Europ. J.

Agronomy 32 (2010) 103111

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

European Journal of Agronomy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eja

Multiple functions of buffer strips in farming areas

Maurizio Borin a , Matteo Passoni a, , Mara Thiene b , Tiziano Tempesta b
a
b

Department of Environmental Agronomy and Crop Production, University of Padova, Italy

Department Territory and Agro-Forestry Systems, University of Padova, Italy

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 4 July 2008
Received in revised form 4 March 2009
Accepted 14 May 2009
Keywords:
Buffer strip
Hedgerow
Multi-function

a b s t r a c t
Buffer strips (BSs) are strips interposed between elds and streams that intercept and treat the waters
leaving cropland, and so are a useful tool for reducing agricultural diffuse pollution in lowland areas. If
properly vegetated and managed, they can also produce wood for burning, act as sinks for atmospheric
CO2 and enhance the landscape beauty.
The paper presents an analysis of the different functions of BS and reviews the more important data
from research programmes conducted over the last decade in Veneto Region (North-East Italy). Over a
period of 35 years, in two experimental sites, young BS reduced total runoff by 33%, losses of N by 44%
and P by 50% compared to no-BS. A mature BS was able to abate both NO3 N and dissolved phosphorus
concentrations by almost 100%, in most cases having exiting water that satised the limit for avoiding
eutrophication. The BS also proved to be a useful barrier for herbicides, with concentrations abated by
60% and 90%, depending on the chemical and the time elapsed since application. Considering the CO2
immobilized in the wood and soil together, the different BS monitored stored up to 80 t ha1 year1 .
The BS caused negligible disturbance to maize, soybean and sugarbeet yields. The hedgerows, particularly if composed of trees taller than 6 m, positively inuenced the aesthetic value of the territory,
improving its perceived naturalness and screening the man-made elements.
Lastly, through a multi-objective analysis, opportunity costs were estimated to support the public
decision-maker in determining the subsidies to be paid to encourage farmers to plant BS.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Buffer strips are riparian vegetated lter zones, interposed
between elds and streams, which intercept and treat the waters
leaving cropland, thereby being a useful tool to reduce agricultural
diffuse pollution in lowland areas (Dillaha et al., 1988; Heathwaite
et al., 2000; Dosskey, 2001; Benoit et al., 2004). Designed to
remove sediment and bound pollutants from surface water (Young

et al., 1980; Munos-Carpena

et al., 1999), if properly vegetated and
managed, they can produce wood for burning, act as sinks for atmospheric CO2 and enhance the beauty of the landscape. Buffer strips
are hence typical multi-functional elements in farming systems.
Analyzing the above functions in more detail, there are ve general ways through which buffers reduce non point source (NPS)
water pollution from cropland (Dosskey, 2001): (1) by reducing surface runoff from elds, (2) ltering surface runoff from elds (Van
Dijk et al., 1996), (3) ltering groundwater runoff from elds, (4)
reducing riverbank erosion, and (5) ltering pollutants from stream

Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Borin), [email protected]
(M. Passoni), [email protected] (M. Thiene), [email protected]
(T. Tempesta).
1161-0301/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.eja.2009.05.003

water. The pollutant abatement achieved in runoff water varies

with width, pollutant type and chemical form (Daniels and Gilliam,
1996; Schmitt et al., 1999; Abu-Zreig et al., 2003). The effect is usually highly satisfactory, with abatements of 7090% for suspended
solids, (Neibling and Alberts, 1979; Abu-Zreig et al., 2003; Benoit et
al., 2004), 6098% for phosphorus (Duchemin and Madjoub, 2004;
Borin et al., 2005; Dorioz et al., 2006) and 7095% for nitrogen
(e.g. Delgado et al., 1995; Heathwaite et al., 1998; Parkyn, 2004).
Grassed buffer strips are also a way to reduce pesticide transfer by
surface runoff from farmed elds to streams (Lacas et al., 2005).
Buffer effect depends on external factors, such as runoff volume
and features of the area originating the runoff (e.g. slope, size, land
use), and also the type of buffer, in terms of its composition, age
and width (Chaubey et al., 1994; Vought et al., 1995).
Because of high soil moisture and nutrient availability, riparian
zones are often highly productive sites for growing trees (Megahan
et al., 1981; Gibbons, 1988; Kinley and Newhouse, 1997), which,
in addition to removing pollutants, may be used as a harvestable
crop, providing, among other products, a renewable fuel source,
timber, pulp, paper, or industrial chemical feed stock. This crop
value provides the land owner with a quicker return on the investment in setting aside land for a tree buffer strip (Walbridge, 1993;
Schultz et al., 1994). Researchers in Iowa (Schultz et al., 1994) suggested a design for producing fuelwood in riparian areas based on

