POSTHARVEST HANDLING

Quality and Maturity

Components of Quality

Quality Standards
Maturity in Relation to Quality

Biological Factors Involved in Deterioration

Respiration
Ethylene Production

Compositional Changes
Growth and Development

Transpiration or Water Loss

Physiological Breakdown
Physical Damage

Pathological Breakdown

Environmental Factors Influencing Deterioration

Temperature
Relative Humidity
Atmospheric Composition
Ethylene
Light

Food Safety

Harvesting
Harvest Methods
Management of Harvesting Operations

Preparation for Market

Packinghouse Facilities
Packinghouse Operations

Cooling and Cold Storage Facilities

Ripening Facility

Transportation
Quality Control

Storage

Storage Temperature and Relative Humidity

Ethylene Exclusion or Removal
Treatments to Reduce Ethylene Damage
Controlled and Modified Atmospheres

POSTHARVEST HANDLING
Losses in quantity and quality affect horticultural
crops between harvest and consumption. The
magnitude of postharvest losses in fresh fruits and
vegetables is an estimated 5 to 25 percent in
developed countries and 20 to 50 percent in
developing countries, depending upon the
commodity. To reduce these losses, producers and
handlers must understand the biological and
environmental factors involved in deterioration and
use postharvest techniques that delay senescence and
maintain the best possible quality.

Fresh fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals are living

tissues subject to continuous change after harvest.
Although some changes are desirable, most - from
the consumer's standpoint - are not. Postharvest
changes in fresh produce cannot be stopped, but they
can be slowed within certain limits. Senescence is the
final stage in the development of plant organs during
which a series of irreversible events leads to
breakdown and death of the plant cells.

QUALITY AND MATURITY

Components of Quality

Quality is defined as "any of the features that make

something what it is" or the degree of excellence or
superiority. The word quality is used in various
ways in reference to fresh fruits and vegetables such
as market quality, edible quality, dessert quality,
shipping quality, nutritional quality, internal quality,
and visual quality.

Components of quality of fresh horticultural crops (1)

MAIN FACTORS
Appearance (visual)

Texture

COMPONENTS
Size: dimensions, weight, volume
Shape and form: diameter/depth ratio, smoothness,
compactness
Color: uniformity, intensity
Gloss: wax
Defects: external, internal
Morphological (such as sprouting, rooting, and
floret opening)
Physical and mechanical (such as shriveling and
bruising)
Physiological (such as blossom end rot of
tomatoes)
Pathological (caused by fungi, bacteria, or
viruses)
Entomological (caused by insects)
Firmness, hardness, softness
Crispness
Succulence, juiciness
Mealiness, grittiness
Toughness, fibrousness

Components of quality of fresh horticultural crops (2)

Flavor (taste and smell)

Nutritive value

Safety

Sweetness
Sourness (acidity)
Astringency
Bitterness
Aroma (volatile compounds)
Off-flavors and off-odors
Carbohydrates (including dietary fiber)
Proteins
Lipids
Vitamins
Minerals
Naturally occurring toxicants
Contaminants (chemical residues, heavy
metals, etc.)
Mycotoxins
Microbial contamination

Numerous defects can influence appearance

quality of horticultural crops. Morphological defects
include sprouting of potatoes, onions, and garlic,
rooting of onions, and seed germination inside fruits.
Physical defects include shriveling and wilting of
all commodities; internal drying of some fruits; and
mechanical damage such as punctures, cuts and deep
scratches. Temperature-related disorders (freezing,
chilling, sunburn, sun-scald), puffiness of tomatoes,
blossom-end rot of tomatoes, tipburn of lettuce,
internal breakdown of stone fruits, water core of
apples, and black heart of potatoes are examples of
physiological defects.
(aszalds)

Textural quality of horticultural crops is not only

important for their eating and cooking quality but also
for their shipping ability. Soft fruits cannot be
shipped long distances without extensive losses
owing to physical injuries. This has necessitated
harvesting fruits at less than ideal maturity from the
flavor quality standpoint in many cases.

Flavor quality involves perception of the tastes and

aromas of many compounds. Objective analytical
determination of critical components must be
coupled with subjective evaluations by a taste panel
to yield useful and meaningful information about
flavor quality of fresh fruits and vegetables. This
approach can be used to define a minimum level of
acceptability. To find out consumer preferences for
flavor of a given commodity, large-scale testing by a
representative sample of consumers is required.

Fresh fruits and vegetables play a very significant

role in human nutrition, especially as sources of
vitamins (vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin B6, thiamin,
niacin), minerals, and dietary fiber. They also contain
many phytochemicals (such as antioxidant phenolic
compounds and carotenoids) that have been
associated with reduced risk of some forms of cancer,
heart disease, stroke, and other chronic diseases.
Postharvest losses in nutritional quality, particularly
vitamin C content, can be substantial and are
enhanced by physical damage, extended storage,
higher temperature, low relative humidity, and
chilling injury of chilling-sensitive commodities.

