List of plants used in herbalism

In Europe, apothecaries stocked herbal ingredients for

their medicines. In the Latin names for plants created by Linnaeus, the word ocinalis indicates that
a plant was used in this way. For example, the
marsh mallow has the classication Althaea ocinalis,
as it was traditionally used as an emollient to soothe
ulcers.[4] Ayurvedic medicine, herbal medicine and
traditional Chinese medicine are other examples of medical practices that incorporate medical uses of plants.
Pharmacognosy is the branch of modern medicine about
medicines from plant sources. Plants included here are
those that have been or are being used medicinally, in at
least one such medicinal tradition.
Modern medicine now tends to use the active ingredients of plants rather than the whole plants. The
phytochemicals may be synthesized, compounded or otherwise transformed to make pharmaceuticals. Examples of such derivatives include Digoxin, from digitalis;
capsaicine, from chili; and aspirin, which is chemically
related to the salicylic acid found in white willow. The
opium poppy continues to be a major industrial source of
opiates, including morphine. Few traditional remedies,
however, have translated into modern drugs, although
there is continuing research into the ecacy and possible adaptation of traditional herbal treatments.

The Chelsea Physic Garden has cultivated medicinal

plants since 1673. The plant shown here is montbretia
(crocosmia aurea), used as a remedy for dysentery.

This is a list of plants that have been used as herbal

medicine. The ability to synthesize a wide variety
of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals is called herbal medicine. Many of
these phytochemicals have benecial eects on long-term Contents
health when consumed by humans, and can be used to effectively treat human diseases. At least 12,000 such compounds have been isolated so far; a number estimated to
A
be less than 10% of the total.[1][2] These phytochemicals
are divided into (1) primary metabolites such as sugars
B
and fats, which are found in all plants; and (2) secondary
C
metabolites compounds which are found in a smaller
range of plants, serving a more specic function.[3] For
D
example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to
deter predation and others are pheromones used to attract
E
insects for pollination. It is these secondary metabolites
F
and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans
and which can be rened to produce drugsexamples
G
are inulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the
cinchona, morphine and codeine from the poppy, and
H
digoxin from the foxglove.[3] Chemical compounds in
plants mediate their eects on the human body through
I
processes identical to those already well understood for
J
the chemical compounds in conventional drugs; thus
herbal medicines do not dier greatly from conventional
K
drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal
medicines to be as eective as conventional medicines,
L
but also gives them the same potential to cause harmful
M
side eects.[1][2]
1

2
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z

Aloe vera leaves are widely used to heal burns,

wounds and other skin ailments.[8][9]
Arnica (Arnica montana) is used as an antiinammatory[10] and for osteoarthritis.[11]
Asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida) might be useful for
IBS, high cholesterol, and breathing problems.[12]
Ashoka tree (Saraca indica) is used in Ayurvedic
traditions to treat gynecological disorders. The bark
is also used to combat oedema or swelling.[13]
Asthma-plant (Euphorbia hirta) has been used traditionally in Asia to treat bronchitic asthma and laryngeal spasm.[14][15] It is used in the Philippines for
dengue fever.[16]
Astragalus (Astragalus propinquus) has long been
used in traditional Chinese medicine to strengthen
the immune system, and is used in modern China
to treat hepatitis and as an adjunctive therapy in
cancer.[17]

2 B
Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) has a long history of
medicinal use, dating back to the Middle Ages particularly among Native Americans. Uses have included skin ailments, scurvy and gastro-intestinal
ailments.[18]
Belladonna (Atropa belladonna), although toxic,
was used historically in Italy by women to enlarge
their pupils, as well as a sedative, among other
uses. The name itself means beautiful woman in
Italian.[19]
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) used to treat
diarrhea, scurvy, and other conditions.[20]

Aloe vera

Abscess root (Polemonium reptans) is used to reduce

fever, inammation, and cough.[5]
Aai (Euterpe oleracea) Although aai berries are
a longstanding food source for indigenous people
of the Amazon, there is no evidence that they
have historically served a medicinal, as opposed to
nutritional role. In spite of their recent popularity in
the United States as a dietary supplement, there is
currently no evidence for their eectiveness for any
health-related purpose.[6]
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) leaves are used to lower
cholesterol, as well as forum kidney and urinary tract
ailments, although there is insucient scientic evidence for its ecacy.[7]