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M. Borin et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 32 (2010) 103111

locations revealed depressed yield in some systems with hedgerow

intercropping, due to competition for sunlight, nutrients and soil
moisture (Garrity et al., 1995; PCARRD, 1992; Lal, 1989). However,
these data refer to narrow alleys between the hedgerows. No data
are available in the literature about the effect of edge buffer strips
with trees on eld crop productivity.
From the economic point of view, timber production and CO2
accumulation present a direct trading value that is variable, but
easily determined. On the contrary, pollution control and landscape
amelioration are positive externalities that require the application
of an adequate economic analysis to support the decision-maker
in designing proper public interventions. This is therefore a key
issue in the planning and implementation of sound policies at the
territorial scale.
This paper presents an analysis of the different functions of
buffer strips and offers the more important data from research
programmes conducted over the last decade in Veneto Region
(North-East Italy).

selected fast-growing tree species (hybrid poplar, green ash, silver

maple, black walnut, ninebark, red osier dogwood). These trees are
grown as short-rotation woody crop systems producing biomass
for energy in 58 years and timber products in 1520 years (except
black walnut, which is grown on a 4555 year rotation). Moreover,
these species reproduce vegetatively from stump or root sprouts,
and develop large root systems for rapid nutrient uptake and soil
stabilization. The faster growing species will not become over competitive because they can be harvested on a short-rotation.
One characteristic of riparian woodlands that has been less
appreciated is their potential to sequester large amounts of C in
vegetation and soil. Increased soil moisture at lower slope positions may inuence forest productivity and modify decomposition
processes in the soils, favouring C accumulation (Kimmins, 1987).
The European Landscape Convention signed in Florence in 2000
states that landscape means an area, as perceived by people,
whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors. The rural landscape can be considered
as the visual appearance of agrarian ecosystems. A close relationship exists between the landscape and primary activities, and
landscape can be considered one of the main agriculture externalities. During the last decades, the European Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP) evolution and innovations in agricultural technology
have vastly altered the Italian landscape. CAP strategies strongly
modied the relative prices of agricultural products, while more
capital-intensive agricultural practices required major land transformation. Fields were enlarged and many typical land layouts
with perennial vegetation were abandoned. Hedgerows, tree plantations, natural meadows, mulberry trees and numerous lowland
woods gradually disappeared from the plain. These changes also
increased nitrogen release and leaching. Over the same period there
has been increasing demand for outdoor recreation activities. This
demand is closely connected to landscape features, the preservation
and creation of which is becoming more central under the reformed
CAP. Since rural landscape is an agro-forestry positive externality,
and given its nature as a pure public good, economic farm incentives
can increase social welfare.
Methods have been set up, and applied many times, to evaluate
the visual quality of the landscape, in order to give an economic
value (Daniel and Boster, 1976; Gobster and Chenoweth, 1989;
Brown and Daniel, 1991; Gregory and Davis, 1993; Lothian, 1999;
Daniel, 2001). These methods are based on the principle that when
the landscape inspires positive feelings, such as security, relaxation,
pleasure and happiness, it is subjectively considered as being of
high quality. On the contrary, when it elicits states of stress, fear,
insecurity or limitation, etc., it is subjectively considered of low
quality (Buhyoff et al., 1994). Buffer strips, especially those with
trees and shrubs, connote a more sustainable landscape (Dorioz et
al., 2006).
If buffer strips can offer these positive externalities, attention
also has to be paid to the possible negative interference with
crop productivity to assess whether planting them is economical. Regarding this, experimental trials in the Philippines and other

2. Methodology
The research activity consists of a core eld experiment and a
series of studies conducted at two scales: eld ancillary experiments and territorial surveys (Table 1). The experimental data have
been utilized in a Multiple Objective Programming (MOP) model to
assess how different environmental policies can be implemented
to maximize economic return and environmental targets (pollution
control and landscape quality improvement).
A description of the research is given below, but the specic
references obviously provide more details.
2.1. Field experiments
2.1.1. Field description and activity
The Legnaro core experiment is ongoing at the Padova University
Experimental Farm (45 12 N, 11 58 E, 6 m a.s.l.) and mainly concerns the effect of buffer strips on surface water quality (Borin et
al., 2005). CO2 xation and timber production have also been evaluated. The experimental site is a rectangular eld, with a 35 m long
1.8% slope down towards a ditch. During the period 19982002,
a 6 m wide buffer strip (BS), composed of two rows of regularly
alternating trees (Platanus hybrida Brot.) and shrubs (Viburnum opulus L.) was studied in comparison with no-BS. Each treatment had
two replications. To measure runoff volumes and collect water samples, collector systems with multi-pipe divisors were designed and
installed in early 1998 (Morari et al., 2001) according to Brakensiek
et al. (1979) and Hudson (1993). The collector system consisted of a
metal gutter 1.5 m wide and a double-split runoff divider that separated total runoff volume from each plot to a storage tank at 81:1
ratio. Water volume fractions collected in the tank were measured
to calculate total volume and samples were taken once a day (timedependent) for analysis during each runoff event. During sampling

Table 1
Ten years of research on buffer strips in Veneto Region: projects, locations and experiment duration, studied functions.

