Abstract

The World Trade Center PATH station originally had a price tag of $2 billion and was
scheduled to be completed in early 2013. However, due to issues in the supply chain from
steel providers, a lack of communication between government agencies and developers, and
not adhering to construction deadlines; the PATH station at World Trade Center is now slated
for an opening of early 2014 at a cost of $4 billion. For the same money, New York City and
the state of New Jersey could have built additional commuter rail lines, increased capacity
along the new Second Avenue subway; and improved roadways. Most cities could build an
entire rail line at that cost.
One of the major problems faced by the construction industry today is time management for
the completion of the project which also leads to the cost overrun. Time Management is a
vital part of Construction Project Management. A Project manager should allocate proper
time required for the performance of each activity and also should employ proper measures to
control it.
Project management (PM) is the function required to maintain appropriate allocation of time,
cost and quality to the overall conduct of the project through the successive stages of its
natural life-cycle, (i.e. concept, development, execution, and finishing).Success of the project
highly depends on appropriate implementation of PM procedures within a project team.
At present, the improvement of productivity and effective time management procedures
become extremely important for completion of projects with positive results and even
for surviving of a construction company as a business structure. Inappropriate PM and low
productivity create a negative impact on project environment, particularly increased cost,
losses in profit and damage to reputation

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Pyramid of Egypt
The Great Pyramid of Egypt considered as one major project in the world and the only one
still remaining to this day which is also included in the seven wonders of the ancient world.
The projects takes 20 years of timeframe to complete. Not only is this a very tall and wide
structure that dwarfed anything in its heyday but it has survived intact for 4,500 years despite
being hit by earthquakes. It even had the legacy of being the tallest structure for 4,400 years
(till the completion of the Eiffel Tower in 1879).
Until today the precision, accuracy, and complexity of the structure that still surprises
engineers and architects. Its still creating debates how the people can develops a pyramid
without using high technologies as we have now. Even with highest technology we own now
we unable to construct the pyramid accurate as per the previous. At 148 metres (454 feet)
high, the equivalent to a modern 48-story building, with 203 layers to its summit the volume
of the structure is made up of an estimated 2.3 million limestone blocks. That is two-thirds of
the size of Hoover Dam, or you could build 30 Empire State buildings with its stonework.
The joints between the adjacent blocks fit together with optical precision. The complexity of
the interior includes chambers and galleries that are assembled from 130 granite blocks
weighing between 12 to 70 tons (with 43 over 60 tons) that tower to a height of 43 metres
(150 feet).

The project pushed the limits of technologies, materials, and resources with the heights and
stability of the structure, and the complexity and integrity required for the internal chambers.
The technical challenges still baffle engineers and experts today, considering the primitive
tools and equipment (no wheel or pack animals) available to the project. For example, the
pyramid needed to be precisely centred and aligned to a true north-south axis, and required a
perfectly level base where inaccuracies of centimetres at the bottom would translate into
metres at the top. Throughout the construction the builders had to deliver the limestone
blocks weighing 1.5 tons each, up to a height of 148 metres and a precise position in the
structure. The builders had to measure and calculate the position of the corners to the centre,
the angle of inclination of the ridges and lateral surfaces. If the centre shifted then the overall
pyramid shape would be distorted. The internal chambers required relief from the full weight
of the pyramid above. Finally, creating perfectly straight passages with one to the bedrock
chamber running over 120 m (394 ft) long.
For centuries the Giza Pyramid has not only been a testament to engineering and architecture
but, to build a structure of this magnitude requires a truly sophisticated approach to project
management. It wasnt just the technical but the organizational challenges of the project that
were on an unprecedented scale and complexity. The project can be better understood by
highlighting these challenges. For example, the procurement and transportation of vast
amounts of building materials and equipment that were pouring into the project from all over
the Eastern Mediterranean. This included 130 granite blocks that were quarried and
transported over 900 kilometres, and approximately 350 limestone blocks that were quarried
and transported daily. There was also a massive supply chain of food, provisions and supplies
constantly flowing into the project which engaged a large population of Egypt across villages
and farms.
The project required a large workforce that needed to be fed, clothed, housed, and the welfare
of thousands of workers had to be considered. The project manager had to organize these
complex, massive and elongated supply chains and integrate them into the complex work
schedule whilst keeping an eye on the health of the Pharaoh and the timely completion of the
project.

