OPTICAL SOURCES & DETECTORS

Randhir Bhatnagar
Chief Scientist, CSIR-CSIO,
Chandigarh

Emission of light (Optical Source)

Emission of light, (in the form of a photon) can take
place either spontaneously or it can be stimulated by
the presence of another photon of the right energy
level.
For spontaneous or stimulated emission to occur,
energy must be supplied to boost the electron from its
low energy state to a higher energy state.
The energy can come from many sources: Heat
(Incandescent light), Electrical Discharge (D2, Hg, Na
lamps), Electrical Current (LED, LD), Bioluminescence
(Fire fly- luciferase enzyme)

OPTICAL SOURCES:
Optical Source find applications in the area of medical,
automotive, analytical equipments, communications and
industry.
Types of Optical Source
Tungsten, Deuterium, Mercury, Hollow Cathode Lamp
Optical Source specifically suited to FO systems are:
Light Emitting Diode (SLED, ELED, SLD)
Laser Diode (DFB, DBR)

Optical Source Requirement for Performance (For Fiber Optics)

Physical dimensions to suit the optical fiber
Narrow radiation pattern (beam width)

Linearity (output light power proportional to driving current)

Ability to be directly modulated by varying driving current
Fast response time

Adequate output power into the fiber

Narrow spectral width (or line width)
Stability and efficiency

Driving circuit issues

Reliability and cost

Basic LED operation

A PN junction acts as the active or recombination region.
When the PN junction is forward biased, electrons and holes
recombine either radiatively (emitting photons) or non-radiatively
(emitting heat). This is simple LED operation.

Emitted wavelength depends on bandgap energy

Transitions can take place from any energy state in either band to
any state in the other band. This results in a range of different
wavelengths produced in this spontaneous emission. This accounts
for the fact that LEDs produce a range of wavelengths. Typically the
range is about 80 nm or so.

Light Emitting Semiconductors

Table 6-1: Light-Emitting Semiconductors
Material
Wavelength Range Bandgap Energy
(m)
(eV)
AlGaInP
GaAs
AlGaAs
InGaAs
InGaAsP

0.61 - 0.68
0.9
0.8 - 0.9
1.0 - 1.3
0.9 - 1.7

1.82 - 1.94
1.4
1.4 - 1.55
0.95 - 1.24
0.73 - 1.35

Working of LED

 Light is emitted at site of carrier recombination which is primarily

close to the junction.
However, the amount of radiative recombination and the emission
area within the structure is dependent upon the semiconductor
materials used and the fabrication of the device.

Emits incoherent light

through
spontaneous
emission.

Used
for
Multimode
systems with 100-200
Mb/s rates.

Broad spectral width and

wide output pattern.

850nm region: GaAs and

AlGaAs

13001550nm
region:
InGaAsP and InP

 Homojunctions: P- type and N-type from same material

GaAs

GaAs

Carriers are not confined

Light is not confined

Structure and index of refraction n

in gallium arsenide with a junction
width d

LED should have a high radiance (light intensity), fast response time
and a high quantum efficiency for FO system

Heterojunction
Heterojunction is the advanced junction design to reduce
diffraction loss in the optical cavity.
This is accomplished by modification in the material to control the
index of refraction of the cavity and the width of the junction.

The index of refraction of the material depends upon the impurity

used and the doping level.
The Heterojunction region is actually lightly doped with p-type
material and has the highest index of refraction.
The n-type material and the more heavily doped p-type material
both have lower indices of refraction.
This produces a light pipe effect that helps to confine the light to
the active junction region. In the homojunction, however, this
index difference is low and much light is lost.
Double or single hetero-structure junction with better light output

Heterojunctions: Different p- and n- materials

Carriers are confined
Light is also confined
Single Heterojunction, Double Heterojunction.
A heterojunction is a junction between two
semiconductors with different bandgap energies.

different

The difference in bandgap energies creates a one-way barrier.