Location
Years
Surface runoff pollutants control
Subsurface ow pollutants control
Plant growth and production
Soil C accumulation
Landscape quality
Crop yield losses
Economic evaluations

Core experiment

Ancillary experiment

Ancillary experiment

PRIN VBS

PRIN ecological network

PRIN Agripark

Legnaro
1998present
*
*
*
*

Marano
19971999

Mogliano
19992005
*

Veneto Region
20022003
*

Veneto Region
20032004

Veneto Region
20042005

*
*

*
*
*
*

*
*

*
*

*
*

M. Borin et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 32 (2010) 103111

the water in the tank was stirred; 2 L samples were stored at 4 C

until analysis. The concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS),
nitrogen (total N, NO3 N) and phosphorus (total P and PO4 P) were
determined, allowing the losses to be calculated. Runoff volumes,
nutrient and TSS concentration data were multiplied to give the
mass transport of each constituent and each time interval.
All the Platanus plants (81) were cut and harvested in autumn
2003, after the rst growing cycle, and productivity was measured.
Plants were analyzed for C content. For each plant the total wood
was weighed and moisture content measured to determine the
dry matter production. These measurements were also taken on
a hedgerow 20 years older, composed of 51 Platanus plants, growing on the same farm and harvested in autumn 2002. This was the
third time the hedgerow had been cut after planting.
In 2003, soil samples were collected and analyzed for C content
to determine the CO2 xation of the buffer strip. Three samples for
each BS were taken at two depths (05 and 2025 cm) and the C
accumulation in the soil was calculated comparing the amount in
2003 with the amount at the start of the experiment in the BS. The
comparison was also made in the normally cultivated soil, where
14 samples were collected at the same depths.
Yields of maize (2000), soybean (2001) and sugarbeet (2002),
grown in the eld and sown in rows parallel to the buffer, were measured at increasing distances from the BS to determine the possible
detrimental effect of the hedgerow on crop yield. In maize, sown
with a distance between rows of 0.8 m, the distances from the buffer
were 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24 m; at each distance, along a crop row, three
sections 10 m long were harvested to measure the productivity. In
soybean and sugarbeet, sown at an inter-row distance of 0.5 m, the
sampling distances were 0, 2, 4, 7, 13, 25 m, with three sections of
10 m being sampled at each distance.
2.2. Ancillary experiments
Mogliano (45 33 N, 12 14 E, 8 m a.s.l., province of Treviso) ancillary experiment gathered further information on the pollutant
control in runoff water, collecting 60 surface water samples during the period 20032005. The BS, planted in 1999, was formed by
one line of trees and a strip of grass, for a total width of 4 m. To
measure runoff volumes and collect water samples, the same facility described for Legnaro was installed in the BS and at the border
of a eld without BS. Total N, NO3 N, total P, PO4 P and suspended
solids were determined. Observations were also made on the tree
growth and CO2 accumulation in the soil in the rst year after BS
planting, following the same procedure as that described for the
Legnaro experiment.
Marano (45 27 N, 12 07 E, 4 m a.s.l., province of Venice) ancillary experiment studied the role of mature (more than 20 years old)
riparian BS in abating NO3 N, PO4 P and herbicides in the shallow
water table. The BS was composed of one line of trees (1 m wide)
and a 5 m strip of grass. The excess water came from an irregularly shaped eld of approximately 6 ha, draining into two streams
running along its longer sides (Borin and Bigon, 2002; Borin et al.,
2004). During the monitoring period (19971999), 28 samplings
were done in 8 observation wells (4 in the eld and 4 after the
BS), for a total collection of about 220 water samples. In addition,
C accumulation was determined in the BS soil by comparing the C
content with that in the eld.
2.2.1. Laboratory analysis
In all the experiments, water samples were analyzed as follows.
Suspended solids were separated by centrifugation at a relative
centrifugal force (RCF) of 14.0 g for 5 min and dried for 48 h at
55 C. Total P (inorganic and organic) was determined by oxidation
of unltered samples with potassium persulfate, and analyzing at
885 nm wavelength on the spectrophotometer after colour devel-

