CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

1-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:9

9
9

1-2

Ability to describe basic environmental engineering components comprising air,

water and land.
Ability to explain the concept of aspect and impact factors.
Ability to describe and relate Environmental Quality Act 1974 to environmental
issues.

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to

manage and improve the environment. As such, topics discussed in relation to the
environment normally include water, air and land resources. Sustainable development aims
at providing healthy water, air and land for human habitation, for other organisms to
survive, and to remediate polluted sites as well.
Human interaction with the environment could give rise to an impact on the environment
and sometimes is being adversely impacted by pollutants in the environment. A large
amount of data will have to be interpreted in the light of the need for sustainable
development. As such, environmental engineers will have to be conscious of and find viable
ways to cope with such a situation.
Environmental crisis is a crisis of the senses, imagination, and use of pertinent tools, that
guide us in our ways of thinking, developing concepts, and postulating theories. In the
context of sustainable development, aspect and impact factors affecting the environment
are of prime importance in discussing the future of sustainable development. As such, any
decision making process on environmental management must be based on both these
factors.
1-2.1 THE ENVIRONMENT
Simply stated, the environment is ones surroundings. To the environmental engineer, the
word environment may take on a wide definition and requires a global perception. It should
not be a narrow definition dealing only with liquid, gaseous or solid materials within a
treatment plant reactor, but it should go beyond that.
Global environment comprises the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere in which life
sustaining resources of the earth are contained. The atmosphere , a mixture of gases
extending outward from the surface of the earth, evolved from the elements of the earth
that were gasified during its formation and metamorphosis. The hydrosphere consists of
oceans, lakes, streams, and shallow groundwater bodies that interflow with surface water.
The lithosphere is the soil mantle that wraps the core of the earth.
The biosphere, a thin shell that encapsulates the earth, is made of the atmosphere and
lithosphere adjacent to the surface of the earth, together with the hydrosphere. It is within
the biosphere that the life forms of earth, including humans, live. Life sustaining materials

in gaseous, liquid, and solid forms are cycled through the biosphere, providing sustenance
to all living organisms.
1-2.2 POPULATION
Growing population puts pressure on both the economic and environmental systems. It
brings along a need for more food, fuel, water, and goods and services. As such, it is vital to
discuss on the interaction of the aspects of demographic and environment. Population
growth means more demand for good lifestyle. Above all, it creates a requirement for more
investment to be committed to meet all these needs. Consequently there bounds to be a
rise in economic activities, a direct impact on a lot more people, and an increasing burden
on the ecosystem.
However, this should not be a case for an argument to be made against population growth.
If the environmental, economic and social carrying capacities of the system can cope with
the demands, then it will be well and good. It must be emphasised that the purpose of an
economy is to provide sufficient supplies of goods and services for the people and not to
create more problems. However, there is one vital caveat: for the system to be sustainable
it must have the capacity to generate enough wealth to provide for the necessary
investments for the maintenance of the environment and the material requirements of the
population as well. In moving towards an era in which environmental stability is a prime
factor in economic and social survival, similar observations with the earlier transition from
the agricultural age to that of the industrial one can be inferred. That transition became
possible only when agricultural production was sufficient to support not only those living on
the agricultural land, but also the new industrial population.
1-2.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Population, economic development, and the environment are among the three important
elements in the sustainability equation. Take one example: that of dealing with the
unwanted waste products of developmentnot simply referring to solid industrial or
domestic waste -but also various forms of water and air pollution generated by humans that
contribute to the build-up of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere.
An ecologically satisfactory solution may be pursued in three ways: limiting economic
activity and thereby cutting down on the waste generating process; investing in
technologies that limit and render the waste harmless; or ensuring that population growth
does not exceed the capacity of the economy to evolve in accordance with environmental
requirements. If the first route is emphasised then this may well imply that we should move
away from our present technologically oriented society and go for a simpler lifestyle. The
problem is that it would have to be much simpler, and at a population density far lower and
not to resort to draconian measures. It would also entail a very long period of adaptation.
If the second route is chosen as the main solution, then policy makers must be fully
committed to the cause. To deal with problems of waste through the wider application of
technology, we will need large capital investments. In order to create this we will, in turn,
need a level of industrial output that exceeds both consumption and economic requirements
so that there will be enough money available for the investment in the necessary
technologies. The snag here is that the higher the levels of industrial output required, the
higher will be the generated waste. Thus we have the twin feedback loops to address in
every system: a positive and a negative. The third route is to ensure that the population

growth accords with the potential for environmentally sound economic development.
Therefore, these are the concerns of those involved in demographic questions.
Taking Malaysia as a case in point, her per capita generation rate of solid waste has been
reported to be around 0.85-1.4 kg and it is continuously increasing. This generation rate of
solid waste is rather alarming. Serious effort should be made to overcome or to prevent
this generation rate so that it will not exceed the capacity available to treat it. An integrated
approach should be taken in the decision making process and local authorities will have to
gear up their plans to deal with the associated problems as they arise. In Johor Bahru for
example, the population was rapidly increasing and subsequently posing a serious problem,
like the piles and piles of solid wastes that are deposited. In the Johor Bahru region, WPI
(Wilayah Pembangunan Iskandar) has been planned and developed that will offer more jobs
in that particular area. As a possible impact, the population within this region will increase
rapidly, and so will the amount of waste generation.
1-2.4 WATER
Water is one of the resources required to sustain life and has long been suspected of being
the source of many human illnesses. It was not until approximately 150 years ago that a
concrete proof of disease transmission through water was established. In Malaysia for
example a few rivers have been identified as highly polluted. Examples are Sungai Skudai
and Sungai Juru. Assessments have shown that the impact of industrial area was the main
contribution factor to this problem. So, in this regard, it is going to be a tough time for
environmental engineers to ensure the attainment of sustainable development.
For many years, the major consideration was to produce adequate supplies that were
hygienically safe. However, the water sources have become increasingly polluted due to the
increased industrial and agriculture activities. Pesticides used in agriculture pose the main
threat to water sources. The public has been more precise in the demand for clean and
healthy water as time passes by. As such environmental engineers are expected to produce
acceptable treated water and maintain cleaner water resources.
In water science for example, the management of groundwater is very important compared
to others like precipitation. Environmental engineers will have to ensure that groundwater
sources are free from pollutants. In Bangladesh for example, their sources of groundwater
were heavily contaminated by arsenic. Therefore we have to look at and ensure the
management system of groundwater sources is properly carried out.
Today, water engineers are expected to produce treated waters that are free of colour,
turbidity, taste, odour, nitrate, harmful metal ions, and a wide variety of organic chemicals
such as pesticides and chlorinated solvents. At present, more than 85 scheduled chemicals
are listed in the U.S Environmental Protection Agencys drinking water standards, and the
world health Organization lists over 100 scheduled chemicals in its guidelines for the
acceptable quality of drinking water. Health problems associated with some of these
chemicals include cancer, birth defects, central nervous system disorders, disruption of the
endocrine system and heart disease.
As population increases, the demand for water also increases at a much more rapid rate if
the unchecked population growth is accompanied by improved living standards. Thus the
combination of these factors is placing greater and greater stress on finding adequate
sources of clean and healthy water. In many cases inferior-quality, and often polluted,

water supplies are utilized to meet the demand. It is expected that this condition will
continue and grow more complicated as the population and industrial development keep on
growing.

1-2.5 WASTEWATER AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL

The disposal of human wastes has always posed a serious problem. With the development
of urban areas, it has become necessary, from the aspects of public health and aesthetic
considerations, to provide drainage or sewer systems to transport such wastes away from
these areas. The normal repository was usually the nearest watercourse. It soon became
apparent that rivers and other receiving bodies of water have a limited ability to handle
waste materials without creating nuisance. This led to the development of purification or
treatment facilities where chemists, biologists, and engineers have played important roles.
Water quality managers are concerned with the controlling of pollution arising from human
activities to ensure that water produced is suitable for its intended uses. Water quality
management is crucial in handling water supply to the community. It is very important to
know what level of waste is intolerable for a particular water body. To know how much
waste can be tolerated by a water body, water quality managers must understand the type
of pollutants discharged and the manner in which they affect water quality. Therefore a
good knowledge on good water quality sources like the ones found in Sungai Kejor (in
Belum, Perak) and Sungai Sedim (Kulim, Kedah) is important.
Originally, the intent of water quality management was to protect the intended uses of a
water body while using water as an economic means of waste disposal within the
constraints of its assimilative capacity. Water is a natural resource and plays a significant
role in human civilization.
It has been long known that all natural bodies of water have the ability to oxidize organic
matters without the resulting nuisance conditions, provided that the organic and nitrogen
(primarily ammonia) loading are kept within the limits of the oxygen resources of the water.
It is also known that certain levels of dissolved oxygen must be maintained at all times if
certain forms of aquatic life are to be preserved. Many research works have been conducted
to establish these limits. Such works require the combined efforts of biologists, chemists,
and engineers to realise their values.
1-2.6 INDUSTRIAL AND HAZARDOUS WASTES
Nowadays environmental engineers have to face a very tough challenge in dealing with
environmental issues. Apart of that, they have to develop effective technologies to meet the
demand of sustainable treatment techniques. The great variety of wastes produced from the
industries and the introduction of wastes from new processes demand the knowledge of
chemistry on the part of environmental engineers to find solutions to most of these
problems.
The problems associated with managing hazardous wastes are particularly complex. Over
100 millions tonnes of hazardous wastes are generated each year in the United States. The
U.S Environmental Protection Agency has placed well over 1200 sites that are contaminated
with hazardous chemicals on the National Priority or superfund list because of their potential
threat to human health and the environment.

In Malaysia, awareness on this matter is still lacking and requires close monitoring. The
Sungai Gatom case is a good example where hazardous wastes had been treated in an
improper manner. Aluminium dros which are very harmful had been dumped illegally in this
river and that posed a serious danger to public health. As a result the government had to
fork out RM1.3 million as the disposal cost to clear the river from the dros.
1-2.7 AIR POLLUTION AND GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
Pollution of the atmosphere increases in almost direct ratio to the population density and is
largely related to the products of combustion from plants, incinerators, and automobiles,
including gases, fumes, and smokes arising from industrial processes. The resulting
emission of NOX and SOX are of concern. However, the vehicles on the road keep on
increasing, worsening situation further.
The intensity of most air pollution problems is usually related to the amount of particulate
matter emitted into the atmosphere. In general, visible particulate matter can be controlled
by enforcing relevant regulations. However the present regulations should be standardised
to international standards as they lack certain aspects to meet the demand of current
solutions to this environmental problem.
These regulations must be updated if they are to be more relevant to the present
environmental conditions. The most serious situation develops when local conditions favour
atmospheric inversions and the products of combustion and of industrial processing that are
contained within a confined air mass.
In cases where atmospheric inversions occur over metropolitan areas under cloudless skies,
haze commonly called smog is produced in the atmosphere. Under such conditions the
atmosphere is often highly irritating to the eyes and to the respiratory tract and is far too
intense to be accounted for by the materials emitted to the atmosphere from the varying
and separate sources. Research on this field has been extensive. Many theories are
postulated with regard to this problem, but the consensus is that it is the photochemical
action between oxides of nitrogen and unsaturated hydrocarbons from automobile exhaust
gases combined with several products of health concern such as ozone, formaldehyde, and
organic compounds of nitrogen that give rise to the condition. These substances can
condense on particulate matter in the atmosphere to form fog. Knowledge of chemistry
helps very much in finding the root cause of this matter.
Motor vehicles, factories, and power plants are the main contributors to air pollution. Such
pollutants can cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive or birth
defects, damage to the immune system, and respiratory problems, or they may cause
adverse effects to the environment itself. The 1990 Clean Air amendments list 188 toxic air
pollutants that the U.S Environmental Protection Agency is required to regulate. These
include particulate matter; halogen compounds such as tetrachloroethene, dichloromethane,
and dioxin; heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium, and lead; volatile organic compounds
such as benzene and toluene; and other hazardous compounds such as asbestos.
Building materials and furnishings are likely to include toxic chemicals that may be slowly
released. Asbestos and radon, products used for household cleaning and maintenance,
personal care, or hobbies often contain volatile can also cause serious harm.

It has become increasingly apparent in recent years that pollution problems are becoming
more global in nature. Usually the impact of human activities significantly cause problem in
environmental quality. Apparently, the human activities in one region have a significant
impact and affected the quality of air at a much further region. This was true in the case of
the radioactive fallout. Current concerns are on global warming and stratospheric ozone
depletion. It is very important to grasp well the chemical principles involved to help us
understand how these problems arise and how they could be solved.
It has been shown that a complex photochemical reaction involving chlorofluorocarbons,
emitted at the earths surface and transported to the stratosphere, is destroying the
stratospheric ozone layer. This layer is important in protecting the earths surface from
cancer-causing ultraviolet radiation. Because of this impact, chlorofluorocarbons are being
banned from use globally and as such, replacement compounds are being sought.
Greenhouse gases are another issue being discussed globally. Gases such as carbon
dioxide, methane, water vapour, CFC, oxides of nitrogen and ozone absorb thermal
radiation near the earths surface. This reaction led to the phenomenon known as
greenhouse gases. As populations increased, the concentrations of these gases are
increasing as well in the earths atmosphere mainly due to human activities. Since they do
trap heat trying to escape from the earth, they have potential for warming the earth, a
process sometimes called global warming.
Although there is a consensus on the reasons for increase on the concentrations of these
gases, there is still an argument as to whether this will lead to a general increase in
temperature. Much remains to be learned here, and the expanding knowledge on
environmental engineering will enhance and contribute to a better understanding of this
problem.

1-3

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

The Environmental Quality Act 1974 with its latest amendment (2005) contains the
guidelines related to environmental issues. It comprises legal matters on air, water, land
and their impact on the environment.
Aspect and impact factors are very important and play a vital role in protecting our
environment. It must be realised that human activities will somehow impinge on the
surroundings. Activities in factories for instance, are directly associated with the pollution of
the environment. Factories producing paints discharge a lot of toxic substances and they will
have to be dealt with properly to avoid the resultant negative impact to surroundings.
Understanding of aspect and impact factors is a must for environmental engineers to meet
the demand of sustainable development. As a result, we need clear guidelines to be closely
followed in order to make sure our activities do not breach the existing laws and
regulations.
The Environmental Quality Act 1974 allows the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment after consultation with the Environmental Quality Council to define
objectionable noise and to prescribe standards for tolerable noise. However, regulations
with numerical limits of permissible noise are currently not available.
The Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 1985 makes it mandatory for an
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on various activities scheduled by the
Ministry of

Natural Resources and Environment. Approval of such EIA and the projects usually include
maximum permissible noise limits at the affected areas that must be complied with during
the construction phase of a project, and upon operations of the projects (plants, highway,
etc).
EIA also requires us to measure the existing environment before a project starts. These
include water quality, air quality, and the existing land condition. Therefore Environmental
Quality Act 1974 is very important to be referred to before the development can commence.
In an industrial area for instance, EQA 1974 will be referred to as a guidance for
implementing ISO 14 000 system. Legal compliance is very important when we implement
a particular project and apply for certification. On chemical disposal for instance, there are
clear guidelines on how to manage toxic wastes based on the relevant regulations.
Industrial areas located near to water intake points must be strictly considered in
accordance to the law and should comply with Standard A set out in the EQA 1974. Those
factories situated away from water intake points must comply with the stipulated Standard
B. Section 29; prohibition of discharge of wastes into Malaysian waters states that no
person shall, unless licensed, discharged environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants
or wastes into the Malaysian waters in contravention of the acceptable conditions specified
under section 21 . This is a clear message requiring us to control our water bodies based
on the specified law and regulations.
Open burning activities are prohibited under section 29A which states that Notwithstanding
anything to the contrary contained in this Act, no person shall allow or cause open burning
on any premises. This act enables us to regulate open burning that gives rise to a serious
problem in the form of haze to the environment. The most important thing that one has to
understand is that open burning activities are prohibited by the law.
1-3.1 THE EQA 1974 AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN MALAYSIA
1-3.1 (a)
i.
ii.
iii.

Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979.

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977
and Amendments 1982.
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations
1978 and Amendments 1981.

1-3.1 (b)
i.

Noise

Environmental Quality (Motor Vehicle Noise) Regulations, 1978.

1-3.1 (c)
i.
ii.
1-3.1 (d)
i.

Water Quality

Waste Management
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations, 1978.
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Order, 1989.
Air Quality
Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978.

ii.
iii.

Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration in Motor Vehicles)

Regulations, 1985.
Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke and Gas Emission), 1977.

1-3.2 RELATED INTERNATIONAL TREATIES

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.

Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), Kiev.

Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
Kyoto.
ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (Entered into force
November 2003.
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, Stockholm.
Basel Protocol on Liability and Compensation for Damage resulting from
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, Basel.
Convention Concerning Safety and Health in Mines, Geneva.
Amendment to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements
of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, Geneva.
International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994, Geneva.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna.
ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Kuala
Lumpur.

CHAPTER 2
NOISE POLLUTION
CO5: Ability to describe the basic concept of noise pollution and solve basic calculations
relating to it.
CO 1: Ability to describe the related legislation on Environmental Quality Act 1974.

10

2-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:9

9
9
9

2-2

Acquire the basic knowledge of the sound.

Ability to solve basic calculations on noise pollution.
Familiarize with major noise monitoring devices.
Familiarize with the Environmental Quality Act 1974 relating to noise
pollution.

DEFINITION

Sound is the least recognised form of pollution, and as such it is also the least regulated,
despite the fact that laws to control noise levels are now being put into place. Many of us
are exposed to high levels of noise while at work, travelling, shopping, and where there can
be intrusive noise from traffic, domestic appliances, and especially if you are living in badly
constructed apartments or terraced homes, from your neighbours.
In general, noise can be defined as unwanted signals. To be more specific, noise is defined
as unwanted sound. Therefore, noise can be considered as wrong sound at a wrong place
and at a wrong time. The term unwanted can sometimes be subjective as sound that is
unwanted by some maybe desirable to others, example, loud music. Some people may find
it tolerable, while others might find it annoying.
Involuntary noise is noise that can be avoided. An example of involuntary noise is noise
produced in a crowded area like a packed stadium. Voluntary noise is the noise which can
be tolerated and the sufferer is normally being compensated. For example, those who work
at an airport have to tolerate aircraft noise. As such they are usually compensated with
higher wages.

2-3

EFFECT OF NOISE

The recognition of noise as a serious health hazard, or environmental nuisance, is a rather

recent development. In industrialized countries, noise is increasingly an environmental
nuisance. Noise reduces the quality of life. It can interfere with human communication and
sleep. Noise can also reduce the value of properties, e.g. those near to the airports,
highways or busy roads and factories.
Noise can also result in both physiological and psychological effects. Extremely loud and
sudden noises cause pain to the ears and may cause temporary deafness or permanent
damage to our hearing. High noise level of sufficient duration can result in temporary or
permanent loss of hearing. Prolonged exposure to noises which are not extremely loud can
also affect hearing to a certain extent.
Dangerous levels of noise come from industrial activities. Environmental noise intrusions
such as traffic noise can interfere with communications, sleep disturbance and interfere with
the ability to perform complex tasks.

11

The following table shows some sources of noise pollution and their related decibels that
maybe harmful to our health
Table 2-1
Sources of noise pollution that maybe harmful to health

Decibel (dB)

Related Sound

130 140

Jet Engine at 300 m.

120

Loud thunder
Car horn at 10 m.

110

Night club speakers at 10 m.

Rock concert
Pneumatic drill

100

Chain saw
Lawnmower

90

Hair dryer

80

Inside small car

Noisy office
Alarm clock at 5 m.

2-4

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

Noise can be emitted from:

i)
ii)
iii)

a point source, (e.g. electric fan)

an areal source (e.g. stadium)
a line source (e.g. moving train)

Noise pollution comes from:

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

traffic noise (the main source)

industrial activities
construction activities
sporting and crowding activities, etc.

12

Figure 2-1
Major Contribution to noise pollution is traffic

2-5

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOUND

A sound wave is any disturbance that propagates in an elastic medium, which may be in the
form of a gas, liquid or solid. If the noise starts to spread out from air, it is called air-borne.
If the sound starts from vibration between structures, it is caused structure-borne. The
structure-borne noise occurs when building elements are in direct contact with the noise
source. In air at 20 C at sea level, the sound wave travels at approximately 340 m/s.
Sound waves are characterized by their frequencies, amplitudes and phases.
The wavelength, is given as:

c
f

[2-1]

where; c is the speed of sound. The quality of a sound is determined by its frequency. For
people with good hearing, the audible range of frequencies is normally between 20 Hz and
20,000 Hz. In most practical noise control problems, however, it is possible to consider a
rather narrower range of frequency, say 50 Hz to 10,000 Hz. Sound with frequency less
than 20 Hz is called infrasound and sound over 20,000 Hz is called ultrasound. For a single
frequency, the root mean square pressure (Prms) defined as Pmax/2 is used in sound pressure
measurement.
However, most sound are not pure sinusoidal waves. They vary both in frequency and
amplitude over time. To quantify their magnitude over the measured time T, the r.m.s.
sound pressure is given by:

13

Prms

1 T 2

= P (t)dt
T 0

1/ 2

[2-2]

Since noise generally consists of a large number of frequencies combined in random phases,
the phase characteristics are generally not important and can be ignored.

2-6

SOUND POWER AND INTENSITY

The rate at which energy is transmitted by sound wave is called the sound power, W (Watt).
The maximum sound intensity, I (Watt/m2) is defined as the average sound power per unit
area normal to the propagation of a sound. Power, W, radiated by any acoustic source can
be written as:

W = I dA

[2-3]

where; A (m2) I area. For a point source, the noise is non-directional, and can be assumed
as a spherical sound source.
For a spherical sound source, the sound intensities at all points on the imaginary sphere
surface are equal. The acoustic intensity at a distance r (m) from the acoustic centre of a
spherical sound source is:

I=

W
4r 2

[2-4]

Similarly, for a line source, the source can be assumed to be cylindrical. The maximum
sound intensities at all points on an imaginary cylindrical surface sound source, is given by
as:

I=

W
4rl

[2-5]

Where; l is the length of cylinder and r is the distance from acoustic centreline of cylindrical
source to an imaginary cylindrical surface.
In an environment in which there are no reflecting surface, the r.m.s sound pressure, Prms,
at any point in any type of freely travelling (plane, cylindrical, spherical, etc) wave is related
to I by:

I=

W
c

where; is density of the medium, kg/m3 (air = 1.185 kg/m3 at 20 C at STP.)

14

[2-6]

2-7

THE DECIBEL

The human ear is able to perceive an enormous range of sound pressures. The ratio of the
weakest sound pressure (20 Pa) to the greatest sound pressure without pain is 1013 or
more for normal people. Therefore, sound pressure of linear scale is an inconvenient way to
represent these quantities is to use logarithmic scale. An appropriate reference quantity is
required.
The sound pressure level, Lp is defined as

L P = log 10

P 2 rms
P 2 ref

(unit: Bel)

[2-7]

(unit: dB)

[2-8]

or,

P 2 rms
P 2 ref

L P = 10 log 10

The factor 10 is introduced in equation [2-8] to avoid a scale that is too compressed. The
Pref is usually taken as 20 Pa.
The sound power level, Lw is defined as

L W = 10 log 10

W
Wref

(unit: dB)

[2-9]

where; Wref = 10-12 Watt and sound intensity level, LI is given as

L I = 10 log 10

(unit: dB)

I ref

[2-10]

where; Iref = 10-12 Watt/m2.

2-7.1 ADDITION OF SOUND LEVEL
The total sound pressure may be a combination of few sounds. As sound level is expressed
in logarithm scale, they cannot be added directly. The total sound is given as
n

L t = 10 log 10 10

0.1L pi

[2-11]

i =1

Sometimes it may be necessary to subtract one noise from another; e.g. when background
sound level need to be subtracted from a total measurement level to obtained the sound
level of a particular source. The sound level of the source is given as

L s = 10 log 10 10 0.1L t 10 0.1L B

15

[2-12]

where; LB is the background sound level. For quick estimation, table 2-2 or figure 2-2 can
be used for addition of sound level.
Table 2-2
Addition of two sources

If the level differ

by

Add the following to the higher level

0 or 1 dB

3 dB

2 or 3 dB

2 dB

4 to 9 dB

1 dB

10 dB or over

0 dB

Increment of the higher noise

level

Figure 2-2
Chart for adding noise levels

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

10

Different between 2 sources of noise

2-7.2 TIME-VARYING SOUND LEVEL

The equivalent Continuous Sound Level (Leq) was introduced to enable assessment of
hearing risk to persons employed in a situation of varying sound levels and duration:

1 T

L eq = 10 0.1L(t) dt
T 0

16

[2-13]

where; T is the time period over which Leq is determined. If the sampling is discrete, then

1 n

L eq = 10 log 10 0.1L i (t) t i

T i =1

[2-14]

where; Li and ti are sound level and duration of the ith sample, respectively. The Leq is a
single value rating which has the same energy content as the varying sound level.
For environmental noise measurement, L10, L50 and L90 are often employed to indicate sound
levels exceeding 10, 50 and 90 % of the time.
2-7.3 A, B AND C WEIGHT
Since noise measurements usually involve people, human reaction to sound is far more
important than sound itself as a physical phenomenon. As an example, sound pressure level
cannot be used as an indication of loudness because the frequency of sound has quite a bit
to do with how loud is the sound. For this reason, it is important for us to know the
frequency of the noise we are measuring. This contributes to the weighting networks.
Weighting networks are electronic filtering circuit built into the meter to attenuate certain
frequencies. They permit the sound level meter to respond more to some frequencies than
to, something prejudicial like that of the human ear. 3 major weighting characteristics have
been established, namely, A, B and C networks. The main different between these 3
networks are a very low frequencies are filtered quite severely by the A network,
moderately by the B network, and hardly at all by the C network. Therefore, if the
measured sound level of a noise is much higher on C weighting than on A weighting, much
of the noise is probably of low frequency.
Figure 2-3 shows the response characteristics of the 3 basic networks, as prescribed by the
American National Standard Institute (ANSI). When the weighting network is used, the
sound level meter electronically subtracts or adds the number of the decibels shown on each
frequency from or to the actual sound pressure level at that reading. Readings taken when
the network is in use are said to be sound level rather than sound pressure level.
Readings taken are designated in decibels in one of the following forms, dBA or dB(A), dBB
or dB(B), dBC or dB(C), and so on.