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) is used as an

agent to reduce the blood glucose level.[21]
Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) is used by both
primates and indigenous peoples in Africa to treat
intestinal ailments such as dysentery.[22][23]
Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium) used in
traditional Chinese medicine and by indigenous
peoples of the Amazon for nausea, indigestion and
constipation.[24]
Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) historically used
for arthritis and muscle pain, used more recently for conditions related to menopause and
menstruation.[25]
Blessed thistle (Cnicus benedictus) was used during the Middle Ages to treat bubonic plague. In
modern times, herbal teas made from blessed thistle

3
are used for loss of appetite, indigestion and other
purposes.[26]
Blueberries (genus Vaccinium) are of current medical interest as an antioxidant[27][28] and for urinary
tract ailments.[29]
Burdock (Arctium lappa) has been used traditionally as a diuretic and to lower blood sugar[30] and, in
traditional Chinese medicine as a treatment for sore
throat and symptoms of the common cold.[31]

Chasteberry (Vitex agnus-castus) used over thousands of years for menstrual problems, and to stimulate lactation.[40]
Chili (Capsicum frutescens)'s active ingredient,
capsaicine, is the basic of commercial pain-relief
ointments in Western medicine. The low incidence of heart attack in Thais may be related
to capsaicines bronolytic action (dissolving blood
clots).[41]
Cinchona is a genus of about 38 species of trees
whose bark is a source of alkaloids, including
quinine. Its use as a febrifuge was rst popularized
in the 17th century by Peruvian Jesuits.[42]
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is used for upset
stomach and as an expectorant, among other purposes. The oil is used topically to treat toothache.[43]
Coee senna (Cassia occidentalis) is used in a wide
variety of roles in traditional medicine, including in
particular as a broad-spectrum internal and external antimicrobial, for liver disorders, for intestinal
worms and other parasites and as an immune-system
stimulant.[44][45]

Chili peppers

Cats claw (Uncaria tomentosa) has a long history of use in South America to prevent and treat
disease.[32]
Cayenne (Capsicum annuum) is a type of chili that
has been used as both food and medicine for thousands of years. Uses have included reducing pain
and swelling, lowering triglyceride and cholesterol
levels and ghting viruses and harmful bacteria, due
to high levels of Vitamin C.[33][34][35]
Celery (Apium graveolens) seed is used only occasionally in tradition medicine. Modern usage is primarily as a diuretic.[36]
Chamomille (Matricaria recutita and Anthemis nobilis) has been used over thousands of years for a variety of conditions, including sleeplessness, anxiety,
and gastrointestinal conditions such as upset stomach, gas, and diarrhea.[37]
Chaparral (Larrea tridentata) leaves and twigs are
used by Native Americans to make a herbal tea used
for a variety of conditions, including arthritis, cancer
and a number of others. Subsequent studies have
been extremely variable, at best. Chaparral has also
been shown to have high liver toxicity, and has led to
kidney failure, and is not recommended for any use
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
or American Cancer Society.[38][39]

Comfrey (Symphytum ocinale) has been used as a

vulnerary and to reduce inammation.[46] It was also
used internally in the past, for stomach and other
ailments, but its toxicity has led a number of other
countries, including Canada, Brazil, Australia, and
the United Kingdom, to severely restrict or ban the
use of comfrey.[47]
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) used historically as a vulnerary and for urinary disorders,
diarrhea, diabetes, stomach ailments, and liver problems. Modern usage has concentrated on urinary
tract related problems.[48]
Cannabis(Marijuana) is used for cancer mainly read
more about it on the Cannabis page.