105

opment with an ammonium molybdateascorbic acidantimony

method (Genchi, 1990). To determine PO4 P, the same colour development method was used on ltered samples and analyzed at
885 nm wavelength on the spectrophotometer (Genchi, 1990).
Nitrate (NO3 N) was determined in ltered samples with the
salicylic acid method and spectrophotometer analysis (Cataldo et
al., 1975). Total N (inorganic and organic) was determined in unltered samples by oxidation with potassium persulfate (Genchi,
1990) and, after colour development with the salicylic acid method,
samples were analyzed at 410-nm wavelength on the spectrophotometer (Cataldo et al., 1975). N and P were analyzed using
an Ultrospec 2000 UVvis spectrophotometer, Pharmacia Biotech
(Biochrom) Ltd. Ammonium (NH4 N) was determined by the specic electrode method (Martillotti et al., 1987).
For herbicide analysis, the water samples were rst ltered by
using SPE (Lichrolut) extraction cartridges; the molecules were then
removed from the cartridges and analyzed by HPLC under the following conditions: wavelength 210 nm, ux 1.0 mL min1 , column
temperature 30 C. Absorption spectra and absorbance values of all
the examined compounds were determined prior to analysis.
Soil organic C was determined with the WalkleyBlack method.
2.3. Territorial surveys and economic evaluations
The surveys aimed to assess the contribution of hedgerows to
rural landscape aesthetic value (Tempesta, 2006). For this purpose,
a preliminary classication was made of the landscape into units
or types. After having quantied some land use parameters that
can affect landscape aesthetics (for details, see Table 4), interviews
were conducted, with the aim of revealing peoples preferences.
The level of appreciation of the landscape was dened by proposing photographs to each interviewee on which he expressed a
judgement, using a rating scale that gave a visual aesthetic index
(VAI). Pictures were used because studies conducted in the USA
have highlighted that there is generally no divergence between
the evaluation of a photo and an evaluation made in the countryside or in woodland (Hetherington et al., 1993), although there is
some difference of opinion among researchers (Scott and Canter,
1997; Palmer and Hoffman, 2001). In all the studies a multivariate function was then calculated relating VAI score and landscape
elements. The regression coefcients were taken as a measure of
the aesthetic importance of any landscape element, positive values
meaning appreciation.
A modelling approach based on Multi Objective Programming
was lastly used to analyze the trade-off between the quality of
the environment and an economic index, namely farmers income
(Thiene et al., 2007, 2008). MOP, which belongs to the Multicriteria Analysis techniques (Romero and Rehman, 1989; Tempesta
and Tiene, 2004; Hung et al., 2006), provides useful information
within this decision-support context, by identifying and evaluating
possible alternatives. In this specic case, three decisional criteria
were identied: a criterion of private relevance (gross income of the
farm) and two of public relevance (landscape quality and nitrogen
losses associated with the different crops in the study area). The
compromise solutions among the different objectives were identied using MOP. Mathematically, this is a problem of constrained
optimisation that can be formalised in compact form as:
Eff (Z1 , Z2 , Z3 )
X

XA b

(1)

where Z1 , Z2 and Z3 represent the objectives, X the set of decisional variables, A the matrix of the technique, i.e. the set of
technical coefcients, b the vector of the availability. The operator
Eff expresses the fact that the methodology permits the acceptable efcient solutions to be identied, i.e. those characterised by

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M. Borin et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 32 (2010) 103111

different attainment levels of the three objectives but that cannot be

improved further; given the availability of resources, the improvement of a criterion is always and only obtainable on condition that
at least one other is reduced. Eff therefore identies the technically
possible set of solutions that together constitute the efcient frontier, which is a representation of the results of the objectives in the
space. There being three objectives, the frontier takes the form of a
plane in a three-dimensional space in which the axis represents a
criterion. Each conguration in the space of the objectives is associable to a point in the space of the alternatives, i.e. a particular
combination of land uses.
The model, which was applied using the experimental data of
nitrogen abatement and aesthetic value, quanties the farmers loss
of income when he implements actions that achieve both water
quality and landscape beauty. Farm allocation to different cropping
systems associated to each point of the estimated efcient frontier
is also provided by the model.
This approach suffers from the many and well-known limitations associated to the linear programming approach, results
appear to be sensitive to the assumptions that need to be made
about inputs, and it does not take into account the dynamic effects
being restrictively based on a short run period. Nevertheless it provides reliable information to the policy maker by estimating the
opportunity cost at a farm scale, that is by allowing to easily take
into account local economic and environmental input and output
factors.