17

Figure 2-3
Response characteristics for the three basic weighting networks

Relative Frequency (dB)

10
0
-10
-20

-30

-40

-50
-60
-70
-80
10

100

1000

5000

10000

20000

Frequency (Hz)
(Source: American National Standards Institute)

Example 2.1: Calculating Sound Pressure Level (SPL)

The sound pressure inside a diesel lorry is 2 Pa. What is the corresponding SPL in dB?
Solution:
2

L p = 10 log 10
6
2 10
= 20 log10 10 5 = 20 5 = 100dB
Example 2.2: Calculation on Sound Power and Intensity
If a sound source has a pressure of 2000 Pa, compute
a)
the SPL in dB
b)
the sound intensity in Watt/m2
c)
the sound power in Watt
(given = 1.185 kg/m3, c = 340 m/s)
Solution:
a)

2000 10 6

L p = 10 log 10
6
20 10

4,000 ,000
= 10 log 10

400

4
= 10 log 10 10

18

= 40 dB.

(2000 10 -6 ) 2
P2
Watt
=
= 9.90 10 -9
1.185 340
c
m2

b)

I=

c)

W = 4r 2 l
= 4 10 2 9.90 10 9 = 12.5 10 6 Watt

Example 2.3: Conversion of Sound Pressure to SPL

What is the increase in dB that is corresponds to a 5 times increase in sound pressure?
Solution:
2

L p1

P
= 10 log 10 1
P
ref

Lp2

P
= 10 log 10 2
P
ref

If,
Then,

P2 = 5P1
2

Lp2

P
= 10 log 10 25 1
P
ref

Lp2

P
= 10 log 10 25 + 10 log 10 1
P
ref

LP2 LP1 = 14 dB.

Example 2.4: Conversion of Sound Pressure to SPL
What is increase in dB corresponds to a tripling a sound pressure?
Solution:
LP2

3P
= 10log 10 1
P
ref

P1
= 10 log (3) + 10log 10
P
ref
2

= 9.5 + LP1
LP2 LP1 = 9.5 dB.

19

Example 2.5: Addition of Sound Level

Four sounds from different sources are to be combined to obtain a total sound pressure
level (SPL). The four SPLs are 90 dB, 88 dB, 88 dB and 85 dB. What is the total SPL.
Solution:
By using Table 2.2:
90

88

88

85

92

90
94 dBA

Example 2.6: Addition of Sound Level

If two sound sources have equal pressure of 2000 Pa, determine the total SPL in dB.
Solution:
Pt2 = (2000 x 10-6) + (2000 x 10-6)
= 4 000 000 x 10-12 + 4 000 000 x 10-12
= 8 000 000 x 10-12
LP2

2000 10 6
= 10log 10
6
20 10

= 43 dB.
Example 2.7: Addition of Sound Level
Determine the SPL from combining the following five levels; 58, 62, 58, 65 and 68.
Solution:
By using Table 2.2:
58

58

62

65

61

67
68
71 dBA

20

68

Example 2.8: Calculation of Leq

Consider the case where a noise level of 90 dBA exists for 10 minutes and it followed by a
reduced noise level of 70 dBA for 30 minutes. What is the equivalent continuous equal
energy level for the 40 minutes period? Assume 5 minute sampling interval.
Solution:

10 10 0.1( 90 ) + 30 10 0.1( 70 )
L Aeq = 10 log 10

60 min
= 84.11 dBA
Example 2.9: Calculation of Leq
An employee in a timber mill uses a saw to cut timber into different length. While the saw is
idle, it produces a level of 90 dBA at his work position. When it cuts into timber, it produces
a level of 95 dBA. An exposure of 8 hours per day is assumed. If the saw runs continuously
and actually only cuts for 10 % of the time when it is switched on, compute his LAeq.
Solution:

7 .2 10 0.1( 90 ) + 0 .8 10 0.1( 96 )
L Aeq = 10 log 10

8 hr
= 91.1 dBA

2-8

LOUDNESS

Loudness is a persons perception of the strength of sound. It carries both the sound
pressure level and frequency. This follows from the variation in sensitivity of the ear with
frequency. For this reason, measurement of SPL in dB is not a very accurate measure of
loudness.
The ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies. Sound entering the ear is continuously
frequency-analyzed along the cochlear partition, acting as a number of narrow band filters.
The ear is most sensitive from 1000 Hz to 5000 Hz. The units used to label the equalloudness are called phons.
Since the ear is most sensitive to frequencies in the range 1 to 5 Hz, sound at these
frequencies would be rate much louder than one at the same SPL at other frequencies. To
compensate for the frequency-dependent sensitivity of the ear, sound level meters are
designed to make allowance for this behaviour of the ear by incorporating electronic
weighting networks. The A weighting network is the most important network. The unit is
dBA. However, the dBA is a single figure rating. It does not provide information on the
frequency content of a noise source.

21

2-9

NOISE MEASUREMENT

2-9.1 SOUND LEVEL METER

Sound level meters are used to measure the sound pressure level. Noise meters are
classified as follows:
Table 2-3
Classification of Noise Meter

Type

Use

Accuracy (dB)

For laboratory reference situations.

N/A

Precision grade, used for accurate field

measurements.

0.7

Industrial grade, for non-critical survey work.

1.5

Survey grade and low cost sound level

indicators.

2.5

(Source: American National Standards Institute)

Construction tolerances for various functions of the instrument system are specified in
International Electrotechnical Committee (IEC) publications IEC 60651 and IEC 60804 and
also in similar national standards such as BS 5969 and BS6698. It is recommended that
type I instruments be used for industrial measurements and for environmental
measurements involving legislation. A new IEC 61672 will replace the above standards. One
major change is the abolishment of Type 3 noise meter.
Figure 2-4
Sound Level Meter

22

Sound in practice is seldom steady in level. Fluctuations in level are common and
sometimes the variations can be quite large. To accommodate this phenomenon the sound
level meter is provided with 2 types of responses:
i)
ii)

fast has a time constant of 100 ms, to approximately the response of the ear.
slow has a time constant of 1 s, useful for determining mean levels when the
measured sound fluctuates continuously and violently.

2-9.2 DOSIMETER
Dosimeters are portable instruments that can be attached to workers and go with them
throughout their normal working tasks. It is most suitable for workers that move between
many different environments during the working day. The dosimeter gives the fraction of
allowable noise exposure received by the employees at the end of the work using the
following dosage/time equation.

D=

C
C1 C 2 C 3
+
+
+ .... n
Tn
T1 T2 T3

[2-15]

where; Cn is the total time exposure at noise level n, and Tn is the total time permitted by
the regulation at that particular noise level. If D is greater than 1, the exposure has
exceeded the permissible limit.
Figure 2-5
Dosimeter

23

2.10 NOISE REGULATION IN MALAYSIA

The Environmental Quality Act 1974 allows the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment after consultation with the Environmental Quality Council to define
objectionable noise and to prescribe standards for tolerable noise. In this respect,
regulations with numerical limits of maximum permissible noise are currently not available.
Whilst regulations with prescribes noise limits are not legally defined the Department of
Environmental had issued guidelines on permissible noise limits in its course of enforcement
of the Environmental Quality Act. The noise limits that are often used are tabulated in Table
2.3. The guidelines for Siting and Zoning of Industries also give daytime and night time
noise limits based on maximum sound levels according to the category of the industries. In
the Guidelines on Application for Permission to Install Generator Set issued by Department
of Environmental there exists also a permissible level for the genset noise at the property
boundaries to comply with a noise limit of 55 dBA. This requirement must be strictly
adhered to at noise sensitive areas such as hospitals and schools.
Table 2-4
Existing Guidelines for Maximum Permissible Sound Level (LAeq) for Boundary Noise

Receiving Land Use

Categories

Day Time
7:00 am 10:00 pm

Night Time
10:00 pm 7:00 am

Residential, Institutional
(School, Hospital) Areas

55 dBA

50 dBA

Commercial & Urban Areas

60 dBA

55 dBA

Industrial Zones

65 dBA

60 dBA

(Source: Environment Quality Act, 1974)

The Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 1985 makes it mandatory for an

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to be carried out on various activities scheduled by
the Ministry of Environmental and Natural Resources. Approval of such EIA and the projects
usually include maximum permissible noise limits at the affected areas that must be
complied with during construction phase of the projects and upon operations of the projects
(i.e. plants, highways, etc). Noise limits similar to that tabulated in Table 2.4 were often
used in the past. Due recognition to the existing noise condition has over the recent years
resulted in maximum permissible noise limits to be based instead on the existing ambient
noise limits, and/or limits based on a defined exceedance above the existing background
noise level (L90).
There are provisions in the Environmental Quality Act for the control of sound propagated to
the environment, affecting the community. The Department of Environmental is currently
preparing guidelines for environmental noise control. These guidelines could then be
enforced under the Environmental Quality Act and would be used in Environmental Impact
Assessments, by the local authorities, and for planning proposes. These guidelines stipulate
maximum permissible noise by receiving land use, maximum permissible noise levels from

24

constructions and related activities, road and rail traffic noise. Noise measurement and
assessment procedures are to be also included.

25

CHAPTER 3
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTES
CO4: Ability to describe basic concept of solid and hazardous waste and solve basic
calculations on this area.
CO 1: Ability to describe the related legislation on Environmental Quality Act 1974.

26

SOLID WASTE
3-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:9

9

3-2

Ability to describe basic concept of solid and hazardous management.

Ability to solve basic calculations on solid waste.

HISTORICAL ASPECTS & NATIONAL PROBLEMS

Waste has been around from time immemorial. For example, there were sites in ancient
Rome which were pits where carcasses, animals and humans, were dumped. Cities from the
Bronze Age such as Troy were actually raised in levels as garbage became unbearable. Clay
layers were spread over the garbage, just as in modern tips. Scavenging was one of the
first forms of recycling and "rag and bone men" such as Steptoe and Son were just
recyclers. The idea of scavenging was so bad to society that in 1969 the City of London
outlawed the practice which is now an important part of the waste management industry.
Historically, links between wastes and health have been another important catalyst for
change. A study in the mid 19th century demonstrated a link between sewage disposal in the
Thames River and the incidence of cholera epidemics. This was 30 years before the cholera
bacteria were even identified. Some of the earliest waste disposal schemes were established
in order to escape the health problems associated with the industrial revolution including
the development of garbage collection, street cleaning, and sewage collection schemes.
Another early waste treatment which moved from Europe to USA was to stew garbage and
dead animals in large vats. This produced grease and 'residuum' which was a black gooey
material. The grease was used for the manufacture of candles, soap, lubricants etc, and the
'residuum' was used as plant fertiliser. The other wastes from this process were runoff into
streams. This process was stopped in Europe in the 1920's but continued in the USA until
the 1950's. Incinerators were developed in the 1870s in England, and with the industrial
development incinerator technology improved.
Waste management in Malaysia displays an array of problems, including low collection
coverage on average due to the inaccessibility by vehicles of some areas, irregular collection
services, inadequate equipment used for waste collection, crude open dumping and burning
without air and water pollution control, inadequate legal provisions and resources
constraints. These problems are caused by various factors which have an impact on the
development of effective waste management systems in Malaysia.
Institutional constraints are among these problems. Even though several agencies like the
State Department of the Environment and municipal councils are involved in waste
management, they often have no clear functions in relation to waste management and there
is no single agency designated to coordinate their projects and activities. The lack of
coordination among the relevant agencies often results in duplication of efforts in waste
management, wasting of resources, and un-sustainability of overall waste management
programmes.

27

3-3

WASTE MANAGEMENT

The management of waste materials is a problem worldwide. In the developing countries,

waste management is becoming an acute problem as urbanization and economic
development increase leading to larger quantities of waste materials requiring management
in these countries. In Asia, the management of waste materials requires immediate
attention especially in countries such as China, South Korea and Malaysia which have been
categorized as emerging industrialized countries. In 1995, the urban areas of Asia produced
about 760,000 tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) or approximately 2.7 million m3 per
day. In 2025, this figure is estimated to increase up to 1.8 million tons of waste per day, or
5.2 million m3 per day (WB, 1999).
Table 3.1 shows the urban municipal solid waste generation in 1995 and the estimated
amount in 2025 by countries and by GNP (Gross National Product) categories. Countries
with low incomes have the lowest waste generation rates, averaging 0.64 kg per capita per
day, while for the middle income countries this rate is averaging 0.73kg per capita per day
in 1995. High income countries such as Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan, tend to
have higher waste generation in comparison to other countries. In Hong Kong, the
generation rate is among the highest due to intense construction and demolition within the
municipality (WB, 1999). The amounts of waste in Japan and Singapore are lower but that
is also due to the fact that the data do not include all municipal waste generated within
these countries. Local governments in Asia are spending about US$ 25 billion per year on
urban solid waste management of which more than 90 % in high income countries is spent
on the collection of waste. In middle income countries this rate is between 50 and 80 % and
in low income countries it is 30 to 60 % (WB, 1999).
The characteristics of MSW vary from one country to another and the solid wastes of rural
towns in Asia are significantly different from those of large cities, having more organics but
few plastics from packaging or food wastes (UNEP, 2002). There are also varying legal
definitions of waste leading to differences in what is considered to be waste. In general,
waste is defined as any material which is unwanted by the holder and intentionally thrown
away for disposal. This does not exclude that certain wastes may eventually become
resources valuable to others once they are removed from waste stream (WB, 1999).
Malaysia, with a population of 24 million, is facing an increase of the generation and
accumulation of waste. This development is causing social, economic and environmental
problems at a significant level. Individuals, industries, municipals, state and federal
governments are concerned because improper waste management leads to health problems
for local communities. Moreover, poor visual appearance has negative impacts on official
visits and tourism. These problems are particularly serious in areas where intensive
urbanization and population concentration lead to an increase of solid wastes and to a
decrease of available land suitable for disposal.

28

Table 3-1
1995 and 2005 Urban Municipal Solid Waste Generation in Asia

(1 World

Bank, 1997b 2 United Nations, 1995 * estimated GNP

(Source: World Bank. What a Waste: Solid Waste Management in Asia. May 1999.)

Malaysia, like most of the developing countries, is facing an increase in the generation of
waste and of accompanying problems with the disposal of this waste. Overall, the local
communities generate 16,000 tons of domestic waste per day and the amounts per capita
vary from 0.45 to 1.44 kg per day depending on the economic status of the areas concerned
(GAIA, 2003 ). On average, waste generation is about 1 kg per capita per day (GAIA, 2003).
Waste is grouped into three different categories in respect of disposal solid waste, medical
waste and hazardous waste. According to a study by E. Grant Anderson five states (Kuala
Lumpur, Selangor, Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan) produce 70 % of the total amount of
waste in the country, the composition of waste is shown in Figure 3.1. One can observe that
64 % of the waste is domestic waste. The share of industrial waste stands at 15 %, followed
by commercial, construction and institution wastes.

29

Figure 3.1:
Waste Composition (Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan)

Industrial
25%
C ommercial
8%
C onstruction &
Institution
Waste
3%

Domestic
64%

Domestic

Industrial

Commercial

Construction & Institution Waste

(Source: Roundtable on Urban Solid Waste Management. Privatization Management on Solid Waste in Developing
Countries, the Malaysia Experience. 27-28 September 1998)

The idea of waste management in part grew out of the oil crisis of the 1970's when many
Middle Eastern oil suppliers raised prices and threatened to cut off oil supplies. Incinerators
were redesigned to allow more efficient energy production. At the same time there was an
increasing awareness of environmental problems with a consequent upsurge in
environmentally friendly practices including waste minimisation, waste recycling, and control
of hazardous waste discharges. One view of waste management is shown in the Figure 3-2.
The problem with this diagram is that it does not include waste minimisation or risk
assessment procedures. These impinge on all the processes shown. This diagram also
provides a framework for much of the material we will cover in Waste Technology.

30

Figure 3-2
The Waste Management Process

Waste Generation
Storage
Collection
Transfer
and
Transport

Processing
and
Recovery
Disposal

(Source: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

3-3.1 WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY

In much literature on wastes you will find reference to a 'Waste Management Hierarchy'.
This refers to an arrangement or ranking of waste management actions which can usually
be carried out in the community. At its simplest level you are probably familiar with "Reduce
Reuse Recycle" This is a ranking of actions - we should reduce the amount of wastes
produced as the first option. The next option is to reuse what wastes are produced, e.g.
refillable bottles. The third option is to recycle material, e.g. collection of aluminium cans for
reprocessing and reuse. This is depicted in Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3
Waste Management Hierarchy

Waste
Minimisation
Recycling
Material/Energy/ Recovery
Landfill Disposal
Landfill Gas Recovery
Waste management hierarchies are not quite this simple. For example Figure 3-4 shows a
waste management strategy (or hierarchy) in which there has been a change from lower
technology (landfill disposal) to higher technology (recycling etc). This has also led to an
increase in waste minimisation.

31

Figure 3-4
Waste management strategy (or hierarchy)

WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY (2)

WASTE
MINIMISATION

WASTE PREVENTION
Product substitution
Non product of material
SOURCE REDUCTION
Product formulation
Process Modification
Equipment redesign
RECYCLING
Material sorting
Material separation
Material refining
New product development

Present
Emphasis
Higher
Technology

Past
Emphasis

TREATMENT
Thermal destruction
Chemical destruction
(Sources: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

There are other similar strategies. For example the EPA in USA has a hierarchy of options:
i.
Source reduction
ii.
Recycling (reuse and recycling wastes)
iii.
Treatment - destroying, detoxifying or neutralising wastes
iv.
Disposal - discharging wastes.
Another possible hierarchy is the 6 R's;
Rethink, Refuse, Reuse, Replace, Recycle, and Remove.
Other schemes utilise the 3 R's;
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
It can be seen that there is some overlap in these ideas - some common features, but they
are very sketchy plans. When trying to plan waste management we are dealing with people,
and planning any human activity is a complex process. That is why we need to have
relevant legislation.

3-4

WASTE GENERATION & COMPOSITION

Solid wastes come from a variety of sources. The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is often
found in the literature. It generally implies all the wastes generated in a community with the
exception of industrial process wastes and agricultural solid wastes. Wastes can also be co-

32

mingled or putrescible. Waste composition is used to describe the individual components

that make up a solid waste stream and their relative distribution, usually based on
percentage by weight. This is usually determined by a waste composition study. Waste
composition is likely to change because of changes in lifestyle, increased recycling,
education programmes, and changes in collection systems. Wastes are classified based on
their composition. The National Waste Database Classification scheme should be used to
ensure a standard approach.
3-4.1 WASTE GENERATIONS
Solid wastes come from a variety of sources including:
i)
Residential
ii)
Commercial
iii)
Institutional
iv)
Construction and demolition
v)
Municipal services
vi)
Treatment plant sites
vii)
Industrial
viii)
Agricultural
Solid waste, also known as refuse, is an overall term of:Garbage is the animal and vegetable wastes resulting from handling, preparing, and
cooking food. It does not include food processing wastes from canneries, slaughterhouses
etc. Garbage originates mostly from domestic kitchens, stores, markets, restaurants etc
Rubbish consists of combustible and non-combustible solid wastes from homes, stores and
institutions but does not include garbage. The term trash is often used in the same way but
is probably more a subset of rubbish. The combustibles consist of paper, rags, wood, tree
branches etc. Non-combustibles include material which cannot be burned at 700 1100 C
- the inorganic portion such as tin cans, glass, ashes soil etc.
Residential and commercial solid wastes, excluding special and hazardous wastes,
consist of organic and inorganic solid wastes from residential areas and commercial
establishments. Typically the organic wastes include food waste (also known as garbage),
paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, wood, yard wastes etc. The inorganic fraction includes
glass, metals - ferrous and non ferrous (e.g. aluminium), and dirt. If the waste components
are mixed, then it's referred to as commingled MSW. Wastes that decompose fairly quickly,
e.g. foods are referred to as putrescible wastes.

33

Table 3-2
Sources of Solid Wastes within a Community

Source

Typical facilities, activities

or locations

Types of solid wastes

Residential

Homes, flats, apartment blocks food wastes, paper, cardboard,

etc
plastics, textiles, yard wastes,
wood, glass, metals, special
wastes (e.g. bulky items such as
white goods, batteries, oil tyres),
household hazardous wastes

Commercial

Shops, restaurants, markets,

office buildings, hotels, motels,
print shops, service stations,
auto repair shops etc

Institutional

Schools, hospitals, universities, As above in commercial

prisons, government centres
etc

Construction and
demolition

New construction sites, road

repairs, building demolition

Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood,

metals, food wastes, glass, special
wastes (as above), hazardous
wastes

Wood, steel, concrete, dirt etc

Municipal services Street cleaning, landscaping,

(excluding
parks and beaches, creek bed
treatment works) cleaning, litter bins

Special wastes, rubbish, litter,

sweepings, debris, general wastes

Treatment plant
sites

Water, wastewater, industrial

treatment processes etc

Effluent plus residual sludge

Municipal solid
waste (MSW)
Industrial

All of the above

All of the above

Construction, fabrication, light

and heavy manufacturing,
refineries, chemical plants,
power stations, demolition etc

Industrial process wastes, scrap

materials etc. Non-industrial
wastes including food wastes,
rubbish, ashes, demolition and
construction wastes, special
wastes, hazardous wastes

Agricultural

Crops, orchards, dairies,

feedlots, piggeries, farms etc

Spoiled food wastes, agricultural

wastes, rubbish, hazardous wastes

(Source: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

34

3-4.2 WASTE COMPOSITION

As we now know several different types of waste, it is important to know how much of each
type of waste there is. If we know how much waste is generated, we can then design
management strategies to handle (reduce, reuse, recycle etc) those wastes. This sounds
very good in principal, but the problem is we do not have very good figures on amounts of
wastes being generated. The actual composition of the wastes generated is another problem
of definition. Figure 3-5 shows the composition of the Malaysia domestic waste stream.
Figure 3-5
Composition of Malaysia Domestic Waste Stream

Others
8%
Plastic s
10%

Metal
4%

Green Waste
36%

Glass
11%
Paper
31%

Green Waste

Paper

Glass

Plastics

(Source: Agamuthu, 1997)

35

Others

Metal

Table 3-3
Typical Waste Compositions (in percentages) (Various Sources)

WASTE
CATEGORY

Petaling
Jaya

Seberang
Perai

Kuala
Lumpur

Seremban

Muar

Organic Waste

36.5

30.1

48.4

35.0

63.7

Paper

27.0

30.8

30.0

10.0

11.7

Plastic/rubber

18.4

12.0

9.8

2.5

7.0

Wood

7.0

12.4

Metal

3.9

3.2

4.6

5.0

6.4

Glass/ceramic

3.2

1.5

Textile

3.1

1.9

Others

0.9

8.1

7.2

25.0

11.2

(Sources: Hassan, 1998)

There are also variations depending on the source of the wastes - residential versus
commercial wastes. For example, the recent waste audit in Muar showed that food wastes
made up 63.7 % in samples versus 30-48 % in urban waste in Malaysia. There are also
variations over time as waste management has changed.
Another important aspect of waste composition is the composition of recyclable material in
MSW. Most of you are familiar with recyclable materials such as plastics, glass, metals etc.
Substantial recycling is taking place in Malaysia which marks the future changes in waste
composition.

3-5

WASTE CLASSIFICATION

As we have just discussed, in coming to grips with waste management it is important to

have some idea of the composition of wastes. This requires some sort of classification
system. Classification is usually into hazardous and non hazardous classes, but could be
extended to include recyclable versus non recyclable. A more comprehensive list is provided
by the US EPA as shown in Table 3-4.

36

Table 3-4
Extract from US EPA on International Classification System of Recyclable Materials

COMPONENT
PLASTICS

BATTERIES

PAPER

METALS

BIO-MATTER

CODE

DESCRIPTION

#1 PET(E)

Polyethylene Terephthalate

#2 PE-HD

High-Density Polyethylene

#3 PVC

Polyvinyl Chloride

#4 PE-LD

Low-Density Polyethylene

#5 PP

Polypropylene

# 6 PS

Polystyrene

#7(other) plastic

All other plastics

#8 Lead

Lead-Acid Battery

#9 Alkaline

Alkaline Battery

#10 NiCD

Nickel-cadmium Battery

#11 NiMH

Nickel metal hydride Battery

#12 Li

Lithium Battery

#13 SO(Z)

Silver-oxide battery

#14 CZ

Zinc-carbon battery

#20 C PAP

Cardboard

#21 PAP
# 40 FE

Other paper, mixed paper (magazines,

mail)
Steel

#41 ALU

Aluminium

#50 FOR

Wood

#51 FOR

Cork (bottle toppers, place mats, &

Construction Material)

#60-#69

Textiles

#70-79

Glass

(Source: USEPA, 1996)

37

Example 3-1: Calculation on MSW Material Balance

A cannery receives on a given day 12 tonnes of raw produce, 5 tonnes of cans, 0.5 tonne of
cartons and 0.3 tonne of miscellaneous materials. Of the 12 tonnes of raw produce,10
tonnes become products,1.2 tonnes end up as product waste, which is fed to cattle, and the
remainder is discharged with the wastewater from plant. 4 tonnes of the cans are stored
internally for future use, and the remainder is used to package the product. About 3 % of
the cans used are damaged. Stored separately, the damaged cans are recycled. The cartons
are used for packaging the canned product, expect for 3 % that are damaged and
subsequently separated for recycling.
Of the miscellaneous materials, 25 % is stored internally for future use; 50 % becomes
waste paper, of which 35 % is separated for recycling with the remainder being discharged
as mixed waste; and 25 % becomes a mixture of solid waste materials.
Assume the materials separated for recycling and disposals are collected daily. Prepare a
material balance for the cannery on this day and a material flow diagram accounting for all
of the materials. Also determine the amount of waste per tonnes of product.
Solution:
Step 1:
On the given day, the cannery receives the following:12.0 tonnes of raw produce
5.0 tonnes of cans
0.5 tonne of cartons
0.3 tonne of miscellaneous materials.
Step 2:
As a result of internal activity:-

10 tonnes of products are produced, 1.2 tonnes of produce waste is generated, and
the remainder of products is discharged with the waste water.

4 tonnes of cans are stored and the remainder is used, of which 3 % are damaged

0.5 tonne of cartons are used of which 3 % are damaged

25 % of miscellaneous material is stored; 50 % become paper waste, of which 35 %

is separated and recycled, with the remaining disposed of as mixed solid waste; the
remaining 25 % of the miscellaneous materials are disposed of as mixed waste.