Charge carriers (electrons or holes) are attracted over the barrier
from the material of higher bandgap energy to the one of lower
bandgap energy.

Gallium Arsenide-Aluminum Gallium

Arsenide single heterojunction

Double Heterojunction
When a layer of material with a lower bandgap energy is
sandwiched between layers of material with a higher energy
bandgap a double heterojunction is formed. This is called a
double heterojunction because there are two heterojunctions
present - one on each side of the active material.
The double heterojunction forms a barrier which restricts the
region of electron-hole recombination to the lower bandgap
material. This region is then called the active region

Double Heterojunction
The valence band of
n-InGaAsP is at a
higher energy than
the valence band of
the adjacent n-InP.
The conduction band
is at a lower energy
level.
p-InP has
higher
energy levels than nInP but the bandgap
is the same

 Electrons are attracted across the left-hand junction from the

n-InP to n-InGaAsP.
Holes are attracted across the right-hand junction from the p-InP
into the n-InGaAsP.
Recombination takes place in the n-InGaAsP and spontaneous
emission occurs.
The heterojunction allows to have a small active region where the
light is produced.
The material in the active region has a higher refractive index than
that of the material surrounding it. This means that a mirror
surface effect is created at the junction which helps to confine
and direct the light emitted.

Double Heterojunction

Confining and Guiding

the Light within the
Device
Within the device the light
must be confined and
directed to the exit aperture
so that it can be directed
into the fiber which is done
using insulating materials
SiO2 to confine the active
region and the current path.
The active layer in a
heterostructure has a higher
refractive index.
This junction forms a
mirror layer and helps to
confine the light to the active
layer. For this reason, the
outer layers are often called
confinement layers

Coupling light output to a fiber is

the most difficult and costly part of
manufacturing a real LED or laser
device.

Four common methods are used:

Use of a Graded Index Lens (GRIN lens) is fairly common. The lens collects
and focuses the light onto the end of the fiber.
A Ball lens is also often used. This is bonded to the surface of the LED with
an epoxy resin that has a specific refractive index. However, the RI of the
epoxy cant match to both the RI of the fibre and the RI of the semiconductor
since the semiconductor will have an RI of around 3.5 and the fiber of
around 1.45.
The Direct Coupling method is to mount the fiber end so that it touches the
LED directly i.e. to mount the LED inside a connector so that when a fiber is
plugged in (mounted in the other half of the connector) one get firm
mounting in good position.
To fix a ball lens to the end of the fiber

Types of LED Structures

Surface Emitting LEDs (SLED)
Edge Emitting LEDs (EELED)
Superluminescent LEDs (SLD)
Confining and Guiding the Light within the Device
In both types of LED (SLED and ELED) a combination of insulating
materials and junctions is used to:
1. Guide the current flow to a small active region and
2. Guide the light produced out of the device and into an easy
position for coupling to a fiber.

Surface Emitting LED (SLED)

Method for obtaining high radiance is to restrict the emission to a
small active region within the device Burrus & Dawson (1970)
Power coupled into the
fiber is dependent on many
factors;
distance
and
alignment
between
emission area and fiber,
emission
pattern
and
interfacing medium

More Power

Poor Radiance

Coupling lens used to increase efficiency.

Short optical Links with Large NA fibers.

Data rates less than 20 Mbps.

Surface-emitting LED

The active region is limited to a circular section that has an

area compatible with the fiber-core end face.

Surface Emitting LED

The surface-emitting LED is also known as the Burrus
LED in honor of C. A. Burrus, its developer.
In SLEDs, the size of the primary active region is limited
to a small circular area of 20micron to 50micron in
diameter.
The primary active region is below the surface of the
semiconductor substrate perpendicular to the axis of the
fiber.
A well is etched into the substrate to allow direct
coupling of the emitted light to the optical fiber. The
etched well allows the optical fiber to come into close
contact with the emitting surface.