Safety factors include levels of naturally occurring

toxicants in certain crops (such as glycoalkaloids in
potatoes) that vary according to genotypes and are
routinely monitored by plant breeders to ensure that they
do not exceed their safe levels in new cultivars.
Contaminants, such as chemical residues and heavy
metals, on fresh fruits and vegetables are also monitored
by various agencies to ensure compliance with established
maximum tolerance levels. Sanitation procedures
throughout the harvesting and postharvest handling
operations are essential to minimizing microbial
contamination. Proper preharvest and postharvest handling
procedures must be enforced to reduce the potential for
growth and development of mycotoxin-producing fungi.

Quality Standards
Grade standards are developed to identify the degrees of
quality in a given commodity which aid in establishing its
usability and value. Such standards are important tools in the
marketing of fresh fruits and vegetables because they (1)
provide a common language for trading among growers,
handlers, processors, and receivers at terminal markets; (2)
assist producers and handlers in preparing fresh horticultural
commodities for market and labeling goods appropriately;
(3) provide a basis for making incentive payment for better
quality; (4) serve as the basis for market reporting (prices
and supplies quoted if they are based on products of
comparable quality); and (5) help settle damage claims and
disputes between buyers and sellers.

Quality factors for selected fresh fruits and vegetables in the U.S.
standards for grades
Commodity
Apple

Grape

Lettuce

Tomato

QUALITY FACTORS_______________________________________
Maturity, color (color charts), firmness, shape, size; freedom from
decay, internal browning, internal breakdown, scald, scab, bitter
pit, Jonathan spot, freezing injury, water core, bruises, russeting,
scars, insect damage, and other defects.
Maturity (as determined by % soluble solids), color, uniformity,
firmness,berry size; freedom from shriveling, shattering, sunburn,
waterberry, shot berries, dried berries, other defects, and decay.
Bunches: fairly well filled but not excessively tight. Stems: not dry
and brittle, at least yellowish-green in color.
Turgidity, color, maturity (firmness), trimming (number of wrapper
leaves); freedom from tip burn and other physiological disorders;
freedom from mechanical damage, seedstems, other defects, and
decay.
Maturity and ripeness stage (color chart), firmness, shape, size;
freedom from defects (puffiness, freezing injury, sunscald, scars,
catfaces, growth cracks, insect injury, and other defects) and
decay.

Maturity in Relation to Quality

Although numerous objective indices for maturity
are available, only a few are actually used in practice
because they are in most cases destructive and
difficult to do in the field or orchard.
For many vegetables, the optimum eating quality is
reached before full maturity (true for leafy vegetables
and immature fruits including cucumbers, sweet
corn, green beans, and peas). With these crops
delayed harvest results in lower quality at harvest and
faster deterioration after harvest.

Maturity at harvest is the most important factor that

determines storage life and final fruit quality.
Immature fruits are more subject to shriveling and
mechanical damage and are of inferior quality when
ripe. Overripe fruits are likely to become soft and
mealy with insipid flavor soon after harvest. Fruits
picked either too early or too late in the season are
more susceptible to physiological disorders and have
a shorter storage life than those picked at the proper
maturity.

Maturity indices for selected fruits and vegetables (1)

INDEX
EXAMPLES___
Elapsed days from full bloom to harvest
Apples, pears
Mean heat units during fruit development Peas, sweet
corn
Development of abscission layer
Muskmelon
Surface morphology and structure
Cuticle formation on
grapes and tomatoes
Gloss of some fruits
(development of wax)
Size
All fruits and many vegetables
Specific gravity
Cherries, watermelons, potatoes
Shape
Angularity of banana fingers
Compactness of broccoli and cauliflower

Maturity indices for selected fruits and vegetables (2)

INDEX
EXAMPLES_________________________
Solidity
Lettuce, cabbage, Brussels sprouts
Textural properties
Firmness
Apples, pears, stone fruits
Tenderness
Peas
Toughness
Asparagus
Color, external
All fruits and most vegetables
Internal color and structure
Formation of jelly-like material in tomato
fruits
Flesh color of some fruits
Compositional factors
Total solids
Avocado, kiwifruit
Starch content
Apples, pears
Sugar content, acid content, Apples, pears, stone fruits, grapes,
and/or sugar/acid ratio
pomegranates, citrus, papaya, melons
Juice content
Lemons, limes
Oil content
Avocados
Astringency (tannin content) Persimmons, dates
Internal ethylene concentration Apples

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN

DETERIORATION

Respiration
Respiration is the process by which stored organic materials
(carbohydrates, proteins, fats) are broken down into simple end products
with a release of energy. Oxygen (O2) is used in this process, and carbon
dioxide (CO2) is produced. The loss of stored food reserves in the
commodity during respiration hastens senescence as the reserves that
provide energy to maintain the commodity's living status are exhausted;
reduces food value (energy value) for the consumer; causes loss of flavor
quality, especially sweetness; and causes loss of salable dry weight
(especially important for commodities destined for dehydration). The
energy released as heat, known as vital heat, affects postharvest
technology considerations such as estimations of refrigeration and
ventilation requirement.
Respiration rate is related to deterioration rate of horticultural
perishables; the higher the respiration rate, the faster the deterioration
rate and shorter the postharvest-life of a given commodity. Respiration
rate increases with temperature, exposure to ethylene, and physical and
physiological stresses.

