Circuit Simplification Examples

Chapter 7 - Boolean Algebra

Lets begin with a semiconductor gate circuit in need of simplification. The A, B,

and C input signals are assumed to be provided from switches, sensors, or perhaps
other gate circuits. Where these signals originate is of no concern in the task of gate
reduction.

Our first step in simplification must be to write a Boolean expression for this circuit.
This task is easily performed step by step if we start by writing sub-expressions at the
output of each gate, corresponding to the respective input signals for each gate.
Remember that OR gates are equivalent to Boolean addition, while AND gates are
equivalent to Boolean multiplication. For example, Ill write sub-expressions at the
outputs of the first three gates:

. . . then another sub-expression for the next gate:

Finally, the output (Q) is seen to be equal to the expression AB + BC(B + C):

Now that we have a Boolean expression to work with, we need to apply the rules of
Boolean algebra to reduce the expression to its simplest form (simplest defined as
requiring the fewest gates to implement):

The final expression, B(A + C), is much simpler than the original, yet performs the
same function. If you would like to verify this, you may generate a truth table for both
expressions and determine Qs status (the circuits output) for all eight logic-state
combinations of A, B, and C, for both circuits. The two truth tables should be identical.
Now, we must generate a schematic diagram from this Boolean expression. To do
this, evaluate the expression, following proper mathematical order of operations
(multiplication before addition, operations inside parentheses before anything else),
and draw gates for each step. Remember again that OR gates are equivalent to
Boolean addition, while AND gates are equivalent to Boolean multiplication. In this
case, we would begin with the sub-expression A + C, which is an OR gate:

The next step in evaluating the expression B(A + C) is to multiply (AND gate) the
signal B by the output of the previous gate (A + C):

Obviously, this circuit is much simpler than the original, having only two logic gates
instead of five. Such component reduction results in higher operating speed (less
delay time from input signal transition to output signal transition), less power
consumption, less cost, and greater reliability.
Electromechanical relay circuits, typically being slower, consuming more electrical
power to operate, costing more, and having a shorter average life than their
semiconductor counterparts, benefit dramatically from Boolean simplification. Lets
consider an example circuit:

As before, our first step in reducing this circuit to its simplest form must be to develop
a Boolean expression from the schematic. The easiest way Ive found to do this is to
follow the same steps Id normally follow to reduce a series-parallel resistor network to
a single, total resistance. For example, examine the following resistor network with its
resistors arranged in the same connection pattern as the relay contacts in the former
circuit, and corresponding total resistance formula:

Remember that parallel contacts are equivalent to Boolean addition, while series
contacts are equivalent to Boolean multiplication. Write a Boolean expression for this
relay contact circuit, following the same order of precedence that you would follow in

reducing a series-parallel resistor network to a total resistance. It may be helpful to

write a Boolean sub-expression to the left of each ladder rung, to help organize your
expression-writing:

Now that we have a Boolean expression to work with, we need to apply the rules of
Boolean algebra to reduce the expression to its simplest form (simplest defined as
requiring the fewest relay contacts to implement):

The more mathematically inclined should be able to see that the two steps employing
the rule A + AB = A may be combined into a single step, the rule being expandable
to: A + AB + AC + AD + . . . = A

As you can see, the reduced circuit is much simpler than the original, yet performs the
same logical function:

REVIEW:

To convert a gate circuit to a Boolean expression, label each gate output with a
Boolean sub-expression corresponding to the gates input signals, until a final
expression is reached at the last gate.

To convert a Boolean expression to a gate circuit, evaluate the expression using

standard order of operations: multiplication before addition, and operations within
parentheses before anything else.

To convert a ladder logic circuit to a Boolean expression, label each rung with a
Boolean sub-expression corresponding to the contacts input signals, until a final
expression is reached at the last coil or light. To determine proper order of
evaluation, treat the contacts as though they were resistors, and as if you were
determining total resistance of the series-parallel network formed by them. In
other words, look for contacts that are either directly in series or directly in
parallel with each other first, then collapse them into equivalent Boolean subexpressions before proceeding to other contacts.

To convert a Boolean expression to a ladder logic circuit, evaluate the expression

using standard order of operations: multiplication before addition, and operations
within parentheses before anything else.

The Exclusive-OR Function

(XOR)
Chapter 7 - Boolean Algebra

One element conspicuously missing from the set of Boolean operations is that of
Exclusive-OR. Whereas the OR function is equivalent to Boolean addition, the AND
function to Boolean multiplication, and the NOT function (inverter) to Boolean
complementation, there is no direct Boolean equivalent for Exclusive-OR. This hasnt
stopped people from developing a symbol to represent it, though:

This symbol is seldom used in Boolean expressions because the identities, laws, and
rules of simplification involving addition, multiplication, and complementation do not
apply to it. However, there is a way to represent the Exclusive-OR function in terms of
OR and AND, as has been shown in previous chapters: AB + AB

As a Boolean equivalency, this rule may be helpful in simplifying some Boolean

expressions. Any expression following the AB + AB form (two AND gates and an OR
gate) may be replaced by a single Exclusive-OR gate.

