lab Manual Handout # 11

pL (mW)

0.10

0.22

0.68

1.00

2.20

3.30

5.60

7.50

10.0

12.0

68.0

100

150

470

RL (k)

Figure 11.3: Power delivered to the load vs. the load resistance

Lab Exercise:
Q#1:where does the energy go when a mismatch is occurred in circuit?

Q#2:Using elementary calculus, determine the expression for the load resistance RL
(Fig. 11.1) so that maximum power is transferred at the load terminals?

Electrical Engineering Department UET Fsd.

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