Ethylene Production
Ethylene, the simplest of the organic compounds affecting the
physiological processes of plants, is a natural product of plant
metabolism and is produced by all tissues of higher plants and
by some microorganisms. As a plant hormone, ethylene
regulates many aspects of growth, development, and senescence
and is physiologically active in trace amounts (less than 0.1
ppm). It also plays a major role in the abscission of plant organs.
Generally, ethylene production rates increase with maturity at
harvest, physical injures, disease incidence, increased
temperatures up to 30C, and water stress. On the other hand,
ethylene production rates by fresh horticultural crops are
reduced by storage at low temperature, and by reduced O2 (less
than 8 percent) or ethylene is competitively inhibited by elevated
CO2 (above 1 percent) levels around the commodity.

Compositional Changes
Many changes in pigments take place during development and
maturation of the commodity on the plant. Some may continue
after harvest and can be desirable or undesirable. Loss of
chlorophyll (green color) is desirable in fruits but not in vegetables.
Development of carotenoids (yellow and orange colors) is desirable
in fruits such as apricots, peaches, and citrus; the desired red color
development in tomatoes, watermelons, and pink grapefruit is due
to a specific carotenoid (lycopene); beta-carotene is provitamin A
and is important in nutritional quality. Development of
anthocyanins (red and blue colors) is desirable in fruits such as
apples (red cultivars), pomegranates, cherries, strawberries, cane
berries, and red-flesh oranges; these water-soluble pigments are
much less stable than carotenoids. Changes in anthocyanins and
other phenolic compounds, however, are undesirable because they
may result in tissue browning.

Changes in carbohydrates include starch-to-sugar

conversion (undesirable in potatoes but desirable in apple,
banana, kiwifruit, mango, and other fruits), sugar-to-starch
conversion (undesirable in peas and sweet corn but desirable
in potatoes), and conversion of starch and sugars to CO2 and
water through respiration. Breakdown of pectins and other
polysaccharides results in softening of fruits and a consequent
increase in susceptibility to mechanical injures. Increased
lignin content is responsible for toughening of asparagus
spears and root vegetables.
Changes in organic acids, proteins, amino acids, and lipids
can influence flavor quality of the commodity. Loss in vitamin
content, especially ascorbic acid (vitamin C), is detrimental
to nutritional quality. Production of flavor volatiles associated
with ripening of fruits is very important to their eating quality.

Growth and Development

Sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlic, and root crops
greatly reduces their utilization value and accelerates
deterioration. Rooting of onions and root crops is
also undesirable.
Similar geotropic responses occur in cut gladiolus
and snapdragon flowers stored horizontally. Seed
germination inside fruits such as tomatoes, peppers,
and lemons is an undesirable change.

Transpiration or Water Loss

Water loss is a main cause of deterioration because it results
not only in direct quantitative losses (loss of salable weight)
but also in losses in appearance (wilting and shriveling),
textural quality (softening, flaccidity, limpness, loss of
crispness and juiciness), and nutritional quality.

Transpiration rate is influenced by internal or commodity

factors (morphological and anatomical characteristics,
surface-to-volume ratio, surface injuries, and maturity stage)
and external or environmental factors (temperature, relative
humidity, air movement, and atmospheric pressure).
Transpiration (evaporation of water from the plant tissues) is
a physical process that can be controlled by applying
treatments to the commodity (e.g., waxes and other surface
coatings and wrapping with plastic films) or by
manipulating the environment (e.g., maintenance of high
relative humidity and control of air circulation.

Physiological Breakdown
Exposure of the commodity to undesirable temperatures can result in
physiological disorders. Freezing injury results when commodities are
held below their freezing temperatures. The disruption caused by
freezing usually results in immediate collapse of the tissues and total
loss. Chilling injury occurs in some commodities (mainly those of
tropical and subtropical origin) held at temperatures above their freezing
point and below 5 to 15C (41-59F), depending on the commodity.
Chilling injury symptoms become more noticeable upon transfer to
higher (nonchilling) temperatures. The most common symptoms are
surface and internal discoloration (browning), pitting, water soaked
areas, uneven ripening or failure to ripen, off-flavor development, and
accelerated incidence of surface molds and decay (especially organisms
not usually found growing on healthy tissue). Heat injury is induced by
exposure to direct sunlight or to excessively high temperatures. Its
symptoms include bleaching, surface burning or scalding, uneven
ripening, excessive softening, and desiccation.