4 D
Dandelion (Taraxacum ocinale) was most commonly used historically to treat liver diseases, kidney
diseases, and spleen problems.[49]
Digitalis (Digitalis lanata), or foxglove, came into
use in treating cardiac disease in late 18th century
England in spite of its high toxicity.a Its use has
been almost entirely replaced by the pharmaceutical
derivative Digoxin, which has a shorter half-life in
the body, and whose toxicity is therefore more easily
managed.[50] Digoxin is used as an antiarrhythmic
agent and inotrope.[51]

7 G
digestive ailments. More recently, it has been
used to treat diabetes, loss of appetite and other
conditions[60]
Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) has been used
for centuries for fevers, headaches, stomach aches,
toothaches, insect bites and other conditions.[61]
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) is most commonly
used as a laxative. Flaxseed oil is used for dierent
conditions, including arthritis[62]

7 G
Dandelion ower

Dong quai (Angelica sinensis) has been used for

thousands of years in Asia, primarily in womens
health.[52]

E
Elderberry (Sambucus nigra) berries and leaves
have traditionally been used to treat pain, swelling,
infections, coughs, and skin conditions and, more recently, u, common cold, fevers, constipation, and
sinus infections.[53]
Ephedra (Ephedra sinica) has been used for more
than 5,000 years in traditional Chinese medicine
for respiratory ailments.[54] Products containing
ephedra for weight loss, energy and athletic performance, particularly those also containing caeine,
have been linked to stroke, heart arrhythmia, and
even death. Such products have been banned in
the United States since December 2003. Other
dietary supplements containing ephedra were similarly banned in February 2004.[55]
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) leaves were widely
used in traditional medicine as a febrifuge.[56] Eucalyptus oil is commonly used in over-the-counter
cough and cold medications, as well as for an
analgesic.[57]
European mistletoe (Viscum album) has been used
to treat seizures, headaches, and other conditions.[58]
Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.) oil has been
used since the 1930s for eczema, and more recently
as an anti-inammatory.[59]

F
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) has long
been used to treat symptoms of menopause, and

Garlic bulbs

Garlic ()(Allium sativum) widely used

as an antibiotic[63][64][65][66] and, more recently,
for treating cardiovascular disease[67][68] Garlic is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and has
antidepressant-like eects on mice[69] so might
be used as a herbal antidepressant or anxiolytic in
humans.[70]
Ginger (Zingiber ocinale) is used to relieve
nausea.[71]
Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) leaf extract has been used
to treat asthma, bronchitis, fatigue, Alzheimers and
tinnitus.[72]
Ginseng (Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius)
has been used medicinally, in particular in Asia,
for over 2,000 years, and is widely used in modern
society.[73]
Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) was used traditionally by Native Americans to treat skin diseases,
ulcers, and gonorrhea. More recently, the herb has
been used to treat the respiratory tract and a number
of other infections.[74]
Grape (Vitis vinifera) leaves and fruit have been used
medicinally since the ancient Greeks.[75]

5
Guava (Psidium guajava) has a rich history of use in
traditional medicine. It is traditionally used to treat
diarrhea; however, evidence of its eectiveness is
very limited.[76][77]

Khat is a mild stimulant used for thousands of

years in Yemen, and is banned today in many countries. Contains the amphetamine-like substance
cathinone.

Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal) might be useful for

dental plaque and weight loss.[78]

Konjac (Amorphophallus konjac) is a signicant dietary source of glucomannan,[87][88] which is used

in treating obesity,[89] constipation,[90] and reducing
cholesterol.[91]

H
Hawthorn (specically Crataegus monogyna and
Crataegus laevigata) fruit has been used for centuries for heart disease. Other uses include digestive
and kidney problems.[79]
Henna (Lawsonia inermis) exhibits potential antibacterial activity. The alcoholic extract of the
root has antibacterial activity due to the presence
of avonoid and alkaloids. Henna is also thought to
show anti-inammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic
eects in experimental animals.[80]

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) Kratom is known to

prevent or delay withdrawal symptoms in an opioiddependent individual, and it is often used to mitigate cravings thereafter. It can also be used for other
medicinal purposes. Kratom has been traditionally
used in regions such as Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia.
Kanna (Sceletium tortuosum) African treatment for
depression. Suggested to be an SSRI or have similar
eects, but unknown mechanism of activity.