quite low compared to other experiments (Borin et al., 2005), but

were reduced by 7% (PO4 P) to 88% (soluble solids) by the BS.
The research conducted at Marano showed the efcacy of the
mature BS in controlling pollution in the shallow subsurface ow
(Fig. 1). Both NO3 N and dissolved phosphorus concentrations were
reduced by almost 100% passing through the BS and in most cases
the exiting water satised the limit for avoiding eutrophication. The
signicant reduction already observed at the border between the
eld and grass strip suggested that the perennial plants forming
the BS, particularly the trees (Borin and Bigon, 2002), might have
developed their root systems within the eld. According to this, we
could conclude that the zone of inuence of this BS goes beyond its
simple width. Since the 6 m wide BS permitted an abatement close
to 100% of the pollutants we can recommend this width to obtain
signicant water amelioration.
The BS also proved to be a useful barrier for herbicides, with
concentrations abated by 60% and 90%, depending on the chemical
and the time elapsed since application.
3.2. Timber production
On average, one Platanus plant gave 49 kg of d.m. wood at the
rst cycle of utilization; at maturity this production reached 160 kg.
Considering 1 ha of hedgerow 5 m wide, with a single line of plants
at 2 m intervals, production reaches 49 and 160 t, respectively.
3.3. Buffer strip system as C sink

3. Results
3.1. Pollutant losses control
In the main experiment, during the period 19982002 the BS
reduced total runoff by 78% compared with no-BS, in which cumulative runoff depth was 231 mm over 5 years.
The ltering effect of the BS reduced total suspended solids,
particularly after the second year, when the median yearly concentrations ranged from 0.28 to 0.99 g L1 in no-BS treatment and were
lower than 0.14 g L1 with 6.2S buffer. The combination of lower
concentrations and runoff volumes signicantly reduced TSS losses
from 6.9 to 0.4 t ha1 over the entire period.
A tendency was observed to increased concentrations of all
forms of N (total, nitrate and ammonium) while passing through
the BS, but total N losses were reduced from 17.3 to 4.5 kg ha1
in terms of mass balance. On the contrary, P concentrations were
unmodied (soluble P), or lowered (total P) by the BS, reducing
total losses by about 80%. The effect on total P, composed mainly
of sediment-bound forms, was related to particulate settling when
passing through the BS (Borin et al., 2005).
In the Mogliano ancillary experiment, the total runoff measured
in the period 20032005 was about 97 mm without BS and 61 mm
with BS. The pollutant concentrations in runoff water showed that
the BS effect was evident in reducing both the median values and
dispersion indices (rst and third quartiles) for all pollutants, except
total P (Table 2). The total cumulative losses of all pollutants were

The C immobilized in the wood was 104 kg per single plant in

the rst growing cycle and three times higher at maturity. Assuming
the previous plant density, yearly total C sequestration ranges from
20 t in the young hedgerow to 50 t in the older one.
Moreover, both at Legnaro and Mogliano the soil under the BS
accumulated organic C with respect to the values at the time of
planting, while during the same period the concentration in the
arable soil reduced (Table 3). As a consequence, at Legnaro and
Mogliano, in the rst period after planting, the soil under the BS
immobilized 7.2 and 9.3 t ha1 year1 of CO2 , respectively. In the
same sites, the arable soil emitted 8 and 33 t ha1 year1 of the CO2
as organic matter oxidation.
At Marano, where data regarding the organic matter concentration in the soil at the time of BS planting are not available, the BS
soil immobilized 2.3 t ha1 year1 with respect to the arable soil.
Hence, the yearly ratio of CO2 immobilization in the long term is
lower, suggesting that the organic matter accumulation process is
more intensive in the period immediately subsequent to the change
of land use.
3.4. Yield losses
The relative yields of maize, soybean and sugarbeet, expressed
as % of the maximum yields measured in the eld, were slightly
inuenced by the distance from the hedgerow (Fig. 2). In particular,
for maize and soybean, losses were only noticeable in the rst 4 m

Table 2
Mogliano ancillary experiment: pollutant concentrations and losses in runoff water with buffer strip (BS) and without (no-BS) (cumulative values, 20032005).
Pollutants