Chilling injury of Persimmons

Chilling injury of Pomegranate

Chilling injury of Olive

Sunburn of apple

Certain types of physiological disorders originate

from preharvest nutritional imbalances. For example,
blossom-end rot of tomatoes and bitter pit of apples
result from calcium deficiency. Increasing calcium
content via preharvest or postharvest treatments can
reduce the susceptibility to physiological disorders.
Calcium content also influences the textural quality
and senescence rate of fruits and vegetables; increased
calcium content has been associated with improved
firmness retention, reduced CO2 and ethylene
production rates, and decreased decay incidence.

Very low oxygen (less than 1 percent) and high

carbon dioxide (greater than 20 percent) atmospheres
can cause physiological breakdown (fermentative
metabolism) of most fresh horticultural commodities.
Ethylene can induce physiological disorders in certain
commodities. The interactions among O2, CO2, and
ethylene concentrations, temperature, and duration of
storage influence the incidence and severity of
physiological disorders related to atmospheric
composition.

Bitter pit of apple

Core breakdown of pear

Peach Inking

Internal browning of apple

Storage scald of apple

Physical Damage
Various types of physical damage (surface injuries,
impact bruising, vibration bruising, and so on) are
major contributors to deterioration. Browning of
damaged tissues results from membrane disruption,
which exposes phenolic compounds to the polyphenol
oxidase enzyme. Mechanical injuries not only are
unsightly but also accelerate water loss, provide sites
for fungal infection, and stimulate CO2 and ethylene
production by the commodity.

Pits caused by a drop

to a rough surface

SHOULDER BRUISE

Pathological Breakdown

One of the most common and obvious symptoms of

deterioration results from the activity of bacteria and fungi.
Attack by most organisms follows physical injury or
physiological breakdown of the commodity. In a few cases,
pathogens can infect apparently healthy tissues and become
the primary cause of deterioration. In general, fruits and
vegetables exhibit considerable resistance to potential
pathogens during most of their postharvest life. The onset of
ripening in fruits, and senescence in all commodities, renders
them susceptible to infection by pathogens. Stresses such as
mechanical injuries, chilling, and sunscald lower the resistance
to pathogens.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

INFLUENCING DETERIORATION

Temperature
Temperature is the environmental factor that most
influences the deterioration rate of harvested commodities.
For each increase of 10C (18F) above optimum, the rate of
deterioration increases twofold to fourfold. Exposure to
undesirable temperatures results in many physiological
disorders (as previously mentioned). Temperature also
influences the effects of ethylene and controlled atmospheres
(reduced oxygen and elevated carbon dioxide concentrations).
Spore germination and growth rate of pathogens are greatly
influenced by temperature; for instance, cooling commodities
below 5C (41F) immediately after harvest can greatly
reduce the incidence of Rhizopus rot.

Relative Humidity
The rate of water loss from fruits and vegetables
depends on the vapor pressure deficit between the
commodity and the surrounding ambient air, which is
influenced by temperature and relative humidity. At a
given temperature and rate of air movement, the rate
of water loss from the commodity depends on the
relative humidity. At a given relative humidity, water
loss increases with the increase in temperature.

Atmospheric Composition
Reduction of oxygen and elevation of carbon
dioxide, whether intentional (modified or controlled
atmosphere storage) or unintentional (restricted
ventilation within a shipping container, a transport
vehicle, or both), can either delay or accelerate
deterioration of fresh horticultural crops. The
magnitude of these effects depends on commodity,
cultivar, physiological age, O2 and CO2 levels,
temperature, and duration of holding.

Ethylene
The effects of ethylene on harvested horticultural
commodities can be desirable or undesirable, so it is a
major concern to all produce handlers. Ethylene can
be used to promote faster and more uniform ripening
of fruits picked at the mature-green stage. On the other
hand, exposure to ethylene can be detrimental to the
quality of most nonfruit vegetables and ornamentals.
(htrnyos)

Light

Exposure of potatoes to light should be avoided

because it results in formation of chlorophyll
(greening) and solanine (toxic to humans). Lightinduced greening of Belgian endive, garlic, and onion
is also undesirable.

FOOD

SAFETY

Over the past few years, food safety has become and
continues to be the number one concern of the fresh
produce industry.
To Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for
Fresh Fruits and Vegetables is based on the following
principles:

(1) Prevention of microbial contamination of fresh produce

is favored over reliance on corrective actions once
contamination has occurred;
(2) In order to minimize microbial food safety hazards in
fresh produce, growers, packers, or shippers should use good
agricultural and management practices in those areas over
which they have control;

(3) Fresh produce can become microbiologically

contaminated at any point along the farm-to-table food chain.
The major source of microbial contamination with fresh
produce is associated with human or animal feces;

(4) Whenever water comes in contact with produce, its

quality dictates the potential for contamination. The potential
of microbial contamination from water used with fresh fruits
and vegetables must be minimized;
(5) The use of animal manure or municipal biosolid wastes
as fertilizers should be closely managed in order to minimize
the potential for microbial contamination of fresh produce;
and

(6) Worker hygiene and sanitation practices during

production, harvest, sorting, packing, and transport play a
critical role in minimizing the potential for microbial
contamination of fresh produce.

