UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 431 Theory of Elasticity I

Lecture Notes on the

Principle of Virtual Work
for 2016/2017 Session

Lecturer:
Howard O. NJOKU

October 14, 2016

PhD

Contents
1 The Principle of Virtual Work
1.1 Application of the principle of virtual work to pin-jointed
1.1.1 Statically determinate pin-jointed frames . . . . .
1.1.2 The unit-load method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Temperature effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The Principle of Virtual Work

To completely analyze mechanical structures, including trusses, frames and beams, the
forces in the member(s) of the structures have to be first determined by applying appropriate conditions of equilibrium. Next, the stress(es) in the member(s) are obtained by
dividing the forces(s) with the member cross sectional areas(s). Strains in the member(s)
are then obtained from the stress-strain relationship(s) of the member material(s), and the
elongation(s) of the members obtained from the strains(s). The displacements of various
points in the structure are then finally determined. The principle of virtual work, and
the robust unit-load method which is derived from it, greatly simplifies this detailed undertaking. Later on in this course, the strain energy and complementary energy concepts
will be shown to also yield very useful methods in this regard.

Statement of the Principle of Virtual Work

The principle of virtual work may be stated in its basic form thus: A particle under the
action of a system of forces is in static equilibrium, if when it is given any small virtual
displacement, the net work done by the forces is zero.

Figure 1: A particle under the action of three coplanar forces.

The virtual displacement is imaginary and of arbitrary magnitude and direction, and
is distinct from actual displacements caused by real loads acting on the particle. This
displacement however has to be small enough to ensure that the lines of action of forces
acting on the particle continue to act parallel to their original lines of actions.
Consider a particle under the action of three forces, F1 , F2 and F3 (Fig. 1). The particle
2

is given a virtual displacement, and the displacements of the particle in the directions of
forces F1 , F2 and F3 are 1 , 2 and 3 , respectively. These displacements are known as
corresponding displacements. If this system is in static equilibrium then according to the
virtual work principle
F 1 1 + F 2 2 + F 3 3 = 0
(1)
The work done by each force has been obtained as the product of the force and its
corresponding virtual displacement. This work is known as the virtual work. If any of
the loads was a couple, then the virtual work would be the product of the moment of the
couple and its corresponding virtual angle of rotation.
Suppose the resultant force on the particle of Fig. 1 is R. If the particle is given a
virtual displacement in the direction of R, by the principle of virtual work,
R = 0

(2)

i.e., the net work is equal to zero. Since is non-zero, R must be zero. We have thus
shown by the principle of virtual work that the resultant of a system of forces in statical
equilibrium is zero.
We proceed to derive special forms of this statement for pin-jointed frames and beams.

1.1

Application of the principle of virtual work to pin-jointed

frames

1.1.1

Statically determinate pin-jointed frames

Consider the plane pin-jointed frame of Fig. 2, which is acted upon by external loads W1
and W2 . In the absence of gross distortions of the frame, the axial forces in the members
are found by considering static equilibrium at each joint (see CVE 211 lecture notes.) Let
the tensile forces in the members be P1 , P2 , P3 and P4 .
Let us consider the forces acting at joint C. These forces P2 , P3 and W1 form an
equilibrium system. If the joint is given a virtual displacement from C to C 0 as shown in
Fig. 3, the corresponding displacement of W1 is 1 , while the corresponding displacements
of P2 and P3 are 2C and 3C , respectively. By the principle of virtual work,
W1 1 P2 2C P3 3C = 0

(3)

The negative virtual work terms are because the forces P2 and P3 and their corresponding
displacements have opposite directions. Re-arranging,
W1 1 = P2 2C + P3 3C

(4)

If virtual displacements are given to all other joints of the frame, similar equations
3

Figure 2: A loaded plane pin-jointed frame.

Figure 3: Forces on joint C of the pin-jointed frame in Fig. 2.

can be obtained for them as follows: For joint B,
W2 2 = P1 1B + P2 2B + P4 4B

(5)

RA A = P1 1A

(6)

RD D = P3 3D + P4 4D

(7)

For joint A,

And for joint D,

Summing equations 47, we obtain

W1 1 + W2 2 + RA A + RD D = P1 (1A + 1B ) + P2 (2B + 2C )

(8)

+P3 (3C + 3D ) + P4 (4B + 4D )

The LHS of equation 8 represents the total virtual work done by external forces (including reactions at the supports A and B) due to virtual displacements of the joints,
while the RHS represents the work done by internal forces.

Figure 4: Extension of member BC of the pin-jointed frame in Fig. 2.