Total N

Treatments

no-BS
1

Concentrations (mg L
Median
First quartile
Third quartile
Losses (g ha1 )
Total

NO3 N
BS

no-BS

Total P
no-BS

no-BS

0.5
0.8
1.5

0.2
0.5
1.0

PO4 P
BS

no-BS

Total suspended solid

BS

no-BS

BS

5.0
93.0
424.5

5.0
53.5
117.5

740,000

86,000

)
1.7
3.2
6.0
2463

1.9
2.9
5.4
1374

0.8
1.2
3.0
1079

470

510

0.3
0.4
0.8
225

0.1
0.1
0.1
69

0.07
0.1
0.35
64

M. Borin et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 32 (2010) 103111

107

Fig. 1. Marano ancillary experiment: efcacy of the mature buffer in controlling pollution in the shallow subsurface ow, comparing concentrations in eld and after the
passage trough the BS (exit).
Table 3
Organic matter content (g 100 g1 ), mean and std error, in the top 00.5 m soil under
buffer strips and in arable eld in the different experimental sites.
Experimental site

Mogliano
Legnaro
Marano

Years

2
5
>20

Field

Buffer

Initial

Final

Initial

Final

1.3 0.08
1.1 0.12
n.a.

0.86 0.17
0.82 0.03
1.54 0.05

1.19 0.08
1.01 0.12
n.a.

1.27 0.10
1.18 0.11
2.08 0.34

of eld from the hedgerow. The hedgerow disturbance was higher

in sugarbeet because near the hedgerow the yield was less than 50%
of that measured at 25 m from the hedgerow.
3.5. Hedgerows and landscape economic values
The multivariate regression coefcients showed that the visual
aesthetic index is affected by many elements (Table 4). In general,
all elements of the so-called savannah like landscape improve

Fig. 2. Legnaro experiment: relative yields of maize, soybean and sugar beet,
expressed as % of the maximum yields measured in the eld at increasing distance
from the buffer strips.

the value, e.g. hedgerows, meadows, scattered trees, woods and, if

present, water and animals. On the other hand, man-made elements
(modern buildings, pylons, asphalted roads, etc.) usually decrease
the VAI. All the models highlight the importance of hedgerows,
with those composed of trees taller than 6 m being more appreciated than those with smaller trees (36 m). The aesthetic effect
of hedgerows, especially on the plain, is twofold: on the one hand
they improve the perceived naturalness of the territory, on the other
they can screen the man-made elements.
3.5.1. MOP
Results obtained via the MOP modelling approach provide estimates of the opportunity cost that must be supported by the farmer
in term of income losses to achieve increases in landscape quality
and reduce nitrogen losses (Thiene et al., 2007, 2008).
Results from maximization of income and landscape quality
are reported in Fig. 3 and Table 5. Each point of the efcient
frontier is associated to a cropping system. Income maximization
implies a low landscape quality associated with a simplied cropping system: maize, soybean and alfalfa equally distributed on
the farmland. The landscape quality maximization determines a
consistent cut in income (more than 450 D ha1 ) and the new allocation involves the almost entire substitution of traditional crops
by meadow (more than half of the land) and alfalfa, which positively inuence the landscape quality. The remaining land is mostly
occupied by woodland, along with hedgerows and scattered trees.
It is worth underlining that a notable increase in landscape value
(22%) can be reached with a rather limited decrease in income
(52 D ha1 ). It follows that the opportunity cost supported by the
farmer for improving the environmental quality appears sustainable, especially within the perspective of the subsidies paid for
specic agro-environmental actions.
The conicting nature of income and reduction of nitrogen losses
is well described in Fig. 4 and Table 6 since high earnings imply sizeable nitrogen leaching from the soil. Maximization of the income
objective involves average losses of 28 kg of N per hectare, associated with a crop allocation that includes maize, soybean and alfalfa,

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M. Borin et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 32 (2010) 103111

Table 4
Main results of six landscape evaluation studies in North-East Italy during the last 15 years. Dependent variable: visual aesthetic index (VAI)* .
Land use and
culturalhistorical elements

Euganean Hills
Natural Park (PD)

Venice lagoon
basin plain

Udine province
hill and plain

Horticultural eld crops (%)

Uncultivated land (%)
Arable crops (%)
Meadows (%)
Cattle pasture (%)
Alfalfa (%)
Orchards (young trees) (%)
Hedges (%)
Hedge height >6 ma
Hedge height from 3 to 6 ma
Wood (%)
Scattered olive treesa
Ditches, streamsa
Scattered treesa
Tree rowsa
Pathsa
High voltage pylonsa
Sprinklera
Modern buildingsa
Non-visible morphologya
Historical eld layouts
Waste land (herbaceous)a
Vineyard (%)
Tree rows (%)
Asphalt roada
Pylons, urban buildings, etc.a
Mulberries rowsa
Hillsa
Photograph qualitya
Constant
Adjusted r squared

0.069
0.018
0.019
0.018

0.044
0.032
0.017
0.017

0.035

a
*

0.060

0.006
1.069
0.619
0.732
1.225
3.717
2.346

0.024

0.021
0.014

0.028

Veneto east
plain

Veneto west
plain

0.014
0.019

0.050

0.028
0.020
0.015
1.144
0.607

0.036
1.482
1.455

Veneto plain
(computer imaging)

0.025
0.031

0.066

0.041
2.318

0.942

0.644
0.941

0.181
0.643

1.322
2.478

2.638
1.022

0.709
1.417
0.375
0.831
0.032
1.809
0.850

5.542
0.43

4.380
0.62

0.014

0.059

0.926
0.132
0.704
0.736
5.780
0.63

5.159
0.25

4.630
0.75

3.452
0.26

Dummy variables, land percentage otherwise.