Step 3:
Determine the required quantities

Waste generated from raw produce

i)
Solid waste fed to cattle = 1.2 tonnes (1089 kg)
ii)
Waste produce discharge with wastewater = (12 10 - 1.2) tonnes
= 0.8 tonne (726 kg)

38

Cans
i)
Damaged and recycled = (0.03) (5 - 4) tonne = 0.03 tonne (27 kg)
ii)
Used for production of product = (1 - 0.03) tonnes - 0.97 tonne (880 kg)
Cartons
i)
Damaged and recycled = (0.03) (0.5) tonne = 0.015 tonne (14 kg)
ii)
Cartons used in product = (0.5 - 0.015) tonne = 0.485 tonne (440 kg)

Miscellaneous materials
i)
Amount stored =(0.25) (0.3 tonne) = 0.075 tonne (68 kg)
ii)
Paper separated and recycled = (0.50) (0.35)(0.3 tonne)
= 0.053 tonne (48 kg)
iii)
Mixed waste= [(0.3-0.075)-0.053] tonne = 0.172 tonne ( 156kg)

Total Weight of product = (10 + 0.97 + 0.485) tonnes

= 11.455 tonnes (10,392 kg)

Total Material stored = ( 4 + 0.0075) tonnes = 4.075 tonnes ( 3696 kg)

Step 4:
Prepare a material balance and flow diagram for the cannery for the day

Amount of material stored = inflow-outflow waste generation

The material balance quantities

tonnes

i)

Material stored = (4.0 +0.075) tonnes = 4.075 tonnes

ii)

Material Input = (12.0 + 5.0 + 0.5 + 0.3) ton =17.8 tonnes

iii)

Material Output= (10.0 + 0.97 + 0.485 + 1.2 + 0.03 + 0.015 + 0.053)

= 12.753 tonnes

iv)

Waste Generation = (0.8 + 0.172) tonnes

v)

The final material balance is:4.075 = 17.8 12.753 -0.972 (verified)

Material balance flow diagram

39

11.455T Product

12T raw Produce

5T Cans
0.5T Cartons

1.2T Waste Fed to Cattle

4.075T Stored Internally

0.03T Can Recycled

0.015T Carton Recycled
0.053T paper Recycled

0.3Miscellaneous

0.8 T waste
produces discharge
with wastewater

0.172T
mixed waste

Step 5:
Determine the amount of waste per tonne of product:
i)

Recyclable material = (1.2 + 0.03 + 0.015 + 0.053) tonne/11.4.55 tonnes

= 0.11 tonne recycle material/tonnes product

ii)

Mixed waste = (0.8 + 0.172) tonne/11.455 tonnes

= 0.085 tonne mixed waste/tonnes product

3-5.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

There are many physical, chemical and biological properties of wastes. These are important
for the management of waste disposal and for the recovery of a range of materials,
including energy. It is important to note this information is distinctly important to determine
the method of MSW disposal such as composting, landfills, recycling etc. The important
physical properties of MSW include density (sometimes referred to as specific weight),
moisture content, particle size and distribution, field capacity, and porosity.
3-5.1 (a)

Density

This is the weight per unit volume and is expressed as kg/m3. Density varies because of the
large variety of waste constituents, the degree of compaction, the state of decomposition,
and in landfills because of the amount of daily cover and the total depth of waste. Inert
wastes such as construction and demolition materials may have higher densities, and
density can change as in landfills where the formation of landfill gas and decomposition may
bring about significant mass loss.
Density is important because it is needed to assess the total mass and volume of waste
which must be managed. For example, the average density of loose refuse in the USA is 115
kg/m3, but loose refuse is frequently compacted on collection so the density changes to 235
to 300 kg/m3.
The density of MSW is often referred to as loose, as found in containers, un-compacted,
compacted etc. so it is important to specify what sort of waste is being referred to. Density
varies not only because of the type of treatment it gets (collection vs. compaction etc) but
also because of geographic location, season, and length of time in storage. Material stored

40

for a long time will tend to consolidate thus occupying less volume. Some typical density
values are presented in the Table 3-5.
Table 3-5
Typical Properties of Un-compacted Wastes

COMPONENT

MASS (kg)

DENSITY(kg/m3)

VOLUME (m3)

4.3

288

0.0149

19.6

81.7

0.240

0.82

64

0.013

6.5

104

0.063

3.4

194

0.018

1.95

320

0.00609

Food wastes
Paper
Plastics
Garden trimmings
Glass
Ferrous metals

(Sources: Agumuthu, 1997)

3-5.1 (b)

Moisture Content

The most commonly used method of expressing moisture content is as a percentage of the
wet weight of material. Moisture content is important in regards to density (as above),
compaction, the role moisture plays in decomposition processes, the flushing of inorganic
components, and the use of MSW in incinerators. Pre-treatment of waste to ensure uniform
moisture content can be carried out prior to landfill disposal. The wet weight moisture
content can be determined using the following equation:

wd
M =
100
w
where;
M = moisture content (%)
w = initial weight of sample (kg)
d = weight of sample after drying at 105 C (kg)
Some typical moisture contents are shown in Table 3-6.

41

[3-1]

Table 3-6
Typical Moisture Contents of Wastes

Moisture Content
Range (%)

Moisture Content
Typical (%)

RESIDENTIAL
Food wastes (mixed)
Paper
Plastics
Yard Wastes
Glass

50 - 80
4 - 10
1-4
30 - 80

70
6
2
60

1-4

COMMERCIAL
Food wastes
Rubbish (mixed)

50 - 80

70

10 - 25

15

4 - 15

4 - 15

75 - 99
10 - 40

80
20

30 - 60

35

40 - 80

50

75 - 96

94

Type of Waste

CONSTRUCTION & DEMOLITION

Mixed demolition combustibles
Mixed construction combustibles
INDUSTRIAL
Chemical sludge (wet)
Sawdust
Wood (mixed)
AGRICULTURAL
Mixed Agricultural waste
Manure (wet)

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

3-5.1 (c)

Particle Size and Distribution

The size and distribution of the components of wastes are important for the recovery of
materials, especially when mechanical means are used, such as trommel screens and
magnetic separators. For example, ferrous items which are of a large size may be too heavy
to be separated by a magnetic belt or drum system. The size of waste components can be
determined using one the following equations:

SC = l

[3-2]

l + w
SC =

[3-3]

42

l + w+h
SC =

[3-4]

where;
Sc = size of component (mm)
l = length (mm)
w = width (mm)
h = height (mm)
3-5.1 (d)

Field Capacity

The field capacity of MSW is the total amount of moisture which can be retained in a waste
sample subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical measure because water in excess of field
capacity will form leachate, and leachate can be a major problem in landfills. Field capacity
varies with the degree of applied pressure and the state of decomposition of the wastes, but
typical values for un-compacted commingled wastes from residential and commercial
sources are in the range of 50 60 %.
3-5.1 (e)

Permeability of Compacted Wastes

The hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes is an important physical property because it

governs the movement of liquids and gases in a landfill. Permeability depends on the other
properties of the solid material including pore size distribution, surface area and porosity.
3-5.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WASTE
Knowledge of the chemical composition of waste is important to help evaluate alternative
processing and recovery options. This is especially important where wastes are burned for
energy recovery, in which case the four most important properties are proximate analysis,
fusing point of ash, elemental analysis, and energy content. Elemental analysis is also
important in determining nutrient availability.
3-5.2 (a)

Proximate Analysis

Proximate analysis includes four tests - loss of moisture when heated to 105 C for 1 hour;
volatile combustible matter (loss on ignition); fixed carbon; and ash (weight of residue after
combustion). Some typical values are shown in Table 3-6.
3-5.2 (b)

Fusing Point of Ash

This is the temperature at which the ash resulting from the burning of waste will form a
solid (clinker) by fusion. Typical fusing temperatures are from 11001200 C.

43

Table 3-7
Typical Proximate Analysis Values (% by weight)

TYPE OF WASTE

MOISTURE

VOLATILES

CARBON

ASH

70.0

21.4

3.6

5.0

10.2

75.9

8.4

5.4

0.2

95.8

2.0

2.0

60.0

30.0

9.5

0.5

2.0

96-99

21.0

52.0

7.0

20.0

Mixed food
Mixed paper
Mixed plastics
Yard wastes
Glass
Residential MSW

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

3-5.2 (c)

Elemental Analysis

This is also known as ultimate analysis and involves the determination of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and ash. Because of concern about halogens these are also often
determined as well. The results of this analysis are used to characterise the composition of
the organic matter in wastes. This is important for C/N ratios for biological decomposition.
Typical values are shown in Table 3-8.
Table 3-8
Typical data in Elemental Analysis (% by weight)

TYPE
Mixed food
Mixed paper
Mixed plastic
Yard waste
Refuse Derived Fuel

ASH

73.0

11.5

14.8

0.4

0.1

0.2

43.3

5.8

44.3

0.3

0.2

6.0

60.0

7.2

22.8

10.0

46.0

6.0

38.0

3.4

0.3

6.3

44.7

6.2

38.4

0.7

<0.1

9.9

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

44

3-5.2 (d)

Energy Content

The energy content of the components of waste can be determined using a boiler system,
laboratory bomb calorimeter, or by calculation using elemental composition. The SI unit of
measurement is kJ/kg. The energy content will be looked at later when discussing on
incineration.
3-5.2 (e)

Essential Nutrients

If the organic content of MSW is to be used for biological conversion either for compost,
methane or ethanol production, then the essential nutrient content is required. Of most
importance are the major nutrients in their various forms - nitrogen (as nitrates, ammonium
N) phosphorus and potassium.
Example 3-2:
i)

Calculate the moisture content & density of the commingled MSW, using the data given in
Table 3-9.

ii)

Determine the chemical formula of the MSW in the absence of moisture. Using the data
given in Table 3-10.

Table 3-9
Municipal Solid Waste Composition by Types of Materials

Percent by mass
(%)

Moisture Content
(%)

Density
(kg/m3)

Food wastes

20

70

290

Paper

40

85

Cardboard

12

50

65

10

60

105

Wood

20

240

Tin cans

90

Component

Plastics
Garden trimming

45

Table 3-10
Typical Data on Chemical Content of Municipal Solid Waste

Percent by mass (dry basis)

Component
C

Ash

Food wastes

48.0

6.4

37.6

2.6

0.4

5.0

Paper

43.5

6.0

44.0

0.3

0.2

6.0

Cardboard

44.0

5.9

44.6

0.3

0.2

5.0

Plastics

60.0

7.2

22.8

10.0

Textiles

55.0

6.6

31.2

4.6

0.15

2.5

Rubber

78.0

10.0

2.0

10.0

Leather

60.0

8.0

11.6

10.0

0.4

10.0

Garden trimming

47.8

6.0

38.0

3.4

0.3

4.5

Wood

49.5

6.0

42.7

0.2

0.1

1.5

Misc., Organics

48.5

6.5

37.5

2.2

0.3

5.0

Dirt. ashes, brick,

etc

26.3

3.0

2.0

0.5

0.2

68.0

C= 12.01, H=1.01,O=16.00, N=14.01, S=32.06 kg/mol

46

Solution:
Step 1:
Calculate the moisture content and density of municipal solid waste (MSW)

Component

% by
Mass

Moisture
Content

Dry Mass

Density
(kg/m3)

Volume
(v)

Food Waste

20

70

290

0.06896

Paper

40

37.6

85

0.47050

Cardboard

12

11.4

50

0.24000

7.84

65

0.12300

10

60

105

0.09523

Wood

20

4.8

240

0.02500

Tin Can

3.88

90

0.04444

Plastics
Garden
Trimming

Total

100
a=100kg

b=75.52kg

v=1.06709m3

i)

Moisture Content = a - b x 100 = 100 - 75.52 x 100 = 24.48 %

Of MSW
a
100

ii)

Density = Total Mass

Total Volume

100 kg

1.06709 m3

47

93.71 kg/m3

Derive the empirical formula for the municipal solid waste with and without sulphur content.

6.0 x
0.376=
2.256

6.0 x
0.026=
0.156

6.0 x
0.004=
0.024

6.0 x
0.05=
0.3

37.6 x
0.06=
2.256

37.6 x
0.44=
16.544

37.6 x
0.003=
0.1128

37.6 x
0.002=
0.0752

37.6 x
0.06=
2.256

11.4 x
0.44 =
5.016

11.4 x
0.059=
0.6726

11.4 x
0.446=
5.0844

11.4 x
0.003=
0.0342

11.4 x
0.002=
0.0228

11.4 x
0.05=
0.57

7.84

7.84 x
0.60 =
4.704

7.84 x
0.072=
0.56448

7.84 x
0.228=
1.7875

None

None

7.84 x
0.1=
0.784

4.0 x
0.478 =
1.912

4.0 x
0.06=
0.240

4.0 x
0.38=
1.520

4.0 x
0.034=
0.136

4.0 x
0.003=
0.012

4.0 x
0.0045=
0.18

4.8

4.8 x
0.495 =
2.376

4.8 x
0.06=
0.288

4.8 x
0.427=
2.0496

4.8 x
0.002=
0.0096

4.8 x
0.001=
0.1388

4.8 x
0.015=
0.072

Wet
Mass(kg)

Dry
Mass(kg)

Food
Waste

20

6.0 x
0.48 =
2.88

6.0 x
0.064=
0.384

Paper

40

37.6

37.6 x
0.435 =
16.356

12

11.4

Cardboard

Plastics

Garden
Trimming
Wood

10

Tin Can *
Total

Component

Ash

33.24400

4.40508

29.24152

0.44860

0.13880

4.162000

*Recycled 100 %

48

Mass, Kg

Moisture

24.48000

Carbon

33.24400

Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Ash

H2 O
(Conversion)

None

Total
Mass,
(kg)

Mwt
( kg/kg-mol)

None

None

None

33.24400

12.01

2.7680

1.01

7.0545

4.40508

2.72

7.12508

29.24152

21.76

51.00152

16.00

3.1876

0.44860

14.01

0.0320

32.06

0.0043

0.44860
0.13880
4.16200

0.13880
4.16200

Covert the moisture content to hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) (24.480/100kg MSW)
Moisture content
Hydrogen in water
Oxygen in Water

= 24.480 kg
= 24.480kg MSW x [ 2/18] = 2.72 kg H
= 24.480kg MSW x [ 16/18] = 21.76 kg O

Determination of Chemical formula:

With sulphur
C 644 H1641 O741 N7 S
Without sulphur C87 H220 O100 N
3-5.3 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WASTE
The organic fraction of MSW (excluding rubber and leather) can be classified as:
(i)
Water-soluble constituents - sugars, starches, amino acids and various
organic acids.
(ii)
Hemicellulose - a product of 5 and 6 carbon sugars.
(iii)
Cellulose - a product of 6 carbon sugar glucose.
(iv)
Fats, oils and waxes - esters of alcohols and long-chain fatty acids.
(v)
Lignin - present in some paper products.
(vi)
Lignocellulose - combination of lignin and cellulose.
(vii)
Proteins - amino acid chains.
The most important biological characteristic of the organic fraction of MSW is that almost all
the organic components can be converted biologically to gases and relatively inert organic
and inorganic solids. The production of odours and the generation of flies are also related to
the putrescible nature of the organic materials. These will be discussed when talking about
landfill processes.

49

3-6

TRANSFORMATIONS OF WASTE

Transformations of waste can occur through the intervention of people or by natural

phenomena. Solid wastes can be transformed by physical, chemical and biological means
(Table 3-10).
3-6.1 PHYSICAL TRANSFORMATION
These include component separation, mechanical volume reduction, and mechanical size
reduction. Component separation is used to describe the separation processes (manual
and/or mechanical) in commingled waste. It can include such things as magnetic
separation. The usual materials recovered include separation of recyclables, the removal of
hazardous wastes, and the recovery of energy products. Volume reduction refers to the
processes whereby waste volumes are reduced, usually by force or pressure. Collection
vehicles frequently have compaction mechanisms - or compaction can take place at a
transfer station. The baling of plastics, paper, and aluminium is another means of volume
reduction, as is the compaction that takes place in landfills. Pressure can be used, e.g. with
paper and cardboard, to form fireplace logs. Size reduction is used to reduce the size of
wastes. It usually involves some form of shredding, grinding or milling.
3-6.2 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION
This usually involves a change of phase, e.g. solid to liquid, solid to gas etc. The main
processes are combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification. Combustion is the chemical reaction
with oxygen of organic materials accompanied by the emission of light and heat. The
process can be represented as:
N2 + CO2 + H2O + O2 + Ash + Heat

Organic Matter + Excess air

Pyrolysis involves combustion in an oxygen free atmosphere, while gasification involves

partial combustion to form a gas. These processes will be examined in more detail later in
the course.

50

Table 3-11
Transformation Processes in Solid Waste Management

PROCESS

PRINCIPAL CONVERSION
PRODUCTS

METHOD

Physical
Separation

manual and/or
mechanical

individual components found in

commingled MSW

Volume reduction

Force or pressure

original waste reduced in volume

Size reduction

Shredding, grinding, or altered in form and reduced in size

milling

Chemical
Combustion

Thermal oxidation

CO2, SO2, oxidation products, ash

Pyrolysis

Destructive distillation

a variety of gases, tar and/or oil

Gasification

Starved air combustion gases and inert

Biological
Aerobic compost

Aerobic biological
conversion

compost

Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic biological

conversion

methane, CO2, trace gases, humus

Anaerobic
composting
(in landfills)

methane, CO2, digested waste

Anaerobic biological
conversion

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

3-6.3 BIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION

The biological transformation of the organic fraction bother reduces the volume and weight
of material but also produces compost. When carried out anaerobically methane is produced
- a typical component of landfill gas. This will be examined in more detail later. Typically
waste transformations are used:
i)
Improve the efficiency of solid waste management systems
ii)
Recover reusable and recyclable materials
iii)
Recover conversion products and energy

51

3-7

WASTE COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

For any integrated waste management system the method and type of collection system to
be used is extremely important, not just for efficiency but for financial reasons. The
different types of systems mentioned, not only for waste collection but also for the collection
of recyclable materials is varied and governed by many factors some of which have nothing
to do with waste management.
3-7.1 WASTE COLLECTION
Waste collection used to be regarded as just a part of the larger collection and disposal
system. It meant choosing the most appropriate trucks, designing collection routes, and
then administering the collection. With present day emphasis on recycling and composting
the need to segregate materials has become most important. It can mean different vehicles
collecting different material and taking it to different locations. As a result, the collection of
wastes has become more complex and more expensive. To meet current needs there is a
call for the development of an 'integrated collection strategy' which incorporates the
following:
i)
The system should provide locally appropriate levels of service, designed to meet
political, health and regulatory requirements.
ii)
The system should accomplish its requirements at the lowest possible cost.
iii)
The system should develop local appropriate partnerships between the public and
private sectors.
iv)
The system should be flexible to meet changing demands.
v)
The system should support achievement of waste reduction/diversion targets.
3-7.1 (a)

Frequency of Collection

Frequency weekly collection or twice weekly collections must be determined. Collection

frequency may have to be altered because of weather conditions which can pose health and
odour problems. Increasing collection frequency has considerable cost implications and
could lead to doubling of labour costs.
3.7.1 (b)

Setout Locations

This refers to the actual location of the bin to be collected. Bins are placed near the curb
side thus allowing the use of one-person vehicles with extending arms to collect the bins. In
some locations, e.g. older Sydney suburbs, there is not off-street parking, so the cars are
parked on the roadside, limiting access and hence not allowing the use of automatic arms.
This means extra crews are required with extra labour costs. In some locations the crew
actually come into the house yard (often around the back) to collect the bin. This obviously
slows collection times and increases costs. The use of centralised systems, such as
apartment blocks, will accelerate collection times by reducing travelling distances and times.
3-7.1 (c)

Container Type

The types of containers used are usually plastic or metals cans (55 L), wheelie bins (120
240 L), bags (plastic and/or paper), and special containers such as recycling boxes. Each
type has advantages and disadvantages and must also be related to the set out location.
For instance, large wheelie bins will be impractical in narrow urban areas with on-street
parking. Bags are susceptible to breakage, and to animal attack, but they are very

52

convenient for collection as they can be picked up and thrown readily. In New Zealand there
is another advantage with bags in that in some districts a special sticker is required to be
placed on the bag for costing purposes. Stickers can be easily seen by collection crews. The
use of paper bags can provide advantages in composting in that they are easily shredded.
The disadvantages of wheelie bin are one of size - most people put out more rubbish to fill
the bin. They also require mechanical lifting arms for health and safety reasons, and cost
more initially. Interestingly, most wheelie bins are made out of recycled plastic.
3-7.1 (d)

Collection Vehicles

The slides shown in this lecture give an idea as to the different types of vehicles. The set
out location, size of area to be served, method of collection and costs of vehicles and
operators are the major concerns.
3-7.2 COLLECTION TECHNOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES
Most communities have found that the only way to ensure high participation rates for
recycling programmes is to provide each participant the most convenient method of
participating. In most instances, curb side pickup is the most convenient, and the trend in
recycling is towards some form of curb side pickup. Drop-off and buy-back centre are not as
convenient. Typically, a programme using such centre will have lower participation rates.
Most communities and hauling companies face a dilemma in deciding how best to collect
recycled materials, especially those with fleets of refuse vehicles. The prospect of replacing
a fleet of refuse trucks with an equally expensive fleet of vehicles designed for recycling is
normally not economically feasible, at least at first. As a result, most recycling programmes
try to use existing refuse equipment to collect recycled materials.
Many innovative ideas have been used to convert refuse trucks to all-purpose refuse
collection and recycling vehicles. For example, the city of Madison, Wisconsin, designed a
newspaper rack welded to the frame of refuse trucks for the purpose of collecting bundled
newspaper. This low cost adaptation was first designed by city engineers in 1971 and is still
in use today. The split-bin system in use in Byron Bay is a high-cost method, necessitation
new bins and new collection vehicles. In the UK in Luton, a system using cuphooks attached
to bins was tried (unsuccessfully).
Some companies which haul waste from commercial accounts generating high volumes of
office paper or cardboard make no attempt to separate the material. Instead, they
substitute back- end sorting and processing for separation before collection, separating
recyclables out of the waste stream at a processing centre in what is known as "dump and
pick" operation. Some of these operations have proved successful, although contamination
of recycled materials from mixing with other waste can be a problem.
Other communities use refuse trucks in concert with pickup trucks. The pickup follows the
large vehicle and collects recycled materials on the same day as normal refuse pick-up. By
requiring the use of clear plastic bags for recycled materials - and perhaps supplying them the mixing of recycled materials with other refuse can be minimised.
In still other communities, recyclables are collected on a different day. As long as public
education is continuous, and the pick-up schedule is highly reliable, the public seems willing
to follow whatever schedule is established for collecting recyclables.

53

3-7.2 (a)

Curb side Collection

The main options available for curb side collection of recyclables include:

3-7.2 (b)

(i)

Source Separation/ Multibin Truck - this relies on the public separating the
materials into the correct containers prior to pickup. The vehicle use for
collection will generally have as many compartments as are required for
the different types, usually 3 or 4.

(ii)

Commingled Recyclables/Multibin Truck - this is similar the recycle box

('blue box' or 'black box' systems) in which all recyclable materials are put
into the one container. These are sorted by the crew at collection and
obviously this involves more labour costs. This system can be varied, e.g.
a collection system limited to say three types of material.

(iii)

Commingled Recyclables/Central Processing - this system involves the

separate collection of recyclables and then taking them for sorting at a
materials recovery facility. Sometimes this can also involve a preliminary
sorting, e.g. paper and plastics in one container, glass and metal in
another.

(iv)

Co-Collection System - in this system recyclables and wastes are collected

in the same truck - sometimes in the same compartment - sometimes
different compartments. A disadvantage is the problem of contamination,
especially in a single compartment system. A further disadvantage is that
compaction cannot be carried out as well with a loss in efficiency.

(v)

Post-Collection Separation - with this method, solid wastes and recyclable

are collected without any separation, taken to a materials recovery facility
and then sorted. This is obviously a labour intensive operation, though
some materials, e.g. ferrous metals can be separated by magnets.
Specialised Collections

As more communities establish aggressive recycling programmes, vehicles specially

designed to transport source-separated materials are becoming common. Already, many
communities and waste-service companies use compartmentalised trucks or trailers on
collection routes. There are a variety of vehicle designs on the market, all of which provide
efficient and easy loading and unloading of both recovered materials and solid waste.
Some communities using special recycling vehicles have enhanced participation rates and
collecting efficiency by supplying recycling boxes to homeowners. In Kitchener, Ontario,
public participation rates of up to 80 % have been achieved with the use of highly visible
"blue boxes." The blue boxes, distributed free to residents, are believed to create high
participation because their absence is noticed by neighbours on collection day. Similar
programmes exist in cities such as Santa Rosa, California, and St. Louis Park, Minnesota,
where residents have received stacking plastic containers for paper, glass, and cans from
the city or contractor.
Mobile buy-back operations are also increasing in number, especially for service of rural
areas - which may not produce enough volume to support a private recycling operation. In
these operations, a compartmentalised vehicle will visit a community on a periodic and well-

54

publicised schedule to purchase recycled materials. Mobile buy-back units often pay for
some materials and accept for free other materials.

3-8

MATERIAL RECOVERY FACILITY (MRF) AND PROCESSING

Collected material is usually brought to a processing centre. Here it is separated, processed,

and stored until enough material has been collected to create a full load for transport to a
market. Material usually must be processed to meet the specifications of buyers. The centre
must be designed to efficiently move the material from the tipping floor or drop-off point
through the system to the storage area. Many technologies are available for efficient
processing, materials handling, and storage. The choice of equipment and systems must
take into account:
i) types of materials reclaimed;
ii) volumes the centre will handle; and
iii) specifications of buyers
One approach is simple, requiring only a designated space. Glass, which is impervious to
weather, can be stored outside; this would require the construction of revetments or
concrete storage containers, which is relatively cheap. Collected glass can be dumped into
the revetment compartment or removed by a small tractor. A barrier is often placed at the
front of the revetment to ensure that injuries to employees or others do not occur from
accidental spillage.
Some materials, such as newsprint, cannot be stored outside in the weather indefinitely; to
achieve a competitive price for newsprint, one must prevent decomposition. Storage indoors
of newspaper and other items can create problems for a poorly designed centre, as there
can be a constant struggle between space needed for processing and operations and space
requirements for materials storage.
What's more, storage problems can result when either the volume of recycled materials
expected is significantly underestimated or the demand for materials already on hand is
significantly overestimated.
The amount of processing which will be necessary at the recycling centre will depend to a
large degree on how the material is collected.
So-called "dump and pick" operations require significant manual labour for extraction of
recycled materials from the bulk of the refuse. While some of these operations have workers
hand-sort material, hand-sorting can be dangerous for workers, exposing them to
hazardous materials and sharp objects contained in the waste.
Some operations utilise sophisticated sorting technology, including trommels, air classifiers,
and conveyers to mechanically separate the waste. Where waste volumes collected are
large, mechanical separation systems may be economic. Even with these systems, some
hand-separation is usually needed to ensure recovered materials are free of contamination.
Material that enters the recycling centre already separated is much easier to handle.
Processing is generally performed for one of two reasons: to place the material in the most
economical form for transport, or to meet buyer specifications. Equipment is normally
needed only to move material from one processing station to another or from processing to
storage.

