Rachel Howson

Language and Language Development Week 1 Essays

1/31/2015
Essay 1A A History of Bilingual Education
Bilingual education in the United States, like many educational policies, has been
endorsed and discredited depending on the political and social forces at different moments in
history. Xenophobia, colonization, and oppression have strongly influenced the language and
teaching methods that occur in public schools. Ovando (2003), highlights these shifts in
educational policy and posits that in order to provide high quality and equitable educational
system, bilingual instruction should be embraced.
At its inception, the founding fathers felt that a unified nation should have a strong
identity where its citizens shared culture, traditions, and language. As such, speakers of
non-European languages were often marginalized and lacked access to privileges and power.
However, throughout the 1700s-1800s, the influx of immigrants to the United States resulted in a
more laissez-faire stance towards multilingualism. Many states recognized and permitted
instruction in educational settings that was reflective of the culture and language of the
communities. A lack of strong policies and indifference characterized this time as the
permissive period.
In the 1800s, as the United States gained westward territory and power, repressing the
language and culture of the Native Americans who inhabited these spaces became a way to
diminish the threat they posed to expansion. Civilizing Native American cultures, and exerting
influence over its new territories of Hawaii and Puerto Rico lead to an aggressive campaign to
promote the English language as a core component of the American identity. Additionally, there
was a strong anti-German sentiment at the onset of World War I. In turn, the tolerant attitudes
towards the use of non-English instruction diminished. The Naturalization Act of 1906 reflected
these values, as any immigrant who wished to become a citizen had to learn to speak English.
During this restrictive period from 1880s-1960s, standardized instruction across states, as well as
new bureaucratic policies lead to the widespread implementations of Americanization classes for
immigrants and English-only instruction known as submersion.

As World War II ended, the internal unrest of the United States signaled a change in
opportunity for linguistically and racially diverse students. A Historical Perspective of Bilingual
Education (chart, Historical Perspective of Bilingual Education) cites the 1953 landmark
decision Brown vs. Board of Education as an creating equal opportunities for minority students.
Additional legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as well as Lau vs. Nichols in 1974
were significant in that public schools needed to provide instruction for students whose primary
language was not English. Instead of the sink or swim method that characterized the restrictive
period, schools were now required to provide language learners with appropriate tools to access
the English language.
By 1976, 14 states mandated bilingual education, and California designated bilingual
education as a right for all language learners. Instruction was offered in the home language of the
students and schools began to actively acknowledge the background knowledge and cultural
backgrounds of their students. In 1981, Castaeda v. Pickard resulted in a test and guidelines to
ensure that school districts were providing appropriate instruction to support language learners.
During the opportunistic period there were a number of advances in bilingual education, such as
ESL frameworks programs and immersion programs.
Changing political forces in the 1980s during the Reagan and Bush administrations lead
to a dismantling of bilingual education across the United States. Reagan adopted an ideology
that favored English-only instruction, and argued that English proficiency is key to participation
in the American economy. Under his administration the funding cap placed on schools with
English only programs were eliminated and many of the guidelines for bilingual education were
not formally adopted.
Social sentiment also swayed back towards the notion that sink or swim methodologies
and English only instruction were best which were further promoted by groups of political
activists. Californias AB 507, which had strengthened bilingual education by mandating
instruction for language learners, was ineffective after the Sunset proposition in 1987.
In 1994, Proposition 187 aimed to curb illegal immigration into California. These
changing sentiments toward immigration and English-only instruction lead to the official end of
bilingual education in California in 1998, which was formalized in Proposition 227 where,

California public instruction required to be in English. Provided money for children to become
fluent in English throughout intensive immersion special classes, English only classes.
Currently, I feel that in education there are shifting ideologies which will hopefully result
in policies that promote bilingual education and alternative approaches to language learning.
There is a shift in pedagogical priorities which are focused on 21st Century Skills such as
collaboration, communication, and critical thinking. As we move away from scripted
curriculums and focus more on creativity, I, like Ovando, feel that we should also lean away
from a monolingual education system. We should seek to provide instruction that provides
students with equitable opportunities and value the linguistic diversity that exists in our
classrooms.