HARVESTING

Harvest Methods
Fresh vegetables, fruits, and flowers are still
harvested by hand. Only humans have the unique
combination of eyes, brain, and hands that permits the
rapid harvest of delicate and perishable crops with
minimal loss and bruising. Harvesters can also be
trained to select only those fruits or vegetables of the
correct maturity, thus greatly reducing the amount of
material that must be removed on the grading line in
the packing shed. In fact, some crops can be harvested
directly into shipping containers without further sizing
or grading.

Mechanical harvesters
are usually sophisticated
and have a very high unit cost. They may require a
smaller but more skilled labor force. Savings may be
realized because the harvest can be accomplished in
less time.
Crops are often damaged, or poorer grade, and more
susceptible to decay when mechanically harvested.
Mechanically harvested commodities often are fit only
for processing.

Management of Harvesting Operations

Management of harvesting and delivery to the packinghouse

operations to maintain the commodity's quality may involve some or all
of the following aspects:
1. Organization, training, supervision, and motivation of the
harvesting crew to achieve maximum efficiency while maintaining
effective quality control (selection of proper maturity, discarding
unmarketable units, and avoiding physical damage).
2. Scheduling harvesting during the cooler part of the day,
protecting the harvested commodity from the sun, and expediting
transport to the packinghouse to reduce losses in quality due to high
temperatures.
3. Reducing physical injuries during harvesting and transport to the
packinghouse by ensuring that buckets, field boxes, bins, and gondolas
used are clean and have smooth surfaces; by grading roads to eliminate
potholes and bumps; and by restricting speed of transport vehicle to a
level that will avoid free movement of the commodity.

PREPARATION FOR MARKET

Preparation for market eliminates unwanted material and

selects items of similar grade in order to improve the value of
the marketed portion of the crop. If the value of the crop is not
improved by packing, it is a waste of money to run the crop
through a packinghouse.
The preparation of fruits and vegetables for marketing can be a
very simple operation, as in the harvesting and field packing of
lettuce, or it may involve many separate handling steps.
Field packing has the following advantages over a
packinghouse operation: less material to transport and dispose,
fewer handling steps, less damage to the commodity, better
quality, and less initial cost. It has its disadvantages, however.
It offers less control over quality, and calls for a skilled labor
force. Operations also depend on good weather more than
packinghouse operations do, and it may be difficult to cool some
commodities in containers.

Packinghouse Facilities
The primary components of a packinghouse include the
following:
Shaded produce assembly area, unloading dock, and
scale for weighting received products.
Several packing lines that can be adjusted to
accommodate various commodities. The number and
size of packing lines will depend on the kinds and
quantities of commodities that need to be prepared for
market each day. In general, about 1.5 m2 of
packinghouse floor space will be needed for each ton of
product to be handled per day.

Area for storage of shipping containers and other

packaging materials and for box making, and an
automated system for delivery of these boxes to the
packaging area.
Forced-air cooling facility adjacent to a cold storage
facility. About 0.7 m2 of cold storage space will be
needed per ton to be handled per day. Two cooling and
storage facilities may be needed to accommodate
chilling-sensitive and chilling-insensitive commodities
(optimum temperatures of about 10C and 0C,
respectively).
A shaded loading dock connected to the cooling and
cold storage facilities for loading the commodities into
refrigerated transport vehicles.

A ripening facility if mature-green tomatoes and other

commodities that need ethylene treatment will be
handled.
An enclosed area for partial or complete processing of
commodities that are not usable for the fresh market.
A cull accumulation area.
Offices for management personnel.
Laboratory and office space for quality and safety
assurance personnel.
Designated area for workers including assigned
lockers, tables and chairs, restrooms, and vending
machines for snacks and drinks.
(selejt)

The typical series of operations

in a packinghouse

Packinghouse Operations

Packinghouse Operations
Dumping may be accomplished either in water or dry. The
dump tank should be designed for rapid emptying and filling
and for easy cleaning. Cleaning vegetables and fruits may be
done by dry brushing. In most cases, however, washing with
water containing a detergent and/or 100 to 150 ppm chlorine
will be required. A final rinse with clean water usually follows
washing. Sorting for removal of defects and for quality
grading is done manually. Effective sorting requires adequate
belt space, ability to adjust product flow, assignment of
responsibility among workers, adequate lighting, and worker
training and supervision. The sizer must also be of adequate
capacity in relation to the product volume. Weight or machine
vision sizers are more versatile and should be used for a
multipurpose packing line.

