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    O Level Biology Notes

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    Ira
    The nervous system chapter describes the parts and functions of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It discusses the types of neurons, synaptic transmission, and voluntary vs involuntary actions. The human eye chapter outlines the structures of the eye such as the iris, retina, lens, and cornea. It explains how light enters the eye and is focused on the retina, as well as the roles of the pupil reflex and different photoreceptor cells in vision.

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    O Level Biology Notes

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    Ira
    1K views9 pages
    The nervous system chapter describes the parts and functions of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It discusses the types of neurons, synaptic transmission, and voluntary vs involuntary actions. The human eye chapter outlines the structures of the eye such as the iris, retina, lens, and cornea. It explains how light enters the eye and is focused on the retina, as well as the roles of the pupil reflex and different photoreceptor cells in vision.

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    Nervous System and Human Eye

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    The nervous system chapter describes the parts and functions of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It discusses the types of neurons, synaptic transmission, and voluntary vs involuntary actions. The human eye chapter outlines the structures of the eye such as the iris, retina, lens, and cornea. It explains how light enters the eye and is focused on the retina, as well as the roles of the pupil reflex and different photoreceptor cells in vision.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    1K views9 pages

    O Level Biology Notes

    Uploaded by

    Ira
    The nervous system chapter describes the parts and functions of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It discusses the types of neurons, synaptic transmission, and voluntary vs involuntary actions. The human eye chapter outlines the structures of the eye such as the iris, retina, lens, and cornea. It explains how light enters the eye and is focused on the retina, as well as the roles of the pupil reflex and different photoreceptor cells in vision.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    The key takeaways are that the eye has different structures like the cornea, iris, lens etc. that work together to allow vision. The nervous system has sensory neurons that detect stimuli and motor neurons that activate muscles/glands in response. It also discusses the pathways and processes of sensation and voluntary/involuntary actions.

    The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye through its two sets of muscles - the circular and radial muscles. The circular muscles contract to constrict the pupil when there is bright light, reducing the amount of light. The radial muscles contract to dilate the pupil in dim light, increasing the amount of light.

    The process of seeing an object involves light rays entering and refracting through the eye structures like cornea and lens to form an inverted and diminished image on the retina. The photoreceptors in the retina are stimulated to send nerve impulses via the optic nerve to the brain, which then interprets and perceives the upright and life-sized object in front of us.

    Chapter 13 - The Nervous System

    Sensitivity -> ability to respond to stimulus by moving in a way that

    benefits itself
    Nervous system -> controls bodys activities + how it reacts to
    surrounding
    Parts: brain, nerves, spinal cord, sense organs
    Sense organs -> help to adjust rapidly to changes in envi +

    enable parts of body to coordinate with one another


    Involuntary vs voluntary action
    Involuntary -> automatic and not controlled

    consciously
    Voluntary -> controlled consciously
    Human nervous system -> CNS + PNS
    Central nervous system -> brain + spinal cord
    Peripheral nervous system -> cranial nerves, spinal nerves,

    sense organs
    Sense organs -> receive stimuli (receptors), inform CNS by

    sending nerve impulses transmitted through nerves


    Muscles -> effectors -> responds to the stimuli detected by

    the sense organs


    Nervous tissue
    3 types of neurones
    Sensory/receptor -> transmit impulses from sense

    organs to CNS
    Relay/intermediate -> transmit impulses from sensory

    neurons to motor neurons in CNS


    Motor/effector -> transmit impulses from CNS to

    effector/muscles
    Neurones -> hv cell body (nucleus + cytoplasm) + nerve
    fibres (extension of cytoplasm from cell body)
    Motor neurone structure
    Cell body
    Nucleus, cytoplasm, cell surface membrane,
    other
    organelles
    Irregular

    shape
    Dendron
    Nerve

    fibres

    that transmit impulses to cell body


    end branches -> dendrites
    receive nerve impulses from other neurones

    Axon
    nerve fibres -> transmit impulses away from cell
    body
    long in motor neurone
    Myelin sheath
    layer of fatty substance that insulates the axon
    Node of Ranvier
    regions with no myelin sheath
    nerve impulses -> cant be transmitted through
    myelin sheath -> hv to jump from one node to

    the next -> faster transmission


    Axon terminals
    motor neurone -> transmit nerve impulses to
    effector
    Motor end plate
    junction between axon terminal and muscle fibre
    nerve impulses transmitted by chemicals ->

    stimulate muscles
    Sensory neurone structure
    circular cell body, one long
    dendron, short axon
    Synapse -> junction between
    two

    neurones/neurone

    effector (muscles, glands)


    nerve
    impulses
    through

    and
    transmitted

    junctions

    by

    chemicals

    called

    neurotransmitters
    Nerves -> bundle of nerve fibres in a sheath of connective
    tissue
    emerge from brain (cranial nerves) or spinal cord