11 L

Hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdaria)

Hoodia (Hoodia gordonii) is traditionally used by
Kalahari San (Bushmen) to reduce hunger and thirst.
It is currently marketed as an appetite suppressant.[81]
Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) seeds,
leaves, bark, and owers have been used medicinally for many centuries. The raw plant materials
are toxic unless processed.[82]
Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) dates back to ancient
Roman and Greek medicine, when it was used to Lavender blossoms
stop bleeding, heal ulcers and wounds, and treat
tuberculosis and kidney problems.[83]
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) was traditionally
used as an antiseptic and for mental health purposes.
It was also used in ancient Egypt in mummifying
9 J
bodies. There is little scientic evidence that lavender is eective for most mental health uses.[92]
Jamaica dogwood (Piscidia erythrina / Piscidia pis Lemon (Citrus limon), along with other citruses, has
cipula) is used in traditional medicine for the treata long history of use in Chinese and Indian trament of insomnia and anxiety, despite serious safety
ditional
medicine.[93] In contemporary use, honey
concerns.[84] A 2006 study suggested medicinal
and lemon is common for treating coughs and sore
potential.[85]
throat.

10

Kava (Piper methysticum) has been used for centuries in the South Pacic to make a ceremonial
drink with sedative and anesthetic properties. It is
used as a soporic, as well as for asthma and urinary tract infection[86]

Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) has a long history of medicinal usage in Eastern and Western
medicine. Uses include stomach ulcers, bronchitis,
and sore throat, as well as infections caused by
viruses, such as hepatitis.[94]
Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) Sacred lotus has been the
subject of a number of in-vitro and animal studies, exploring its pharmacologic eects, including

17 S
antioxidant, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory,
anti-infective, hyperlipidemic, and psychopharmacologic activity[95] although clinical trials are lacking.

12

Marigold (Calendula ocinalis), or calendula, has a

long history of use in treating wounds and soothing
skin[96]
Marsh-mallow (Althaea ocinalis) has been used
for over 2,000 years as both a food and a medicine[4]
Moringa oleifera is used for food and traditional
medicine. It is undergoing preliminary research to
investigate potential properties of its nutrients and
phytochemicals

made from the rened and modied sap is used for

pain control in terminally ill patients. Dried sap was
used as a traditional medicine until the 19th century.
Oregano (Origanum vulgare) Used as an abortifacient in folk medicine in some parts of Bolivia
and other northwestern South American countries,
though no evidence of ecacy exists in Western
medicine. Hippocrates used oregano as an antiseptic, as well as a cure for stomach and respiratory ailments. A Cretan oregano (O. dictamnus) is still used
today in Greece as a palliative for sore throat. Evidence of ecacy in this matter is lacking.

15 P
Papaya (Carica papaya) is used for treating
wounds.[100]
Peppermint (Mentha x piperita) oil, from a cross between water mint and spearmint, has a history of
medicinal use for a variety of conditions, including
nausea, indigestion, and symptoms of the common
cold.[101]
Purple coneower (Echinacea purpurea) and other
species of Echinacea has been used for at least 400
years by Native Americans to treat infections and
wounds, and as a general cure-all (panacea). It
is currently used for symptoms associated with cold
and u[102][103]

MoringaplantinGarden

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) has been used for

thousands of years for a variety of medicinal purposes, in particular liver problems.[97]

13

Neem (Azadirachta indica), used in India to treat

worms, malaria, rheumatism and skin infections
among many other things. Its many uses have led
to neem being called the village dispensary in
India.[98]
Noni (Morinda citrifolia) has a history of use as for
joint pain and skin conditions.[99]

14

Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) is the plant

source of morphine, used for pain relief. Morphine

Passion Flower (Passiora) - Thought to have Antidepressant properties. Unknown MOA. Used in traditional medicine to aid with sleep or depression.

16 R
Red clover (Trifolium pratense) is an ingredient in
some recipes for essiac tea. Research has found no
benet for any human health conditions.[104]
Rosemary (Rosmarinus ocinalis) has been used
medicinally from ancient times.