Sorting and packing stand

Waxing of certain fruits and fruit-vegetables is used mostly

for enhancing appearance and reducing water loss by about
30 to 40 percent, especially if the commodity is exposed to
less-than-optimal temperature and relative humidity
conditions. An increasing number of consumers however,
prefer unwaxed fruits and vegetables. A more effective (and
possibly more expensive) alternative to waxing is wrapping
individual or multiple units of the commodity with thin
polymeric films that restrict water vapor movement without
significantly altering diffusion of O2, CO2, and ethylene.

The waxing device

The packing method should immobilize the commodity

within the shipping container as much as possible to reduce
vibration bruising. It should avoid overfilling, which causes
compression bruising, and should be cushioned against
impacts to reduce impact bruising. The shipping containers
used should be selected for strength and stacking ability and
should be adequately ventilated (at least 5 percent of the
surface) for both vertical and horizontal air flow during
cooling, storage, and transport. Shipping containers should
have attractive labeling that includes the commodity's optimal
holding temperature (color coded in accordance with the
color coding proposed for the storage rooms at the
distribution center). A code stamped on each box indicating
production area, grower, cultivar, and shipping date would
help trace possible causes of problems.

Cooling and Cold Storage Facilities

Forced-air cooling is the most versatile cooling method
provided that the relative humidity of the air is kept above 95
percent. Hydrocooling is a faster cooling method, but not all
commodities tolerate wetting. Waxed cartons must be used if
the commodity is hydrocooled after packing.

Cold storage rooms should be adjacent to the cooling

facility in order to facilitate transfer of the cooled commodity
into the storage area and to prevent rewarming of the
commodity before it is loaded into the transport vehicle.

Ripening Facility
A ripening facility may be needed for initiating
ripening of some commodities such as mature-green
tomatoes, bananas, avocados, mangos, and some
muskmelons. Such a facility may include several
rooms equipped with systems for temperature and
relative humidity control as well as for ethylene
introduction and uniform distribution within the
room. The optimum temperature range for ripening is
15 to 25C; the higher the temperature, the faster the
ripening. The optimum relative humidity range is 90
to 95 percent.

Transportation
The comparative advantages and disadvantages of
truck versus rail transport should be examined in
relation to cost, speed, reduction in handling steps,
and extent of physical injuries due to transport.
Many improvements in insulation, air flow systems,
and thermostats have been recently introduced in
some of the refrigerated transport vehicles.
Whenever possible, such improved transport
vehicles should be used because they provide better
temperature maintenance. Also, trucks with air
suspension systems significantly reduce vibration
bruising of the commodity during transport.

Transport vehicles should be cooled to the desired

temperature before loading the commodity. The
pallets should be center-loaded, leaving air channels
between the load and walls of the transport vehicle.
The load should be secured to prevent shifting of the
load during transport. A system for monitoring
temperature during transport should be followed
using recording thermometers or time-temperature
indicators. Transportation during the night can
provide better temperature management.

Quality Control
An effective quality control system throughout the
handling steps between harvest and retail display is
essential to provide a consistently good-quality
supply of fresh fruits and vegetables to the
consumers and to protect the reputation of a given
marketing label. Quality control starts in the field
with the selection of the proper time to harvest for
maximum quality. Careful harvesting is essential to
maintain quality. Each subsequent step after harvest
has the potential to either maintain or reduce quality.
Few postharvest procedures can increase the quality
of individual units of the commodity.

Quality control personnel should devote full time

and attention to their function and should have the
authority to make needed changes in the harvesting
and handling operations when required to obtain and
maintain the desired quality. They should also be
involved in training workers within their
organizations on the importance of quality attributes
of each commodity and on procedures for
postharvest quality maintenance.

Many attempts are currently being made to

automate the separation of a given commodity into
various grades and the elimination of defective units.
The availability of low-cost microcomputers and
solid-state imaging systems have made computeraided video inspection on the packing line a practical
reality. Solid-state video camera or light reflectance
systems can be used for detection of external defects,
and x-ray or light transmittance systems can be used
for detecting internal defects.

Quality control procedures include the following steps:

Operation

Procedures

Harvesting

Check proper maturity and quality.

Preparation for market

Monitor effectiveness of the various steps (washing, sorting,

waxing, sizing, fungicide treatment, and so on); check culls to
determine causes of cullage and sorting accuracy; check
shipping containers and other packing materials against specifications;
check packed containers for compliance with grade, size, and weight
regulations.

Cooling

Monitor product temperatures at key points in the handling system,

especially before and after cooling.

Transportation

Check transit vehicles for cleanliness and cooling before loading,

loading pattern, load immobilization, thermostat setting, and
placement of recording thermometer.

Destination
Market

Check quality and condition of the product and shipping container.