55

3-8.1 BALERS AND SHREDDERS

A standard feature of most recycling centre is a baler. It can be used to place recovered
materials (newsprint, cardboard, plastic, and aluminium) in large agglomerations which can
be easily moved and are stackable. Since paper, cardboard, and plastic bottles can comprise
a high percentage of a municipal waste stream, most recycling operations will need a baler
to process this material.
Baler types should be carefully investigated. Operations providing bulk newsprint to paper
recycling markets may choose a baler which makes bales of approximately 1,000 pounds
each. On the other hand, a centre selling shredded newsprint for animal bedding to local
farmers will need a hay baler, which makes small 70 pound bales. For maximum flexibility,
perhaps both types of balers should be utilised, if sufficient space is available. The question
of what type of baler will be best for an operation is just one example of the need to do
some homework before getting started.
Other processing equipment may be needed to satisfy buyer specifications and provide
sufficient compaction to allow for cost-effective transport. A centre may use shredders,
shears, grinders, and crushers. Each piece performs a different function but all have the
objective of reducing waste volume. For example, there are a variety of shredders available,
which will shred paper, cans and even automobiles. Glass crushers reduce bottles into a
mixture called cullet, which is the form most attractive to glass recycling markets.
Solid waste is an abrasive and caustic material, which makes proper maintenance of waste
processing equipment very important. Moreover, operating this equipment can be
dangerous; special training and safety precautions may be required. Power needs can also
be high. Consequently, processing's potential benefits must be carefully weighed against its
cost and operational considerations.
3-8.2 OTHER EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
Other equipment that may be useful in a recycling centre includes:
i)

Weighing Devices: a scale is a good idea for most operations. Recycling centres
may not require drive-on scales, if volumes received are small or the need to
move and process material quickly is not great. Note that a recycling centre
operated in conjunction with a landfill or transfer station might be able to use the
disposal facility's scale.

ii)

Magnets & Conveyors: Where manual sorting is used, a conveyer system, often
coupled with a magnet to collect ferrous, provides a good way to move material
from the tipping floor to other processing stations.

iii)

Storage Boxes: After processing, material is often stored in large cardboard

boxes, known as "gaylords," or in other similar containers.

iv)

Forklifts, etc.: - Freight moving equipment, including hand trucks, dollies, and
fork lift trucks may be needed to move material.

56

3-8.3 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Equipment should be chosen with care: 55 gallon drums full of crushed glass and large
bales of newsprint are heavy, and could cause injury or damage if the equipment expected
to carry the material is not strong enough.
Purchase of backup transport equipment should also be seriously considered. The inability
to move material from processing to storage caused by a lack of backups could create a
serious disruption in the recycling operation.
In designing a recycling centre, sufficient aisle room is a must. Designers must allow for
easy and efficient movement of transport devices. A convenient loading dock, readily
accessible to large trucks, is important; it should provide protection from inclement
weather. Material storage areas must be located close to the loading dock.
Employee facilities and an office for record keeping and centre operations should also be
carefully planned. Local building codes likely will mandate these and other features of the
recycling centre.

3-9

LANDFILL ENGINEERING AND CONTROL

Dealing with the vast quantities of wastes that our industrial society produces has become a
major challenge for business and government. Improper past disposal practices have
caused environmental degradation, need for costly remedial actions, and public opposition
to the siting of new facilities. In some areas of the country, waste is being hauled hundreds
of kilometres as communities search for disposal options. For example in California, the
Napa Valley wastes are transferred by rail across three states to the landfill disposal site, a
distance of 1200 km.
Until recently, managing waste was primarily a local matter. Now, both the federal and state
governments are beginning to impose stricter regulations on design and operation of
facilities that manage or dispose waste. Protecting the public from the potential
environmental and health impacts of poor waste management practices has become a
national mandate. Improved technology for collecting, processing, and disposing waste is
being demanded by the public. Unless the future proves that our society can manage waste
better than in the past, public opposition will continue to grow, costs will continue to rise,
and the call for tighter and tighter restrictions will grow louder.
At the heart of the debate is the landfill. Because old landfills were developed more to
provide cheap disposal alternatives than to protect the environment, many have leaked. But
newer landfills are designed to contain waste products and to protect the environment over
the long term. Although other methods of managing waste, including recycling, composting,
and incineration, are being instituted by communities around the country, access to a
landfill remains a necessity for everyone.
With the emphasis on waste minimisation and full cost recovery of waste management,
along with more rigorous environmental requirements many communities around the
country will face for the first time the need to construct state-of-the-art landfills. This course
will describe the basic principles involved in developing and operating a state-of-the-art
landfill.

57

To help introduce the discussion, this lecture will examine how an engineered landfill fits
into an integrated waste management approach, and describes the overall landfill process.
3-9.1 LANDFILLING PRINCIPLES
A sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that requires detailed planning and specifications,
careful construction, and efficient operation. In a landfill, solid wastes are disposed of by
spreading in thin layers, compacting to smallest practical volume, and covering each day, or
periodically, with soil or suitable substitute material in a way that minimises environmental
problems.
A landfill's design life extends many years beyond the time when it is closed. Waste
stabilisation begins shortly after it is placed in the landfill, but will not be completed until
years after closure. For example, the North Eastern New Territories (NENT) Landfill in Hong
Kong has a life expectancy of 16 years with a further 30 years being spent on after-care.
Care must be exercised to ensure that an environmental problem does not develop during
operation or after closure. Careful design, construction, and operation can minimise the
potential for problems arising at a landfill.
Recently, many questions have been raised about the long-term impacts associated with
land filling. Site selection and approval has proven very difficult due to neighbour and
political concerns. Questions regarding the eventual disposition of the landfill materials had
resulted in renewed interest in decomposition processes and biodegradability. These special
topics will be addressed later.
3-9.1 (a)

Methods of land filling

The three common configurations of sanitary landfills are the trench method, the area
method, and the canyon or depression method. In the trench method the excavation into
which the landfill is placed is excavated specifically for the purpose of land filling. The soil is
temporarily stockpiled. The waste is placed on the ground surface or, more commonly, a
landfill liner, spread in layers, and driven over with compaction equipment. Successive
layers are built up until a depth of 3 to 4 m is achieved (see Figure 3-6).
Figure 3-6
The Trench Method of Landfill

58

An intermediate cover material is recommended on the top and exposed sides of the
compacted solid waste. The cover material my be soil or a synthetic material and is usually
placed at the end of each day's operation, or more frequently. Possible exceptions to this
procedure are when limited equipment availability at small sites results in less frequent
covering, or when a large site operator continuously fills the area, in which case cover may
not be required.
A completely covered compacted solid waste unit is called a cell. A cell's width depends on
the number of vehicles unloading solid waste at a given time. The width of the working face
can be increased to accommodate vehicles unloading side by side. However, if the working
face is too wide, nuisance conditions may develop. A good practice is to keep the working
face as small as possible.
A series of adjoining cells, all the same height, makes up a lift. The completed fill consists of
several vertical lifts which may extend 20 to 50 m above the original ground surface. The
final cover for the landfill will be about 1 m of soil or a combination of soil and synthetic
materials. The function of the final cover is to limit the entry of water into the landfill. This
results in reduced leachate generation, that is, the release of contaminated liquids from the
base of the waste in the landfill. Limiting the entry of water, however, greatly slows
decomposition; thereby extending the time period before the waste is finally stabilised and
environmental monitoring of the site can cease.
The area method is shown in Figure 3-7. This is used when the terrain or soil conditions are
such that cells or trenches cannot be dug. Site preparation can include the use of liners and
leachate control systems.
Figure 3-7
The Area Method of Landfill

The canyon method is similar to the trench method except natural depressions or canyons
are used rather than digging trenches. This can include filling old quarry sites, and is shown
in Figure 3-8, and is the method used in the Hong Kong NENT.

59

Figure 3-8
The Canyon Method of Landfill

A landfill's basic design parameter is capacity. It depends upon the area covered, the depth
of the waste, and the ratio of waste to soil or synthetic cover. The air space within the
landfill is the volume available into which solid waste and cover may be placed.
The tonnage of solid waste which can be land filled in a given air space will increase as the
quantity of soil cover is reduced by better construction practices or the substitution of
synthetic materials and the compaction of the solid waste is increased. Waste-to-soil ratios
of 4:1 are common. Solid waste delivered to the landfill will have a density of 260 to 350
kg/m3. If suitable compaction equipment is employed, this waste can be compacted to a
density of 470 to 830 kg/m3 as in place waste.
Probably the biggest advantage of sanitary landfills, when compared to open dumps, is the
protection of public health and the environment. The major objections to sanitary landfills
are initial costs for design and construction, public opposition when siting, and increasingly,
the concern for recovery of material instead of disposal.
Example 3.3:
A community of 50,000 people uses a 12 hectare landfill site that can be filled to an average
depth of 20 m. If MSW is generated at a rate of 2.5 kg per person per day, its compacted
unit mass in the landfill is 800 kg/m3 and the MSW to soil cover ratio is 5:1 what is the
useful life of the site?
Solution:
Community = 50 000 people
Area of landfill = 12ha = 12 x 10 000 m2
Depth of landfill = 20 m
MSW generation rate = 2.5 kg/capita/day
Unit mass of MSW = 800 kg/m3

60

MSW : soil cover = 5:1

MSW generated per day

= 50 000 x 2.5
= 125 000 kg/day

Volume of MSW generated per day = 125 000 kg / 800 kg/m3

= 156.25 m3/day
Volume of landfill that can only filled with MSW:
= (5/6) x 20 x 120 000
= 2 x 106 m3
Useful life of the site = (2 x 106 m3) / (156.25 m3/day)
= 12 800 day
35.1 years
3-9.1 (b)

Gas Production

The amount of the gas production depends on the extent and rate of decomposition. The
ultimate gas yield has an estimated gas composition by volume of 51 % methane and 49 %
carbon dioxide. Due to less than ideal conditions in a landfill, the observed gas yields are
about 100 cubic metres per tonnes of waste.
In methanogenic phase, the major gases present in landfill gas are methane and carbon
dioxide; these gases typically make up 50-60 % (v/v) and 30-40 % (v/v) landfill gas
respectively. Other 'bulk' components of landfill gas (those gases measured at percentage
levels) include hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The relative proportion of these gases,
together with key trace components often falls within a range that is characteristic of gases
from different sources, and can help to identify the source of migrating gas. Table 3-12
shows some typical values of landfill gas composition as well as some recorded maximum
levels.

61

Table 3-12
Typical landfill gas composition

Component
Methane
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide

Typical Value
(% volume)

Observed Maximum
(% volume)

63.8

88.0

33.6

89.3

0.16

20.9

2.4

87.0

0.05

21.1

0.001

0.09

(Source: Heiss-Ziegler and Leachner, 1999)

Both methane and hydrogen are flammable in the presence of oxygen and are therefore
potentially explosive if ignition occurs within a confined environment. Methane is flammable
in air within the range 5-15 % by volume while hydrogen is flammable within the range 4.175 %. However, except in the early stages of waste stabilisation when the concentration can
reach levels of approximately 20 % (v/v), hydrogen is seldom present within landfill gas at
levels within the explosive range. The exact values for the upper explosive limit (U.E.L) and
lower explosive limit (L.E.L) for methane may vary according to the concentration of other
bulk components such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, but for most purposes, the
flammable range 5-15 % (v/v) is recognised and is the basis upon which methane gas
control levels have been set.
Methane is non-toxic, but through displacement of oxygen within the root-zone, may cause
death of surface vegetation. Where landfill gas migration has occurred, the migration
pathway can often be followed by visual observation of the surface vegetation, including
trees, which show withering at leaf margins, defoliation, and branch dieback. In extreme
cases, surface heating of the soils can also be detected. Whether these surface-heating
effects are a result of heat transference from the warm gas or a consequence of biological
methane oxidation is not clear. In the latter case, the methane oxidising bacteria utilise the
methane for bacterial growth, releasing carbon dioxide as an end product and some
consideration has been given to the use of such bacteria in landfill gas control systems.
Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiate by virtue of oxygen displacement, and can cause deaths
due to paralysis of the respiratory centres. The threshold limit value for CO2 is 0.5 % and
concentrations above 5 % result in laboured breathing, headaches and visual disturbances.
Oxygen and nitrogen are usually present in landfill gas due to mixing with atmospheric air.
Nitrogen is essentially inert and will have little affect except to modify the explosive range
for methane, and although oxygen deprivation will result at the levels normally found in
landfill gas (Table 3-9) it is difficult to envisage a situation where anyone would find
themselves in an environment of 'pure' landfill gas.

62

As the flammability of methane is dependent upon the presence of air it is important to

control oxygen levels. This is especially true at landfill sites where gas abstraction and
collection are undertaken and where at oxygen levels above 13 % v/v the risk of explosions
would be considerably higher. In many cases the level of oxygen within a gas collection
system is used to monitor abstraction rates, and to control the rate of pumping.
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) is normally present at low levels within landfill gas but can reach
concentrations as high as 35 % (v/v), and is normally associated with the degradation of
high sulphate wastes such as plasterboard and other gypsum-containing materials.
In addition to the hazards associated with the major 'bulk' gases the minor trace
components may also exert a deleterious impact upon the environment and upon human
health. Many of the trace compounds in landfill gas are recognised toxicants when present
in air at concentrations which exceed recognised toxicity threshold limit values (TLV's) or
the Occupational Exposure Standards (OESs) set by the Health and Safety Executive.
Anyone coming into contact with landfill gas is therefore potentially at risk from the toxic
nature of the minor components.
3-9.1 (c)

Gas Migration

The migration of landfill gas will affect the environment in a number of ways, the most
significant of which are likely to be the contribution to atmospheric methane emissions and
the explosion hazard caused by accumulation of migrating gas within enclosed spaces.
For gas migration to occur there must either be a concentration gradient to allow diffusion
in the gaseous phase (diffusive flow), a pressure gradient (viscous flow) or a combination of
both. Gas diffusion is the process by which matter is transported from one part of a system
to another as a result of random molecular movement, and the rate of gas diffusion is
inversely proportional to the square root of its density. Thus a 'light' gas such as methane
will migrate 1.65 times faster than carbon dioxide, which is heavier.
The method of filling is the most important factor affecting within site gas migration. Thin
layer techniques utilising good compaction and dally cover will tend to encourage lateral gas
migration, especially where the cover materials are of low permeability. Conversely, the
construction of wells within the site will tend to favour vertical gas migration within and
around these structures.
During landfill development, any gas produced will vent via the pathway of least resistance.
Therefore prior to final capping and assuming that only permeable intermediate cover has
been used, most gas produced will vent to atmosphere. However, after final capping, gas
venting to the atmosphere will be limited according to the effectiveness of the cap. As a
result, gas pressure will develop within the landfill creating a driving force for gas migration.
Under these conditions, the possibility of the lateral migration of gas increases and the rate
and extent of migration will depend upon a number of factors including environmental,
climatic and geophysical conditions.
Environmental factors are essentially restricted to conditions within the waste and will affect
the rate and extent of waste degradation and hence affect the rate and extent of landfill gas
pressure build up. Geophysical conditions will affect the gas migration pathways; faulted
and fractured strata and strata of varying gas permeability will affect the direction and rate
of gas movement and can be modified by hydro-geological factors such as water table
levels.

63

In varied lithology gas will tend to migrate preferentially through beds of rock whose grain
size, shape and packing are such as to make them most permeable. Gas may travel large
distances through such strata and once at the 'surface' may enter surface structures
resulting in a potentially explosive situation. At sites lacking gas control measures, landfill
gas has migrated 300 to 400 metres beyond the site and indicates that there is no safe
distance from a landfill site. The gas may migrate through permeable strata, caves and
cavities, fissures, mineshafts, sewers, drains, tunnels, and other features that create a path
of least resistance to gas movement.
Climatic conditions including atmospheric pressure and rainfall can also affect landfill gas
migration; as atmospheric pressure falls, the surface pressures opposing gas migration
decrease thus facilitating gas movement. The pressure differential between the landfill gas
and atmospheric pressure is therefore important, and an inverse relationship a between
atmospheric pressure and gas migration (measured as methane concentration at off-site
monitoring points) can be demonstrated at a number of landfill sites.
Rainfall can affect gas migration through its effects on surface sealing, by causing surface
materials to swell and close surface cracks, thus reducing vertical migration pathways with a
resultant increase in lateral gas migration. Water infiltration can also increase water table
levels outside the landfill and leachate levels within the site, thus reducing the gas volume
and increasing gas pressure.
Example 3-4:
Estimate the theoretical total volume of gas of STP that will be generated in a sanitary
landfill by anaerobic digestion of 2000kg of MSW, given that the waste can be represented
by the chemical formula C70 H108 O45 N.
Solution:
C70 H108 O45 N + 21.25H 2O 36.875CH4 + 33.125 CO2 + NH3
C70 H108 O45 N = 12(70) + 1(108) + 16(45) + 14(1) = 1682 kg/kg-mol
H2O = 21.25(2+ 16) = 382.5 kg/kg-mol
CH4 = 36.875 (12+4) =

590 kg/kg-mol

CO2= 33.125 (12+32) = 1457.5 kg/kg-mol

CH4 that will be generated = (590/1682) x 2000 = 701.55 kg
CO2 that will be generated= (1457.5/ 1682) x 2000 = 1733.06 kg
Volume of CH4 = 701.55 kg x [1/ 0.7176] m3/kg = 6618.4 m3 CH4
Volume of CO2 = 1733.06 kg x [1/ 1.9783] m3/kg = 8766.11 m3 CO2

64

3-9.1 (d)

Leachate Production

Leachate which reaches the base of the landfill may seep into the ground. If leakage does
occur, an underlying groundwater aquifer may be contaminated. The extent of
contamination will depend upon the permeability of the soil formation. Leakage into a
porous formation may result in a large area being contaminated. In the past, many landfills
were not lined. Due to groundwater protection concerns, liners are being installed at the
base of most new landfills to control and collect the leachate. Some inorganic materials will
still be solubilised into the leachate by decomposition occurring during the second stage, so
the fall in conductivity will not be as drastic as the fall in COD.
After the readily degradable organic material has been broken down, methane production
will decrease and more aerobic conditions may be established by incoming oxygenated
water.
Actual landfills may vary considerably in the rates at which decomposition occurs. For
example, the aerobic pH may last a few weeks or months with significant methane
generation occurring within one to two years. Additionally, a single landfill may have
different parts in different stages of decomposition, with the gas and leachate composition
reflecting the three stages. Second stage decomposition takes several years or perhaps
decades to complete.
Landfill leachate is comprised of the soluble components of waste and the soluble
intermediates and products of waste degradation which enter water as it percolates through
the waste body. The typical analysis of landfill leachate is shown in Table 3-13.

65

Table 3-13
Typical Analysis of landfill leachate (all mg/L except pH)

Component
pH
COD
BOD
TOC
Volatile acids
NH3-N
NO3-N
Ortho-P
Cl
Na
Mg
K
Ca
Mn
Fe
Cu
Zn
Pb

Fresh Wastes
(Acetogenic)

Aged Wastes
(Methanogenic)

6.2

7.5

23800

1160

11900

260

8000

465

5688

790

370

0.73

1.4

1315

2080

9601

300

7252

185

780

590

1820

250

27

2.1

540

23

0.12

0.03

21.5

0.4

0.40

0.14

(Source: Heiss-Ziegler and Leachner, 1999)

The amount of leachate generated is dependent upon a number of factors such as water
availability, landfill surface conditions, refuse state and conditions in surrounding strata.

66

3-10 PUBLIC HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT

Present resource recovery systems all require landfills for disposal of residues. With regard
to public health and environmental protection, a properly designed and operated landfill will
offer advantages in the following areas: aesthetics, especially litter; decomposition gases
and leachate; birds; fires and odours pests; rats; and injury from scavenging.
(i)

Aesthetics: Making the site pleasing to look at, while largely cosmetic, is not
frivolous. Aesthetics include screening of daily operations from roads or nearby
residents by, planting, or other landscaping. They include an attractive entrance with
good roads and easy-to-read signs. At the site, aesthetics means litter control,
principally by the use of a fence to stop blowing paper and plastic, along with manual
or mechanical pickup of the litter. In addition, the site operator may require all
trucks delivering waste to be covered with tarps. The NSW Guidelines state "Vehicles
leaving (it does not mention entering) a landfill site must not distribute litter and site
materials in surrounding streets. Odours, dust, vermin, weeds and litter must be
effectively controlled on-site" (EPA, 1996).

(ii)

Gas and leachate: Even more important to the protection of public health and the
environment than the steps described above is the control of gas generated by the
decomposition of solid wastes; and of leachate formed as water migrates through the
solid wastes, picking up a variety of biological and chemical contaminants. Methods
are available to control both gas and leachate, and will be discussed in detail in later.

(iii)

Birds: These can be a nuisance or even cause problems with planes if the landfill is
near an airport. In the USA, Federal Aviation Administration requirements prohibit
the operation of a landfill within 10,000 feet of an airport and, under some
circumstances, up to 5 miles. Several methods, including use of noise makers, and
nets or wires suspended over the site, have been tried to discourage birds at landfills
near airports. The new EPA Guidelines for NSW make no recommendations about
siting distances from airports.

(iv)

Fires and Odours: Odours are best controlled by daily cover, as well as by adequate
compaction. Daily cover also forms cells which are thought to reduce the ability of
fires to spread throughout the landfill. In 1982, a UK survey identified 62 landfillassociated incidents including fires, explosions and gas migration/accumulation
(Campbell, 1991). Although the majority of these occurrence were associated with
gas migration without serious incident. Drainage problems within the landfill maybe
complicated by the presence of daily cover. The downward movement of water may
be impeded by the intermediate soil layers and result in leachate seeping out of the
side of the landfill. It is recommended that daily cover be removed near the outer
edges of the fill before subsequent lifts are added so that downward movement of
water is facilitated.

(v)

Pests: Flies and mosquitoes are best controlled by daily cover of the solid wastes
along with the elimination of any open standing water.

(vi)

Rats: These can be a problem at open dumps, but the use of cover, insuring that all
food wastes are buried, eliminates rat problems at a sanitary landfill.

(vii)

Scavenging: While recycling may be desirable, the scavenging of material from a

landfill is usually prohibited. Scavenging is the uncontrolled picking through waste to

67

recover useful items, as contrasted to salvaging, which is the controlled separation of

recoverable items. Scavengers have been injured, sometimes fatally, while picking
through the waste, and scavenging should not be allowed.

68

HAZARDOUS WASTE
3-11 OBJECTIVES
The followings are the objectives of this chapter:9
9

Ability to describe basic concept of hazardous waste.

Ability to describe the legislation requirements on hazardous waste in the
Environmental Quality Act 1974.

3-12 DEFINITION
Waste is defined as unwanted material that needs to be discarded permanently. To be more
specific, waste is defined as a moveable object which has no direct use- unwanted material
discarded permanently. This definition also refers to solid waste. Hazardous waste is a
waste which include solids, sludge, liquids and containerized gases, except radioactive and
infectious wastes, due to their chemical activity (reactivity) or toxicity, explosive, corrosive,
or other characteristics, cause danger to health or environment, either it is stand alone or in
contact with other wastes.
Hazardous wastes can be grouped into 2 categories; which are hazardous substance
(material which have some commercial value because they are usable) and hazardous
wastes (material which had been used, spilled or no longer needed). US EPA under subtitle
C declared that waste is considered as hazardous if:
i)
Waste is declared hazardous by its generators
ii)
Material exhibit following characteristics; ignitable, corrosive, reactive or toxic.
For the classification of any material as a hazardous waste, the material itself must be
considered as waste and meet one of the following criteria:
i)
Show any characteristics of hazardous waste.
ii)
Named and listed as hazardous waste by EPA.
iii)
A mixture containing a listed hazardous waste and a non-hazardous solid waste.
iv)
A mixture containing a listed or characteristics hazardous waste and special
nuclear material.
v)
A waste residue generated from treatment, storage or disposal of a listed
hazardous waste (known as derived-from waste)

3-13 TOXIC WASTE

Toxic waste is a waste material, often in the chemical form that can cause death or injury to
living creatures when it is improperly managed. It is usually produced during industrial,
chemical and biological processes. The household, office and commercial wastes also
contain small quantities of toxic waste like batteries, old pesticides and containers. Since, it
is can be in the variety of forms, it requires specific treatment. The followings are the
general characteristics of toxic waste:

69

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)

Poisonous
Radioactive
Flammable
Explosive
Corrosive
Carcinogenic
Mutagenic
Tetratogenic
Bioaccumulative

Toxic waste also includes substances that are harmful to life and environment. Examples of
toxic wastes:
i)
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) non-flammable insulting material used by big
electrical network.
ii)
Dioxins produced by burning chlorine-containing substances.
iii)
Heavy metals widely used in cadmium and nickel plating industries. Also can be
found in batteries and leaded gasoline.
iv)
Radioactive waste by product from nuclear power generation. Also found in medical
applications such as in cancer therapy.

3-14 HISTORY
The term hazardous waste was had been used since early 1970s. The US government was
the first to initiate legislation to regulate hazardous waste. Before that, the term hazardous
waste was usually referred to special industrial waste or chemical waste.
Beginning early 1980s, hazardous waste became leading environmental issue to the society.
Along with the public concern on the toxic reaction, hazardous waste had dominated
environmental issues. In Malaysia, the enforcement on the hazardous waste management
only started in 1989, with the introduction of the hazardous waste related act, i.e., the
Environmental Quality Act 1974.

3-15 HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION

Hazardous waste originate from a range of industrial, commercial, households, agricultural
and institutional activities and from both manufacturing and non-manufacturing facilities
and processes. After generated, the generator can manage the waste either on-site or offsite for treatment, disposal or recycling. On-site referred to waste management at a site
where it is generated and off-site for which waste is managed at the different sites.