Edge-emitting LED

Edge-emitting double-heterojunction LED. The output beam is

lambertian in the plane of the pn-junction (||) and highly directional
perpendicular to the pn-junction

Edge-emitting LED

Have advantage of transparent guiding layers with a very thin

active layer (50 to 100m). This reduces self absorption and
narrows the beam divergence.

Light is emitted at one end face only.

Couple more power to small NA fibers

Higher data rates>100Mbps, better modulation

Multimode and Single Mode fibers

ELEDs provide narrower linewidth than SLED

High radiance

Superluminescent LEDs
Significant benefits over both SLEDs and ELEDs for OFS
SLDs Provide

High output power

Directional output beam
Narrow spectral linewidth

One end is made optically lossy to prevent reflections and thus

suppress lasing.
Injection current increased until stimulated emission i.e.
amplification occurs without feedback.

Superluminescent Diode (SLD)

A superluminescent diode (SLED or SLD) is an edge-emitting
semiconductor light source based on superluminnescence.
It combines the high power and brightness of laser diodes with the
low coherence of conventional LED.
Its emission band is 5100 nm wide.

Comparision : SLEDs Vs ELEDs

SLEDs generally radiate more power into air (2.5 to 3 times) than ELEDs
since the emitted light is less affected by re-absorption.

SLEDs couples more optical power into large NA (greater than 0.3) than
ELED where as the opposite is true for low NAs.
Less coupling efficiency in SLEDs as compare to ELEDs.
ELEDs have better modulation bandwidth than SLEDs
ELEDs have narrower bandwidth than SLEDs.

LED Characteristics

LED is forward biased, its current increases rapidly and must be

controlled to prevent destruction of the device.
The light output is quite linearly proportional to the current, so it
can be precisely modulated.
Full Width Half Max, Peak Wavelength, Forward current, Rise time,
Luminous intensity (Flux(lm)), LED radiation pattern

LED Power & Efficiency

Spontaneous emission allows nonradiative recombination to take
place within the structure due to imperfections and impurities
Internal Quantum Efficiency

50% for simple homojunctions

60 to 80% with DH structures
Internal quantum efficiency : Ratio of radiative recombination rate
to the total recombination rate

rr
rr
Rr
int

rt rr rnr R t
Rr is the total number of radiative recombination per second

R r int R t int

i
e

i - forward biased current to the p-n

junction

 Rr is equivalent to number of photons generated per second and

each photon has an energy equal to h, then optical power
generated internally by the LED is

Pint R r h int

In terms of wavelength

i
h
e

ic
Pint int
h W
e

A linear relationship between the optical power generated in the

LED and the drive current into the device

Light Output Power

Surface
emitter
radiates significantly
more optical power
into air than the
edge emitter

Both are reasonably

linear at moderate
drive currents

Light ouput (power) into air against d.c. drive

current for LED: a) An AlGaAs surface emitter; b)
An AlGaAs edge emitter.

Temperature Dependence

Characteristics show the variation in output at a specific drive

current over the temperature range for all the devices.
Edge

emitting
device
exhibits
a
greater
temperature
dependence
than the surface emitter and
that the output of SLD is
strongly dependent on the
junction temperature.

To
Light output temperature dependence for the
three LED structure emitting at a wavelength
of 1300 nm

utilize the high power

potential of such devices at
elevated temperatures, the
use
of
thermoelectric
coolers may be necessary.

Temperature dependence

Spectra tend to broaden

with
increase
in
temperature
due
to
greater energy spread in
carrier distributions at
higher temperatures.

Increase in temperature
affect the peak emission
wavelength as well.

Spectral variation with temperature for AlGaAs SLED

LED: Output Spectrum

LED Output Spectra:

a) An AlGaAs SLED with doped
active region
b) InGaAsP SLED with lightly
doped and heavily doped cases

Spectral line width of an LED

operating at room temperature at
0.85m is between 25 and 40 nm
(FWHM), but vary to 50 to 100 nm in
1550 region.