STORAGE

Storage Temperature and Relative Humidity

Temperature is the most important environmental

factor influencing the deterioration of harvested
commodities.
Most
perishable
horticultural
commodities last longer at temperatures near 0C. At
temperatures above the optimum, the rate of
deterioration increases twofold to fourfold for every
10C rise in the temperature. Temperature also
influences how other internal and external factors
influence the commodity and has a dramatic effect on
the germination and growth of pathogens.

Temperatures outside the physiological norm can cause

rapid deterioration due to the following disorders:
1.

Freezing injury. In general, perishable commodities have

high water content and large, highly vacuolated cells. The
freezing point of the tissue is high, and the disruption
caused by freezing usually results in immediate collapse of
the tissues and total loss. Freezing is normally the result of
inadequate refrigerator design or poor setting or failure of
thermostats. In winter conditions, freezing can occur if
produce is allowed to remain for even short periods of
time on unprotected transportation docks.

Susceptibly to freezing injury

These products can be injured by one light
freezing:
apricot
asparagus
avocado
banana
beans (snap)
berries (except cranberries)
cucumber
eggplant
lemons
lettuce
limes
okra
peaches
peppers (sweet)
plums
potatoes
squash (summer)
sweet potato
tomatoes

Heat injury. High temperatures are also very

injurious to perishable products. In growing plants,
transpiration maintains temperatures in the optimal
range. Organs removed from the plant lack the
protective effects of transpiration, and direct sources
of heat - for example, full sunlight - can rapidly heat
tissues to above the thermal death point of their cells,
leading to localized bleaching, necrosis (sunburn or
sun-scald), or general collapse.

Chilling injury. Some commodities (chiefly those

native to the tropics and subtropics) respond
unfavorably to storage at low temperatures, even
temperatures well above the freezing point but below
a critical temperature termed the chilling threshold
temperature. Chilling injury is manifested in a variety
of symptoms including surface and internal
discoloration, pitting, water soaking, failure to ripen,
uneven ripening, development of off flavors, and
heightened susceptibility to pathogen attack.

Classification of fresh horticultural crops according to their relative perishability (romlandsg) and
potential storage life in air within their optimal at near optimum temperature and relative
humidity ranges
Relative Perishability Potential Storage Life
(weeks)

Commodities

Very high

<2

Apricot, blackberry, blueberry, cherry, fig, raspberry, strawberry; asparagus,

bean sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower, green onion, leaf lettuce, mushroom, pea,
spinach, sweet corn, tomato (ripe); most cut flowers and foliage; minimally
processed (fresh-cut) fruits and vegetables

High

2-4

Avocado, banana, grape (without S02-treatment), guava, loquat, mandarin,

mango, melons (honeydew, Crenshaw, Persian), nectarine, papaya, peach,
plum; artichoke, green beans, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, celery, eggplant,
head lettuce, okra, pepper, summer squash, tomato (partially ripe)

Moderate

4-8

Apple and pear (some cultivars), grape (S0 2 treated), orange, grapefruit, lime,
kiwifruit, persimmon, pomegranate; table beet, carrot, radish, potato
(immature)

Low

8-16

Apple and pear (some cultivars), lemon; potato (mature), dry onion, garlic,
pumpkin, winter squash, sweet potato, taro, yam; bulbs and other
propagules of ornamental plants

Very low

>16

Tree nuts, dried fruits and vegetables

Ethylene Exclusion or Removal

Undesired accelerated softening and ripening of
fruits during transport and storage result in shorter
postharvest life and faster deterioration. For
example, the presence of ethylene in cold storage
facilities of apples, kiwifruits, and avocados kept in
air or in controlled atmospheres can significantly
hasten softening and reduce storage life of these
fruits. The incidence and severity of ethylene
damage depend on its concentration, duration of
exposure, and storage temperature.

Following are a few examples of ethylene injury:

russet spotting of lettuce; development of bitter flavor
in carrots; leaf and flower abscission and yellowing of
broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and ornamental plants;
failure to open some cut flowers (such as carnations).
Ethylene damage can be greatly reduced by holding
the commodity at its lowest safe temperature and by
keeping it under modified or controlled atmospheres.
Under such conditions, both ethylene production by
the commodity and ethylene action on the commodity
are significantly reduced.

Ethylene may be excluded from storage rooms and

transport vehicles by avoiding mixing ethyleneproducing commodities with those sensitive to
ethylene. Ethylene may be removed from storage
rooms and transport vehicles by using adequate air
exchange (ventilation) and using ethylene absorbers
such as potassium permanganate. The air within the
room or transit vehicle must be circulated past the
absorber for effective ethylene removal. It is also very
important to replace the used absorbing material with
a fresh supply as needed. Catalytic combustion of
ethylene on a catalyst at high temperatures (greater
than 200C) and use of ultraviolet radiation can also
be used to remove ethylene.