70

3-16 CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

The characteristics of waste are dependent on their measurable properties. They pose
enough threat to deserve regulation as hazardous waste. The US EPA had listed 4
characteristics of hazardous waste as follows:
i)
Ignitability
ii)
Corrosibility
iii)
Reactivity
iv)
Toxicity.
3-16.1

IGNITABILITY

Materials or wastes that are easily combustible or flammable and may cause fires during
transport, storage or disposal. Examples of such wastes include solvents, paint wastes and
gasoline. Wastes as follows are considered as ignitable:
i)
A liquid, except aqueous solution, containing less than 24 % alcohol and flash point
less than 60 oC.
ii)
Non liquid that capable of having spontaneous combustion at normal condition.
iii)
An ignitable compressed gas.
iv)
An oxidizer.
3-16.2

CORROSIVITY

Waste that reacts dangerously with other waste, dissolves or corrodes metal or other
material or has a very high/low pH comes under this category. The followings are some
examples of corrosive wastes:
i)
An aqueous material which has pH lower or equal to 2 or pH 12.5 and above.
ii)
Liquid that corrodes steel at a fast rate.
3-16.3

REACTIVITY

Waste which is unstable and has rapid chemical reaction with water or other material, i.e.
cyanide plating wastes comes under this category. Here, waste is unstable and reacts
violently without detonating, reacts violently with water that causes fire splash, forms
explosive mixture with water, generates toxic gases when mix with water, contains cyanide
or sulphide and pH lower or equal to 2 or pH of 12.5 and above.
3-16.4

TOXICITY

Waste which is harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed or leached toxic chemical into
soil or groundwater when it is disposed off. To identify the wastes which are listed under
toxicity characteristics, US EPA had regulated a standard method called Toxicity
Characteristics Leaching Procedure.

71

3-17 HAZARDOUS WASTE LEGISLATION

The Department of Environmental (DoE) is empowered under the Environmental Quality Act
1974 to control and prevent pollution and to protect and enhance the quality of the
environment. A set of regulations dealing with hazardous waste management which
regulate the storage, transport, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes was enforced
on May 1989 is as follows:
i)
Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989.
ii)
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Regulations 1989.
iii)
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Order 1989.
In the regulations, it is specified that before the disposal, the scheduled waste should be
rendered innocuous and waste generated should be reduced. There are 107 categories of
schedules wastes, which group into 2 parts:
i)
Part 1 Schedule Wastes from non specific sources, i.e. mineral oil from machines,
spend oil, oil tanker sludge, cleaning solvent, etc.
ii)
Part 2 Schedule Waste from specific sources, i.e. mineral oil from refinery, oil
sludge from workshop, paint waste from paint factory, etc.
In November 1998, a hazardous waste treatment plant for processing chemical waste was
opened in Bukit Nanas. This plant model was based on Danish hazardous waste processing
plant, Kommunekemi, Nyborg. This is the first plant for processing hazardous waste in
Malaysia. The owners of Kualiti Alam hold the contract for treatment of all hazardous waste
in Peninsular Malaysia for 15 years.
When the plant was being designed, Malaysia drew up legislation on hazardous waste as an
addition to the above legislation. It is known as Environmental Quality (scheduled Wastes)
Regulation 2005.
The plant receives all types of hazardous waste except hospital and radioactive waste.
Organic waste is burnt in the incineration plant. Acidic and basic inorganic fluids are
exposed to chemical treatment that neutralizes them and removes poisons such as
chromium and cyanide. The residues from this treatment and solid inorganic waste are
bound tightly with lime and cement before being deposited on a double membrane equipped
landfill with room for waste residues for up to 20 years.
Between 1995-2005, an average of 532,000 tonnes of scheduled waste was generated per
annum, mainly from metal finishing, electronics, textile, chemical and chemical-related
industries, agricultural and domestic activities, and clinical waste from hospitals.
Companies generating wastes are now required to inform the authorities about hazardous
waste and whether there is a need for associated collection, storage and processing. In
addition, the companies have to pay for this service on the basis of the polluter pays
principle.

72

CHAPTER 4
AIR POLLUTION
CO3: Ability to describe basic concept of air pollution and solve basic calculations in this
area.

73

4-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:9

9
9
9
9
9

4-2

Ability
Ability
Ability
Ability
Ability
Ability
plume

to define air pollution.

to convert from ppm to g/m3 and vice versa.
to describe classification of pollutant and particulate.
to describe the effect of pollutant to health, plants and materials.
to explain ozone depletion and acid rain.
to explain and calculate the stability of atmosphere including the
types.

DEFINITION

There are thousands of definitions for air pollution but the keywords used to describe the
meaning are almost the same. The terms presence, particles, effects are some of the
keywords used to describe what is air pollution. Generally, air pollution occurs when there
are impurities in the atmosphere that can cause bad effects or harm to the human health,
animals, vegetations and materials. Below are some definitions taken from a number of
sources:

Air pollution is the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more air
contaminants (i.e., dust, fumes, gas, mist, odor, smoke, or vapor) in sufficient
quantities, of such characteristics, and of such duration as to be or to threaten to be
injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to property, or which reasonably
interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property (Peavy et al, 1985).

Air pollution is the presence of undesirable material in air,

in quantities large enough to produce harmful effects
(Nevers, 2000).

Air

pollution occurs when air impurities in the form of

gaseous or particles are emitted into the atmosphere
(Department of Environment, Malaysia).

Air pollution is the modification of the natural

characteristics of the HatmosphereH by a HchemicalH,
Hparticulate matterH, or Hbiological agentH
(H

iki

di

H)

74

4-3

HISTORICAL REVIEW

Air pollution has been on the increase since the Industrial Revolution. Rapid
industrialisation, development and greater dependence on fossil fuels have contributed to
the increment of harmful pollutants, making life more unpleasant and unhealthy. Air
pollution disaster had been reported as early as 1873 in London but for the moment three
major episodes will be discussed. The episodes are fog disaster in Meuse Valley (1930),
Donora Death Fog (1948) and Big Smoke in London (1952).
In each of these cases, a persistent (3 -6 days) inversion combined with significant
industrial or, in London, domestic pollutant emissions resulted in high ground-level
concentrations that caused acute illness.
60 deaths were reported in Meuse Valley disaster, 20 in Donora, and about 4000 in London.
In each case, the death is caused by existing respiratory cardiovascular disease. For London
disaster, pneumonia was the primary cause of death. Table 4-1 describes briefly the
characterization of these episodes.
Table 4-1
Major air pollution episodes

Meuse Valley, 1930

(Dec. 1)

Donora, 1948
(Oct. 26 -31)

London, 1952
(Dec. 5-9)

Population

No data

12 300

8 000 000

Weather

Anticyclone,
inversion and fog

Anticyclone,
inversion and fog

Anticyclone,
inversion and fog

Topography

River valley

River valley

River plain

Most probably
source of pollutants

Industry (including
steel and zinc)

Industry (including
steel and zinc)

Household coal
burning

Nature of the
illness

Chemical irritation
of exposed
membranous
surfaces

Chemical irritation
of exposed
membranous
surfaces

Chemical irritation
of exposed
membranous
surfaces

No. of deaths

63

17

4 000

Time of deaths

Began after second

day of episodes

Began after second

day of episodes

Began on the first

day of episodes

Suspected
proximate cause of
irritation

Sulphur oxides with

particulates

Sulphur oxides with

particulates

Sulphur oxides with

particulates

(Source: Davis and Cornwell, 2008.)

75

4-4

AIR POLLUTION IN MALAYSIA

The overall air quality for Malaysia in 2004 deteriorated slightly compared with that in
previous year. Several unhealthy air quality days were recorded at various locations in
Wilayah Persekutuan, Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Penang, Perak, Negeri Sembilan, and
Melaka. The unhealthy days recorded in the Klang Valley (Wilayah Persekutuan, Kuala
Lumpur, and Selangor) and Negeri Sembilan were mainly caused by high concentrations of
ground-level ozone O3. The unhealthy air quality recorded in other parts of the country was
mainly due to high levels of PM10. In 2004, Malaysia experienced short periods of slight-tomoderate air pollution in the months of June, August, and September. This was mainly due
to south westerly winds that caused the deterioration of air quality in the west coast of
Peninsular Malaysia. The fires in Kalimantan also contributed to the slight haze in the
southern part of Sarawak. Apart from these haze episodes, there were no other serious
incidences of air pollution in 2004. Particulate Matter (PM) and ground-level O3 remained
the prevailing pollutants in the country.
The air quality status for Malaysia is determined according to the Air Pollutant Index (API).
The air quality status, based on APIs, in major Malaysian cities for 2004 are shown in
Figures 4-1 through 4-3. As can be seen in these figures, most cities in Malaysia have
mostly Good and Moderate APIs throughout the year.
Table 4-2
API Status Indicator

(Source: DoE, 2005.)

76

Figure 4-1

Figure 4-2
Figure 4-3

(Source: DoE, 2005.)

(Source: DoE, 2005.)

Figure 4-3

(Source: DoE, 2005.)

4-4.1 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution occurs because of natural processes and human activity which is known as
anthropogenic. Natural pollutants such as dust storms, forest fires and volcanoes may pose
serious air quality problems when they are generated in significant quantities near human
settlements. However, natural air pollution has not been a major societal concern.
Anthropogenic (man-made) air pollution such as mobile sources has been and continues to
be a serious problem. Its seriousness lies in the levels of pollutant produced in
environments that harms human health and welfare.
There are three main contributors to air pollution load in Malaysia reported for 2004. They
are stationary sources, mobile sources and open burning sources. Stationary sources

77

comprise emission from industrial sectors including power generation stations. Table 4-3
indicates the distribution of industrial air pollution sources by states for 2004. From the
table, Selangor contributes the highest number of stationary sources that is 25.6 %,
followed by Johor (19.3 %) and Sarawak (14.4 %) whereas Perlis has the lowest number of
sources forming only 0.23 % of the total stationary sources.
Figure 4-4 shows the recent estimates of emissions in Malaysia. The transport sector
accounted for the majority of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions accounting for about 35 % of
the total PM emissions in the country. The power sector and industries accounted for the
majority of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and PM emissions; the power sector accounted for about
60% of the total SO2 emissions and almost 50 % of the total PM emissions, while the
industries accounted for about 20 % of the total SO2 and PM emissions.
Mobile sources such as passenger cars, taxis, buses, motorcycles, vans and lorries are the
main contributors to air pollution. Figure 4-5 shows the distribution of air pollution emission
load from mobile sources for 2004. From the figures, 46.1 % of air pollution load in Malaysia
was contributed by vans and lorries, 20 % by passenger cars, 16.2 % by motorcycles and
the remaining 17.7 % from buses (15.6 %) and taxis (2.1 %).
Table 4-3
Distribution of industrial air pollution sources in Malaysia by states, 2004
States

Number of
Sources

Percentage (%)

Selangor

3330

25.60

Johor

2509

19.29

Sarawak

1873

14.40

Perak

1335

10.26

Sabah

898

6.90

Kuala Lumpur

881

6.77

Melaka

557

4.28

Pahang

363

2.79

Negeri Sembilan

325

2.50

Kelantan

320

2.46

Kedah

245

1.88

Terengganu

208

1.60

Pulau Pinang

136

1.05

30

0.23

Perlis

78

Figure 4-4

(Source: DoE, 2005)

Figure 4-5
Distribution of air pollution emission load (in percentage) from mobile sources, 2004

2.08
15.62
Van & Lorries
Passenger Cars
Motorcycles
46.06

Buses
Taxis

16.22

20.04

(Source: DoE, 2004)

79

4-4.2 LEGISLATION AND STANDARDS

The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) is the basic framework for environmental management
in Malaysia. It was enacted in 1974. The Act was officially endorsed by the Government of
Malaysia in its Third Malaysia Plan (19811985). The main environmental regulatory agency
in Malaysia at the federal level is the Department of Environment or DoE, which is currently
part of the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment.
Environmental management is conducted at the federal level by the DoE and headed by the
Director-General of Environmental Quality, who is appointed by the Minister from among
members of the public service. Within each state, the state governments have
corresponding authorities and officials in charge of environmental matters.
4-4.2 (a)

Ambient Air Quality Standards

In 1989, the DoE formulated a set of air quality guidelines called the Recommended
Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (RMG) (Table 4-4). Based on RMG, DoE subsequently
developed the Malaysian Air Quality Index (MAQI) in 1993.
Table 4-4
Malaysia, WHO 2005 and NAAQS Ambient Air Quality Guidelines
POLLUTANT

Ozone

AVERAGING TIME

AIR QUALITY
GUIDELINES
ppm
(g/m3)

1 Hour
8 Hour

0.10
0.06

200
120

Carbon Monoxide

1 Hour
8 Hour

30
9

35 000
10 000

Nitrogen Dioxide

1 Hour
24 Hour
1 year

0.17

320

0.04

Sulphur Dioxide

1 Hour
24 Hour

0.13
0.04

Particulate Matter
(PM10)

NAAQSa

WHO
(2005)
(g/m3)

(g/m3)

100

157
40 000
10 000

90

200
40

100

350
105

20

365

24 Hour
1 Year

150
50

50
20

150

Total Suspended
Particulate (TSP)

24 Hour
1 Year

260
90

Lead

3 Month

1.5

1.5

1.5

NAAQS stands for National Ambient Air Quality Standards.

(Source: DoE, 2005 & Davis and Cornwell, 2008)

80

4-5

CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANT

Air pollutants can be classified according to their origin, chemical composition and state of
matter.
4-5.1 ORIGIN
Origin pollutants can be divided into two (2), namely primary pollutants and secondary
pollutants. Primary pollutants e.g. sulphur dioxides (SOx), nitrogen dioxides (NOx) and
hydrocarbons (HC) are those emitted directly into the atmosphere and are found in the form
they were emitted. Secondary pollutant e.g. ozone (O3) and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) are
those formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reaction or by hydrolysis or oxidation.
4-5.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Pollutants, either primary or secondary can further be classified according to their chemical
composition as organic or inorganic. Organic compound contains carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). For examples, hydrocarbons are
organic compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon while ketones and aldehydes
contain oxygen, carbon and hydrogen.
Inorganic compound includes carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbonates,
sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and
hydrogen chloride (HCl).
4-5.3 STATE OF MATTER
Pollutants can be further classified as particulate or gaseous. Particulate pollutants consist
of finely divided solids and liquids including dust, fumes, smoke, fly ash, mist and spray.
The particulates pollutants will settle out under proper condition. Gaseous pollutant is the
formless fluids that completely occupy the space, into which they are released, behave more
like air and do not settle out. Gaseous pollutants include vapours of substances that are
liquid or solid at normal temperatures and pressures. For examples, CO, SOx, NOx, HC and
oxidants are classified as gaseous pollutants.

4-6

PARTICULATES

As noted above, pollutants can be categorized as particulate matter which may be solid or
liquid and gaseous matter. Particles can be classified from their mode of formation as dust,
smoke, fumes, fly ash, mist, or spray. The sizes range from 1000 m 0.01 m. The
particles sizes from 100 m 0.01 m are the major interest in air pollution studies
because within these sizes the particulates can easily settle in lower respiratory tract (LRT).
Figure 4-6 shows the characteristics of particles and particle dispersoids. Below are the
classifications of particles according to their formation:

81

Dust

small, solid particles created by the breakup of larger masses through

processes such as crushing, grinding or blasting, may come directly from the
processing or handling of materials such as coal, cement or grains. The size
range from 1.0 m to 1 000 m.

Smoke

fine, solid particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of organic

particles such as coal, wood or tobacco consists mainly of carbon and other
combustible materials. The size range from 0.5 m to 1 m.

Fumes

fine, solid particles (often metallic oxides such as zinc and lead oxides)
formed by the condensation of vapors of solid materials. Fumes are from
sublimation, distillation, calcination or molten metal processes. The size range
from 0.03 m to 0.3 m.

Fly ash

finely divided solid particle, noncombustible particles contained in flue gases

arising from combustion of coal and it is released when the organic portion of
coal is burned. The size range from 1.0 m to 1000 m.

Mist

liquid particles or droplet formed by condensation of vapor, dispersion of a

liquid (e.g. in foaming & splashing) or enactment of chemical reaction (e.g.
formation of H2SO4). The sizes of mist <10 m.

Spray

liquid particles formed by atomization of parent liquids (e.g. pesticides &

herbicides). The size range from 10 m to 1000 m.

4-6.1 DETECTION, MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS

There are two (2) types of particulates that are settleable particulates and suspended
particulates. Settleable particulates are washed out with rain or settles down as dry
depositions and they are usually measured by dustfall bucket. Suspended particulates are
usually measured by high volume sampler or portable mini volume sampler.
4-6.1 (a)

Settleable Particulates

A dustfall bucket is a first generation method used to determine how much particulate
material settles on earth. It is a basic and inexpensive device consists of an open bucket
containing water to trap and holds the particles. It is exposed at suitable location such as
building roof for 30 days. After 30 days of collection, the water is evaporated and the
particulates are weighed. The results usually reported in (g/m2/month).
4-6.1 (b)

Suspended Particulates

A high volume sampler draws a large volume of air through a glass-fibre or membrane
filter. The inlets are designed to remove the larger particles before the sample reaches the
filter. The filter is weighed before and after sampling, and the airflow rate, which gradually
decreases as particulates accumulate on the filter, is accurately metered and recorded. For
the ease of monitoring in site, portable mini volume sampler is designed so that it can be
placed easily at the desired monitoring site. Figure 4-7 and 4-8 shows the high volume
sampler and portable mini volume sampler respectively.

82

Figure 4-6
Characteristics of particles and particle dispersoids

(Source: Davis, 2008)

83

Figure 4-7
High Volume Sampler

Figure 4-7
Mini Volume Portable Sampler

84

4-7

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

There are three (3) basic units used in reporting air pollution data that are micrograms per
cubic meter (g/m3), parts per million (ppm) and the micron () or preferably known as
micrometer (m). Micrograms per cubic meter and parts per million are a unit of
measurement for concentration and they are used to indicate the concentration of gaseous
pollutant. However, the concentration of particulate can be reported in g/m3. The m is
used to report the particle size.
Formerly concentration of gaseous pollutants were usually reported in parts per million
(ppm), parts per hundred million (pphm), or parts per billion (ppb) by volume. Thus,
designations in g/m3 may be followed by equivalent concentration on a ppm basis - e.g. 80
g/m3 (0.03 ppm) of sulphur dioxide. For gases, ppm can be converted to g/m3 by using
the following formula:

ppm 10 6 GMW 10 3 L / m 3 10 6 g / g
g / m =
L / mol
3

[4-1]

where GMW is gram molecular weight of the gas.

L/mol term is influenced by the temperature (T) and pressure (P) of the gas. According to
Avogadros Law, 1 mole of any gas occupies the same volume as 1 mole of any gas at the
same T and P. Therefore, at 273 K (0OC) and 1 atm pressure (760 mmHg /101.3 kPa),
standard conditions for many chemical reactions, the volume is 22.4 L/mol. To convert to
L/mol at other conditions, the following formula can be used:

V1 P1 V2 P2
=
T1
T2

[4-2]

where V1, P1 and T1 is relate to the standard condition V2, P2 and T2 is relate to the actual
condition that is being considered.
Example 4-1: Determining the volume, temperature and pressure relationship.
Calculate the volume occupied by 4 mol of gas at 21.1 C and 760 mmHg.
Solution:
To solve this type of problem, equation [4-2] will be used where n = 4 mol, V1 = 22.4
mol/L, P1 = 760 mmHg, T1 = 273K, P2 = 760 mmHg and T2 = 21.1 + 273 K = 294.1 K.
Therefore, the volume (V2) can be obtained by

V2 =

nV1 P1T2
= (4 mol) x (22.4 L/mol) x (760 mmHg) x (294.1 K) = 96.5
T1 P2
(273 K) x (760 mmHg)

85

Example 4-2: Converting from parts per million (ppm) to mass per volume
(g/m3)
The NO2 content of a sample of stack gas measured at 950
ppm. Determine the NO2 concentration in g/m3 and mg/m3.

C at 2 atm pressure was 9

Solution:
To solve this problem, first of all, volume of NO2 need to be find. For that purpose, equation
[4-2] will be used.

V2 =

V1 P1T2
= (22.4 L/mol) x (1 atm) x (950 + 273 K) = 50.17 L/mol
T1 P2
(273 K) x (2 atm)

Next, use equation [4-1] to convert from ppm to g/m3.

g/m3 = 9 ppm x 10-6 x 46 g/mol x103 L/m3 x 106 g/g = 8 252 g/m3
50.17 L/mol
Convert from g/m3 to mg/m3 = 8.252 mg/m3

4-8

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION

4-8.1 EFFECT ON HEALTH

4.8.1 (a)

Respiratory System (RS)

The respiratory system (RS) is the primary indicator of air pollution effect on human body.
The major organs of RS are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The
nose, pharynx, larynx and trachea are called upper respiratory tract (URT). The lower
respiratory tract (LRT) consists of bronchi and lung which is composed of alveoli. The alveoli
are approximately 300 m.

86

Figure 4-8
Upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract

4-8.1 (b)

Chronic Respiratory Disease

Several long-term diseases of RS may be caused by air pollution. These are:

(i)

Bronchial asthma form of airway resistance that results from allergy. An

asthma attack is the result of the narrowing of bronchioles.

(ii)

Chronic bronchitis defined to be present in a person when access mucus in the

bronchioles results in caugh in 3 months a year for 2 consecutive years.

(iii)

Pulmonary emphysema charecterized by a breakdown of the alveoli. The small

grape-like cluster become a large nonresilient ballon-like structure and the
amount of surface area for gas exchange is reduced drastically.

(iv)

Cancer of the bronchus (lung cancer) charecterized by abnormal, disorderly

new cell growth originating in the bronchial mucus membrane. The growth closes
off the bronchioles and usually cause fatal.

87

4-8.1 (c)

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless and odorless gas that can kill human within a few
minutes at a concentration of 5000 ppm.
CO + Hb
(Hemoglobin)

COHb
(Carboxyhemoglobin)

Hb has greater affinity fo CO than oxygen (O2). The formation of carboxyhemoglobin

(COHb) effectively deprives the body of O2. COHb levels of 5-10 % will cause visual
perception, manual dexterity and ability to learn are impaired. A concentration of 20 ppm of
CO for 8 hour will result in COHb level of 2.8 %. At COHb levels of 2.5 to 3%, people with
heart disease are not able to perform certain exercises. The average concentration of CO
inhaled in cigarette smoke is 200 -400 ppm.
4-8.1 (d)

Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)

Generally, exposure to hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) or air toxics at the workplace is
much more than in the ambient air. Asbestos, arsenic, benzene, coke oven emissions and
radionuclides are carcinogen or cancer causing. Berylium causes lung disease and also
affects the liver, spleen, kidneys and lymph glands. Mercury attacks the brain, kidneys and
bowels.
4-8.1 (e)

Lead (Pb)

Lead (Pb) is a cumulative poison. It is inhaled and ingested in food and water. Early
symptom of Pb poisoining is a mild anemia (deficiency of red blood cells). Chronic exposure
to Pb may result in brain damage charecterized by seizures, mental incompetence, highly
active aggressive behavior, weakness of extensor muscles on hands and feet or eventual
paralysis. Atmosperic Pb occur as particle. The size range 0.16 0.43 m.
4-8.1 (f)

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas is reddish brown in concentrated form. At a lower concentration,
it gives brownish yellow tint. Exposure to NO2 concentration above 5 ppm for 15 minutes
will cause cough and irritation of respiratory tract. At 5 ppm NO2 has a pungent sweetish
odor. The average NO2 concentration in tobacco smoke is approximately 5 ppm. At a
concentration of 0.10 ppm, NO2 will cause slight increase in respiratory illness and decrease
in pulmonary function.
4-8.1 (g)

Photochemical Oxidants

Photochemical oxidants include peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), acrolein, peroxybenzoyl nitrates

(PBzN), aldehydes and NOx, the major oxidant is O3 (used as indicator of the total amount
of oxidant present). Concentration above 0.1 ppm results in eye irritation. At a
concentration of 0.3 ppm, cough and discomfort increase.
4-8.1 (h)

Particulate Matter (PM10)

Particulate matter (PM10) are particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 m. High
levels of PM10 increased risk of respiratory, cardiovascular, cancer-related death,

88

pneumonia, lung function loss, hospital admission and asthma. Some investigations have
pointed out that particles less than 2.5 m are the major contributor to accelerated death
rates in polluted cities.
4-8.2 EFFECT ON VEGETATION
A leaf is a primary indicator of the effect of air pollution on a plant. Figure 4-9 shows a cross
section through the mature leaf consisting of 3 primary tissue systems: the epidermis, the
mesophyll and the vascular bundle (veins). The opening in the underside of the leaf is called
stoma (plural of stoma is stomata). The mesophyll includes the palisade parenchyma and
spongy parenchyma containing chloroplast that is the food center. The guard cells regulate
the passage of gases and water vapour in and out of the leaf.
Ozone (O3) injured the palisade cell.The chloroplast condenses and the cell walls collapse
resulting in the formation of red-brown spots and white spots (fleck). O3 injury occurs
during midday on sunny days. The guard cells are more likely to be open and thus allow the
pollutants to enter to the leaf.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) can inhibit the growth of the plant at a low
concentration and produce necrosis at higher concentration (surface spotting due to loss of
protoplasm or known as plasmolysis).
The reduction in surface area (leaf) results in less growth and small fruit. This may result in
the reduction of farmers income. Fluoride deposition on plants will damage them. Grazing
animals may accumulate an excess of flouride that mottles their teeth and causes them to
fall out.
4-8.3 EFFECT ON MATERIAL
Particulate matter (PM) can damage materials by soiling clothings and textiles, corroding
metals, eroding building surfaces and discoloring and destroying painted surfaces. For
example, at a concentration of PM between 130 and 180 m/m3 and in the presence of
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and moisture, corrosion of steel and zinc panels is 3 to 4 times greater
in areas in comparison to background particulate level of 60 m/m3.