Reference
Ovando, C. J. (2003). Bilingual education in the United States: Historical development and
current issues. Bilingual Research Journal, 27(1), 1-24. Retrieved from
http://ucsdextension.blackboard.com/courses/1/112700_WI16_OL/content/_1780326_1/Carlos%
20Ovando%20history%20of%20bilingual%20education.pdf

Essay 1B. Brown Chapter 1 (Entry 1 pp. 19) Reflective 2-3 page essay choosing 2-3
questions under Guidelines for Entry 1(p.19)
As you start your L2 class, what is your overall emotional feeling? Are you overwhelmed?
Scared? Challenged? Motivated? Is the Course too easy? Too hard?
Throughout my education experience I have taken Spanish (in college) and French (in
high school). I will be writing about my experiences taking Spanish in college as well as my
experience learning Portuguese while living in Brazil.
As I began my classes in both high school and in college, I was always slightly
frightened. I do not like speaking in front of people, and particularly when I feel that I am being
put on the spot. I was never a confident speaker and language classes perpetuated that fear as we
were randomly called on to speak.
Each class that I took emphasized grammar and vocabulary, and I was challenged in that
I always had difficulty retaining the rules and pronunciation. I felt that the class work was
easy, in that you mastered a formula to fill in blanks or conjugate verbs. It was mostly boring and
unengaging. However, tests and particularly oral exercises always threw me.
When I moved to Brazil after completing college, I had an extremely limited grasp on a
few phrases and sayings. I was terrified to discover that I would be living in a town where very
few people spoke English. I had a friend, but that was my only outlet for communication. The
first few weeks were extremely challenging and I went to bed each night feeling lonely and
incompetent. I was completely overwhelmed and stressed that I could not even express basic
aspects of my personality. However, as I developed relationships and began teaching English I
began to feel more confident and less overwhelmed. My teacher was an 18 year old, who was
dying to learn English. She accompanied me on errands and we would exchange practices in
Portuguese and English. We also shared books, music, TV shows with each other to help build
our vocabularies and understanding of grammatical structures.
How do you feel about your classmates? The class spirit or mood? Is the class spirit upbeat
and motivating, or boring and tedious? What are the root causes of this general mood? Is it your
own attitude, or the teachers style, or the makeup of the class?
As I began my class, I felt that I had quite a lot in common with my classmates. Many of
my classmates were friends, as I attended a small liberal arts college and lived on campus. The

spirit of the class was upbeat, and at times motivating, but I felt that our motivation was focused
on passing the class and less on acquiring the language. The general feeling was a mixture of
survival and silliness.
I feel that this mood was due to the fact that many of us were upperclassman, finishing
up our degree by fulfilling the language requirement of our school. Many of our priorities were
not centered around a real desire to learn Spanish, and most of our study time and attention was
devoted to our majors and minors where we were busy completing final thesis projects and
exams.
Our first teacher (for the first semester) was more motivating than the second. She was a
native Spanish speaker and had a good sense of humor. She made conversation interesting and
was able to engage the class in projects and activities, even with our limited devotion and
fluency. Our second teacher also had his priorities elsewhere, and the class functioned more as a
study hall than a Spanish class. He left the room for long period of time, and often let us leave
early.
Describe your teachers teaching style. Is it effective? Why or why not? Does your teacher seem
to have an approach to language teaching that is consistent with what youve read so far?
Both of the teachers I had while taking Spanish in college were reliant upon textbooks.
The textbooks focused on simple vocabulary and grammar. The woman teacher who I had for the
first semester took a more social constructivist approach. She often paired us with our classmates
and gave us topics to discuss in Spanish. On top of routine assignments from the textbooks, she
also had us complete group projects together where we explored the language and culture. I felt
that she was effective in that we were working together to apply the few language skills we had,
rather than just memorize vocabulary and fill out worksheets.
My second teacher, was far more focused on vocabulary, grammar, and drills. He
employed the Grammar Translation Method as his primary approach to instruction. I did not find
this method of instruction very effective, as I often promptly forgot the material once I
completed the weekly quizzes. Additionally, at the time Google had recently created the
translate feature, so many of us would complete the homework assignments dishonestly by
using the Google tool to do all of the work for us. I retained very little from these classes, and

less so during the second semester. We did not interact with our classmates and instead were
often called on to read passages or words or fill in the blanks on the board.