All the coefcients are signicant at 0.1p.

the latter being high-earning following the CAP Mid Term Review.
When the goal is to maximize the environmental objective with
an almost complete reduction of nitrogen losses, there is a marked
drop in income (approximately half).
This reduction of losses is reached by successive scenarios that
involve an initial substitution of maize by soybean, as the latter
associates a still high income with lower nitrogen leaching. Then
wheat, the eld crop with the lowest losses, substitutes rst soybean and then alfalfa, expanding over much of the farmland. As the
environmental objective becomes more pressing, there is a marked
modication of the crop allocation, with the substitution of eld
crops by hedgerows. Analysis of the efcient frontier (Fig. 4) shows
that the opportunity cost for reducing nitrogen losses by almost half

is rather low (45 D ha1 ), and a nutrient reduction of almost 90%

involves a loss of income of less than 200 D ha1 . These are therefore modications to the farming system that are both economically
and environmentally sustainable.
Finally, investigating the three objectives together, new possible
solutions with respect to the simulations with two objectives can
be identied (Fig. 5). The usefulness of the information provided
by this approach becomes clear when focussing on the generated solutions. For example, two solutions involve an analogous
improvement in terms of attainable landscape quality (22.4%), but
a doubling in terms of reductions in income (the rst solution
involves a loss of 53 D ha1 and the second 100 D ha1 ). However,
the latter reduces nitrogen losses by almost 60%, whereas they drop
to 28% with the other.

4. Discussion

Fig. 3. Efcient frontier income-landscape for the land use combinations reported
in Table 5.

Planting wooded buffer strips in rural areas leads to environmental benets and opportunities for farmers. According to the
literature, the most relevant environmental effect of BS is the
control of diffuse pollution leaving croplands, transported in the
surface runoff and shallow subsurface ow. All the BS studied in
the three experiments showed performances in abating total suspended solids, nitrogen and phosphorus similar to those reported
in many studies (Kay et al., 2005). These substances are subjected to
different fates in the BS: suspended solids are trapped by the grass
(Dillaha et al., 1988; Dillaha and Inamdar, 1997), nitrogen can be
abated by plant absorption and microbial activity leading to denitrication (Verchot et al., 1997) and dissolved P can be uptaken by
plants and microbes (Welsch, 1991).
In one experiment, where the herbicides were also studied,
the BS abated the concentrations of all the molecules that passed

1
1
1
1
1

455
450
441
350
275
Meadow-woodland

1
1
1
1
4.7
22.4
41.9
42.1

Trees

Hedgerow-meadow

0.0
0.0
0.0
20.1
32.9
0.0
0.0
1.9
1.9
5.1
0.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.6
35.1
33.5
48.1
21.4
0.0
31.6
32.2
0.6
0.0
0.0
33.3
33.3
33.3
15.6
10.5
0.0
0.0
15.0
40.0
50.1
0
10
53
292
454
1164
1153
1111
872
709

3.574
3.742
4.373
5.072
5.079

Maize
area (%)
Alfalfa
area (%)
Meadow
area (%)
Var (%)
Var (D )

Landscape

109

Fig. 4. Efcient frontier income-nitrogen for the land use combinations reported
specied in Table 6.

Gross margin
(D ha1 )

Table 5
Solutions of the multi-objective analysis models. Criteria: income and landscape quality.