89

Figure 4-9
Across section through the mature leaf

4-9

OZONE DEPLETION

Ozone forms a layer in the stratosphere (20 to 40 km and up) that absorbs dangerous solar
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from entering the earth atmosphere. A small amount of UV gives
you the summer tan skin but too much of the UV will cause skin cancer. Oxygen also
absorbs the UV but only over a narrow band centred at a wavelength 0f 0.2 m. The
photochemistry of these reactions is shown in figure 4-10. The M refers to any third body
(usually N2).
Ozone in upper atmosphere is when oxygen reacts with the light energy (hv):

O2 + hv

O+O

O2 + O

O3

Light energy also destroys ozone:

O3 + hv

O2 + O

This is the mechanism by which ozone prevents ultraviolet radiation from reaching earths
surface.

90

The ozone-destroying chemicals come mainly from chlorofluorocarbons (CF2Cl2 and CFCl3often abbreviated as CFC) used in a range of products from refrigerators to soft foams and
cleaning solvents and from halons, used for fire fighting. When the CFCs are introduced into
the upper atmosphere, ozone is destroyed. Figure 4-11 shows ozone destruction by
chlorofluorocarbons.
First, the CFCs react with light energy to release chlorine atom. One form of CFC reacts as
follows:

CCl3F + hv

CCl2F + Cl

The atomic chlorine acts as a catalyst speeding the destruction of ozone:

Cl + O3
ClO + O

ClO + O2
Cl + O2

The frightening aspects of this series of reactions are that the chlorine atom removes ozone
from the system, and that it is continually recycled to convert more ozone to oxygen.
Accelerating ozone-layer depletion will have serious impacts on most of living things on
earth. For 10 % depletion of the ozone layer, we can expect 20 % increase in UV radiation
arriving at the ground in life-damaging wavelengths.
This radiation can cause the change in genetic structure, alters the immune systems,
damages crops, disrupts the marine food web, enhances greenhouse effect by affecting the
carbon dioxide absorbing capacity of plankton in oceans and increases the incidence of skin
cancer. Figure 4-12 shows how the increased UV-B radiation and change in climate caused
by depleted ozone will affect life on earth.

91

Figure 4-12
Flowchart on how the increased UV-B radiation and change in climate caused by depleted
ozone will affect life on earth
Ozone depletion
effects
Increased UV-B radiation
reaching earths surface

Climate
change

Accumulation of
trophospheric ozone
and acid aerosols,
causing worsening
air pollution and acid
rain

Photochemical
formation of
tropospheric
ozone

Damage to
materials; paint,
plastic, rubber

Direct human
health effects

Terrestrial:
reduced crop
yields,
stunted plant
growth

Environmental
effects: Crop and
forest damage

Suppression of
immunity: Increase
in infectious
diseases, less
effective vaccination
Human health effects:
respiratory illness ad
heart problems

Damage to
biological links
in human food
chain

Eye damage:
Increases
incidence of
cataracts and
blindness

Aquatic: less
ocean plankton,
lower fish harvest

Rise in incidence of
skin cancer

(Source: Khan, 2004)

In October 1988, a working group of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the
Ozone Layer established four (4) review panels to implement Article 6 of the protocol. They
covered the scientific, environmental, technical and economic aspects of ozone layer
depletion. The main conclusions reached by the panels were published and distributed in
1990 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which acts a secretariat to the
protocol.

92

THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL ASSESSMENTS

Beginning in 1991, and at least every 4 years thereafter, the Parties shall access
the control measures provided for in Article 2 on the basis of available scientific,
environmental, technical and economic information. At least one year assessment,
the Parties shall convene appropriate panels of experts qualified in the fields
mentioned and determine the composition and terms of reference of any such
panels. Within one year of being convened, the panel shall reports their
conclusions, through the Secretariat, to the Parties
Article 6, Montreal Protocol
(Source: Khan, 2004)

In the spring of 1989, eighty countries met at Helsinki, Finland to access the new
information. The delegates gave their assent to a five point Helsinki Declaration:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

All join the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the
follow up Montreal Protocol.
Phase out production and consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs no later than
2000.
Phase out production and consumption as soon as feasible of halons and such
chemicals as carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform that also contribute to
ozone depletion.
Commit themselves to accelerated development of environmentally acceptable
alternative chemicals and technologies.
Make relevant scientific information, research results, and training available to
developing countries.

The implementation of the Montreal Protocol appears to be working. The use of CFCs had
been reduced to 1/10 of the 1990 levels. Total tropospheric chlorine from the long and
short-lived chlorocarbons was about 5 % lower in 2000 compared to at its peak in 19921994.

4-10 ACID RAIN

Rain falling through a perfectly unpolluted atmosphere will arrive at the earth with a pH of
about 5.6. This is because of the carbon dioxide in atmosphere reacts with the rain water by
these reactions:

CO2 + H2O

H2CO3

H+ + HCO3-

This small amount of acidity is sufficient to dissolve and make them available to plant and
animal life; yet not acidic enough to inflict any damage. Atmospheric substances from
volcanic eruptions, forest fires and other similar natural phenomena also contribute to the
natural sources of acidity in rain but not acidic enough to destroy plants and animals.

93

Figure 4-13
Acid rain phenomenon

Acid rain is defined as any type of precipitation with a pH below 5.6. Acid rain has been
associated with sulphur oxides (SOx); principally sulphur dioxides (SO2) and to a lesser
extent, sulphur trioxide (SO3) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) principally nitrogen oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) combining with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
These gases react with water to form sulphuric and nitric acids which are soluble and fall
with the rain.
Acid rain major sources are from human sources, such as industrial and power generating
plants, transportation vehicles and farming industries (ammonia for fertilizer). The gases
can be carried hundred of miles in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and
deposited.
Industrial acid rain is a major problem in China, Eastern Europe, Russia and areas down
winded from them. These areas also burn coal containing sulphur to generate heat and
electricity.
In the gas phase sulphur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with hydroxyl radical via a trimolecular reaction:

SO 2 + OH + M HOSO 2 + M
which is followed by

HOSO 2 +O 2 HO2 + SO 3

94

In the presence of water, sulphur trioxide is converted rapidly to sulphuric acid:

SO 3 + H 2 O + M H 2 SO 4 + M
Nitric acid is formed by the reaction of OH with nitrogen dioxide:

NO 2 + OH + M HNO3 + M
Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water, then hydrolysis in a series of equilibrium reactions:

SO 2 ( g ) + H 2 O SO 2 H 2 O
SO 2 H 2 O H + + HSO 3HSO 3- H + + SO 32The potential effects of acid rain are related to the acidity on aquatic life, damage to crops
and forests, and damage to building materials. Lower pH values may affect fish directly by
interfering with their reproductive cycles or by releasing otherwise insoluble aluminium (Al),
which is toxic. At pH lower than 5, most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pH can kill adult
fish. As lakes become more acidic biodiversity is reduced.
Acid rain also leaches calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) from the soil thus lower the molar
ratio of Ca to Al which in turn, favours the uptake of Al by fine roots that ultimately leads to
their deterioration.
Acid rain can also damage certain building materials and historical monuments due to
chemical reactions between sulphuric acid and calcium compounds in the stones (limestone,
sand stone, marble and granite) to create gypsum that flakes off.
The toxic released due to acid rain forms the greatest threat to human. Mobilized copper
has been proven in the outbreaks of diarrhoea among young children and water supplies
that had been contaminated with aluminium cause Alzheimers disease.
In 1980,the US Congress authorized a 10 year study to assess the causes and effects of
acidic deposition. This study was titled the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
(NAPAP). In September, NAPAP released an interim report that indicated that acidic
precipitation appeared to have no measurable and consistent effects on crops, tree
seedlings, or human health, and that a small percentage of lakes across the US were
experiencing pH value lower than 5. In 1992, NAPAP reported to Congress that there
remained no evidence of widespread decline of forest tree species causes by acidic
deposition.

4-11 METEOROLOGY
Pure air is a mixture of gases, containing;
78.0% nitrogen
20.1% oxygen
0.9% argon
0.03% carbon dioxide
0.002% neon
0.0005%helium

95

but pure air is not found in nature and is of interest only as reference. Earth atmophere can
be divided into four major layers (refer Figure 4-14) :
i)

Troposphere where most of our weather occurs, ranges from 5 km at the poles to
about 18 km equator. The temperature decreases with altitude. Over 80% of air is
within this well-mixed layer.

ii)

Stratosphere a layer of air where the temperature profile is inverted and in which
little mixing take place. Pollutant that migrate into this layer can stay for many
years. This layer has a high ozone concentration.

iii)

Mesosphere and Thermosphere contain only about 0.1 % of the air.

Air pollution problem occurs in the troposhere. Pollutants in the troposphere whether
produced naturally or emitted from human activities are moved by air currents that we call
wind. Wind not only moves the pollutants horizontally, but causes the pollutants to disperse,
reducing the concentration of the pollutants a distance away from the source.
Figure 4-14
Layers of atmosphere

100

Thermosphere

A
L
T 80
I
T 60
U
D
E 40
(km)
20
0

Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Troposphere
100

200

300

96

400

Temperature (K)

4-11.1

STABILITY

Stability is the tendency of the atmosphere to resist and enhance vertical motion. Lapse
rate is the change of air temperature with height. It is used as indicator as the stability
condition of the atmosphere. There are 3 stability categories that are:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Neutral atmosphere
Unstable atmosphere
Stable atmosphere

The rate of temperature change with height is described as lapse rate. Environmental lapse
rate, e , is defined as the negative of the actual change in temperature with altitude. The
lapse rate for a neutral atmosphere is defined by the rate of temperature increase or
decrease experienced by the parcel of air that expands or contracts adiabatically (without
addition or loss of heat) as it raised through the atmosphere. The rate of temperature
decrease (dT/dZ) is called dry adiabatic lapse rate and it is designated by d . dT/dZ is
approximately -1.00 C/100 m or -10 C/1 km. Atmospheric stability for dry (no liquid
water present) air can be determined by comparing environmental lapse rate, e , to the dry
adiabatic lapse rate, d .
Mathematically, atmospheric stability can be determined as:

e < d for dry stable

e = d for dry neutral
e > d for dry unstable
The stability of air in the atmosphere depends on the temperature of rising air relative to
the temperature of the stationary surrounding air that it passes through, which varies from
place to place and with changing atmospheric conditions. Air stability determines whether
clouds form when air is uplifted, and the type of cloud.
When a packet of air near the Earths surface is heated, it rises, being lighter than the
surrounding air. Whether or not this air packet continues to rise will depend upon how the
temperature in the surrounding air changes with altitude. The rising packet of air will lose
heat because it expands as atmospheric pressure falls, and its temperature drops. If the
temperature of the surrounding air does not fall as quickly with increasing altitude, the air
packet will quickly become colder than the surrounding air, lose its buoyancy, and sink back
to its original position. In this case the atmosphere is said to be stable. If the temperature
of the surrounding air falls more quickly with increasing altitude, the packet of air will
continue to rise. The atmosphere in this circumstance is said to be unstable.
There are two types of stable atmosphere:
i)

Isothermal No changes of temperature with elevation.

97

ii)

Inversion The temperature increases with elevation. It is the most severe form of
stable atmosphere but when it occurs it is often asociated with restricted air volumes
that cause air pollution.

The relationship between environmental lapse rates and stability can be seen in Figure 4-15.
Line I shows the slight decrease temperature with height. In this case, there is little or no
heating or cooling of the ground and adjacent air. Air cools as it expands its pressure
decreases. The temperature change is close to adiabatic lapse rate so this situation is
known as neutral stability.
The lapse rate characterized by line II indicates a temperature decrease greater than
adiabatic lapse rate. The condition is described as superadiabatic or unstable. Atmospheric
condition is very unstable with strong vertical air motion. During this time, the dispersion of
pollutant is very good.
Line III represent an isothermal lapse rate i.e. temperature does not change with elevation.
This situation is characterized as stable atmosphere. If a parcel of warm polluted air were
released in this type of atmosphere, it will rise slowly and cool to the temperature of its
surrounding. Dispersion of pollutant is limited in this atmospheric stability.
Line IV indicates lapse rate condition in which the temperature increases with elevation.
Under this condition, the atmosphere is very stable. Because of warmer temperature above
the ground, the polluted air will quickly become equilibrium with the temperature of its
surroundings. The dispersion of pollutants is very poor because of stagnant condition i.e.
the air motion is suppressed.
Figure 4-15
Temperature profiles illustrating variations in lapse rate conditions

Adiabatic lapse
rate
H
e
i
g
h
t

III
I

Increasing
stability

IV

II
Inversion

Increasing
instability
Temperature

98

Example 4.3: Determination of atmosphere stability

Given the following temperature and elevation data, determine the stability of the
atmosphere.

Elevation, m

Temperature, OC

2
318

-3.05
-6.21

Solution:
Begin by determining lapse rate:

T T2 T1
=
Z Z 2 Z1
= -6.21 (-3.05) = -0.01 OC/m
318 2
= -0.01 OC x 100 m = 1.00 OC
Then, compare with d

(-1.00

C/100 m) and find that they are equal. Thus the

atmospheric stability is neutral.

4-11.2

PLUME TYPES

The plume (smoke trail) from a tall stack located on flat terrain has been found to exhibit a
charecteristic shape that is dependent on the stability of the atmosphere. The combination
of vertical air movement and horizontal air flow influences the behavior of plumes from
point sources (stacks).
The looping plume of Figure 4-16 occurs in highly unstable conditions and results from
turbulence air. Unstable conditions are generally favorable for pollutant dispersion. High
ground-level concentrations can occur if the plume loops downward to the surface.
Figure 4-16
Looping plume

99

The coning plume (Figure 4-21) is characteristic of neutral conditions or slightly stable
conditions. It is likely to occur on cloudy days or on sunny days between the breakup of a
radiation inversion and the development of unstable daytime conditions.
Figure 4-17
Coning plume

The fanning plume (Figure 4-18) occurs in stable conditions. The inversion lapse rate
discourages vertical motion without prohibiting horizontal motion, and the plume may
extend downwind from the source for a long distance. Fanning plumes often occur in the
early morning during a radiation inversion.
Figure 4-17
Fanning plume

A major problem for pollutant dispersion is an inversion layer, which acts as a barrier to
vertical mixing. When the condition is unstable above the inversion layer (Figure 4-18), the
release of plume above the inversion results in an effective dispersion. The probability of
ground contact is small unless inversion layer is shallow. This condition is known as lofting.

100

Figure 4-18
Lofting plume

If the plume is released just under an inversion layer, a serious air pollution situation could
develop. As the ground warms in the morning, air below an inversion layer becomes
unstable. When the instability reaches the level of the plume below the inversion layer, the
pollutants can be rapidly transported down toward the ground (Figure 4-19). This is known
as fumigation. Ground-level pollutant concentrations can be very high when fumigation
occurs. Sufficiently tall stacks can prevent fumigation in most cases. The relation between
stability and plume can be summarized as in Table 4-5.
Figure 4-19
Fumigation plume

Table 4-5
Plume Designation

Stability

Plume Designation

Highy unstable ( e > d )

Looping

Neutral or near neutral ( e d )

Coning

Strongly stable ( e negative)

Fanning

Stable, but inversion above plume source

Lofting

Stable, inversion aloft,but inversion layer above plume source

Fumigation

101

CHAPTER 5
WATER POLLUTION
CO2: Ability to describe basic concept of water pollution and solve basic calculations on
this area.
CO1: Ability to describe the related legislation in the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

102

5-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:9

9
9
9

5-2

Ability to define and identify water pollution sources and their effects.
Ability to explain the water quality parameters including physical, chemical
and biological and able to calculate the amount of pollutants in water.
Able to define current legislation of water quality and pollution control which
are applied in Malaysia under the Environmental Quality Act 1974.
Able to describe the principle of water and waste water treatment in
industrial and domestic sewage.

INTRODUCTION

Water is a resource that has many uses, including for recreational, transportation,
hydroelectric power, agricultural, domestic, industrial, and commercial uses. Water also
supports all forms of life and affects our health, lifestyle, and economic well being.
Although more than three quarters of the earth's surface is made up of water, only 2.8 % of
the earths water is available for human consumption. The other 97.2 % is in the oceans.
However, this water is too salty to be used for most purposes, and the salt content is very
costly to remove. Most of the earths fresh water is frozen in polar ice caps, icebergs, and
glaciers. Although water flows from our faucets throughout the day, we often take the
amount of fresh water available on earth for granted. As the world's population increases,
water consumption increases too. Preventing water pollution and conserving water are
important to assure a continuing abundance of water that is safe for our use and the use of
our future generations.
Water pollution can be defined as any physical, biological, or chemical change in water
quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
When it is unfit for its intended use, water is considered polluted. This can include the
pollution of rivers, lakes, oceans, and ground water pollution. Although natural phenomena
such as volcano eruptions, storms, earthquakes etc. could also cause major changes in
water quality and the ecological status of water, these are not deemed to be pollution.
Water pollution has many causes and characteristics. It is a serious problem in the global
context. It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of death and disease
and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.
In most developing countries, only a tiny fraction of human wastes is treated before being
dumped into rivers, lakes, or oceans. As a consequence, water pollution levels are often
appalling. In India, for example, two-thirds of all surface waters are considered dangerous
to human health. The less-developed countries of South America, Africa, and Asia have
even worse water quality than do the poorer countries of Europe. Low technological
capabilities and little money for pollution control are made even worse by growing
populations, rapid urbanization, and the shift of heavy industry from developed countries
where pollution laws are stricter than those in the less developed countries where
regulations are more lenient.
In Malaysia, 42 of 50 major rivers are reported to be "ecological disasters. Residues from
palm oil and rubber manufacturing concerns, along with heavy erosion from logging of

103

tropical rain forests, have destroyed all higher forms of life in most of these rivers. In the
Philippines, domestic sewage makes up 6070 % of the total volume of Manila's Pasig River.
Thousands of people use the river not only for bathing and washing clothes, but also as
their source of drinking and cooking water. China treats only 2 % of its sewage. Of 78
monitored rivers in China, 54 of them are reported to be seriously polluted. Of the 44 major
cities in China, 41 of them used "contaminated" water supplies. Only few used undeveloped
treatment before it is delivered to the public.

5.3

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is normally caused by human activities. Different human sources add to the
pollution of water. There are two types of sources, point and non point sources. Sources of
water pollution are shown in Figure 51.
5-3.1 POINT SOURCES POLLUTION
Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are discharged directly into a body
of water. Factories, power plants, wastewater treatment facilities, underground mines and
oil wells, for example, are classified as point sources because they release pollution from
specific locations, such as drain pipes, ditches, or sewer outfalls. These pollutants are
considered to be point source pollution because they enter a body of water at an
identifiable, single-point location. Point source pollutions are easy to monitor and regulate.
Their unwanted contents can be diverted and treated before discharge.
5-3.2 NON POINT SOURCES POLLUTION
Non point sources are characterized by multiple discharge point. The pollution cannot be
traced to a single point of discharge, difficult to monitor and control. Discharges from
vehicle emissions, construction site, urban runoff, forestry are examples of non point source
pollution. They are considered to be non point source because pollution does not occur all
the time in one location. The pollution is difficult to measure, and many of non point
sources pollutions occur during rain storms. Reduction of non point source pollution
generally requires change in land use practices. The land use activities and types of major
non point source pollutants are summarised below in Table 5-1 and Figure 5-2.
The most common non point source pollutants are sediments and nutrients. These are
washed into water bodies. The pollutants are from agricultural land, small and mediumsized animal feeding operations, construction sites, and other areas of disturbance. Other
common non point source pollutants include pesticides, pathogens (bacteria and viruses),
salts, oil, grease, toxic chemicals, and heavy metals. Fertilizer and pesticide residues can
run off or can be washed into streams and rivers or seep into soil, contaminating underlying
groundwater. However, there are several methods that can be applied for controlling
surface water pollution from non point sources;
i.
ii.

Reduction of fertilizer runoff by not using excessive amount and the non-usage of
steeply sloped land.
Application of pesticides only when needed.

104

iii.
iv.

Reducing the usage of fertilizers and pesticides on golf courses and public parks.
Planting of permanent vegetation as buffer zone between farmland and river or
lakes.
v.
Restoration of logged forest to control soil erosion.
vi. Use of sedimentation basins or silt traps at construction sites.
vii. Road cleaning practices.
viii. Efficient solid waste management.
ix. Installation of waste traps at drainage system and rivers.
Figure 5 - 1
Sources of water pollution

105

Table 5 1
Land use activities and types of major non point source pollution
Land Use Activities

Pollutants

Responsible Agency

Urban storm runoff automobile maintenance,

lawn and garden care,
painting and etc.

Oil, grease, antifreeze,

nitrate, phosphate,
pesticides, paints

Local authorities

Construction land
clearing and grading and
etc.

Sediment

Local authorities

Surface mining - dirt,

gravel, mineral
excavation and etc.

Sediment, heavy metals,

acid drainage, nitrate,
phosphate

Local authorities

Agriculture - tillage,
cultivation, pest control,
fertilization, animal waste
management and etc.

Excess fertilizers,
herbicides, insecticides,
and siltation from open
areas, bacteria

Department of
Agriculture

Forestry timber
harvesting, road
construction and etc.

Siltation from open areas

due to timber harvesting
and road construction

Department of Forestry

Figure 5 - 2
Non point sources of water pollution

106

5-4

THE EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

The effects of pollution in the water are numerous. There are many different types of water
pollution and all have a different adverse effect on the environment. In rivers, oceans and
seas, the water pollution such as heavy metals and industrial waste that often contains
many toxic compounds can be lethal, killing the fish and plant life. This in turn can kill birds
and other animals that eat this contaminated food supply. Some toxins affect the
reproductive rate of success of marine life and can therefore disrupt the community
structure of an aquatic environment. The effects of water pollution have also been
considered the leading cause of human deaths worldwide. More than 5 million people die
each year from diseases caused by unsafe drinking water, lack of sanitation, and insufficient
water for hygiene. In fact, over 2 million deaths occur each year from water-related
diarrhoea alone. Almost every type of contamination found in water has a detrimental effect
on humans. Blood diseases, heart disease and nervous system disorders are commonly
linked to the effects of water pollution. Many of the toxins found in polluted water are
carcinogenic, which means they can cause cancer. Some substances may even affect
generations to come by changing the bodys chromosomal makeup. Less severe effects of
water pollution can include diarrhoea, skin lesions, and vomiting. Organic matter and
nutrients causes an increase in aerobic algae and deplete oxygen from the water column.
This is called eutrophication and it causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic
organisms.

5-5

WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Water quality is a neutral term that relates to the composition of water as affected by
natural processes and human activities. The quality of water is also related to its specific
use, and usually measured in terms of the concentration of its constituents. Water quality
measurements include chemical, physical and biological parameters. The followings are brief
descriptions of some commonly used parameters.
5-5.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the sense of sight,
touch, taste, or smell. The six most commonly considered physical characteristics are
suspended solid, temperature, taste and odour, colour and turbidity.
5-5.1 (a)

Suspended Solid

Suspended solid refers to a solid that is suspended in a liquid. It is highly dependent on the
flow of water and usually increases during and immediately after rain falls. Solids suspended
in water consist of organic and inorganic particles. Inorganic solids such as silt, clay and
other soil constituents and organic material such as plant fibres and biological solids (algal
cells, plankton, bacteria) are common constituents of surface waters. The inorganic portion
is usually considerably higher than the organic. Both contribute to the turbidity, or
cloudiness of the water. These materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the
erosion action of water flowing over surfaces. Because of the filtering capacity of the soil,
suspended material is seldom a constituent of groundwater.

107

The suspended solids determination is important in the analysis of polluted waters. It is

aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents.
Suspended particulate matter presents in water also reduces the ability of some organism to
find food, reduce photosynthesis, disrupts food webs, carries pesticides and others harmful
substances. Suspended solids also interfere with effective drinking water treatment. High
sediment loads interfere with coagulation, filtration, and disinfection. More chlorine is
required to effectively disinfect turbid water. They also cause problems for industrial users.
Most suspended solids can be removed from water by filtration. Thus, the suspended
fraction of solids in a water sample can be approximated by filtering the water, drying the
residue and filter to a constant weight at 104C (C), and determining the mass of the
residue retained on the filter. The results of this suspended solids test are also expressed
as dry mass per volume (milligrams per litre). Solids which pass through the filter in the
filtrate are referred to as dissolved solids. The amount of dissolved solids is also expressed
in milligrams per litre (mg/L). A dissolved solid is the difference between the total solids and
suspended solids content of water sample.
5-5.1 (b)

Temperature

The temperature of water is a very important parameter because of its effect on chemical
reactions and reaction rates, aquatic life, and the suitability of the water for beneficial uses.
Unfortunately the interpretation of water temperature results is not so simple because
temperature influences many different properties of water. Several things influence the rise
and fall of water temperature in a stream, the most important being, the season, time of
day and the weather. A wide range of temperatures can occur along the length of a stream
especially during summer months due to factors such as water depth, water colour, amount
shading vegetation and flows.
Temperature is measured by using a thermometer, and is recorded in either degrees Celsius
(C) or Kelvin (K), which is 0 C corresponding to the temperature at which water freezes
and 100 C corresponds to the boiling point of water at sea level. In this scale a
temperature difference of 1 degree is the same as a 1 K temperature difference, so the
scale is essentially the same as the Kelvin scale, but offset by the temperature at which
water freezes (273.15 K). Thus the following equation can be used to convert from degrees
Celsius to Kelvins.

1K
+ 273.15 K
O
1 C

[C]

[5-1]

Water heating often causes environmental damage over time. Many problems associated
with water temperature are caused or worsened by human land uses and activities. Warm
runoff from pavement surfaces such as roadways, footpaths, car parks, concrete yards and
rooftops, can substantially affect the temperature of the receiving water. Some industries
use water as a coolant during processing. This water is sometimes discharged into a river or
lake. When this water is discharged into a river, it is much warmer than the existing water
in the river, and as a result, the temperature of the river becomes higher. Water
temperature affects the ability of water to hold oxygen, the rate of photosynthesis by
aquatic plants and the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms.
Increases in water
temperature will increase the energy consumption by stream life. Increased activity results
in greater oxygen use by fish, aquatic insects and bacteria and will decrease Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) level in water. Water temperatures enable these plants to grow more
vigorously and may lead to algal blooms that can lead to a number of undesirable effects.