Rachel Howson
Language and Language Development
2/7/14
Week 2 Essays
Essay 2A
Chapter 8 in Brown (2014) explores the concept of communicative competence.
Communicative competence involves strategic, grammatical, discourse, and sociolinguistic
competency. As linguistic theory and an understanding of language learning and instruction have
evolved, researchers have concluded that acquiring a second language involves far more than just
knowing the structural components of a language. In order to functionally communicate in a
second language, one must have experience with the nuts and bolts of the language, but also be
able to understand social contexts and the task for which communication is necessary.
There are three main models of communicative competence, which build upon initial
models by Canale and Swain in 1980, followed by Bachman in 1990, and Littlewood in 2011.
All three models emphasize the grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, strategic, organizational,
and pragmatic elements of communicative competence.
A critical aspect of sociolinguistic communication is understanding language functions.
Brown states that Functions are essentially the purposes that we communicate with language,
e.g., stating, requesting, responding, greeting, parting, etc. (Brown, 2014, p. 211). These
functions can be further defined as instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional,
personal, heuristic, and imaginative. For example, in order to engage in academic discourse,
students must have a basic understanding of how to make a claim or justify their reasoning,
both of which are functions that help them to accomplish the objective. Brown posits that
although functional approaches to language instruction such as functional syllabuses
(curriculum) do not address the spontaneous and infinite situations where communication is
necessary.

Interactional competence is an understanding of how to communicate that is

constructivist in nature. It is a complex endeavour that requires more than just the ability to
utilize the organizational aspects of communicative competence such as grammar and word
forms appropriately. Engaging in conversation requires that the participants understand social
cues (status etc.), the context for communication, as well as selection of forms in modes of
meaning, turn-taking, and boundaries. The speakers must also be able to effectively seek
understanding in the event of a miscommunication.
Brown continues to examine the fine points of communication by exploring the
ambiguities of discourse. Like interactional competence, conversation places similar demands on
the speakers. Subtle aspects that can be difficult for language learners include topic termination,
shifting, avoiding, and interrupting. The speaker must have strategies in order to end a
conversation or to change the topic while still communicating. This information is often
conveyed indirectly, and can be hard to emulate or adopt. Another important aspect of discourse
competence is style. The audience, occasion, and subject for speaking or writing plays a role in
the word choice and delivery of discourse. The style may be oratorical (public speaking),
deliberate (interviews/lectures), consultative (business), casual (friends, colleagues) or
intimate/personal (close relationships).
Pragmatics are the aspect of communication where context influences meaning. For
instance, often times a sentence devoid of context would be incredibly difficult for an outsider to
interpret. Phrases can have multiple meanings depending on the situation in which they are used,
the speakers are able to make inferences about the meaning of the conversation based on the
situation. Sociopragmatics involve social/cultural norms and their influence on the intended
meaning such as politeness, address, cooperation etc.
Non-verbal communication is another skill which varies widely from culture to culture
and include eye contact, facial expressions, proxemics, artifacts, kinesthetic, and olfactory
dimensions. Each one of these dimensions has implications for the conversation. In American
culture, eye contact is a sign of respect and attentiveness whereas Japanese cultures maintain the

opposite. In order to have communicative competence it is essential to know how to navigate

these unspoken aspects of communication.
Knowing that communication extends far beyond just grammatical and linguistic
competencies. This understanding has lead to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) which
focuses on developing all aspects of communicative competence and guide students towards
accomplishing specific tasks through authentic experiences. Functional communication in a
second language is a complex and multifaceted process and therefore instruction should be as
well. It is logical that rather than focusing on discrete elements of language learning, students
should be engaged in a process that scaffolds their ability to navigate communication
independently.

Reference
Brown, H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (2014). White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.