2.0 SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION

2.1 Major criteria for successful completion of Pyramids
We look at the pyramids of Egypt excluding the unfinished ones and see civil engineering
projects that had been successfully completed. The construction starts with preparations,
namely: choosing the site, planning the project, providing for the supplies, their safe
transportation and the methods of lifting the building blocks.
2.1.1 The Building Site
Constructing a pyramid is a major civil engineering project. Pyramids are built on rock
formations, conglomerate, gravel, or sand surfaces which are artificially levelled or
unlevelled. While it will be relatively easy to level the sand surface, it would be more
difficult to level gravel and very difficult to level conglomerate and rock surfaces.
The pyramid of Khufu G1, is built on levelled rock, while his 'queens pyramids' especially
G1c, and the layer step pyramids at el Kula and Elephantine were built on an unlevelled rock
surface. The Pyramids of Khafra G2, and Menkura G3, are built on a levelled rock surface
which had been extended by artificial terraces of megalithic blocks. The layer step pyramid of

Snofru at Seila was built on an unlevelled surface of Pliocene conglomerate. His pyramids at
Dahshur are built on levelled gravel. At Meidum, the layer step pyramids of Sinki at Abydos,
Nubt and El Ghanimiya, and the monuments were built on sand.
When the monument is built on a rock or conglomerate unlevelled surface the pyramid shape
has to consider according to a datum line. Consequently there is a construction prior to
reaching the datum line.
2.1.2 Planning
Setting the orientation lines of the pyramid base or the datum level, would be by setting right
angles to true directions. The north south direction is by observing the North Star and or by
observing the rising and setting of a certain star on an artificial horizon. The east-west
direction was by observing the equinox and/or by shadows of the sun light.
At Giza with Khufu and Khafra we have marks of a series of approximations leading to the
perfect orientation of the pyramid base. At the layer step pyramid of Sinki planning was by
means of brick markers discovered. They were placed to serve as reference points to
orientation, alignments, inclination, and other building features. Brick alignment markers are
also noted on the east side of the Layer pyramid at Zawyet El Aryan.
2.1.3 Supplies
The building material is usually brought from sources close to the site. All pyramids are built
of stone from the nearest quarries, thus: granite at layer step pyramid of Elephantine, sand
stone at layer step pyramid of El Ghenimiya and limestone for all the other pyramids. When
fine stone is needed: for the lowest course of the outer facing, the outer facing itself and the
pyramidion in the superstructure and for the sarcophagus, portcullis and some inner chambers
in the substructure. Their quarries and sources are deep in the desert or far upstream. In all
cases transportation is needed. Preparing pyramidions and sarcophagi required higher skills.
2.1.4 Transportation
Quarrying is a skill which has existed during all phases of human civilizations. In Egypt the
quarries are numerous and their output had to be transported - we are talking about solid
blocks weighing from less than one ton to hundreds of tons. In Ancient Egypt the preferred
quarries of limestone were in Middle Egypt, sand stone in Upper Egypt and granite from
Aswan. Most preferable were those closest to the banks of the river. As for diorite, quartzite,
shiest, breccia and rare stones, they were quarried from far locations. These also had to be
brought to the river for transportation. Mining copper and other metals for tools came from
remote locations in Sinai.
The quarried blocks and mined metal had to be brought to the river, loaded on barges which
sailed downstream. On arrival to the river banks closest to the destination, unloading takes
place.
2.1.5 Safety
The safety of the Nile cruise varied during the 3 seasons; in the flood season there was the
danger of drifting and in the harvesting season there was the danger of grounding. Yet there
was a sudden danger of flash floods rushing down from the eastern desert.
We have observed that for the safety of sailing and unloading the stone supplies at Dahshur
and Giza, the Ancient Egyptians of the 4th dynasty, built a great dam across Wadi Garawi