108

5-5.1 (c)

Taste and Odour

Taste and odour of water are important aesthetic parameters rather than health related
parameters. There are many potential causes of tastes and odours in water such as
minerals, metals, and salts from the soil, end products from biological reactions and
constituents of wastewater. Inorganic substances are more likely to produce tastes
unaccompanied by odour. Alkaline material imparts a bitter taste to water, while metallic
salts may give a salty or bitter taste. While organic material is likely to produce both taste
and odour. Biological decomposition of organics may result in taste and odour producing
liquids and gases in water. Water can also smell like rotten eggs due to high levels of
hydrogen sulphide. Also, certain species of algae secrete an oily substance that may result
in both taste and odour. Consumers find taste and odour aesthetically displeasing for
obvious reasons. Because of water are thought of as tasteless and odourless, the consumer
associate taste and odour with contamination and may prefer to use tasteless, odourless
water that might actually pose more of health threat. Odours produced by organic
substances may be carcinogenic.
5-5.1 (d)

Colour

Pure water is colourless, but water in nature is often coloured by foreign substances. The
presence of colour indicates the presence of dissolved and particulate material in water.
Either of these components can be deeply coloured, for instance dissolved organic molecules
called tannins can result in dark brown colours, or algae floating in the water (e.g. particles)
can impart a green colour. But in a lot of cases water is a clear to neutral colour due to a
lack of pigments in it (e.g. the sea). Iron oxides cause reddish water, and manganese
oxides cause brown or blackish water. And also, industrial wastes from textile and dyeing
operations, pulp and paper production, food processing and chemical production may add
substantial colouration to water in receiving streams. Coloured water is not aesthetically
acceptable to the general public. Highly coloured water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing,
papermaking, textile and other food processing. Thus, the colour of water affects its
marketability for both domestic and industrial use. Colour-comparison tubes containing a
series of standards are usually used for direct comparison of water samples. Results are
expressed in true colour unit (TCU) where one unit is equivalent to the colour produced by 1
mg/L of platinum in the form of chorplatinate ions.
5-5.1 (e)

Turbidity

Turbidity refers to how clear the water is. Turbidity is a characteristic of water that
describes the amount of suspended solids in the water. The more total suspended solids in
the water, the murkier it seems and the higher is the turbidity. Turbidity is also considered
as a good measure of the quality of water. Most turbidity in surface waters results from the
erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock fragments and metal oxide from the soil.
Urban runoff, waste discharge from industrial and household, vegetable fibres and micro
organisms may also contribute to the high turbidity in waters. Algal blooms can contribute
to turbidity. Algal production is enhanced when nutrients are released from bottom
sediments during seasonal turnovers and changes in water current.
Turbidity is a measure of how much of the light travelling through water is scattered by
suspended particles. The scattering of light increases with increasing suspended solid and
plankton content. Turbidity in slow moving, deep waters can be measured using a device
called a Secchi disk. A Secchi disk is a black and white, 20 cm diameter disk. The disk is
lowered into the water until it just disappears from sight. The depth at which the disk
disappears is called the Secchi depth, and is recorded in meters. A Secchi disk does not

109

work in shallow, fast-moving streams. In these waters, a turbidimeter (sometimes called a

nephelometer) is used. A turbidimeter measures the scattering of light, and provides a
relative measure of turbidity in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). Figure 5-3 shows a
Secchi disk device and turbidity standards of 5, 50, and 500 NTU.
The main impact of turbidity is merely aesthetic and nobody likes the look of dirty water. It
is also essential to eliminate the turbidity of water in order to effectively disinfect it for
drinking purposes. These add some extra cost to the treatment of surface water
supplies. Furthermore highly turbid water can prevent light from reaching plants at the
bottom or phytoplankton in the water column, and can therefore reduce the amount of
primary productivity in an aquatic system. Overall, excess turbidity leads to fewer
photosynthetic organisms available to serve as food sources for many invertebrates. As a
result, overall invertebrate numbers may also decline, which may then lead to a decline in
fish population. Turbid waters may indicate the presence of contaminants, such as paint, in
solution or adsorbed into sediment particles. These contaminants may result in directly
(acutely) toxic effects on aquatic life or build up over time and result in longer term
(chronic) toxicity as well.
Figure 5 - 3
Secchi disk and the standards of turbidity for 5, 50 and 500 NTU

5
NTU

50
NTU

500
NTU

5-5.2 CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

The chemical characteristics of water are numerous. Every substance that dissolves in
water can be called a chemical water quality characteristic. Chemical parameters are total
dissolved solid, alkalinity, hardness, metals, organic compounds, and nutrients.
5-5.2 (a)

Total Dissolved Solid

Total dissolved solid (TDS) is defined as solids left in water after the water is filtered and
dried. The TDS in water consist of inorganic and organic compounds. Inorganic compounds
such minerals, metals and gases may be dissolved in water. Materials from the decay
products of vegetation, from organic chemicals and organic gases are common organic
dissolved constituents of water. Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water. High
concentrations of TDS in water may cause taste, colour and odour problems. Some
chemicals may be toxic, and some of the dissolved organic constituents have been shown to
be carcinogenic. However, not all dissolved substances are undesirable in water. For
example, essentially pure, distilled water has a flat taste. And also, water in small amount
of TDS will become corrosive to attain equilibrium and water tendency to dissolve pipes and
plumbing. A direct measurement of TDS can be made by evaporating of dryness a sample of
water sample which has been filtered to remove the suspended solids. The remaining

110

residue that is weighed represents the total dissolved solids in the water. The TDS is
expressed as milligrams per litre on dry mass basis.
The electrical conductivity (EC) or specific conductance of water is related to TDS. It is a
measure of the ability of the water to conduct an electrical current. It is reported in
microsiemens per centimetre. Because the electrical current is transported by the ions in
solution, the conductivity increases as TDS increases. The relationship is nearly linear,
depending on TDS concentration and must be determined for individual cases. The
relationship is expressed by the equation below;
TDS

k. EC

[5 - 2]

Where,
TDS
EC
k

=
=
=

5-5.2 (b)

Total dissolved solids, mg/L

Electrical conductivity, ohm/cm
Constant (value of k varies from 0.5 to 0.9 depending on TDS and
water temperature)
Alkalinity

Alkalinity is a measure of the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize acid or a
measure of water strength to neutralize acid. Alkalinity does not refer to pH, but instead
refers to the ability of water to resist change in pH. Constituents of alkalinity in natural
water systems include bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-) and hydroxide (OH-) ions,
silicates, phosphates, ammonium, and sulphides. These compounds result from the
dissolution of mineral substances in the soil and atmosphere. Phosphates may also originate
from detergents in wastewater discharges and from fertilizers and insecticides from
agricultural land. Hydrogen sulphide and ammonia may be products of microbial
decomposition of organic material. However, the main constituents of alkalinity are
bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-) and hydroxide (OH-) ions. These substances can
originate from carbon dioxide, a constituent of the atmosphere and a product of microbial
decomposition of organic material.
Alkalinity is measured by titration. An acid of known strength of titrant is added to a volume
of a treated sample of water. The volume of acid required to bring the sample to a specific
pH level reflects the alkalinity of the sample. The pH end point is indicated by a colour
change. Alkalinity is expressed in units of milligrams per litre (mg/L) of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). Waters with low alkalinity are very susceptible to changes in pH. Waters with high
alkalinity are able to resist major shifts in pH. Alkalinity not only helps regulate the pH of a
water body, but also the metal content. Bicarbonate and carbonate ions in water can
remove toxic metals (such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium) by precipitating the metals out of
solution. In large quantities, alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to water. Reaction between
alkaline constituent and cation (positive ion) produces precipitation in pipe.
Example 5 - 1: Determining total alkalinity
A 100 mL sample of water has an initial pH of 9. Thirty millilitres of 0.01 N H2SO4 is required
to titrate the sample to pH 4.5. What is the total alkalinity of the water in milligrams per
litre as CaCO3?

111

Solution:
Because each milligram of 0.01 N H2SO4 will neutralize 1 mg of alkalinity, there is 30 mg of
alkalinity in the 100 mL sample. Therefore, the concentration of alkalinity expressed as
milligrams per litre will be;

30 mg 1000 mL

= 300 mg / L
100 mL
L
5-5.2 (c)

Hardness

Hardness is a measure of multivalent cations (ions with a charge greater than +1) in water.
Hardness generally represents the concentration of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+)
ions, because these are the most common multivalent cations. Other ions, such as iron
(Fe2+) and manganese (Mn2+), may also contribute to the hardness of water, but are
generally present in much lower concentrations. Waters with high hardness values are
referred to as "hard," while those with low hardness values are "soft". Classifications of
hardness in waters are shown in Table 5-2. Hardness is classified as carbonate hardness
and noncarbonated hardness, depending upon the anion with which it associates. The
hardness that is equivalent to the alkalinity is termed carbonate hardness, with any
remaining hardness being called noncarbonated hardness. Table 5-3 shows the comparison
between carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness. Some factors are affecting
hardness, these include geology, mining, industrial discharge and sewage outflow. Drainage
from operating and abandoned mine sites can contribute calcium, magnesium, iron,
manganese, and other ions if minerals containing these constituents are present and are
exposed to air and water. This can increase the hardness of a stream. Some industrial
processes may also produce significant amounts of calcium and manganese that are later
discharged into streams.
Hardness affects the amount of soap that is needed to produce foam or lather. Hard water
requires more soap, because the calcium and magnesium ions form complexes with soap,
preventing the soap from sudsing. Hard water can also leave a film on hair, fabrics, and
glassware. Hardness of the water is very important in industrial uses, because it forms scale
in heat exchange equipment, boilers, and pipe lines. Some hardness is needed in plumbing
systems to prevent corrosion of pipes. Hardness mitigates metals toxicity, because Ca2+ and
Mg2+ help keep fish from absorbing metals such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium into their
bloodstream through their gills. The greater the hardness, the harder it is for toxic metals to
be absorbed through the gills. Hardness is generally measured by titration. A buffer and a
colour indicator are added to a volume of water. The titrant is then added to the water, and
it reacts with the Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the water. The volume of acid required to change the
colour of the sample reflects the Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentration of the sample. The more acid
needed, the more Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the sample. Hardness is generally expressed in units of
milligrams per litre (mg/l) or parts per million (ppm) of CaCO3.

112

Table 5 2
Hardness classification of water

Hardness (ppm as CaCO3)

Classification

0 - 40

Soft water

40 - 100

Moderately hard water

100 300

Moderately hard water

300 500

Hard water

>500

Extremely water

(Source: Qasim, 2006)

Table 5 - 3
Comparison between carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness
Carbonate Hardness

Noncarbonated Hardness

1. Temporary in character
e.g. Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2

1.

Permanent in character
e.g. CaCI2, CaSO4, MgCI2, MgSO4

2. Sensitive to heat and

precipitated through boiling

2.

Eliminated through chemical

softness method and/or ion
exchange

Example 5-2: Determining total hardness

Calculate total hardness and total alkalinity as CaCO3 given the following chemical analysis.

Cations

Anions

35 mg/L

HCO3-

68 mg/L

Mg2+ =

10 mg/L

CO32-

15 mg/L

Na+

7 mg/L

OH-

2 mg/L

CI-

31 mg/L

NO3-

10 mg/L

Ca2+

113

Solution:
Only the divalent cations, Ca2+ and Mg2+ cause hardness;
Ca2+

Concentration of Ca2+
x Equivalent weight, CaCO3
Equivalent weight, Ca2+

Mg2+

Concentration of Mg2+
x Equivalent weight, CaCO3
Equivalent weight, Mg2+

Equivalent weight, CaCO3 = 100 g/mol / 2 eq/mol = 50 g/eq

Cation

Concentration
(mg/L)

Equivalent
weight (g/eq.)

Hardness
(mg/L as CaCO3)

Ca2+

35

40/2 = 20

(35 /20) 50 = 87.5

2+

10

24.3/2 = 12.15

(10/12.15) 50 = 41.2

Mg

Total Hardness

= 87.5 + 41.2
= 128.7 mg/L as CaCO3

Total Hardness

35
10
50 +
50 = 87.5 + 41.2
20
12 . 15

= 128.7 mg/L as CaCO3

Example 53: Determining total hardness, carbonate hardness and noncarbonated
hardness
Water has a following analysis:

Cation
Na+

mg/L
20

Anion

mg/L

CI-

40
-

30

HCO3

Ca2+

CO32-

2-

2+

Mg

10

SO4

Sr2+

NO3-

67

10

What is the total hardness, carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness?

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Solution:
Only the multivalent cations, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Sr2+ cause hardness;

i.

Equivalent weight, CaCO3 = 100 g/mol / 2 eq/mol = 50 g/eq

Cation

Concentration
(mg/L)

Ca2+

2+

Hardness
(mg/L as CaCO3)

40/2 = 20

(5/20) 50 = 12.5

Mg

10

24.3/2 = 12.15

(10/12.15) 50 = 41.2

Sr2+

87.6/2 = 43.81

(2/43.81) 50 = 2.3

Total Hardness
=

12.5 + 41.2 + 2.3

56 mg/L as CaCO3

Total Hardness
=
ii.

Equivalent weight
(g/eq.)

5
10
2
50 +
50 +
50
20
12 . 15
43 . 81

56 mg/L as CaCO3

Only HCO3 and CO32 are constituents of carbonate hardness;

Anion
HCO3
CO3

Concentration
(mg/L)

Hardness
(mg/L as CaCO3)

67

61/1 = 61

(67/61) 50 = 55

60/2 = 30

Carbonate Hardness =
Carbonate Hardness =

Alkalinity =
Alkalinity =

iii. Noncarbonate Hardness

5-5.2 (d)

Equivalent
weight (g/eq.)

55 mg/L as CaCO3

67
50 = 55 mg/L as CaCO3
61

= 56 - 55 =

1 mg/L as CaCO3

Metals

All metals are soluble to some level in water. Metals are classified into toxic and non toxic
group. Metals those that are harmful in relatively small amounts are commonly known as
toxic group and others metals fall into the non-toxic group. Sources of metals in natural

115

waters include dissolution from natural deposits and discharges of domestic, industrial and
agricultural wastewater.
i.

Non-toxic Metals

Non toxic metals commonly found in water include calcium, sodium, iron, manganese,
fluoride, aluminium, copper, and etc. Excessive amount of non toxic metals in water cause
bitter taste, colour, odour and turbidity problems in water and deteriorate health.
Calcium
Calcium is derived mostly from rocks. The greatest concentrations come from limestone,
dolomite, gypsum, and gypsiferrous shale. Calcium is the second major constituent, after
bicarbonate present in most natural waters. It is required as nutrient for plants and is a
required mineral for humans and other animals. Suggested daily intake is 800 mg for
humans. The deficiency of calcium may cause osteoporosis and toxicity may include kidney
stones. Concentration of calcium in natural waters may range between 10 and 100 mg/L.
Waters with a calcium level between 40 and 100 mg/L are generally consider hard to very
hard. Calcium is a primary constituent of water hardness.
Sodium
The major source of sodium in natural waters is from abundant in the earths crust. Sodium
salts are very soluble and remain in solution. Typical sodium concentrations in natural
waters range between 5 and 50 mg/L. Excessive concentrations cause bitter taste in water
and may be toxic to fish and other aquatic animals. Sodium is also corrosive to metal
surface and is required in limited amounts for most plant growth.
Iron and Manganese
Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) are frequently found together and present no health hazards
at low concentrations in natural waters. Since both Fe and Mn are present in insoluble forms
in significant amounts in nearly all soils. Explanation of how appreciable amounts can gain
entrance to water with the soil, must consider conversion of iron and manganese to soluble
forms. Concentration of 0.3 mg/L of Fe and 0.05 mg/L for Mn caused colour problems.
Some bacteria utilize Fe and Mn compounds for energy source and resulting slime growth
may produce taste and odour problems. The rates of oxidation are slow, and thus reduced
forms can persist for some time in aerated waters. This is especially true when the pH is
below 6 with iron oxidation and below 9 with manganese oxidation. Both Fe and Mn
interfere with laundering operation, impart objectionable stains to plumbing fixtures, and
cause difficulties in distribution systems by supporting growths of iron bacteria.
Fluoride
Fluoride associated in nature with a few types of rocks and it is only slightly soluble in
water. Fluoride is toxic to human and other animals in large quantities, while small
concentrations can be beneficial. Normally, fluoride concentration is less than 0.5 mg/L in
natural waters. Moreover, both surface waters and groundwater may experience fluoride
contamination from certain insecticides, from chemical wastes and from airborne particles
and gases from aluminium smelting plants. A fluoride concentration of about 1 mg/L in
drinking water helps to prevent dental cavities and tooth decay. High intakes of fluoride
however can have an adverse effect on health. Fluoride concentration in excess of 2 mg/L

116

causes discolouring or mottling of teeth, called dental fluorosis. Concentration in excess of 5

mg/L can result in skeletal or bone fluorosis.
ii.

Toxic Metals

Toxic metals are harmful to humans and other organisms in small quantities. Toxic metals
that may be dissolved in water include arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead, mercury and silver.
Cumulative toxins such as arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury are particularly hazardous.
These metals concentrated by food chain, thereby posing the greatest danger to organic
near the top of the chain. Sources of toxic metals exist in waters come from human
activities such as mining, industrial and agricultural.
High concentration of toxic metals in waters may expose humans to dangerous diseases like
cancer, miscarriage and deformation of newborn babies. For example, it is recommended
that concentration of lead in domestic water supply should not exceed 0.05 mg/L. As for
mercury, a level of 0.05 mg/L is recommended as a safe concentration for freshwater
aquatic organisms and for domestic water supply the mercury level should be less than 0.02
mg/L.
5-5.2 (e)

Organic Compounds

All organic compounds contain carbon in combination with one or more elements. Organics
in waters may originate from natural sources such as fibres, vegetable oils, fats and sugar
or result from human activities. Organic compounds usually combustible; lower melting;
less soluble in water and can serve as a source of food for microorganisms. Organics may
be classified as biodegradable (protein, carbohydrates, and fats) and non-biodegradable
(lignin, alkyl benzene sulphonate).
i.

Biodegradable organics

Biodegradable materials consist of organics that can serve as a source of food for
microorganisms. This is because biodegradable organics compounds are easily oxidized by
microorganisms. Biodegradable organics compounds consist of starch, fat protein, alcohol,
human and animal waste. They may be the end product of the initial microbial
decomposition of plant or may result from domestic or industrial wastewater discharges.
Some of these materials can cause colour, taste and odour problems, resulting from
microbial action on these substances. Microbial utilization of dissolved organics can be
accompanied by oxidation or by reduction. The amount of oxygen consumed during
microbial utilization of organics is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
BOD is the most important parameter in water pollution control. It is used as a measure of
organic pollution as a basis for estimating the oxygen needed for biological processes, and
as an indicator of process performance. BOD is not an accurate quantitative test, although it
could be considered as an indication of the quality of a water source. In the standard test,
a 300 mL BOD bottle is used and the sample is incubated for a 5-day period at 20C. Light
must be excluded from the incubator to prevent algal growth that may produce oxygen in
the bottle. The BOD of a diluted sample is calculated by;
When dilution water is seeded,
BOD (mg/L) = [(D1 D2) (B1 B2) x f] / P

117

[5 - 3]

When dilution water is not seeded,

BOD (mg/L) = [(D1 D2)] / P

[5 - 4]

where;
D1
D2

=
=

DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/L

DO of diluted sample after 5-day incubation, mg/L

B1

DO of seed control before incubation, mg/L

B2

DO of seed control after incubation, mg/L

fraction of seeded dilution water volume in sample to

volume of seeded dilution water in seed control (volume
of seed in sample/volume of seed control)

fraction of wastewater sample volume to total combined

volume (volume of sample/volume of mixture)

For a valid BOD test, the final DO should not be less than 1 mg/L. BOD test is invalid if D2
value nears zero. The sample must be suitably diluted with specially prepared dilution water
so that adequate nutrients and oxygen will be available during incubation period. By using
dilution factor, the actual value can be obtained. Normally, several dilutions are prepared to
cover the complete range of possible values. Suggested dilutions for various BOD samples
are shown in Table 5-4.
Example 5 - 4: BOD5 determination
10 mL of sample is pipeted directly into a 300 mL incubation bottle. The initial DO of the
diluted sample is 9.0 mg/L and its final DO is 2.0 mg/L. The temperature of incubation is 20
C. If the sample is incubated for 5 days, what is the BOD5 of the sample?
Solution:
When dilution water is not seeded,
BOD5, mg/L =
where,

D1 D 2
P

D1

Initial DO = 9.0 mg/L

D2

Final DO after 5-day incubation = 2.0 mg/L

=
=

volume of sample / volume of mixture

10 / 300 = 0.033

BOD5 =

9.0 2.0
0.033

= 212 mg/L

118

ii.

Non-biodegradable organics

Some organic materials are resistant to biological degradation and take much longer to
biodegrade. The rate of biodegradation may be so slow that the material is practically
considered refractory. Non-biodegradable organic compounds usually consist of tannin,
lignin, acids, cellulose and phenols. Many of the organics associated with petroleum and
with its refining and processing also contain benzene and are essentially non-biodegradable.
Some organics are non-biodegradable because they are toxic to organisms. These include
organic pesticides, industrial chemicals and hydrocarbon compounds that have combined
with chlorine. Many of the pesticides are cumulative toxins and may cause severe problems
at the top of food chain. Measurement of non-biodegradable organics is usually by the
chemical oxygen demand (COD) test and also can be estimated from total organic carbon
(TOC) analysis.
Table 5-4
Suggested dilutions for various BOD sample sources
Typical Amount of Resulting Source
BOD5 range

mg/L sample
to add (mL)

Concentration

Clear creek water

0 to 5

300

100%

Clear creek water

4 to 10

150

50

Clear creek water

8 to 20

75

25

Weak sewage, polluted creek water

10 to 25

60

20

Weak sewage, polluted creek water

13 to 33

45

15

Weak sewage, polluted creek water

20 to 50

30

10

Weak sewage, polluted creek water

25 to 62.5

24

Weak sewage, polluted creek water

40 to 100

15

Strong sewage, industrial waste

50 to 125

12

Strong sewage, industrial waste

67 to 167

Strong sewage, industrial waste

150 to 250

Strong sewage, industrial waste

200 to 500

Strong sewage, industrial waste

400 to 1000

1.5

0.5

Strong sewage, industrial waste

667 to 1667

0.9

0.3

Strong sewage, industrial waste

2000 to 5000

0.3

0.1

Strong sewage, industrial waste

4000 to 10000

0.15

0.05

Sample

(Source: Dunnivant, 2004)

119

5-5.2 (f)

Nutrients

Nutrients are elements essential to the growth of plants and animals. Certain mineral
compounds can have an adverse impact on water quality because of their ability to promote
plant and algae growth. An excessive growth of aquatic plants can clog waterways and
over-stimulation of algae and microbes leads to an ecological process called eutrophication.
wide variety of minerals and trace elements be classified as nutrient, but the ones needed in
the highest amount are C, N and P. Carbon is easily available from a number of sources
including atmospheric CO2, alkalinity and decay products of organics matter. N and P are
generally the limiting nutrient in the growth of aquatic species.
i.

Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen is the main component of the earths atmosphere. It exists in many forms in the
environment and takes part in a number of biochemical reactions. However, in aquatic
systems the forms of nitrogen of most significance are organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen,
nitrite nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen. Nitrogen is a constituent of proteins, chlorophyll and
many other biological compounds. Upon the death of plants or animals, complex organic
matter is broken down to simple forms by bacterial decomposition. Protein, for instance are
converted to amino acids and further reduced to ammonia (NH3). If oxygen is present, the
ammonia is then broken down by other bacteria (Nitrosomonas) to form nitrite (NO2), which
is then broken down by another type of bacteria (Nitrobacter) to form nitrate (NO3). This
conversion of ammonia to nitrate and nitrite is called "nitrification." Nitrates can then be
used by plants to grow.
Nitrosomonas

2NH3 + 3O2

Nitrobacter

2NO2- + O2

2NO2- + 2H+ + 2H2O

[5-5]

2NO3-

[5-6]

Completing the nitrogen cycle, nitrates are reduced to gaseous nitrogen by the process of
"denitrification." This process is performed by organisms such as fungi and the bacteria
Pseudomonas. These organisms break down nitrates to obtain oxygen. Excessive nitrates in
surface water encourage eutrophication. For example, the rapid growth of algae may thus
degrade the water quality. Excessive concentrations of nitrate or nitrite can be harmful to
humans and wildlife. Nitrate is of most concern for humans. Nitrate is broken down in our
intestines to become nitrite. Nitrite reacts with haemoglobin in human blood to produce
methemoglobin, which limits the ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen. This condition is
called methemoglobinemia or "blue baby" syndrome, because the nose and tips of ears can
appear blue from lack of oxygen. It is especially serious for infants, because they lack the
enzyme necessary to correct this condition.
ii.

Phosphorus

The important forms of phosphorus found the environment are orthophosphates and organic
phosphates. Like nitrogen, phosphorus is also an essential nutrient that contributes to
growth of algae and thus eutrophication. Serious water quality problems have resulted from
uncontrolled algae and aquatic plant blooms in lakes and reservoirs that contained
phosphorus in excess of 0.05 mg/L. It can also interfere with chemical coagulation.

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Phosphorus does not pose any major health threat. It can enter water courses from sewage,
agricultural runoff and industrial discharge.
5-5.3 BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
The biological characteristics of a water body refer to a variety of living organisms that can
be found in water. Many organisms cause bad taste and odour, corrosion and slime
production. Water pollution may derive from several sources, including chemical pollutants
from industry, runoff of chemicals used in agriculture, or debris from geological process, but
the greatest source of pollution is organic waste. Although chemical pollutants may become
diluted, they can also radically alter the ecosystem to allow the overproduction of certain
forms of algae and bacteria that pollute the water. Once in the water, the growth of
microorganisms can be exacerbated by environmental factors such as the temperature and
chemical composition of the water. For example, runoff of fertilizers from sub-urban
properties can infuse watercourses with nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. All these are
desirable nutrients for bacterial growth.
5-5.3 (a)

Pathogens

The most important biological organisms in water are pathogen. These organisms are
capable of infecting and transmitting diseases to humans. Pathogens are not native to
aquatic system and usually require an animal host for growth and reproduction. Pathogens
that play important role in environmental engineering are bacteria, viruses, protozoa,
fungus and algae. All these organisms live together as one community. Some pathogens are
often found in water, frequently as a result of faecal matter from sewage discharges,
leaking septic tanks, and runoff from animal feedlots into bodies of water.
i.