Increased doping levels leads to

increased linewidth also.

Spectral Linewidth

Typical spectral patterns for edge- and

surface-emitting LEDs at 1310 nm.

FWHM about 1.6 times smaller for ELED than SLED.

Further narrowed by the Superluminescent operation; linewidth

far smaller 30 nm

The patterns broaden with increasing wavelength and are wider

for surface emitters.

Analog LED Drive Circuit

34

LASER DIODE
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by the Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
Coherent light

Narrow beam width

Lasers can produce high output power. In communication
applications, semiconductor lasers of power up to about 20
milliwatts are available.

Because laser light is Coherent, a high percentage (50% to 80%)

can be coupled into the fiber.

LASER: Basic Operation

Laser Transition Processes

(Stimulated and Spontaneous Emission)

Energy absorbed from the

incoming photon

Random
release of energy

Coherent release of
energy

Conditions for Large Stimulated Emissions

All three processes occur together with a balance between absorption
and emission.

Absorption and Emission process in steady state of material

Two conditions to be satisfied for stimulated emissions to

overwhelm the spontaneous emissions are:
The population of excited level should be greater that that
at the lower energy level and
The radiation density in the medium should be very large.

Population Inversion
At thermal equilibrium : Photon absorption and emission
processes take place side by side, but because N1>N2 ; absorption
dominates.
Laser operation requires stimulated emission exclusively.
To achieve a high percentage of stimulated emission, a majority of
atoms should be at the higher energy level than at the lower level.
Energy is to be supplied somehow to the laser medium to raise
atoms from the lower level to the excited level
The process by which atoms are raised from the lower level to the
upper level is called pumping.

In Stimulated Emission incident and

stimulated photons will have

Identical energy Identical wavelength

Narrow linewidth
Identical direction Narrow beam width
Identical phase Coherence and
Identical polarization

Basic Structure
Homojunction device with cleaved ends demand for high
threshold current density ( >104 A cm-2) due to lack of carrier
containment - inefficient light sources

Schematic diagram of a
GaAs
homojunction
injection laser with a
Fabry-Perot cavity

How a Laser Works

Fabry-Perot Laser (resonator)

cavity

Mirror Reflections

Laser Output Spectrum

(Center Wavelength)

Mode
Separation

g()

Longitudinal
Modes

 Heterojunction

structures

:
Improved
carrier
confinement and thus lower current densities ( 103 A cm-2 )

DH ILD fabricated from lattice matched III-V alloys provided both

carrier and optical confinement on both sides of the p-n junction,
giving the injection laser a greatly enhanced performance.

Stripe Geometry
DH laser structure provides optical confinement in the vertical
direction through the refractive index step at the heterojunction
interfaces, but lasing takes place across the whole width of the
device.
Broad Area DH laser
Sides of cavity simply
formed by roughening the
edges of the device
Reduce
emission
directions

unwanted
in
these

Limit
the
horizontal
modes

number of
transverse

broad area GaAs/AlGaAs DH injection laser

Broad emission area creates several problems including difficult

heat sinking, relatively wide active area, unsuitable light output
geometry for efficient coupling to fibers etc.

DH Stripe Contact Laser

To overcome broad emission problems whilst also reducing the
required threshold currents

laser structures in which active region does not extend to the

edges of the device were developed.

In this structure, the major

current flow through the
device and hence the active
region is within the stripe.
Generally, stripe is formed
by
creation
of
high
resistance areas on either
side by techniques such as
Proton Bombardment or
Oxide Isolation.

Schematic representation of an oxide stripe

AlGaAs DH injection laser.

The stripe therefore acts as a guiding mechanism which

overcomes the major problems of the broad area device.