DeMorgans Theorems
Chapter 7 - Boolean Algebra

A mathematician named DeMorgan developed a pair of important rules regarding

group complementation in Boolean algebra. By group complementation, Im referring
to the complement of a group of terms, represented by a long bar over more than one
variable.
You should recall from the chapter on logic gates that inverting all inputs to a gate
reverses that gates essential function from AND to OR, or vice versa, and also inverts
the output. So, an OR gate with all inputs inverted (a Negative-OR gate) behaves the
same as a NAND gate, and an AND gate with all inputs inverted (a Negative-AND
gate) behaves the same as a NOR gate. DeMorgans theorems state the same

equivalence in backward form: that inverting the output of any gate results in the
same function as the opposite type of gate (AND vs. OR) with inverted inputs:

A long bar extending over the term AB acts as a grouping symbol, and as such is
entirely different from the product of A and B independently inverted. In other words,
(AB) is not equal to AB. Because the prime symbol () cannot be stretched over two
variables like a bar can, we are forced to use parentheses to make it apply to the
whole term AB in the previous sentence. A bar, however, acts as its own grouping
symbol when stretched over more than one variable. This has profound impact on
how Boolean expressions are evaluated and reduced, as we shall see.
DeMorgans theorem may be thought of in terms of breaking a long bar symbol. When
a long bar is broken, the operation directly underneath the break changes from
addition to multiplication, or vice versa, and the broken bar pieces remain over the
individual variables. To illustrate:

When multiple layers of bars exist in an expression, you may only break one bar at a
time, and it is generally easier to begin simplification by breaking the longest
(uppermost) bar first. To illustrate, lets take the expression (A + (BC)) and reduce it
using DeMorgans Theorems:

Following the advice of breaking the longest (uppermost) bar first, Ill begin by
breaking the bar covering the entire expression as a first step:

As a result, the original circuit is reduced to a three-input AND gate with the A input
inverted:

You should never break more than one bar in a single step, as illustrated here:

As tempting as it may be to conserve steps and break more than one bar at a time, it
often leads to an incorrect result, so dont do it!
It is possible to properly reduce this expression by breaking the short bar first, rather
than the long bar first:

The end result is the same, but more steps are required compared to using the first
method, where the longest bar was broken first. Note how in the third step we broke

the long bar in two places. This is a legitimate mathematical operation, and not the
same as breaking two bars in one step! The prohibition against breaking more than
one bar in one step is not a prohibition against breaking a bar in more than one place.
Breaking in more than one place in a single step is okay; breaking more than
one bar in a single step is not.
You might be wondering why parentheses were placed around the sub-expression B
+ C, considering the fact that I just removed them in the next step. I did this to
emphasize an important but easily neglected aspect of DeMorgans theorem. Since a
long bar functions as a grouping symbol, the variables formerly grouped by a broken
bar must remain grouped lest proper precedence (order of operation) be lost. In this
example, it really wouldnt matter if I forgot to put parentheses in after breaking the
short bar, but in other cases it might. Consider this example, starting with a different
expression:

As you can see, maintaining the grouping implied by the complementation bars for
this expression is crucial to obtaining the correct answer.
Lets apply the principles of DeMorgans theorems to the simplification of a gate
circuit:

As always, our first step in simplifying this circuit must be to generate an equivalent
Boolean expression. We can do this by placing a sub-expression label at the output of
each gate, as the inputs become known. Heres the first step in this process:

Next, we can label the outputs of the first NOR gate and the NAND gate. When
dealing with inverted-output gates, I find it easier to write an expression for the gates
output without the final inversion, with an arrow pointing to just before the inversion
bubble. Then, at the wire leading out of the gate (after the bubble), I write the full,
complemented expression. This helps ensure I dont forget a complementing bar in
the sub-expression, by forcing myself to split the expression-writing task into two
steps:

Finally, we write an expression (or pair of expressions) for the last NOR gate:

Now, we reduce this expression using the identities, properties, rules, and theorems
(DeMorgans) of Boolean algebra:

The equivalent gate circuit for this much-simplified expression is as follows:

REVIEW

DeMorgans Theorems describe the equivalence between gates with inverted

inputs and gates with inverted outputs. Simply put, a NAND gate is equivalent to
a Negative-OR gate, and a NOR gate is equivalent to a Negative-AND gate.

When breaking a complementation bar in a Boolean expression, the operation

directly underneath the break (addition or multiplication) reverses, and the broken
bar pieces remain over the respective terms.

It is often easier to approach a problem by breaking the longest (uppermost) bar

before breaking any bars under it. You must never attempt to break two bars in
one step!

Complementation bars function as grouping symbols. Therefore, when a bar is

broken, the terms underneath it must remain grouped. Parentheses may be
placed around these grouped terms as a help to avoid changing precedence.