The summations associated with the internal forces in each member may be recognized
as the extension of th member. E.g., for member BC, 2B + 2C = e2 as shown in Fig. 4.
Equation 8 may thus be written as
X

W =

Pe

(9)

where the LHS summation is over all joints (j) in the frame whereas the RHS summation
is over all members (m) of the frame.
A more general statement of the principle of virtual work may now be stated as follows:
A deformable structure under the action of a system of loads is in static equilibrium if
when it is given any small virtual deformation, the virtual work done by the external loads
is equal to the virtual work done by the internal forces (or stress resultants.)
The principle of virtual work in this form can be used to find displacements at any
point in a structure. Note that no restrictions on material linearity or non-linearity,
elasticity or inelasticity have been imposed. However, the virtual displacements must be
compatible with the structures supports and maintain the structures continuity. The
displacements must also be sufficiently small to preserve the structures geometry and
allow calculations to be based on its original configuration.

Example 1
The pin-jointed frame of Fig. 5 is acted upon by a load W at joint C. All members of the
frame have the same cross-sectional area, A and are made of the same material having

Youngs modulus E. Calculate the vertical displacement of joint C, if all the members
remain linearly elastic.

Figure 5: Example 1.
Solution:
The desired displacement can be found using Eqn. (9)
X

W =

Pe

(9)

Let the vertical displacement of joint C be V C . Then, since the load W on joint C is the
only external load on the frame, the LHS of Eqn. (9) is
X

W = W V C

The members remain elastic and the resultant forces acting on them is constant. Therefore, the extensions e is obtained with
e=

Pl
EA

where P is the resultant (internal) force in a member. It is convenient of compute

(10)
X

Pe

using a table.
The members are identified in the first column. Their lengths are determined and listed
in the second column. Using the laws of static equilibrium, the internal resultant forces
in the members are calculated and are shown in the third column. Since the members
are linearly elastic, Eqn. (10) is used to obtain their extensions, and these are shown in
6

Table 1: Solution table for Example 1

Member Length (l) Forces (P )
AB

2W

BC

DE

2L

-W

2W

2L

2W

BD
BE
CE

Extension (e)
2W L
EA
WL
EA
W L
EA
2W L
EA
WL
EA
2W L
EA
X
Pe =
m

P e
4W 2 L
EA
W 2L
EA
W 2L
EA
2 2W 2 L
EA
W 2L
EA
2 2W 2 L
EA

(7 + 4 2)W 2 L
EA

the fourth column. The products of the forces (P ) and extensions (e), given in columns
X
3 and 4, respectively, are obtained and listed in the fifth column, and their sums,
P e,
e

determined.
Substituting into the virtual work expression,

(7 + 4 2)W 2 L
W V C =
EA

(7 + 4 2)W L
V C =
EA
1.1.2

The unit-load method

Situations often arise in which the desired displacements are not co-located with (or
corresponding) to the external loads. The unit-load method is a powerful application
of the principle of virtual work which enables us to handle such cases with ease. The
procedure of the unit-load method is as follows:
Step I: The resultant forces, P , in the structure being analyzed, due to the real loads
acting on it, are computed.
Step II: The extensions in the members of the structure, e, due to these forces are then
determined (with Eqn. (10) for linearly elastic members).
Step III: A fictitious load of unit value (i.e., W = 1) is imposed on the structure at
the location whose displacement is required and in the direction of the required
displacement. This unit load acting on the structure, co-located with the desired

displacement and in the direction of the desired displacement is known as a corresponding load.
Step IV: The resultant forces, Pu , due to the unit load of Step III are computed.
Step V: The displacements/extensions due to the real loads, P , are then imposed as
virtual displacements on the equilibrium system of forces, Pu , resulting from the
unit load to obtain the virtual work done on the members of the structure.
If the desired displacement is , then the expression of the principle of virtual work on
the basis of the unit load method is
1 =

Pu e

(11)

The work done due to the unit load is the only one appearing on the LHS of Eqn. (11)
since the unit load does the only external work on the system.