Distributed Feedback Laser

A distributed feedback laser (DFB) is a type of laser diode where the
active region of the device is periodically structured as a diffraction
grating.
The structure builds a one-dimensional interference grating (Bragg
Scattering) and the grating provides optical feedback for the laser.
DFB laser diodes do not use two discrete mirrors to form the optical
cavity (as they are used in conventional laser designs).
The grating acts as the wavelength selective element for at least one
of the mirrors and provides the feedback, reflecting light back into
the cavity to form the resonator.
The grating is constructed so as to reflect only a narrow band of
wavelength, and thus produce a single longitudinal lasing mode.
This is in contrast to a Fabry-Perot Laser, where the facets of the
chip form the two mirrors and provide the feedback.

 Altering the temperature of the device causes the pitch of the

grating to change due to the dependence of refractive index on
temperature. This dependence is caused by a change in the
semiconductor laser's bandgap with temperature and thermal
expansion.
A change in the refractive index alters the wavelength selection of
the grating structure and thus the wavelength of the laser output,
producing a Tunable Diode Laser.
DFBs are antireflection coated on one side of the cavity and
coated for high reflectivity on the other side (AR/HR).
In this case the grating forms the distributed mirror on the
antireflection coated side, while the semiconductor facet on the
high reflectivity side forms the other mirror.
These lasers generally have higher output power since the light is
taken from the AR side, and the HR side prevents power being lost
from the back side.

DFB and DBR lasers

AR coating

HR coating

DFB

DBR

Optical output vs. drive current of a laser

External Efficiency
Depends on the slope

Threshold Current

Laser threshold depends on Temperature

Analog Modulation
LED

LASER

Laser Digital Modulation

Commercial DFB

Components

Symbo
l

Min

Typ

Max

Unit

CW Output power(25C)

Pf

10

---

30

mW

Threshold current

It h

--

25

60

mA

Operating current

If

--

300

--

mA

Forward voltage

Vf

--

2.0

3.0

Center Wavelength

1540

1550

1570

nm

Linewidth

--

--

MHz

Monitor Current

Im

--

200

--

Monitor dark current(Vr=5V)

Id

--

--

100

nA

Isolation(Optional)

Iso

-30

--

--

dB

TEC current

ITEC

--

1.2

--

TEC voltage

VTEC

--

3.2

--

Rt h

9.5

10

10.5

To

-20

--

65

Tst g

-40

--

85

Parameters

Thermistor resistance(at
25)
Operating Temperature
Range
Storage temperature

DFB diode
Thermoelectric cooler
Thermistor
Photodiode
Optical isolator
Fiber-coupled lens

Comparison between LED and LASER

PHOTODETECTORS:
Photodetectors find applications in the area of medical,
automotive, safety and analytical equipments, cameras,
communications, astronomy and industry.
Types of Photodetectors
Photodiode, Photodiode Array, Light Dependent Resistor
Avalanche Photodiode
Photomultiplier Tube, Microchannel Plate, Image Intensifier
Position Sensitive Detector

CCD

Photodetector Requirements for Performance

High sensitivity at the operating wavelength of the source
Short response time to obtain a desirable bandwidth

Minimum noise contribution

Compatible size for efficient coupling and packaging
Linear response over a wide range of light intensity
Stability of performance characteristics
Low bias voltage

Low cost

Photodetection Mechanisms
Photodetector converts light (power) into electrical signals (photocurrent)
There are two distinct photodetection mechanisms

1 External photoelectric effect :

Photomultiplier Tubes (PMT)

2 Internal photoelectric effect :

PN junction photodiodes

PIN photodiodes

Avalanche photodiodes

Principle of Photodetection (In Semiconductor)

In semiconductors, conduction band and valence band are
separated by a forbidden band gap.
Electrons at the valance band are bound. The electrons in the
conduction band are free and when small voltage is applied they
move and causes current flow
Populating the conduction band with electrons causes the
semiconductor to conduct current.

The value of band gap Eg determines the conductive properties of

semiconductor

Photodetection

pn junction in thermal equilibrium with

zero bias voltage

A PN junction can be formed by diffusing either a P-type impurity such as

Boron, into a N-type bulk silicon wafer, or a N-type impurity, such as
Phosphorous, into a P-type bulk silicon wafer.