(pictured below), in the east desert to ensure the safety of the transported loads from the flash
flood.
The unloading takes place on the flood plain level and the building site could be close or far
(may be a few kilometers). The chosen site of the pyramid project is usually on the desert
plateau which was 30 to 60 meters higher than the flood plain.
These are important problems that have to be solved before the first block is set in the project.
2.1.6 Lifting
Once the blocks are at the building site, they are built in their final position in the edifice. As
the pyramid grows the blocks are lifted higher and higher.
We have remains of a ramp discovered south of the queens of Khufu at Giza. Four ramps at
the small unfinished layer step pyramid Sinki at Abydos. Herodotus reports mechanical
lifting by short blocks of wood.
Every now and then a new idea turns up, unfortunately hitherto nothing is conclusive.
All these activities were achieved with the intensity required to complete the project during
the lifetime of the king.
An aerial view of layer step pyramid Sinki at Abydos shows the construction ramps on the 4
sides of the unfinished monument. They were starting from the desert surface over the
foundation of the outer facing (layer 3) and leaning on the nucleus (layers 2, 1, and the core).
Redrawn by Nabil Swelim 1990.
2.2 Major Criteria for Successful Completion of Airport.
Big or small project, insufficient planning and practises regarding development activities can
expose to unnecessary risk and great inefficiency to the project completion. Therefor good
project management need to complete a project with successful. When its come to airport
construction, nothing is to be easily estimated, all the steps starting from Idea generation until
to the end point the project team need to do a right decision and planning to avoid
unnecessary risk. Project also involves cost, time and quality, whenever its come to airport,
such a huge project will really need more focused into the way in using their resources with
effective and efficient in controlling cost, time and quality. Major criteria involved in the
construction of airports is:1.
2.
3.
4.

Planning stage.
Select Partners.
Development & Design.
Construction.

2.2.1 Planning Stage.

Planning stage become a start point to the project in archiving their objectives. Whenever
there is a requirement to build a new airport, the authorised team should focus in identifying
the Objective why should need to develop a new airport. The objective will be a baseline to
the project until it is complete. Under the Planning Stage there is four steps need to be
focused: - Lay out plan, resources, and documentation of impact and define project
parameters.
Layout or design planning become one of the most important thing that should be considered
into the airport construction. The design plan will give us the actual picture of project and

also the actual things to be focused to complete the project such as Land structure, length of
land, area of development, cost and time to be involved.
Once get the approved design, the next step is to find the way in funding the resources it is
dealing the effectiveness and efficiency of using limited resources to build the airport. The
cost and time should be estimated very clearly in this stage to study the project process.
The next level part is to get ready with the documentation to get approval from government
and non-government agencies to build an airport. It is more focused in to safety regulation,
environmental policies, economic development policies and more.
Once done with the documentation process, the next phase will be is measuring project
parameters. In this stage the project team will analyse the parameters which is the problems
can be occur on the project. If there is any problem, the team should think on the effective
way in settle the problem by finding an alternative solutions.
2.2.2 Select Partners
The second stage in the development of Airport project is Select Partners. Where in this stage
we select or screen all the vendors, partners, and contractors who going to work with us in the
construction project. The partners should be selected based on their qualification and
experience, not by the project cost. This can be accomplished by means of qualifications
based selection procedures. Contractors submit Statements of Qualifications (SOQ). Once
the best qualified consultant is identified and both parties mutually agree upon the scope of
services, price information and negotiations can be considered.
Every airport is unique, best practices and field expertise from work on other airports delivers
top return on investment. Look for aviation consultants with a proven record managing
construction projects with successful quality assurance, quality control and constructability
metrics, and then leverage that experience for your projects gain. A firm that has successfully
completed similar projects at other airports will be able to recommend the easiest and most
cost-effective methods for achieving a project goal, while maintaining optimal airport
operations and function.
Pricing negotiation also should be done at this phase whereby the project team should hire the
contractors by their experiences and then negotiate a fair and reasonable price. If the
contractors does not meet with the budget requirement than the airport team has the option to
engage with its second-highest-ranked consultant. Its important to know this is a point of no
return: once negotiations take place with a second choice, negotiations cannot resume with
the first choice, even if the second choices costs are higher.
2.2.3 Development and Design
After the partner selection, the airport team should discuss the design with their partners. The
sponsoring airport must conduct a predesign conference to discuss project scope, design
parameters, airport safety, routing of aircraft and equipment, sequencing of construction
operations, and environmental considerations. A pre-design conference is completed for most
projects but is essential when a project is of sufficient magnitude to affect airport operations
during construction. This meeting is the first step toward resolving conflicts between
construction activities and the operation of the airport. If it is determined that the project
cannot meet certain design criteria, and the design cannot be altered, a Modification of
Design Standards can be submitted to request certain criteria be relaxed or waived.

