THE ASTRONOMICAL MEANING OF BOTTICELLIS

PAINTINGS
Frank Keim
ABSTRACT: In Botticellis fresco Study of Saint Augustine (c. 1480) we find first measurements
of elongation angles of inner planets. The painting Birth of Venus (c. 1483-85) depicts the
phases of the inner planets: inferior conjunction, superior conjunction (only Venus) and
greatest elongation (Mercury and Venus). At the superior conjunction the Planet is fully
illuminated by the Sun, the phase angle is 0. The Venere nuda shows the angle 23.5 for the
obliquity of the ecliptic. Venus is in line with the Sun and the Earth, located behind the
Sun. At the greatest elongation, the phase angle is exactly 90, the elongation angle about
46. Finally, at inferior conjunction, Venus is fully dressed: there is only a small sickle. The
phase angle is 180. But this figure still shows the phase of maximum brightness that will
be achieved at about 39. So, this painting is one of the first allegories of the heliocentric
system in the Quattrocento.

1. The Adoration of the Kings

In a period of 30 years Sandro Botticelli (1445-May 1510) created five adorations
of the kings. The first adoration was painted before 1470 and probably begun by
his teacher Filippo Lippi (1406-1469). However, the focus is beginning to shift. The
adoration of the child is only the center as a matter of form. The observation of
exceptional phenomena of the sky, specifically of the comets is established as the
real theme.
In the second Adoration (Figure 1) can be recognized a riot: in the group below
we come across a man, who explains to his friend the phenomenon with a raised
arm. On the left and right side horses are shying. The musicians are blowing
heavily into their instruments, the shalms, the forerunners of the oboe. A man
with a look of despair is touching his head. However, many other people remain
unimpressed. The actions and reactions of man and animal are dedicated to the
comet, here the great comet of 1471.
C/1471 Y1 is unique among the bright comets of modern times, because no brighter
comet has come so close to the Earth. On 22 January 1472, the separation was just
10 million kilometres. [] By the third week of January it [the tail-length] had
increased to 30. According to contemporary reports at this time the head of he
comet was already as large as the Moon!1
1

Ronald Stoyan, Atlas of Great Comets (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 49.

Frank Keim

In the tondo the comet is represented by the peacock with its marvelous tail. It
was first seen on 8 January 1472 in the constellation of Libra.2 The distribution of
light and shadow in the upper round arch clearly shows that the Sun illuminates
the scenery from the left side.3 Its recognizable that the comets head is pointing
to the sun.4 Now, the central body of our planetary system was found: it is the
Sun. The comet was so important for our astronomer that he dedicated two
adorations to it.
In his third Adoration (Figure 2) we recognise Cosimo deMedici (1389-1464) in
the middle, and his sons Piero in the red coat and Giovanni, all of them
deceased at the time of the tables creation. On the left we see the grandsons:
Lorenzo, who is observing the comet and - black dressed Giuliano. Our early
astronomer, Sandro Botticelli, is standing in the front, dressed in an ocker coat
with golden boarders. The peacock is above him. The founder of the table,
Guaspare del Lama (1409-1481) is pointing to its tail. Again, the comets head is
pointing to the Sun.5 This painting is not only meant to honour the Medici but
also to commemorate the observance of comets since 1433 in Florence. The
observer then was Paolo Toscanelli (1397-1482), a contemporary of Cosimo.

See Jane L. Jervis, Cometary Theory in Fifteenth-Century Europa (Wroclaw [u.a.]: The Polish
Academy of Sciences Press), 1985, 65.
3 The author would like to thank Dr. Georgios Kavallaris for this important observation
(made after the authors INSAP-presentation in August 2015).
4 In this case, Botticelli would have anticipated the Schweifrichtungsgesetz, which was
formulated later by Peter Apian (Bennewitz) (1495-1552): the comets tail is always in
opposition to the Sun (See Christoph Meinel, Grenzgnger zwischen Himmel und Erde.
Kometen in der Frhen Neuzeit (Univ.-Verlag: Regensburg, 2009), 17).
5 The source of light coming from above was interpreted as a star by Lightbown (See
Ronald Lightbown, Sandro Botticelli (Mnchen: Hirmer, 1989), 68). Considering that the
great comet of 1472 was also visible by day (See Gary Kronk, Cometography, Vol. 1
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 288), however, the Sun was to be meant
instead of this star.
2