Photodetection

(a) Photogeneration of e-h pair

(b) Reverse biased p-n junction with carrier drift in depletion region
(c) Energy band diagram showing photogeneration and separation of e-h pair

 All semiconductor photodetectors use photon absorption in

depletion region to convert photons into electron hole pairs, and
then sense them.
When a semiconductor is illuminated by light having an energy
E = h greater than its band gap energy Eg the light is absorbed in
the semiconductor and electron hole pairs are generated. is the
frequency of light.
Incident photon after passing through p-region will be absorbed in
the depletion layer. The absorbed energy creates EHP, Electron
raises to conduction band and hole fall to valance band. The free
electron travel down the barrier and the free hole will travel up the
barrier to constitute current flow.
The photon absorbed in the neutral p or n regions, outside the
depletion region create EHP, but these free charges will not move
quickly due to lack of strong electric field. Most of the free charges
will diffuse slowly through the diode and may recombine before
reaching the junction. These charges produce negligible current,
thus reducing the detectors responsivity.

 EHP created close to the depletion layer can diffuse and subsequently be
swept across the junction by the large electric field due to applied reverse
biased voltage. An external current is produced but it is delayed with
respect to variations in the incident optical power
It is desirable that photon be absorbed in the depletion layer so that it can
contribute maximum in generation of photocurrent.

Typical pn photodiodes have a rise time of the order of microseconds

making them unsuitable for high speed optical systems.
The existence of electric field across the junction facilitate the rise of
photocurrent
The primary operating wavelength regions for FO communication
systems are 850nm, 1310nm and 1550 nm. The photodetectors which are
used in these systems are :
- PN junction photodiodes
- PIN photodiodes
- Avalanche photodiode

Photodetector I-V curve under Illumination

The I-V characteristic of a photodiode with no incident light is similar to a
rectifying diode. When the photodiode is forward biased, there is an
exponential increase in the current. When a reverse bias is applied, a small
reverse saturation current appears. It is related to dark current as

where ID is the photodiode dark current, ISAT is the reverse saturation

current representing thermally generated free carriers which flow through
the junction, q is the electron charge, VA is the applied bias voltage,
kB=1.38x10-23J/K, is the Boltzmann Constant and T is the absolute
temperature (273 K= 0oC)

Illuminating the photodiode with

optical radiation, shifts the I-V
curve by the amount of
photocurrent (IP)

Photodiode Characteristics (Electrical)

A silicon photodiode can be represented by a current source in

parallel with an ideal diode. The diode represents the p-n
junction, Cj junction capacitance, RSH shunt resistance, RS
Series resistance, RL load resistance

Shunt resistance: An ideal photodiode should have an infinite RSH,

but actual values range from 10s to 1000s of Mega ohms. RSH is used to
determine the noise current in the photodiode
Series resistance: RS of a photodiode arises from the resistance of
the contacts and the resistance of the undepleted silicon and its value
ranges from 10 to 1000 s. This is used to define the linearity of
photodiode.
Junction capacitance: The boundaries of the depletion region acts
as the plates of a parallel plate capacitor. The junction capacitance is
directly proportional to the diffused area and inversely proportional to
the width of the depletion region. Junction capacitance is used to
determine the speed of the response of the photodiode
Response Time: There are three factors defining the response time
of a photodiode:
1. tDRIFT, the charge collection time of the carriers in the depleted region
of the photodiode.
2. tDIFFUSED, the charge collection time of the carriers in the undepleted
region of the photodiode.
3. tRC, the RC time constant of the diode-circuit combination.

tRC=2.2RC, where R, is the sum of the diode series resistance and the
load resistance (RS + RL), and C, is the sum of the photodiode junction
and the stray capacitances (Cj+CS). Since the junction capacitance (Cj)
is dependent on the diffused area of the photodiode and the applied
reverse bias, faster rise times are obtained with smaller diffused area
photodiodes, and larger applied reverse biases.
The total rise time is determined by