Example 2
For the pin-jointed frame of Example 1 (Fig. 5), find the vertical displacement of joint B
due to the load W at joint C.
Solution:
Let the desired displacement be denoted V B . Steps I and II of the unit load method,
i.e., determination of internal resultant forces and extensions in the members, have been
done in Example 1. For Step III, a vertical unit load is imposed on joint B as shown in
Fig. 6. The resultant forces, Pu , due to this unit load are computed and listed in the fifth
column of Table 2. Then the products Pu e are listed in the last column of Table 2, and
X
their sum,
Pu e, obtained.
e
X
Substituting for
Pu e in Eqn. (11), the desired vertical displacement of joint B is
e

obtained as
V B

(2 + 2 2)W L
=
EA

(12)

Example 3
The frame shown in Fig. 7 is hinged at C and supported on a roller at D. The members
of the frame are made of a non-linear material whose extension e under a tensile force P
is given by
e = aP bP 2
(Ex 3)
where a and b are constants. Calculate the horizontal displacement of joint B when joint
A is subjected to a vertical load 2W and a horizontal load W as shown.
8

Figure 6: Example 2.
Solution:
The force resultants, P , in the members due to the original loading are determined by
applying the laws of static equilibrium and theses are shown in the 3rd column of Table 3.
The resulting extensions, e, in the members are shown in the 4th column of Table 3.
A horizontal unit load is imposed on B and based on the laws of static equilibrium,
the force resultants in the members, Pu , due this unit load are determined and are listed
in column 5 of Table 3. The products of Pu and e are listed in the last column of the
X
Pu e, obtained. If the desired displacement is denoted HB , then
table, and their sum,
e

from Eq. (11),

HB = 3aW + (1 2 2)bW 2
h
i

= 3aW + (2 2 1)bW 2
Both terms in brackets on the RHS are positive, hence the entire RHS is negative. Showing
that the actual displacement is in the direction opposite to that assumed for the applied
unit load. This example illustrates the application of the virtual work principle to a
structure whose members are made of a non-linear material.
1.1.3

Temperature effects

If the displacements are caused in a structure by a temperature change, then the extensions
of the structures members would be obtained using the appropriate thermal expansivity
relation, viz.,
ethermal = L
(13)
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Table 2: Solution table for Example 2

Member Length (l)
AB

BC

DE

2L

BD
BE
CE

2L

Forces (P ) Extension (e)

2W L
2W
EA
WL
W
EA
W L
-W
EA

2W L
2W
EA
WL
W
EA

2W L
2W
EA

Pu e
2W L
EA
0

Pu
1
0
0

2 2W 2 L
EA
0

0
0
X

Pu e =

(2 + 2 2)W L
EA

Table 3: Solution table for Example 2

Member Length (l)
AB
L
CD
L
AC
L
BD
L
BC
2L

Forces (P )
W
0
2W
W

2W

Extension (e)
aW bW 2
0
a(2W ) b(2W )2
2
aW bW
a( 2W ) b( 2W )2

Pu
Pu e
0
0
0
0
0
0
-1
aW +
bW 2

2aW 2 2bW 2
X 2

Pu e = 3aW + (1 2 2)bW 2
m

where ethermal is the thermally induced extension, is the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion, is the change in temperature, while L is the original length of the structural
member.

Example 4
If the frame of Example 3 is unloaded but subjected to a temperature rise of , and if
the coefficient of linear expansion of members AB, BD, CD and AC is 1 , and that of
member CB is 2 , determine the horizontal displacement of B.
Solution:
The solution is presented in Table 4. The lengths and thermal expansion coefficients of
the members are listed in columns 2 and 3, respectively. The thermal extensions obtained
with Eqn. (10) are listed in column 4. The unit load is imposed as in Example 3, leading
to the same resultant forces in the members, which are listed in column 5. The products
X
of Pu and e are shown in column 6, and their sum,
Pu e, determined.
m

10

Figure 7: Example 3.
Using Eqn. (11), the desired displacement, HB , is then
HB = (22 1 ) L

Sample Problem I
The area of members AE, BE and BD is A1 . The area of members AB, BC, CD and
DE is A2 . All members have the same Youngs modulus E.
1. Determine the vertical displacement of B, V B , in terms of W , E, A1 , A2 and L.
2. If P = 50 kN, L = 1 m, A1 = 500 mm2 , A2 = 1000 mm2 and E = 200GPa, what
is the numerical value of V B ?

Sample Problem II
The four outside bars (AB, BC, CD and DA) of the square truss shown in the figure have
their temperatures lowered by an amount T . What is the change in distance between
joints B and D?

11

Figure 8: Imposition of unit load on joint B. (Example 3)

Table 4: Solution table for Example 4
Member Length (l) Coefficient
Extension (e)
Pu
Pu e
of
thermal
expansion ()
AB
L
1
1 L
0
0
CD
L
1
1 L
0
0
AC
L
1
1 L
0
0
BD
1
-1
1 L
L
1 L

BC
2L
2
22 L X 2
22 L
Pu e = (22 1 ) L
m

Figure 9: Sample Problem I

12

Figure 10: Sample Problem II

13