Essay 2B
The CALLA approach outlines a list of Metacognitive Strategies which range from planning
goals, to managing your learning, to evaluating. Review the Multiple Intelligences worksheets
and take the quiz (do not turn in the quiz it will not be graded and is only for your reference).
How do the metacognitive strategies and multiple intelligence theories tie into each other?
How do these apply to your learning styles? Explain in a 2-3 page essay.

Metacognitive strategies outline skills that relate background knowledge to current

learning which provides a framework for new information, thus helping students to make sense
of the concepts. Gardners multiple intelligence theory examined and explained a multitude of
ways which students acquire and retain information (Brown, 2014). Metacognitive strategies and
multiple intelligences intersect in that they are based upon the belief that there are many ways to
learn and internalize information.
According to the theory of multiple intelligences, some people have a natural abilities:
linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and
intrapersonal that are stronger than others. Understanding these capabilities, both as a student as
and as instructor is empowering as it allows us to experience and process information through
multiple modalities. In turn, if we understand where our strengths and areas for improvement lie,
we can utilize that information to locate strategies that facilitate growth. (Brown, 2014)
The metacognitive strategies described by CALLA are deeply influenced by an
understanding of multiple intelligences. For example, using sounds, images, and kinesthetic
senses to understand a text or new information would be a useful strategy for an individual with
a strong musical, spatial, or bodily-kinesthetic ability. Metacognitive strategies encourage
students to self-evaluate and make decisions about how they learn to better manage their own
learning. Knowing their strengths and abilities can help students to utilize strategies that work
for them.
The quiz on multiple intelligences indicated that my strengths are musical and
intrapersonal. I felt that this was a fairly accurate assessment, and in line with other similar

assessments that I have completed in the past. As I have developed as a teacher, I have
consistently reflected on my own learning experiences and I am constantly reminded of these
aspects as I teach. I have been astonished at the number of songs I can recall (Schoolhouse
Rocks) that my teachers used to help us learn about grammar and to memorize math facts. This
influences my learning style as I enjoy listening to music as I work, and utilize music as a way to
alter my focus or mood. During my undergraduate degree I would record lectures and listen to
them as a way to study for exams.
In addition, I found metacognitive strategies a useful way to compensate or shore up
areas where my abilities were lacking. Understanding that I did not have a strong
logical-mathematical/linguistic ability lead me to utilize note taking strategies and graphic
organizers to help me build confidence and better academic habits. Unfortunately for me, song is
not a popular method of instruction beyond the elementary grades.
I spent much of my high school years feeling like I did not have the tools to be successful
in school. As I have continued to grow and learn more about teaching and educational theory, I
now know that learning how to learn is a key element in helping students become successful.
Before learning can occur, students must learn how to process the information and how certain
behaviors can help to facilitate learning. That understanding lead to an appreciation that if I had
been provided with this information earlier, I could have helped myself to be more confident in
school.
I was initially surprised to discover that I have strong intrapersonal skills, as I generally
do not see myself that way. However, after looking over the chart at the needs of intrapersonal
children, I felt a deeper connection. I do prefer self-paced work as well as choices on projects
and also in life. In relation to my learning style, I typically am more successful when I have time
to process information independently before sharing my thoughts with others.
I feel that Garners theory and metacognitive strategies are some of the most useful in
differentiating instruction and helping students to take more control over their learning
experiences. Throughout my student teaching, I worked in an ESOL cluster class where over half
of the students spoke five different languages. I found myself relying more and more on role
plays paired with songs and graphic organizers to help the students grasp difficult concepts.

Planning multiple entry points into a lesson or unit helps ensure that all students are able to
access and process information. I feel that understanding how we learn best, our natural abilities,
as well as strategies for how to maximize and build off of our abilities is an invaluable tool in
education.

Reference
Brown, H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (2014). White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.