    (spinal nerves)
    contents:
    sensory nerve fibres only (from sense organs)
    motor nerve fibres only (to effectors)
    mixed fibres (both sensory and motor nerves),
    eg. spinal nerves

    Brain, spinal cord, spinal nerves


    Grey matter -> consists of cell bodies of neurones
    brain -> outer layer
    spinal cord -> central part
    Central canal
    contains cerebrospinal fluid -> bring nutrients to spinal
    cord

    White matter -> mainly consists of nerve fibres


    brain -> central part
    spinal cord -> outer layer
    Dorsal root (spinal cord) -> contains nerve fibres of sensory
    neurones
    sensory neurones transmit impulses to spinal cord

    from receptor
    ganglion -> small swelling -> contains cell body of

    sensory neurone
    Ventral root (spinal cord) -> contains nerve fibres of motor
    neurones
    motor neurones transmit impulses from the spinal cord

    to effector
    Sensation -> eg. when touching a piece of ice, you feel the
    coldness
    impulses transmitted to brain
    receptor -> sensory neurones -> transmitted across a
    synapse to relay neurones of spinal cord (grey matter)
    -> transmitted up the white matter of spinal cord ->

    forebrain
    Voluntary action -> eg. deciding to raise hand to answer
    question in class
    impulses transmitted from brain
    forebrain -> transmitted across a synapse to relay
    neurones of spinal cord -> down the white matter of
    spinal

    cord

    ->

    grey

    matter

    of

    spinal

    cord

    ->

    transmitted across a synapse to motor neurone ->


    -

    effector
    Reflex/involuntary action
    immediate response to specific stimulus without conscious

    control
    reflex centres -> brain and spinal cord
    cranial reflexes -> controlled by brain, occur in head

    region e. pupil reflex, blinking, salivation


    spinal reflexes -> controlled by spinal cord, eg. knee
    jerk reflex, sudden withdrawal of hand when touching

    hot object
    Nerve impulses pathway
    receptors
    (stimulate
    produced)

    ->

    sensory

    nerve

    endings,

    neurone

    ->

    impulses

    spinal

    cord

    (transmitted across a synapse to relay neurone, then


    across another synapse to motor neurone) -> motor

    neurone -> effectors (eg. muscles contracts or relaxes,

    gland secretes or stop secreting substances)


    Reflex arc
    shortest pathway which nerve impulses travel from

    receptor to effector in reflex action


    consists of:
    receptor (sense organ)
    sensory neurone
    CNS
    motor neurone
    effector (muscle/gland)

    Chapter 14 - The Human Eye


    -

    Structure of eye
    Front part of eye
    Pupil -> hole in centre of iris., allow light to enter eye

    Eyelashes -> shield eye from dust particles


    Tear gland -> at corner of upper eyelid, secretes tears
    ] Functions of tears: wash away dust particles,
    keep cornea moist for oxygen to dissolve before
    diffusing into cornea, lubricate conjunctiva ->

    reduce friction when eyelid move


    Eyelids -> protect cornea from mechanical damage,
    prevent

    excessive

    light

    from

    entering

    eye

    and

    damaging the retina (squinting), spread tears over the


    cornea and conjunctiva to wipe dust particles off the

    cornea (blinking)
    Sclera/sclerotic coat -> tough white covering of the
    eyeball, continuous with cornea, protects eyeball from

    mechanical damage
    Conjunctiva -> thin transparent membrane covering
    the sclera, mucous membrane, secretes mucus to keep
    the front of the eyeball moist, continuous with skin of

    eyelid
    Iris -> circular sheet of muscle, contains pigment for
    eye colour, control the amount of light entering the eye

    (by 2 sets of involuntary muscles circular and radial)


    Internal structure of the eye

    Ciliary body
    ] thickened
    ]

    region

    at

    the front end of choroid


    contains ciliary muscles
    ->

    control

    the

    curvature/thickness

    lens
    Choroid
    ] middle

    layer

    of

    of

    eyeball (between sclera and retina)


    pigmented black -> prevent internal

    reflection
    contains blood vessel -> bring O2 and nutrients

    light

    to eyeball, remove metabolic waste products


    Vitreous chamber
    ] space behind lens, filled with vitreous humour ->
    transparent, jelly like substance, keeps eyeball

    firm, helps refract light to retina


    Fovea/yellow spot
    ] small yellow depression in retina, directly behind
    ]