17 S
Sage (Salvia ocinalis), shown to improve cognitive function in patients with mild to moderate
Alzheimers disease[105][106]
Syrian Rue (aka Harmal) (Peganum harmala) MAOI. Can be used as an antidepressant, but carries signicant risk. Used in traditional shamanistic rites in the amazon, and is a component of

7
Ayahuasca, Caapi or Yaj (which is actually usually Banisteriopsis caapi but has the same active alkaloids).
St. Johns wort (Hypericum perforatum), widely
used within herbalism for depression. Evaluated
for use as an antidepressant, but with ambiguous
results.[107][108][109]
Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) was used medicinally
by the Seminole tribe[110]
Summer savory (Satureja hortensis) extracts show
antibacterial and antifungal eects on several
species including some of the antibiotic resistant
strains.[111][112][113]
Valerian owers

18

Tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) has been used

medicinally for centuries by Australian aboriginal people. Modern usage is primarily as an
antibacterial or antifungal agent.[114]
Thunder God Vine (Tripterygium wilfordii) is used
in traditional Chinese medicine to treat inammation or an overactive immune system[115]
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is used to treat bronchitis
and cough. It serves as an antispasmodic and
expectorant in this role. It has also been used in
many other medicinal roles in Asian and Ayurvedic
medicine, although it has not been shown to be effective in non-respiratory medicinal roles.[116]

Velvetleaf (Cissampelos pareira) is used for a wide

variety of conditions.[121]
Verbena (Verbena ocinalis) is used for sore throats
and respiratory tract diseases.[122]
Veronica (Veronica ocinalis) is used for sinus and
ear infections.[123]
Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) is used for skin
care.[124]

21 W
Wafer Ash (Ptelea trifoliata) root bark is used for
the digestive system.[125] Also known as hoptree.

Tulsi (Ocimum tenuiorum or Holy Basil) is used for

a variety of purposes in medicine.[117]

Wahoo (Euonymus atropurpureus) is a purgative and

might eect the heart.[126]

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), a spice that lends its distinctive yellow color to Indian curries, has long been
used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine
to aid digestion and liver function, relieve arthritis
pain, and regulate menstruation.[118]

Wallower (Erysimum cheiri) contains constituents

that may aect the heart.[127]

19

Umckaloabo, or South African Geranium

(Pelargonium sidoides), used in treating acute
bronchitis[119]

20

Valerian (Valeriana ocinalis) has been used since

at least ancient Greece and Rome for sleep disorders
and anxiety.[120]

Water Dropwort (Oenanthe aquatica) seeds are used

for coughs, intestinal gas, and water retention.[128]
Water Germander (Teucrium scordium) has been
used for asthma, diarrhea, fever, intestinal parasites,
hemorrhoids, and wounds.[129]
Water Hemlock (Cicuta virosa) Despite being one of
the most poisonous plants in the world, it is sometimes used for pain and inammation.[130]
Water Plantain (Alisma plantago-aquatica) is used
for the urinary tract.[131]
Watercress (Nasturtium ocinale) may be diuretic
and antibacterial.[132]
Wheatgrass (Triticum aestivum) may contain antioxidant and anti-inammatory compounds.[133]

27
White willow (Salix alba) is a plant source of
salicylic acid, a chemical related to aspirin, although
more likely to cause stomach upset as a side eect
than aspirin itself. Used from ancient times for the
same uses as aspirin.[134]

22

Xanthoparmelia scabrosa is a lichen used for sexual

dysfunction.[135]

23

Yerba Santa santa (Eriodictyon crassifolium) was

used by the Chumash people to keep airways open
for proper breathing.[136]

24

Databases

Elizabeth M. Manh; Maria C. Silva; Maria G. C.

Alves; Maurcio B. Almeida; Maria G. L. Brando
(October 3, 2008). PLANT - A bibliographic
database about medicinal plants. Retrieved 201009-29.
James Duke. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
Protabase: Useful Plants of Tropical Africa. Plant
Resources of Tropical Africa. Retrieved 2011-0929. External link in |publisher= (help)
Tropical Plant Database. Raintree. Retrieved
2011-10-18.
Plant Database. Plants for a Future. Retrieved
2011-10-18.
Vitamins & Supplements Center. WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.