Soybean
area (%)

Trees
area (%)

Hedgerow
area (%)

Woodland
area (%)

Systemic indexes

Subsidies
(D ha1 )

M. Borin et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 32 (2010) 103111

through in the shallow water table by 55% and 95% depending on

the chemical properties of the active ingredients (terbuthylazine,
alachlor, nicosulfuron, pendimethalin, linuron). Other studies gave
comparable results considering some herbicides belonging to the
same families, as in example the ndings of Patty et al. (1997) and
Barnes and Kalita (2001) for atrazine or the ndings of Popov et
al. (2006) for metolachlor. The disappearance of these molecules
can be related to different processes such as enhanced degradation (Staddon et al., 2001), plant uptake in the BS (Paterson and
Schnorr, 1992) and absorption in the soil organic matter (Otto et
al., 2008). The pollution control performance obtained with the BS
in our experiments is of particular interest given that they were all
only 46 m wide, a size that is suitable for the Italian rural landscape. With narrow BS it is hence possible to achieve a satisfactory
protection of surface water bodies quality with a limited loss of
cropland.
At the same time, the timber production can represent an interesting non-conventional opportunity for integrating the farmers
income. In our experiments P. hybrida was grown according to a
scheme that involves the harvesting of wood every 57 years. Two
situations were taken into account, comparing the yield of wood
obtained in the rst cycle of cultivation, harvested 6 years after
plantation, and at plant maturity (more than 20 years old). In the
second case, the wood production per plant was three times higher
than in the rst cycle, suggesting that the economic advantage
increases over time. This information can be of help in changing
the perception of wooded BS, which should be considered not only
as unproductive lands functional for water cleaning, but as a productive part of the farm. At present, there is no consolidated market
for wood in Italy, but the prospects are favourable because interest
in renewable energy is growing due the scarcity of national sources
and the Kyoto Protocol. The yearly production of wood that can be
obtained from 1 ha of Platanus BS at the rst cultivation cycle can
supply the heating for a medium-sized house (500 m3 ). Given that
the average expense is around 2000 D if methane is used as energy
source, a potential reference value of wood can be derived.
Moreover, the soil in the BS accumulates more organic matter
than agricultural soils, because it is not subjected to the normal
cultivation practices. As a consequence BS act as a sink of atmospheric CO2 and can be considered as diffused woodlands within
the framework of the measures supported by the Kyoto Protocol to
reduce net C losses.
Considering the CO2 immobilized in the wood and soil together,
the BS can store up to 80 t ha1 year1 . The trading value on the CO2
world market is rather variable (e.g. from 16 to 29 D t1 , depending

110

M. Borin et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 32 (2010) 103111

Table 6
Solutions of the multi-objective analysis models. Criteria: income and nitrogen losses.
Gross margin
(D ha1 )
1164
1158
1143
1118
1078
970
709
679

Var (D )

5.7
20.4
45.2
85.4
193.6
454.3
484.5

Nitrogen
(kg ha1 )

Var (%)

Alfalfa
area (%)

Wheat
area (%)

Maize
area (%)

Soybean
area (%)

Trees
area (%)

Hedgerow
area (%)

Woodland
area (%)

Subsidies
(D ha1 )

28.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
8.5
3.5
0.2
0.1

0.0
10.7
28.6
46.4
69.6
87.5
99.3
100.4

33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
33.3
0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
16.8
66.7
61.8
94.9
62.0
59.1

31.6
16.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

35.1
50.1
50.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.9

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
32.9
32.9

455
455
455
455
432
432
282
268

Fig. 5. Efcient frontier income, landscape and nitrogen releases.

on time and reference market, Pettenella and Ciccarese, 2007), but

it can offer an interesting option for the farm income.
Lastly, the presence of hedgerows improves the populations
perceived naturalness of the area.
Against these positive functions in the agro-ecosystems, a slight
crop yield loss has been measured in proximity to the BS. This effect
is likely due to the shading by the trees rather than to other processes like competition. As the soil in the eld is ploughed every
year, this disturbs the development of the tree roots in the upper
soil prole, where most of the crop roots develop. The yield loss
near the BS was higher in sugarbeet, followed by soybean and maize
and this can be due to the age, and obviously size, of the trees in the
BS: sugarbeet was cultivated 4 years after the BS had been planted,
soybean after 3 years and maize after 2 years.
The results of the MOP model showed that without considering the opportunities offered by the sale of timber and the possible
trading of CO2 associated to C accumulation in the soil, allocating
about 5% of the farmland to BS can achieve signicantly reduced
nitrogen losses with a reduction in gross margin of less than
100 D ha1 . This could be the order of magnitude of a public subsidy
given to encourage farmers in the planting and managing of BS.
5. Conclusions
The results demonstrate the importance and multi-functionality
of buffer strips in the rural territory of the Veneto plain. Modern
agriculture is called upon to offer two main functions to society:
primary production and positive externalities. Buffer strips offer a
good opportunity to satisfy both these targets.

Within the multi-functional role of agriculture, some aspects

of hedgerows (e.g. timber production) have a straight monetary
value, while others properly belong to the public sector. Within this
framework, decision-makers need more information. The results
show that estimated opportunity costs can support the public
decision-maker in determining the subsidies to be paid to farmers to encourage them to pursue higher levels of environmental
quality.

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