    ]
    ]
    Optic
    ]

    lens
    where image are normally focused, enabled a
    person to hv detailed colour vision in bright light
    has greatest concentration of cones
    has no rods
    nerve
    nerve -> transmit nerve impulses to brain when

    photoreceptors in retina are stimulated


    Blind spot
    ] region where optic nerve leaves eye
    ] no cones and rods -> not sensitive to light
    Retina
    ] innermost layer of eyeball, light-sensitive layer,
    ]

    where images are formed


    contains light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors)
    rods and cones -> connected to nerve endings
    from optive nerve
    o cones -> see colours in bright light
    o rods -> see black and white in dim light

    Lens
    ] transparent, circular, biconvex
    ] elastic, thickness/shape changes to refract light
    to retina
    Aqueous chamber
    ] space between lens and cornea

    filled with aqueous humour -> transparent,


    watery fluid, keeps the front part of the eyeball

    firm, helps refract light into pupil


    Cornea
    ] dome-shaped transparent layer, continuous with
    ]

    sclera
    refracts light rays into eye -> causes most of the

    refraction of light in the eye


    Suspensory ligament
    ] connective tissue -> attaches edge of lens to
    ciliary body
    Ciliary body
    ] thickened region, front end of choroid
    ] ciliary muscles -> control curvature/thickness of

    lens
    Functions of photoreceptors in retina (rods and cones)
    Cones
    ] enable us to see colours in bright light
    ] 3 types: red, blue, green -> hv different
    pigments

    ]
    Rods
    ]
    ]
    ]

    that

    absorbs

    light

    wave

    of

    diff.

    wavelengths
    do not work well in dim light
    more sensitive to light than cones
    enable us to see in black and white in dim light
    sensitive to light with low intensity -> hv
    pigment called visual purple -> bleached when
    exposed to bright light, takes a while to be
    reformed in order to see in the dark -> required

    vitamin A -> deficit -> night blindness


    How does iris control amt of light entering the eye?
    size of pupil determines the amt of light entering the
    eye -> amt must be right for a person to be able to see

    clearly
    size of pupil -> controlled by 2 sets of involuntary and
    antagonistic muscles circular and radial muscles of

    the iris
    ] circular -> arranged in a circle around the pupil
    ] radial -> arranged radially
    circular muscle contract, radial muscle dilate -> pupil
    becomes smaller/constricts
    -> reduce amt of light entering the eye

    circular muscle relax, radial muscle contract -> pupil


    becomes larger/dilates -> increases amt of light

    entering the eye


    Pupil reflex
    reflex action -> pupil change size as a result of
    changes in light intensity
    ] larger when low intensity, smaller when high
    ]

    intensity
    too bright light -> eyelids come closer together
    to prevent excessive light from entering the eye

    + damaging retina
    nervous pathway:
    ] stimulus (change in light intensity) -> receptor
    (retina) -> sensory neurone (optic nerve) ->

    brain -> motor neurone -> effector (iris)


    How do we see?
    The process
    Light rays refracted through cornea and aqueous
    humour to lens -> further refracted by lens -> focus in

    retina -> stimulates photoreceptors (cones/rods)


    Image formed: laterally inverted, diminished, upside

    down
    Role of the brain
    Light falls
    transmitted

    on
    via

    photoreceptors
    optic

    nerves

    -> nerve
    to

    brain

    impulses
    ->

    brain

    interprets -> see the object upright, the same size and

    front to back
    Focusing/accomodation -> adjustment of the eye lens so that
    clear images of objects at diff distances are formed on the
    retina
    necessary -> can see object at diff distances clearly
    focusing -> adjusting the thickness/curvature of lens

    -> allow light rays to be focused on retina


    focusing on distant object
    ] light rays almost parallel to each other -> no
    ]

    need much refraction -> thinner lens


    process: ciliary muscles relax -> suspensory
    ligament become taut, pull on the edge of lens
    ->

    lens

    become

    thinner

    and

    less

    convex,

    increasing focal length -> light rays sharply


    focused on retina -> photoreceptors stimulated

    -> nerve impulses transmitted to brain by optic

    nerve -> interpreted -> see the distant object


    focusing on near object
    ] diverging
    light
    rays
    ->
    need
    much

    refraction/bending -> thicker/more convex lens


    process: ciliary muscles contract -> suspensory
    ligament slacken, relax pull on the edge of lens
    -> lens become thicker and more convex,
    decreasing focal length -> light rays sharply
    focused on retina -> photoreceptors stimulated
    -> nerve impulses transmitted to brain by optic
    nerve -> interpreted -> see the near object

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