The Birth of Venus

Figure 1. Sandro Botticelli, The Adoration of the Kings, c. 1472. The National Gallery, London
(drawing of the author).6
Left side: Adorazione dei Magi of Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), photo dAlexandra
Grmling et Tilman Lingesleben (traduction de Stphane Schoonover), H.F. Ullmann,
Cologne, 2007. ISBN 9783833138102. URL der Seite:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ASandro_Botticelli__Adoration_des_Mages.jpg. URL der Datei:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Sandro_Botticelli__Adoration_des_Mages.jpg.
Bildnachweis
Libra:
Libra_constellation_map.png
von
Torsten
Bronger
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Libra_constellation_map.png). Das Original
wurde unter einer Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en) Lizenz verffentlicht. (Diese
Abbildung steht unter einer Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Lizenz).
Right side: The Adoration of the Magi of Sandro Botticelli (1444/45-1510), digitized by the
Web Gallery of Art: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Gallery_of_Art. URL der Seite:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ASandro_Botticelli_6

Frank Keim

Figure 2. Sandro Botticelli, The Adoration of the Kings, c. 1473. Uffizi Gallery, Florence
(drawing of the author).7

2. The Study of Saint Augustine8

In the fresco we see an armillary sphere on the left side, and some folios in the
background. Although we are not absolutely certain to assume that the folio with

_Adoration_of_the_Magi_-_WGA2700.jpg. URL der Datei:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Sandro_Botticelli__Adoration_of_the_Magi_-_WGA2700.jpg.
7 Die Anbetung der Knige of Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), digitized by
http://www.allartpainting.com/adoration-of-the-magi-2-p-619.html. URL der Seite:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sandro_Botticelli_Adoration_of_the_Magi_2
.jpg?uselang=de. URL der Datei:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Sandro_Botticelli_Adoration
_of_the_Magi_2.jpg.
8

c. 1480. Fresco in Ognissanti, Florence.

The Birth of Venus

the scribblings represents Sacroboscos treatise De Sphaera, first printed in 1472 in

Ferrara and Venice. In front of the folio theres an astronomical clock whose
pointer is directed at hour 24, the time of sunset. Is this the time when our
astronomer observed the sky? Augustine alias Botticelli deeply moved is looking
at the sphere. Hes directing one hand to his heart, the center of human beings.
Does he ask for the center of the world? With his fingers he indicates an angle of
18 degrees, the elongation of the Mercury.
3a. The Birth of Venus: The astronomical aspects (Figure 3)
What does this painting really express? First of all, we have to recognise that there
are only two persons in the painting: theres only one female person, the Venus,
in three (or four) different phases, representing the Planet. The male person on
the left side represents the Planet Mercury. I suggest an astronomical and physical
view on the painting.

Figure 3: Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, 1483-85. Uffizi Gallery, Florence.9

Die Geburt der Venus of Sandro Botticelli (1444/45-1510), photo of w:User:The Singing

Frank Keim

Lets begin with the half venus on the left side (Figure 4). We measure a 46-degree
angle for the greatest elongation. The phase angle is 90 degrees. Botticelli has
realized this by covering one half of each body. For Venus, its easy to
demonstrate: one breast, shoulder and arm are uncovered, also a leg; likewise for
Mercury.
The naked Venus on the half seashell represents the superior conjunction. Venus
is inline with the Sun and the Earth, located behind the Sun. With her right hand
she forms the angle of 23.5 degrees, for the obliquity of the ecliptic.10 In this
constellation, the phase and the elongation angles are 0.
The figure on the right is wearing a belt of roses as sign for Venus. With her right
arm shes showing the phase of maximum brightness which will be achieved at
about 39 degrees. Here, the phase angle is about 120 (we can reconstruct from
this figure the inferior conjunction too where shes fully dressed).11

Badger: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:The_Dancing_Badger. URL der Seite:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Botticelli_Venus.jpg?uselang=de. URL der
Datei: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Botticelli_Venus.jpg.
10 This value was detected by Toscanelli and Alberti in 1468 or some years later. See John
L. Heilbron, The Sun in the Church : Cathedrals as Solar Observatories (Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.]
: Harvard Univ. Press), 1999, 70-71.
11 See for detailed explanations of the Venus phases the authors book Sandro Botticelli : Die
astronomischen Werke (Hamburg: Dr. Kova), 2015, 34ff.

The Birth of Venus

Figure 4. Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, 1483-85. Uffizi Gallery, Florence (inscriptions
and drawing by the author).

The height of the naked Venus and the width of the half seashell are almost
equal (Figure 5). The Mediterranean shell can reach a maximum size of 14 cm.12 If
we suppose the size of a 15th century woman is 140 cm or 150 cm, then the
reduction of Venus is about 10. This is the case when it reaches the superior
conjunction, the size there is only 6 arc seconds. At inferior conjunction this value
changes into 1 arc minute. The reduced Venus is placed next to the dressed one at
the bottom of the figure.

12

The seashell is clearly a Pecten jacobaeus.