Classification of fruits and vegetables according to their sensitivity to chilling injury and ethylene
production rates* at optimum handling temperatures
*Ethylene production rate by fruits and fruit-vegetables is greatest as they approach the eating-ripe stage.

RELATIVE ETHYLENE
PRODUCTION RATE (L/KG
HR) AT 20C
Very low (<0.1)

Low (0.1-1.0)

Moderate (1.0-10)

High (10-100)
Very High (>100)

NONCHILLING SENSITIVE

CHILLING SENSITIVE

Artichoke, asparagus, beets,

cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, celery,
cherry, garlic, grape, leeks, lettuce,
onion, parsley, parsnip, peas,
radish, spinach, strawberry, sweet
corn, turnip
Blackberry, blueberry, broccoli,
Brussels sprouts, endive, escarole,
green onion, kiwifruit (unripe),
mushrooms, persimmon (Hachiya),
raspberry, tamarillo

Ginger, grapefruit, lemon, lime,

melons (casaba, Juan canary),
orange, pomegranate, potato, snap
beans, sweet potato, tangerine, taro
(dasheen)
Cranberry, cucumber, eggplant,
okra, olive, peppers (sweet and
chili),
persimmon
(Fuyu),
pineapple, pumpkins, summer
squash, watermelon

Figs

Banana, guava, lychee, mango,

melons (cantaloupe, crenshaw,
honey dew, Persian), plantain,
tomato
Apple, apricot, kiwifruit (ripe), Avocado, feijoa, papaya
nectarine, peach, pear, plum
Cherimoya,
mammee
passion fruit, sapote

apple,

Treatments to Reduce Ethylene Damage

Treating ornamental crops with 1-methylcy-lopropene
(1-MCP), which is an ethylene action inhibitor,
provides protection against ethylene damage and has
been used commercially since 1999. The first
commercial application is its use on apples to retard
their softening and scald development and to extend
their postharvest-life.

Controlled and Modified Atmospheres

The terms controlled atmosphere (CA) and modified
atmosphere (MA) refer to atmospheres in which the
composition surrounding the commodity is different
from normal air. Usually this involves reduction of
O2 levels, elevation of CO2 levels, or both. Lowpressure (hypobaric) storage is one method to
establish a CA atmosphere in which the commodity
is held under partial vacuum, which results in
reduced O2 levels and increased diffusivity of
ethylene and other gases. MA differs from CA only
in the degree of precision in controlling partial
pressures of O2 and CO2; CA is more exact than MA.

Fresh fruits and vegetables vary greatly in their

relative tolerance to low O2 concentration and
elevated CO2 concentrations. These are the levels
below which (for O2) or above which (for CO2)
physiological damage would be expected. These
limits of tolerance can be different at temperatures
above or below recommended temperatures for each
commodity.

A summary of CA and MA use for short-term storage

or transport of fresh horticultural crops
Primary benefit of CA/MA

Commodities

Delay of ripening and avoiding

chilling temperatures

Avocado, banana, mango, melons,

nectarine, papaya, peach, plum,
A summary of CA and MA use for short-term storage or transport
of fresh horticultural
crops mature-green or
tomato
(picked
Primary benefit of CA/MA
Commodities
Delay of ripening and avoiding chilling temperatures
Avocado, banana, mango,
melons, nectarine, papaya,
partially
ripe)
peach, plum, tomato (picked mature-green or partially
ripe)
Control of decay

Blackberry, blueberry, cherry, fig, grape, raspberry,

strawberry

Delay of senescence and undesirable compositional

changes (including tissue brown discoloration)

Asparagus, broccoli, lettuce, sweet corn, fresh herbs,

minimally processed (fresh-cut) fruits and vegetables

Control of decay

Blackberry, blueberry, cherry, fig,

grape, raspberry, strawberry

Delay of senescence and

undesirable compositional changes
(including tissue brown
discoloration)

Asparagus, broccoli, lettuce, sweet

corn, fresh herbs, minimally
processed (fresh-cut) fruits and
vegetables

CA and MA use of short-term storage or transport of fresh

horticultural crops has increased during the past few years
and will continue to increase, supported by technological
developments in transport containers, MA packaging, and
edible coatings.
CA and MA conditions, including MA packaging (MAP),
can replace certain postharvest chemicals used for control of
some physiological disorders such as scald on apples.
Furthermore, use of some post- harvest fungicides and
insecticides can be reduced or eliminated in cases where CA
or MA conditions provide adequate control of postharvest
pathogens or insects.

Use of CA or MA may facilitate the picking and

marketing of more mature (better-flavored) fruits by
slowing down their postharvest deterioration rate to
permit transport and distribution. Another potential
use for CA and MA is in maintaining quality and
safety of minimally processed (fresh-cut) fruits and
vegetables, which are increasingly being marketed as
value-added, convenience product.

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