Bacteria

Bacteria usually present individually, in pairs or in chains with different kind of shape such
as rod, spiral and sphere. The organisms will double themselves within 15-30 minutes in
suitable conditions. Bacteria are single cell microorganisms, usually colourless and are the
lower form of life capable of synthesizing protoplasm from surrounding environment. There
are some diseases caused by bacteria and these include cholera, typhoid fever and jaundice
fever. Cholera is an acute, diarrhoeal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the
bacterium Vibrio cholerae. A person may get cholera by drinking water or eating food
contaminated with the cholera bacterium. The disease can spread rapidly in areas with
inadequate treatment of sewage and drinking water. The cholera bacterium may also live in
the environment in brackish rivers and coastal waters. Cholera often associated with algal
blooms influenced by transmission of water. Typhoid fever is acute, generalized infections
caused by Salmonella typhi. The main sources of infection are contaminated water or milk
and, especially in urban communities, by food handlers who are carriers. Their germs are
passed in the faeces and urine of infected people. People become infected after eating food
or drinking beverages that have been handled by a person who is infected or by drinking
water that has been contaminated by sewage containing the bacteria. Once the bacteria
enter the persons body they multiply and spread from the intestines into the bloodstream.
The symptoms of typhoid appear 10 to 14 days after infection; they can be mild or severe
and include high fever, rose-colored spots on the abdomen and chest, diarrhoea or
constipation, and enlargement of the spleen and liver.

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ii.

Viruses

Viruses are the smallest microorganisms with sizes range from 0.01 to 0.3 m. Viruses are
obligate parasites that require a host for survival. Symptoms associated with waterborne
viral infections usually involve disorder nervous system rather than of the gastrointestinal
tract. There are some diseases caused by viruses like hepatitis, flu, jaundice, polio and aids.
Most of the hepatitis cases result, for instance from persons eating shellfish contaminated
by viruses from polluted water.
iii.

Protozoa

Protozoa are the simplest animal species. Protozoa are unicellular organisms more complex
in their functional activity than bacteria or viruses. They are motile, aerobic heterotroph that
consumes solid organic particles, bacteria and algae for food. Protozoa infections are usually
characterized by gastrointestinal disorders. Many cases of giardiasis or diarrhoea result from
persons that drank untreated surface water. This infection is caused by Giardia lambia, a
protozoan that may be carried by wild animals living in or near natural water systems.
iv.

Fungi

Fungi are generally multi-cellular and plants that are unable to do photosynthesis. They are
moulds and yeast. Most fungi obtain their food from dead organic matter. Fungi have the
ability to grow under low moisture condition and can tolerate an environment with a
relatively low pH. Thus along with bacteria, fungi is important in the biological treatment of
some industrial waste and in the composting of solid organic waste. However, fungi and
moulds present in waters can produce musty taste and odour, as well as colour and
turbidity.
v.

Algae

Algae are simple organisms that are autotrophic and photosynthetic and contain chlorophyll.
Many algae also contain different pigments and therefore may have various colours. Algae
produce their own food from sunlight and nutrients. In the presence of sunlight, algae
increase the DO level in the water. However, when there are too much of algae in the
water, they affect taste and smell, and can reduce the intensity of light penetration. Table
5-5 shows the diseases associated with contaminated water.
5-5.3 (b)

Pathogen Indicator

The experiment to determine the presence of all pathogens takes a long time and very
expensive. It is only carried out when there is a reason to suspect that those particular
organisms are present. The presence of pathogenic microorganisms is shown by indicator
organisms. An indicator organism is one whose presence presumes that pollution has
occurred and suggests the nature, type and level of pollution. An effective indicator
organism for detecting faecal contamination of water should be applicable to all types of
water. It always presents when pathogens are present, always absents when pathogens are
absent. It is easily experimented and may give reliable results and for the safety of
laboratory personnel, not be a pathogen itself. Most of the waterborne pathogens are
introduced through faecal contamination of water. Thus, any organism native to the
intestinal tract of humans and meeting the above criteria would be a good indicator
organism. Typical indicators used and meeting these requirements are coliform groups.

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Coliform bacteria are described and grouped, based on their common origin or
characteristics, as either total or faecal coliform. Figure 5-4 shows the total coliform group
includes faecal coliform bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E.coli). Faecal coliform are present
in large numbers in the faeces and intestinal tracts of humans and other warm-blooded
animals, and can enter water bodies from human and animal waste. Most of the faecal
coliform in faecal material (faeces) is comprised of E. coli, and the serotype E. coli 0157:H7
is known to cause serious human illness. If a large number of faecal coliform bacteria (over
200 colonies per 100 mL of water sample) are found in water, it is possible that pathogenic
(disease or illness causing) organisms are also present in the water. Faecal coliform
organisms are non-pathogenic; they are indicator organisms, which mean they may indicate
the presence of other pathogenic bacteria. The presence of faecal coliform bacteria or E. coli
indicates contamination of water with faecal waste that may contain other harmful or
disease causing organisms, including bacteria, viruses, or parasites such as Giardia, the
cause of beaver fever. Drinking water contaminated with these organisms can cause
stomach and intestinal illness including diarrhoea and nausea, and even lead to death.
These effects may be more severe and possibly life threatening for babies, children, the
elderly or people with immune deficiencies or other illnesses.
There are several ways coliform bacteria are grown and measured. Methods commonly used
include the membrane filtration (MF) method and the most probable number (MPN) method.
The MF method is more rapid than the MPN method, but the results are not as reliable for
samples that contain many non-coliform bacteria, high turbidity, and or toxic substances
such as metals or phenols. In this test, the water sample is filtered through a sterile
membrane filter. Bacteria are retained on the filter that is then placed on selective media to
promote growth of coliform bacteria while inhibiting growth of other species. The membrane
and media are incubated at the appropriate temperature for 24 hours, allowing coliform
bacteria to grow into visible colonies. Colonies produced by faecal coliform bacteria are blue,
and are counted using a microscope or magnifying lens. The faecal coliform density is
recorded as the number of organisms per 100 mL of waters.
In the MPN method, a series of fermentation tubes that contain lauryl tryptose broth are
inoculated with the water sample and incubated for 24 hours at 35 C. The fermentation
tube contains an inverted tube to trap gases that are produced by the coliform bacteria.
After 24 hours, the fermentation tube is examined for gas production. If there is no gas
production, the samples are incubated for another 24 hours and re-examined. If gas
production is observed by the end of 48 hours, the test is positive; coliform bacteria are
present in the sample. The results are reported as most probable number (MPN) of coliform
per 100 mL of waters.

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Table 55
Diseases associated with contaminated water
Diseases

Viruses
Hepatitis
Poliomyelitis
Bacteria
Cholera
Typhoid fever
Gastroenteritis

Protozoa
Giardiasis
Cryptosporidiosis
Worm
Ascariasis
Paragonimiasis
(lung fluke)

Causative
Agent

Symptoms

unknown
Poliomyelitis

Fever, nausea, loss of appetite, jaundice

Headaches, nausea, difficult in swallowing

Vibrio comma
Salmonella
typhosa
Bacteria, virus,
chemical, and
toxin

Vomiting, extremely high diarrhoea

Continued fever, usually rose spots on body,
abdominal discomfort
Nausea, indigestion, vomiting, cramps and
possible fever

Giardia lambia

Mild to severe diarrhoea, nausea, indigestion

Ascaris
lumbricoides
Paragonimus
ringeri

Worm in stool, abdominal pain, skin rash,

nausea, large appetite
Chronic cough, clubbed fingers, dull pains,
diarrhoea

(Source: Qasim et. al., 2006)

Figure 5 - 4
Total coliform groups

Total Coliform

Feacal Coliform
E. coli

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5-6

REGULATION AND STANDARD FOR WATER POLLUTION

The principal legal instrument to control water pollution in Malaysia is the Environmental
Quality Act (EQA) 1974 and its subsidiary legislations. However, the EQA is applicable to
industrial discharges and sewage. Other related laws such as the National Land Code 1965,
Forestry Act 1985, Land Conservation Act 1960, Local Government Act 1976 and Town and
Country Planning Act 1976 among others have provisions to deal with pollution from other
land-based activities. For pollution from non-point sources, the Local Authorities through the
Local Government Act and by-laws could take legal action.
5-6.1 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT (EQA) 1974
The EQA 1974 which received the Royal Assent was enacted and came into force on 1 April
1974 for the abatement and control of pollution and enhancement of the environment and
purposes connected therewith. Sections 25, 27 and 29 of the EQA deal directly with the
control of discharges into inland waters and Malaysian territorial waters. Section 25 states
that No person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge or deposit any environmentally
hazardous substances, pollutants or wastes into any inland waters in contravention of the
acceptable conditions as specified under section 21.
Section 27 prohibits the discharge of oil, whilst section 29 prohibits the discharge of wastes
into Malaysian waters in contravention of acceptable conditions specified under section 21.
Acceptable conditions are formulated in the form of Regulations. These Regulations under
the EQA that control pollution affecting the rivers and seas are:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979;

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations
1977
and Amendments 1982; and
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber)
Regulations
1978 and Amendments 1981.

5-6.1 (a)

Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations

1979

The Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 came into
force on 1 January 1979. These Regulations specify the requirements for new sources of
discharges requiring written permission of the Director General of Environment. It regulates
the acceptable conditions of discharge into inland waters by specifying parameter limits of
effluent. Two standards are specified, namely, Standard A and Standard B. Standard A is for
discharges into any inland waters within catchment areas and Standard B for discharges
into any other inland waters. Part V of the Regulations contains provisions for the granting
of licence for contravention of acceptable conditions. However, the Director General may
refuse to grant the application for a licence if he is satisfied that the granting of such licence
is likely to worsen the condition of the inland waters or cause pollution in any other segment
or element of the environment. The Director General may grant the licence if he is satisfied
that:

125

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

There is no known practicable means of control to enable compliance with the

acceptable conditions; or
The estimated cost to be incurred for compliance will be prohibitive having regard to
the nature and size of the industry, trade, or process being
carried out in the
premises discharging the effluent; or
The design and construction of any treatment plant or other control equipment and
their commissioning require a longer period than the
period for compliance with
the Regulations; or
The imposition of the acceptable conditions as prescribed may result in
circumstances which, in his opinion and having regard to all factors, are not
reasonably practicable or are contrary to the intent and spirit of the
Act; or
A sewerage system is to be provided and the effluent is permitted to be
admitted into the sewerage system.

The Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 applies to all
industrial effluents and sewage. However, some industries face difficulties in complying with
some of the parameter limits as prescribed in the Third Schedule of the Regulations. These
include the pulp and paper industry, distillery, textile and existing sewage treatment plants.
In such cases, contravention licences have been granted. Furthermore some parameter
limits that are deemed to be important for the protection of the rivers and seas such as
ammonia, nitrates, phosphorus and colour are not specified.
Some regulations need to be reviewed. For example, separate standards will be proposed
for industrial effluents and sewage. Some parameters such as Chemical Oxygen Demand
might be revised upwards for some industries based on the current internationally
acceptable standards and new parameters being introduced. Different categories of
discharge standards for sewage are being proposed for new plants and plants built before
and after the publication of Guidelines for Developers: Sewage Treatment Vol. IV by the
Department of Sewerage Services on 1 January 1999. The standards would also take into
account the type of systems that were used as most of the old systems were not able to
meet the standards stipulated in the Third Schedule of the Environmental Quality (Sewage
and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979.

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THIRD SCHEDULE
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS)
REGULATIONS 1979
(REGULATIONS 8(1), 8(2), 8(3)
PARAMETER LIMITS OF EFFLUENTS OF STANDARDS A AND B

Parameter

Unit

Standard

A
40

6.0 - 9.0

5.5 - 9.0

BOD at 20 C

mg/ l

20

50

(iv)

COD

mg/ l

50

100

(v)

Suspended Solids

mg/ l

50

100

(vi)

Mercury

mg/ l

0.005

0.05

(vii)

Cadmium

mg/ l

0.01

0.02

(viii)

Chromium, Hexavalent

mg/ l

0.05

0.05

(ix)

Arsenic

mg/ l

0.05

0.10

(x)

Cyanide

mg/ l

0.05

0.10

(xi)

Lead

mg/ l

0.10

0.50

(xii)

Chromium, Trivalent

mg/ l

0.20

1.0

(xiii)

Copper

mg/ l

0.20

1.0

(xiv)

Manganese

mg/ l

0.20

1.0

(xv)

Nickel

mg/ l

0.20

1.0

(xvi)

Tin

mg/ l

0.20

1.0

(xvii)

Zinc

mg/ l

1.0

1.0

(xviii)

Boron

mg/ l

1.0

4.0

(xix)

Iron (Fe)

mg/ l

1.0

5.0

(xx)

Phenol

mg/ l

0.001

1.0

(xxi)

Free Chlorine

mg/ l

1.0

2.0

(xxii)

Sulphide

mg/ l

0.50

0.05

(xxiii)

Oil and Grease

mg/ l

Not Detectable

10.0

(i)

Temperature

(ii)

pH value

(iii)

(Source: Environmental Quality Act and Regulations, 1974)

127

B
40

5-6.1 (b)

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil)

Regulations 1977

In the early years of enforcing the EQA, palm oil mill and raw natural rubber effluents were
the most polluting sources of our rivers. Through the cooperative efforts of the various
agencies, the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations
1977 were enforced on 4 November 1977. These Regulations provide a generation of
standards to be complied within a specific time frame. To date most of the palm oil mills are
in compliance with the BOD standards of 100 mg/l and even 20 mg/l for some mills.
However, with the increasing number of mills being built, the assimilative capacity of some
rivers might have been exceeded. In 2004, there were 383 mills licensed by the Department
of Environment. It is estimated that these mills generate 20 million tonnes of palm oil mill
effluent and 10 million tonnes of empty fruit bunches. More complaints are also being
received of palm oil mills polluting rivers and affecting the livelihood of people depending on
the rivers. Technologies for zero or near zero discharge have been proposed. These include
composting of palm oil mill effluents and empty fruit bunches. The industry should seriously
look into these new technologies as some State Governments are requiring oil palm mills to
comply with more stringent discharge standards and even no discharge practices especially
in sensitive river basins.
5-6.2 MARINE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
The Department of Environment initiated the marine water quality monitoring in 1978. In
2004, the contaminants of the marine water were total suspended solids, Escherichia coli
and oil and grease. Based on the interim marine water quality standards, 77% of the
samples exceeded the standards for total suspended solids, 50% for Escherichia coli and
49% for oil and grease. The interim marine water quality standards are adopted from those
of other countries. Under the Ninth Malaysia Plan, the Department of Environment is to
conduct a study to establish the Malaysian Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards,
taking into account the local conditions and nature of pollutants in our marine environment.

5-7

WATER QUALITY TRENDS IN MALAYSIA

The water pollution in Malaysia is originated from point sources and non-point sources. Point
sources that have been identified include sewage treatment plants, manufacturing and
agro-based industries and animal farms. Non-point sources are mainly diffused ones such as
agricultural activities and surface runoffs. The river water quality in Malaysia has been
monitored by the Department of Environment (DOE). The Water Quality Index (WQI) used
to appraise the river water quality is based on 6 parameters, namely, Dissolved oxygen,
Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N),
Suspended solids (SS) and pH. According to the Malaysia Environment Quality Report 2006,
a total of 1, 064 water quality monitoring stations located within 146 river basins were
monitored. The overall results in terms of river basin water quality showed 80 river basins
(55%) were found clean, 59 river basins (40%) slightly polluted and 7 river basins (5%)
were polluted. The river basin water quality trend for the period of 2000 2006 is shown in
the Figure 5 -5. The quality of the environment in 2006 with respect to river water quality
remained within normal variations compared to previous years.
The major water pollution sources in Malaysia are BOD, NH3-N and SS. In 2006, 22 river
basins were categorized as being polluted by BOD, 41 river basins by NH3-N and 42 river
basins by SS. High BOD was contributed largely by untreated or partially treated sewage

128

and discharges from agro-based and manufacturing industries. The main sources of NH3-N
were domestic sewage and livestock farming, whilst the sources for SS were mostly
earthworks and land clearing activities.
Figure 5 - 5
Malaysia: River Basins Water Quality Trend, 2000 2006

80

Number of River Basin

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Year
Clean

Slightly Polluted

Polluted

(Source: DoE, 2006)

5-8

PRINCIPLE OF WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

The contaminants in water and wastewater are removed by physical, chemical and biological
means. The specific methods are classified as physical unit operations, chemical unit
processes and biological unit processes. Although several of these operations and processes
are combined in most treatment systems, they are usually considered separately. By
considering each group separately it is possible to examine the fundamental principles
involved apart from their application in the treatment of water and wastewater.
5-8.1 WATER TREATMENT
The most important objective of water treatment is to produce water that is biologically and
chemically safe for human consumption. Quality requirements similar to those for domestic
use will generally apply for most industrial users. Commonly water treatment methods used
are either physical operation or chemical processes. Biological processes are not used
because appreciable amounts of organic matter are not present in most natural waters and
biological processes are not suitable in situations where contaminant concentrations are low.
However, the choice of which treatment to use from the great variety of available processes
depends on the characteristics of the water, the types of water quality problems likely to be

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present, and the costs of different treatments. The most widely applied water treatment
technology may involve screening, aeration, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation,
filtration and disinfection.
5-8.1 (a)

Screening

The raw waters from reservoir or intake structure much be screened to prevent entry of any
objects (leaves, debris and others sizable clogging material) that might damage pumps and
treatment facilities. There are two types of screens, namely, coarse screen and fine screen.
On leaving the screens, the raw water flow is slowed down entering the aeration tank.
5-8.1 (b)

Aeration

The raw water enters into the aeration tank. Structures or equipment for aeration or air
stripping may be classified into two types, waterfall aeration and diffusing type aeration.
The waterfall type of aeration accomplishes gas transfer by forcing water to break into drops
or thin film and increasing the area of water exposed o air. In aeration tank, unneeded
dissolved gases such as CO2, H2S, NH3 and VOC will be removed from the raw water and
thereby increased the DO level in water.
5-8.1 (c)

Coagulation

As the aerated water leaves the first step of the process, the coagulant chemicals such as
aluminium sulphate (alum), ferric sulphate, ferric chloride or polymers, are added to the
water. These coagulant chemicals have a positive charge. The positive charge of the
coagulant neutralizes the negative charge of dissolved and suspended particles in the water.
Rapid and thorough mixing of the alum is necessary to begin the process of binding
together the particles and reduce of the forces tending to keep apart. The coagulation
process that causes these particles to become larger in size, body and weight, which in turn
will allow them to become heavier so that they will sink and settle out of the water. These
larger particles are called floc. The water now enters the next step of the process.
5-8.1 (d)

Flocculation

After the addition and mixing of the chemicals the treated water is next subjected to a
period of gentle agitation. This not only provides chemical reaction time but is also
necessary to keep the precipitated coagulant in suspension until it has had sufficient time to
collect into floc clusters a maximum quantity of fine suspended particles. When the particles
of floc collide as a result of the gentle movement they cling together and eventually build up
into much larger particles which settle more rapidly. This process is known as flocculation.
Flocculation can be achieved by hydraulic methods or mechanical devices. Baffle type
mixing basins are examples of hydraulic flocculation device. Baffles are provided in the
basins which required velocity gradients for achieving floc formation. Coagulation and
flocculation are very effective at removing fine suspended particles that attract and hold
bacteria and viruses to their surface. They can remove up to 99.9% of the bacteria and
99% of the viruses from water supplies. Now we want to allow the floc to settle out of the
water. This takes place in the next step of the treatment process.
5-8.1 (e)

Sedimentation

The water flow is directed to enter the bottom of sedimentation basin. By the time the
processed water reaches this step, the particles of floc have gained enough size and weight
that they will settle out of the water and fall to the bottom of the basin. To improve the

130

efficiency of the settling basin, tube settlers are placed horizontally in the sedimentation
basin. These tubes force the water entering the bottom of the basin. Because the water flow
has been changed to a more horizontal movement, and is travelling at a slower speed,
gravity exerts its force on any floc particles that are still floating along in the water. These
particles of floc are forced to settle on the lower surface of the tubes. As the floc gathers,
soon the many small pieces of floc join together and then the floc particle slowly drifts down
to the bottom of the sedimentation basin. The flow of water however, continues forward and
finally overflows into a trough at the top of the sedimentation chamber. The water is now
directed to the final stage of the treatment process. The following diagram Figure 5-6
illustrates the basic reactions and processes that occur during coagulation, flocculation and
sedimentation.
Figure 5-6
Process of coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation
Components producing turbidity

Coagulation

5-8.1 (f)

Flocculation

Sedimentation

Filtration

The next step in a water treatment system is filtration, which removes particulate matter
from water by forcing the water to pass through porous media. The filtration system
consists of filters with varying sizes of pores, and is often made up of sand, gravel and
charcoal. There are two basic types of sand filtration; slow sand filtration and rapid sand
filtration. Slow sand filtration is a biological process, because it uses bacteria to treat the
water. The bacteria establish a community on the top layer of sand and clean the water as it
passes through, by digesting the contaminants in the water. Rapid sand filtration is a
physical process that removes suspended solids from the water. Rapid sand filtration is
much more common than slow sand filtration, because rapid sand filters have fairly high
flow rates and require relatively little space to operate. The filters are generally cleaned and
backwash and put back into operation immediately. In water treatment plants, filtration
removes a large number of contaminants, but still requires disinfection to produce drinking
water that is safe. Although rapid sand filtration cannot effectively remove bacteria and
viruses, it is an important step in the water treatment process.

131

5-8.1 (g)

Disinfection

Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens that may be present in the water supply and
provide protection against possible later contamination in the distribution system. Without
disinfection, the risk from waterborne disease is increased. The two most common methods
to kill microorganisms in the water supply are oxidation with chemicals such as chlorine or
ozone or irradiation with ultra-violet (UV) radiation. Chlorine is used as a disinfecting agent
to assure the bacterial safety of the drinking water and the normal dosage rate is 1.5 to 4.0
mg/l. The dosage rate is calculated to ensure that a chlorine residual of 0.1 to 0.4 mg/l.
remains in the reticulated water. This is done to kill off any bacteria encountered in the
distribution system.
5-8.1 (h)

Fluoridation

Finally, fluoride is added into the treated water. Fluoride is added as an aid to public health.
Low levels of fluoride (0.6 to 1.5 mg/L) are required for the proper development and
prevention of dental cavities in children's teeth. The normal dosage rate is 1.0 mg/L.
5-8.1 (i)

Water Distribution System

After disinfection and fluoridation processes, the last and final stage of water treatment
schemes is the distribution of water to the customer. The distribution system is a network of
pipe lines inside the municipal or service area limit and consists of transmission, balancing
and service reservoir. All the processes involved in water treatment systems are
summarized in Figure 57.
Figure 57
Summary of processes involved in water treatment system

Water Treatment Plant

5-8.2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT

The principle objective of wastewater treatment is to produce an effluent that can be
discharged without causing serious environmental impacts. Processes and operations used

132

in wastewater treatment are similar to those used in water treatment, except for biological
methods. The principal use of biological treatment is for the removal of easily biodegradable
organic compounds, although biological processes are also used or removal of nitrogen and
phosphorus in some situation. The principle of wastewater treatment methods are includes
preliminary, primary, secondary, tertiary treatment and sludge processing.
5-8.2 (a)

Preliminary Treatment

Upon arrival via the sewer system, the wastewater is sent through a bar screen, which
removes large solid objects such as sticks and rags. Leaving the bar screen, the wastewater
flow is slowed down entering the grit tank. This allows sand, gravel, and other heavy
material that was small enough not to be caught by the bar screen to settle to the bottom.
All the collected debris from the grit tank and bar screen is disposed of at a sanitary landfill
or recycled.
5-8.2 (b)

Primary Treatment

Primary treatment is the second step in wastewater treatment. It allows for the physical
separation of solids and greases from the wastewater. The screened wastewater flows into a
primary settling tank where it is held for several hours. This allows solid particles to settle to
the bottom of the tank and oils and greases to float to the top.
5-8.2 (c)

Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment is a biological treatment process that removes dissolved organic

material from wastewater. The partially treated wastewater from the settling tank flows by
gravity into an aeration tank. Here it is mixed with solids containing microorganisms that
use oxygen to consume the remaining organic matter in the wastewater as their food
supply. The aeration tank uses air bubbles to provide the mixing and the oxygen, both of
which are needed for the microorganisms to multiply. From here the liquid mixture,
composed of solids with microorganisms and water, is sent to the final clarifier. Here the
solids settle to the bottom where some of the material is sent to the solids handling process,
and some is re-circulated to replenish the population of microorganisms in the aeration tank
to treat incoming wastewater.
5-8.2 (d)

Final Treatment

Wastewater that remains is disinfected to kill harmful micro-organisms before being

released into receiving waters. Although there are many methods available to kill these
micro-organisms, chlorine and ultraviolet disinfection are the most widely used.
Dechlorination occurs in the final wastewater treatment step. A solution of sodium sulphite
is added to the chlorinated effluent to remove residual chlorine. Following disinfection and
dechlorination, the treated wastewater (now called final effluent) can be returned to the
receiving waters from which it came. The flow is conveyed to an outfall and discharged
through a series of diffusers into a surface water body or stream.
5-8.2 (e)

Sludge Processing

Primary solids from the primary settling tank and secondary solids from the clarifier are sent
to the digester. During this process, micro-organisms use the organic material present in
the solids as a food source and convert it to by-products such as methane gas and water.
Digestion results in a 90% reduction in pathogens and the production of a wet soil-like
material called biosolids that contain 95 - 97 % water. To remove some of this water and

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reduce the volume, mechanical equipment such as filter presses or centrifuges are used to
squeeze water from the biosolids. The biosolids are then sent to landfills, incinerated, or
beneficially used as a fertilizer or soil amendment. Water and wastewater treatment are
summarized below in Table 56.
Table 5 - 6
Water and wastewater Treatment
Treatment Category

Purpose

Processes

Preliminary
Treatment Process

Removal of coarse solids

and other large materials
often found in raw
wastewater.

Coarse screening,
Grit removal
Comminution (large
objects)

Primary Treatment

Removal of settleable
organic and inorganic solids
(sedimentation) , and the
removal of materials that
will float (scum) by
skimming

Sedimentation
Skimming

Secondary
Treatment Process

Removal of biodegradable
dissolved and colloidal
organic matter using
aerobic biological treatment
processes

Trickling filters
Bio-filters
Oxidation ditches
Rotating biological
contactors (RBC)

Tertiary Treatment
Process

Tertiary and/or advanced

wastewater treatment is
employed when specific
wastewater constituents
which cannot be removed
by secondary treatment
must be removed

Phosphorus Removal
Nitrogen Removal
Suspended Solid
Dissolve Solid
Removal
Organic & Metal
Removal

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