Capacitance of Photoconductive Devices versus Reverse Bias Voltage

Photodiode Characteristics (Optical)

Responsivity: The responsivity of a silicon photodiode is a measure of
the sensitivity to light, and is defined as the ratio of the photocurrent IP
to the incident light power P at a given wavelength.
It varies with the wavelength of the incident light as well as applied
reverse bias and temperature. It is a measure of the effectiveness of
the conversion of the light power into electrical current.

Temperature Coefficient of Responsivity Vs.

Wavelength For Silicon Photodiode

The responsivity variations due to change in temperature is due to decrease or

increase of the band gap, because of increase or decrease in the temperature
respectively

Quantum Efficiency (Q.E.)

Quantum efficiency is defined as the fraction of the incident photons
that contribute to photocurrent.

One of the major factor which determine the quantum efficiency is

the absorption coefficient of the semiconductor material used
within photodetector. < 1 quoted as a percentage say 85% i.e. 85
electrons collected per 100 incident photons
It is related to responsivity by

Responsivity & Quantum efficiency

Responsivity of
andthe
quantum
efficiency
a as a
Comparison
responsivity
andasQE
function ofofwavelength
for photodiodes
function
wavelength
for photodiodes
constructed of
from
different
materials.
constructed
different
materials.

Quantum Efficiency is not

constant at all wavelengthsvaries according to photon
energy.

For a given material, as the

wavelength of the incident
photon becomes larger, the
photon energy becomes less
than that required to excite
an electron from the valence
band to the conduction
band.

Responsivity falls off rapidly

beyond cutoff wavelength.

Biasing Photodiode
Photovoltaic Mode
The photovoltaic mode of operation (unbiased) is preferred when a
photodiode is used in low frequency applications as well as ultra low light
level applications. The photocurrents in this mode have less variations in
responsivity with temperature.

For stability, select CF such that

Operating bandwidth after gain

peaking compensation is

Photoconductive Mode
Application of a reverse bias improves the speed of response.
Effect of reverse bias
Increase in the depletion region width
Decrease in junction capacitance.
Increase in the dark and noise currents.
Decrease in rise time (tr).

Where GBP is the Gain Bandwidth

Product of amplifier (A1) and CA is
the amplifier input capacitance.
A feedback capacitor (CF) will limit
the frequency response and avoids
gain peaking

Noise Sources in Photodiode:

Shot noise is related to the statistical fluctuation in both the
photocurrent and the dark current.

Where q=1.6x10-19C, is the electron charge, IP is the photogenerated

current, ID is the photodetector dark current and f is the noise
measurement bandwidth. Shot noise is the dominating source when
operating in photoconductive (biased) mode.
Thermal or Johnson Noise The shunt resistance in a photodetector
has a Johnson noise associated with it. This is due to the thermal
generation of carriers.
Where k= 1.38x10-23 J/K, is the Boltzmann Constant, T, is the absolute
temperature in degrees Kelvin, f is the noise measurement bandwidth
and RSH , is the shunt resistance of the photodiode. This type of noise
is the dominant current noise in photovoltaic (unbiased) operation
mode.
All resistors have a Johnson noise associated with them, including the
load resistor.

Various figure of merit parameters have been used to asses the

noise performance of optical detectors. most commonly used are Noise
equivalent power (NEP), Detectivity (D) and Specific detectivity (D*).
Noise Equivalent Power (NEP): The minimum input optical power
required to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise current in a
1Hz bandwidth. NEP is essentially the minimum detectable power.
Detectivity(D): The characteristic detectivity (D) is the inverse of NEP,
1/NEP.
Specific Detectivity (D*): It is detectivity multiplied by the square root
of the area (A) of the photodetector, (D*=DA) for a 1Hz bandwidth.
D* allows different photodetectors to be compared independent of
sensor area and system bandwidth; a higher detectivity value indicates
a low-noise device

PIN Photodiode

The P-Intrinsic-N structure increases the distance between the P and

N conductive layers, decreasing capacitance, increasing speed. The
volume of the photo sensitive region also increases, enhancing
conversion efficiency. The bandwidth can extend to 10's of GHz. PIN
photodiodes are the preferred for high sensitivity, and high speed at
moderate cost.