Frank Keim

Figure 5. Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, 1483-85. Uffizi Gallery, Florence (inscription
and drawing by the author).13

3b. The Birth of Venus: The physical forces (Figure 6)

There are three hints at physical forces in the painting. First, we can observe
falling roses, representing gravity. The sea takes up a great area in the painting.
In the Earth-Moon-System the tide forces are effective, which was also known by
Copernicus. Thirdly, by generalizing this Botticelli has achieved the gravitational
force, valid everywhere. He recognised that masses attract each other, here
symbolized by the embrace of the two Planets. 14 In addition, our painter seems to
imply centrifugal forces, represented by the wings of the bodies.
Now, we can explain the blowing of Mercury and Venus, too. The stability
of the planetary system requires that both forces are equal. Now, the mass of
Mercury is lower than Venus, and its nearer to the Sun. So, its speed must be
higher than Venus, a fact that is symbolized by Mercurys stronger blowing. So,

Pecten jacobaeus von Andreas Tille (URL der Seite:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3APecten_jacobaeus.jpg. URL der Datei:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Pecten_jacobaeus.jpg). Das
Original wurde unter einer Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0
International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en) Lizenz
verffentlicht.
14 Thus, the attraction of masses (the gravitational force) was recognized in a qualitative
respect a long time before Descartes (1596-1650).
13

The Birth of Venus

they are engaging in a light embrace: Venus must release her partner for a short
moment, because of his higher speed.

Figure 6. Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, 1483-85. Uffizi Gallery, Florence (drawing by
the author).

4. The Madonna del Magnificat

I suppose that the young people around the Madonna del Magnificat are not angels
but Planets. In the Madonna del Magnificat (Figure 7) we have five Planets,
representing the system according to Martianus Capella: Mercury and Venus are
rotating about the Sun which is seen as a Planet.15 From the left Mercury, Mars,
Jupiter (in yellow) and Saturn. The Earth constitutes the center of the tondo and
on the right the Sun (the Madonna), the Moon (the bambino) and Venus, who is
holding the crown together with Mercury. The relation between the area for
Mercurys and Venus space is about 1 to 3. This corresponds to the astronomical
situation of a maximum elongation: about 8 for the Mercury, and 24 for Venus.
So, this tondo is a magnificent conclusion of the astronomy of the Middle Ages.

15

In the eight book of his treatise De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii.

10

Frank Keim

Figure 7. Sandro Botticelli, Madonna del Magnificat, c. 1483. Uffizi Gallery, Florence (drawing
by the author). 16

5. The Calumniation of Apelles (Figure 8)

If this interpretation doesnt convince you, please have a look at this little table
Botticelli made at the end of the 90s: The Calumniation of Apelles (c. 1497). The
subject of the painting is the attack on Botticellis supposedly scandalouse
paintings like the Venus and others. Based on the legend according to Lukian, we
see ten persons, with the naked Venus on the left side and king Ptolemy on the
right. We have two groups, the accusers, the Dominican friar, a follower of
Savonarola, the calumnia with the torch and the ragged journeyman, and the
defendent, Sandro Botticelli and his supporters.
If you speculate that the naked Venus has been taken from the former picture
your right! Venus is pointing at the sky and showing the angle for the obliquity
with her other hand. In the form of inferior conjunction (in red) shes withholding

Madonna del Magnificat of Sandro Botticelli (1444/45-1510), digitized by

ZgEiSSEEoWAUdw at Google Cultural Institute:
https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/asset/ZgEiSSEEoWAUdw. URL der
Seite: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sandro_Botticelli__Madonna_del_Magnificat_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg?uselang=de. URL der Datei:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Sandro_
Botticelli_-_Madonna_del_Magnificat_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg.
16

The Birth of Venus 11

the Calumnia, scattering roses on her shoulder and hair. As halfvenus shes
binding her hair protecting her from the emotional condemnation of the painter.
The painting demonstrates that its subject is clearly an astronomical one.

Figure 8. Sandro Botticelli, The Calumniation of Apelles, c. 1497. Uffizi Gallery, Florence
(inscription by the author).17

Die Verleumdung des Apelles of Sandro Botticelli (1444/45-1510), digitized by The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed
by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. URL der Seite:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg?uselang=de. URL
der Datei:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Sandro_Botticelli_021.jpg.
17

12

Frank Keim

Bibliography
Heilbron, John L. The Sun in the Church : Cathedrals as Solar Observatories.
Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.] : Harvard Univ. Press, 1999.
Jervis, Jane L. Cometary Theory in Fifteenth-Century Europe. Wroclaw [u.a.]: The
Polish Academy of Sciences Press, 1985.
Keim, Frank. Sandro Botticelli : Die astronomischen Werke. Hamburg: Dr. Kova,
2015.
Kronk, Gary. Cometography, Vol. 1: Ancient1799. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1999.
Lightbown, Ronald. Sandro Botticelli. Mnchen: Hirmer, 1989.
Meinel, Christoph. Grenzgnger zwischen Himmel und Erde. Kometen in der Frhen
Neuzeit. Univ.-Verlag: Regensburg, 2009.
Stoyan, Ronald. Atlas of Great Comets. Translated by Storm Dunlop. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2015.