2.2.4 Construction
At this step, a strong construction management consultant views project construction with
decisions, consequences and the big picture in mind. Rather than dictating means and
methods to the contractor, a construction management consultant will foresee potential
pitfalls and make informed recommendations for improvement.
Manage quality assurance/control. The constructability of a project is crucial to building it
cost-effectively. The consultant should will ensure that the project is executed in the easiest
manner, a capability that requires experience with similar work at other airports. Its
essential, therefore, that the consultants team has experience in the field, not just behind a
desk.
It is difficult to over-document a projects plans and progress. Construction claims often
occur months, even years after construction took place. It is for this reason that construction
managers must document details in near real-time fashion to ensure the informations
integrity and accuracy. Photographs, video and detailed reports could prove invaluable in
supporting an airports side in a potential dispute, but it takes a deep knowledge of
construction to capture the many fine details of a complex project that would ultimately be
most valuable.
Safety is imperative for any airport project, but be aware that it is the contractor who is
ultimately responsible for construction safety. If an airport owner is directing safety practices
on site, the airport opens itself up to liability. Leave safety assurance to the contractors in
charge of the workers and equipment. Qualifying contractors for their familiarity with
airports and aircraft operations is one way the airport owner helps improve the safety of
workers and the aviation public.

3.0 COMPARISON TABLE

Table 3.1: Comparison flow between Pyramid and Airport construction process.

4.0 COMPARISON STUDY.

The construction industry, faces a lot of changes if compare to the development of pyramid
those days and now. The advancement in the construction industry has changes dramatically
in the past years and now with the advancement we able to construct a building within few
months with good quality.
Technology has got to be one of the biggest factors which have had an impact on the
construction industry. The increase in more advanced equipment has revolutionized the way
the industry work. Gone are the days when everything was calculated by hand. The cost and
amount of materials we need is now calculated by computers. If one detail is changed it used
to mean hours or work, however now a simple click of a button and everything is recalculated
for you.
Although there were health and safety regulations put in place during the ancient time, it is
nothing compared to what it is like now. Strict guidelines and procedures are put in place now
to ensure the safety of employees as well as the customers. There is much more supervision
on the matter of health and safety now that it is being properly policed.
There is much more of a demand for bespoke projects now, people want to be different and
each business has its one unique requirements. They no longer want something similar to
what everyone else has got, with the fast pace of society today, it is all about being different
and standing out from the crowd in order to attract your customers. They also want things
now. The rate at which buildings are now constructed is on a much quicker time scale than
previously if we compare to the projects on the earliest time.
The skills that would have been needed in the construction industry during the Pyramid time
would have been more manual based, although this is still true, some level of technology
based skills are now needed. Construction companies also need to be more aware of things
that may not have been there previously, such as many more electricity cables, gas and water
pipes.
There is more of a weight on qualifications now then there was before. Tying in with skills,
health and safety and technology, this is important to ensure that employees understand what
they should be doing to keep in line with all of these things. The push for education is much
more now than it was past years ago, especially in this industry as it is now a recognized skill.
5.0 CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, behind every successful project there in an efficient and good leader who is
capable of effective project management techniques and appointment of project team. Based
on the review on the Pyramid project and also on the airport project now days, we can
conclude that, both involves different types of project method based on their capabilities at
that time. But what we can said is, Egyptian does the best with what their have at that time
and currently with allot of changes in Information Technologies, Construction Technologies,
Engineering innovation made the construction industry faces a lot of changes intern of the
time cost and quality in delivering the project.
The drive toward CAD has implications beyond the improvement of the design process. For
example, electronic communication of data among the owner, designer, material supplier, and
builder of a project is a very significant trend, so the industry must prepare for all project

team members to have common networked workstations and to meet electronically. Bar-code
technology is now playing a role in tracking and locating materials and equipment, with
identification codes linked directly to CAD systems.
Innovation done in Construction equipment, in general, assists in moving and assembling
materials. Emphasis has been on moving larger pieces or on moving material faster, with
greater reliability and accuracy. In the recent past, improvements in such conventional
construction practices as slip formingthe use of a moving form for pouring concretehave
continued on an incremental basis. Heavy equipment for use at the job site, such as cranes,
conveyors, and earth movers, continues to become more efficient. Dramatic improvements
have been made on specific machinery, such as laser-based survey equipment, laser-guided
excavation equipment, and new tunneling equipment.
Finally with the changes in the technologies, and the innovation in the construction industries
supply chain, transportation made the construction industry able to complete a project with
time, cost and quality efficient.

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Interdisciplinary Research.
Dr. Scott Johnson's Introductory Engineering Class:
-http://academic.pgcc.edu/~sjohnson/casestudy2.html
Nabil Swelim. Architectural Composition of A Pyramid:http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/pyramids_of_egypt/construction.php