P-i-N PHOTODIODE
A typical P-i-N photodiode
consists of a highly-doped
transparent p-type contact layer on top of an undoped absorbing
layer (i) and an n-type highly doped contact layer on the bottom.

This diode is evolved mainly from one basic requirement: light

should be absorbed in the depletion region of the diode to ensure
that the electrons and holes are separated in the electric field and
contribute to the photocurrent, while the transit time must be
minimal.
This implies that a depletion region larger than the absorption
length must exist in the detector. This is easily assured by
making the absorbing layer undoped. Only a very small voltage is
required to deplete the undoped region.
An added advantage is that the recombination/generation time
constant is longest for undoped material, which provides a
minimal thermal generation current.

Avalanche Photodiodes (APD) Photodetector with Internal

gain

Avalanche photodiode showing high electric field region

Photodiode with Internal gain: Internally multiply the primary signal
photocurrent before it enters the input circuitry of the amplifier.
Increases receiver sensitivity: the photocurrent is multiplied before
encountering the thermal noise associated with the receiver circuit.
For carrier multiplication, the photogenerated carriers must traverse a region
where a very high electric field is present.

 In the high field region, a photogenerated electron or hole can gain

enough energy so that it ionizes bonds in the valence band upon
colliding with them. This is known as Impact Ionization
The newly created carriers are also accelerated by the high electric
field, gaining enough energy to cause further impact ionization. This
phenomenon is the Avalanche Effect
Create an extremely high electric field region (approximately 3 x 105
V/cm)
Requires high reverse bias voltages (100 to 400 V) in order that the
new carriers created by impact ionization
Carrier multiplication factors as great as 104 may be obtained

 When carriers are generated in undepleted material, they are collected

somewhat slowly by the diffusion process. This has the effect of
producing a long 'diffusion tail' on a short optical pulse.
When the APD is fully depleted by employing high electric fields, all
the carriers drift at saturation-limited velocities.
The response time for the device is limited by three factors:
the transit time of the carriers across the absorption region (i.e.
the depletion width)
the time taken by the carriers to perform the avalanche
multiplication process
the RC time constant incurred by the junction capacitance of the
diode and its load
At low gain the transit time and RC effects dominate giving a
definitive response time and hence constant bandwidth for the device
At high gain the avalanche build-up time dominates and therefore the
device bandwidth decreases proportionately with increasing gain

 The rise time between 150-200ps and fall time of 1ns or more are quite
common and this limits the overall response of the device
Multiplication factor M is a measure of the internal gain provided by
the APD and is defined as
M=IM/IP
where IM is the average value of the total multiplied output current and
IP is the primary photocurrent.

The avalanche mechanism is a statistical process, and not every

carrier pair generated in the APD experiences the same multiplication.
Thus, the measured value of M is expressed as an average quantity
which is as great as 104 .

Advantages & Drawbacks of APDs

Advantages
- Provides an increase in sensitivity of between 5 dB to 15dB over
i-n photodiodes i.e. detection of very low level light signals.

p-

- Wider dynamic range as a result of their gain variation with response

time and reverse bias
Drawbacks

- Fabrication difficulties due to their more complex structure and

hence increased cost.
- The random nature of the gain mechanism which gives an additional
noise contribution.
- Often high bias voltages required (50 to 400 V)
- The variation of the gain (multiplication factor) with temperature i.e.
temperature compensation is necessary to stabilize the operation of
the device.

Photodetectors

APD vs p-i-n diode

85