REFERENCES

Medicinal plants traditionally used by the indigenous

peoples of North America
Naturopathic medicine
Wikispecies

26 Notes
^ Digitalis use in the United States is controlled by
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and can only
be prescribed by a physician. Misuse can cause
death.
This encyclopedia is not a substitute for medical
advice nor a complete description of these herbs,
their dangers (up to and including death), and their
(in)compatibility with alcohol or other drugs.

27 References
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Health benets of herbs and spices: the past, the present,
the future. Med. J. Aust. 185 (4 Suppl): S424. PMID
17022438.
[2] Lai PK, Roy J; Roy (June 2004).
Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and
spices. Curr. Med. Chem. 11 (11): 145160.
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[3] Meskin, Mark S. (2002). Phytochemicals in Nutrition and
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[4] William S. Haubrich (2003). ocina. Medical meanings: a glossary of word origins. p. 162. ISBN 978-1930513-49-5.
[5] Abscess Root. WebMD. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
[6] Aai. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved 2011-09-30.
[7] Alfalfa. National Institute of Health MedlinePlus. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
[8] Kathalai. Tamilnadu.com. 7 February 2013.

25

See also

Chinese classic herbal formula

List of branches of alternative medicine
List of culinary herbs and spices
List of herbs with known adverse eects
Materia Medica
Medicinal mushrooms
Medicinal plants of the American West

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[36] Max Wichtl. Apii Fructus. Herbal drugs and phytopharmaceuticals. CRC Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-84931961-7. Retrieved 2011-10-18.

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29

EXTERNAL LINKS

28 Further reading
Bown, Deni (1995). Encyclopedia of herbs and their
uses. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0-7894-0184-3.
Mitchell, William; Bastyr, John B. (2003). Plant
medicine in practice: using the teachings of John
Bastyr. Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-072388.
Harrod Buhner, Stephen (1996). Sacred plant
medicine: explorations in the practice of indigenous
herbalism. Roberts Rinehart Publishers. ISBN
1570980918.
Cech, Richard A.; Cech, Sena K.; Gunter, Anne
(2000). Making Plant Medicine. Horizon Herbs.
ISBN 978-0-9700312-0-4.
Homann, David (2003). Medical herbalism: the
science and practice of herbal medicine (Google
eBook). Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 089281-749-6.
Garrett, J. T. (2003). The Cherokee herbal: native
plant medicine from the four directions. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 1-879181-96-7.
Cowan, Eliot (1996). Plant Spirit Medicine: The
Healing Power of Plants. Granite Publishing. ISBN
1-893183-11-4.
Neuwinger, H.D. (2000).
African traditional
medicine: a dictionary of plant use and applications.
Stuttgart, Germany: Medpharm Scientic. ISBN 388763-086-6.
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine

[128] Water Fennel. WebMD.

Journal of Ethnopharmacology

[129] Water Germander. WebMD.

Barnes, Joanne; Anderson, Linda A.; Phillipson,

J.D. (2007). Herbal Medicines (3rd ed.). London:
Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 978-0-85369-623-0.

[130] Water Hemlock. WebMD.

[131] Water Plantain. WebMD.
[132] Watercress. WebMD.
[133] Wheatgrass. WebMD.
[134] Mahdi JG, Mahdi AJ, Mahdi AJ, Bowen ID (2006). The
historical analysis of aspirin discovery, its relation to the
willow tree and antiproliferative and anticancer potential.
Cell Proliferation. 39: 147155. doi:10.1111/j.13652184.2006.00377.x. PMID 16542349.
[135] Xanthoparmelia. WebMD.
[136] James D. Adams Jr, Cecilia Garcia; Garcia (2005).
Palliative Care Among Chumash People. ECAM. 2 (2):
143147. doi:10.1093/ecam/neh090. PMC 1142202 .
PMID 15937554.

29 External links
The dictionary denition of herbalism at Wiktionary

13

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