Rachel Howson
Language and Language Development
Week 3 Essays, 2/14/16
Essay 3A
Conversation Analysis in the classroom. Give your feedback on conversation in the classroom, Brown p.219 - 220.
Brown offers eight criteria that influence how lessons may be generated, shaped and revised with cultural,
nonverbal communication and pragmatic communication all as factors. Choose one of the criteria and support it
using current research and your own experience. (2-3 pages)

Brown outlines eight criteria that can be used in conversation analysis. Carrying on a
conversation in a second language involves an attunement to non-verbal and cultural cues that
can be difficult to navigate. Although all eight criteria are essential to engage in a fluent and
meaningful conversation, I will focus on turn-taking. Conversation implies a give and take from
both participants, that includes listening and contributing relevant information to keep the
conversation going. Learning the appropriate time to yield to another speaker, or when to take
over can be a difficult skill to learn. In the classroom, the development of these skills involves
planning opportunities for authentic conversation through sheltered instruction.
Brown defines turn taking as:
The counterpart of the conversational ability to hold the floor is to yield to another speaker.
Allwright (1980) showed how students failed to use appropriate turn-taking signals in their
interactions with each other and with the teacher. Turn-taking is another culturally oriented set of
rules that require finely tuned perceptions in order to communicate effectively. (Brown, 2014,
p.220)

The importance of this skill is reflected in Californias current ELD standards that state:
1. Exchanging information and ideas Contribute to class, group, and partner discussions,
including sustained dialogue, by listening attentively, following turn-taking rules, asking relevant
questions, affirming others, adding pertinent information, building on responses, and providing
useful feedback.

Turn-taking is incredibly important as it allows students an opportunity to practice

sharing their thinking and gathering information from their peers. The collaborative nature of
conversation exposes the students to their peers thoughts, questions, and responses. This kind of
peer interaction serves as a scaffold for student understanding. Listening to a peers experiences,

language, and thought process is a part of the collaborative dialogue that leads to cognitive
development (Vygotsky, 1978).
Students often struggle with this skill, as turn-taking cues vary throughout different
cultures. Often, the signal that a speaker may take over include variances in the pitch of their
utterances (Cutler & Pearson, 1986) or pause in the conversation. These cues are often
non-verbal, and rely on the attentiveness of the speaker to pick up on them. There is no magic
formula that a student can learn.
In my personal experience in the classroom, in order to skillfully engage in conversation
where each speaker is contributing valuable information and simultaneously gathering
information from their partner, both English language learners and native English speakers need
explicit instructions before they are able to internalize these rules.
As a morning routine, my students and I begin the day with a meeting. One of my main
reasons for implementing this routine was to practice our speaking and listening skills in a safe
setting that allows students to speak about their personal experiences. Each morning, the students
take turns greeting each other and responding to a question. I model a response to the question
and then have students respond to their partners. They must each have a turn to share their
thought and then listen to their partner. I then cold call students to share their partners response,
so in effect each student is held accountable for listening to a peer and then sharing their own
opinion.
In addition to providing informal scaffolded discourse experiences, students must also
take turns in academic conversations. Lee, Quinn and Valds (2013) state that:
Classroom management strategies for students to engage in such work begin with the
establishment of a classroom culture as to what is acceptable behavior. The mode of argument
from evidence must be established, with norms that ensure civil discourse and respect for all
speakers. Inclusion of ELLs in the discourse must be established (by example) as a part of this
culture. (p.8)

In this regard, in order to help student participate in turn-taking, students must participate in or
be provided with a set of norms that include turn-taking cues. In my second and third grade
classroom we utilize manipulatives to signify speaker and listener, to track visually and

kinesthetically whose turn it is to speak, and also have a rule that when engaging in group
conversation everybody speaks.
Younger students need a great deal of experience where the rules for turn-taking
exchanges are made explicit and modeled on a regular basis. As they develop their language and
discourse skills they may begin to internalize these strategies and notice the cultural and social
cues that signal when it may be time to jump in or allow another speaker an opportunity to share
their thoughts.

Reference
Brown, H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (2014). White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.
Cutler, A., & Pearson, M. (1986). On the analysis of prosodic turn-taking cues. Intonation in
discourse, 139-156.
Lee, O., Quinn, H., & Valds, G. (2013). Science and language for English language learners in
relation to Next Generation Science Standards and with implications for Common Core State
Standards for English language arts and mathematics. Educational Researcher,
0013189X13480524.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development in Mind in society: The
development of higher psychological process (pp.79-91). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.

Essay 3B
Lev Vygotsky offered an alternative view to development. His theory focuses heavily on language and social
interaction, and the role they play in helping learners acquire an understanding of the culture in which they live.
Learners within Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development can profit from instructional scaffolding in the form of
modeling, questions, prompts, and cues. Explain how this may be evident in your classroom methods and
instructional techniques to respond to this challenge of providing proficiency in the L2 language.

Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development states that interaction is a key component of

learning and posits that discourse and experiences that are shared by culturally and linguistically
diverse students strengthen tentative understandings and build community. As well as
highlighting the importance of social interaction, Vygotsky also focused on drawing upon prior
experiences and prior learning to shape and develop new understandings. Both of these tenets of
his theory are an essential part of language learning in classrooms, and particularly relevant at
this moment in education as there is a shift towards emphasizing collaboration and
communication.
Vygotskys theory has had a profound impact on our understanding of language and
literacy instruction. In the lecture Paradigms in Language Acquisition, LaQua (2008) describes
Stephen Krashens work describing the affective filter. The affective filter refers to the interplay
between a childs emotional state (anxiety, fear, boredom) and their ability to process
information. When students are able to work collaboratively, the affective filter is lower and
therefore the students ability to master new material is higher. Additionally, strategically pairing
a more capable peer with a struggling student facilitates authentic opportunities for students to
model and scaffold learning.
In my classroom, creating groups and partners to maximize the potential for meaningful
peer interactions is an important component of lesson planning. For instance, when close reading
a text, I often encourage students to work together. By allowing the students to read and share
responses to accomplish a task together, they became engaged in a meaningful conversation
centered around a text. Peer conversations can also help to facilitate the acquisition of
transferable academic vocabulary. When they are discussing a text they are more likely to look
up words or share their understandings of unfamiliar words than if they work independently.

Peer interaction and sharing responses furthers students potential to meet the objective by
providing opportunities to make sense of the texts on their own terms.
Integrating technology into the classroom in another way to scaffold student
understanding, while providing them with a level of difficulty that allows students to practice
reading skills within their zone of proximal development. To build proficiency in reading, my
students use an online program (Accelerated Reader) to track and monitor their progress. Each
student is aware of their reading level, as well as their zone of proximal development which
helps them to select books. The students are motivated to challenge themselves by reading
increasingly difficult books.
As well as pairing students together, as we work to learn a new literacy strategy, I
scaffold understanding by modeling the strategy and then walking the students through the same
process before asking the students to work independently. I also scaffold comprehension by
thinking out loud so that students can begin to internalize the process as they read on their own.
In addition, I often use sentence/paragraph frames to guide student discourse or writing.
Throughout this year, I have focused extensively on conversation skills and the
development of academic vocabulary. Our current mathematics curriculum is built on the
assumption that students are familiar and fluent with high level academic vocabulary and
discourse. In order to scaffold discussions, students talk with each other and share their work
before we begin the discussion. By viewing the work of their peers, and by explaining their
thinking first, it is more likely that we will have a meaningful conversation. In addition, I prompt
students with hand motions and consistently model my thinking and use of academic vocabulary
to help them obtain the language objective.
Activating prior experience and background knowledge is a concept that is integral to
Vygotskys theory on zones of proximal development. This theory also places a value on the
experiences of the reader in order to shape understanding. Particularly with language learners, it
is important to find ways to connect the content to the student. Both McWhorter and Brown
emphasize the role of social and cultural factors in language development, and explain that
communicative competence is largely based on an familiarity with the culture of which language

acquisition is occurring. When students are able to connect with new concepts, by relating it to
themselves or prior knowledge, the content becomes more accessible and relevant to the student.
Modeling by peers and by the teacher helps to create a community where students can
become successful since they are able to achieve more than they are capable of independently.
Each student has a unique set of skills and understandings that help to strengthen the collective
knowledge of the classroom. For language learners, peer interaction helps students to learn new
skills in a non-threatening setting and provides authentic opportunities for students to practice
effective communication skills.

References:
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development in Mind in society: The
development of higher psychological process (pp.79-91). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
LaQua, S. (2008). Paradigms in Second Language Acquisition. Personal Collection of Stephanie
LaQua, UC San Diego, San Diego, CA.