SSM INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY,

DINDIGUL- 624 002

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

AT6311 AUTOMOTIVE COMPONENTS LABORATORY

NAME

REG NO

SEMESTER

III

BRANCH

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

LIST OF EXPERIMENT
S.No
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Ex.No

Date

Name Of the Experiment

Sign

STUDY OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engine is a heat engine that converts chemical energy of a fuel into
mechanical
energy which is made available on a rotating output shaft.
The chemical energy of the fuel is first converted into thermal energy by means of
combustion
inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within
the
combustion chamber and the high pressure gases then expand against the mechanical components of
the
engine. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating
crankshaft,
which is the output of the engine.
I.C Engine Classifications,
(i) Based on type of Ignition
a) Spark Ignition Engine (S.I)

b) Compression Ignition engine (C.I)

In spark ignition (SI) engines, petrol or gasoline is used as fuel, while in compression ignition (CI)
engines, diesel is used as fuel. Petrol engines are lightweight and achieve higher speed. Diesel engines, on
the other hand, are heavy engines and achieve lesser speeds. Other differences below:
The most prominent difference between Spark Ignition (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI) engines is the
type of fuel used in each. In SI engines petrol or gasoline is used as fuel, hence these engines are also called
petrol engines. In CI engines diesel is used as fuel, hence they are also called diesel engines.
Here are some other major differences between the SI and CI engines:
1) Type of cycle used: In the case of SI engines, the Otto cycle is used. In this cycle, addition of heat or
fuel combustion occurs at a constant volume. The basis of working of CI engines is the Diesel cycle. In this
cycle the addition of heat or fuel combustion occurs at a constant pressure.
2) Introduction of fuel in the engine: In the case of SI engines, during the piston's suction stroke, a mixture of
air and fuel is injected from cylinder head portion of the cylinder. The air-fuel mixture is injected via the

carburetor that controls the quantity and the quality of the injected mixture. In the case of CI engines, fuel is
injected into the combustion chamber towards the end of the compression stroke. The fuel starts burning
instantly due to the high pressure. To inject diesel in SI engines, a fuel pump and injector are required. In CI
engines, the quantity of fuel to be injected is controlled but the quantity of air to be injected is not controlled.
3) Ignition of fuel: By nature petrol is a highly volatile liquid, but its self-ignition temperature is high. Hence
for the combustion of this fuel a spark is necessary to initiate its burning process. To generate this spark in SI
engines, the spark plug is placed in the cylinder head of the engine. The voltage is provided to the spark plug
either from the battery or from the magneto. With diesel, the self-ignition temperature is comparatively lower.
When diesel fuel is compressed to high pressures, its temperature also increases beyond the self-ignition
temperature of the fuel. Hence in the case of CI engines, the ignition of fuel occurs due to compression of the
air-fuel mixture and there is no need for spark plugs.
4) Compression ratio for the fuel: In the case of SI engines, the compression ratio of the fuel is in the range
of 6 to 10 depending on the size of the engine and the power to be produced. In CI engines, the compression
ratio for air is 16 to 20. The high compression ratio of air creates high temperatures, which ensures the diesel
fuel can self-ignite.
5) Weight of the engines: In CI engines the compression ratio is higher, which produces high pressures inside
the engine. Hence CI engines are heavier than SI engines.
6) Speed achieved by the engine: Petrol or SI engines are lightweight, and the fuel is homogeneously
burned, hence achieving very high speeds. CI engines are heavier and the fuel is burned heterogeneously,
hence producing lower speeds.
7) Thermal efficiency of the engine: In the case of CI engines the value of compression ratio is higher; hence
these engines have the potential to achieve higher thermal efficiency. In the case of SI engines the lower
compression ratio reduces their potential to achieve higher thermal efficiency.
ii) Based on No-of. Strokes
a) Four Stroke engine.

A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion engine in which the piston
completes four separate strokes which comprise a single thermodynamic cycle. A stroke refers to the full
travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four separate strokes are termed:
1. INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends from the top of the
cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air
is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
2. COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of the
cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder head.
3. POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is close to Top Dead
Centre, the compressed airfuel mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited, by a spark plug in gasoline
engines, or which ignites due to the heat generated by compression in a diesel engine. The resulting
pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back down toward
bottom dead centre.
4. EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead centre while the
exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s). b)
Two stroke engine.

A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power
cycle in only one crankshaft revolution and with two strokes, or up and down movements, of the piston in
comparison to a "four-stroke engine", which uses four strokes. This is accomplished by the end of the
combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke happening simultaneously and performing the
intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions at the same time. Two-stroke engines often provide high powerto-weight ratio, usually in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the "power band". Compared to 4-stroke
engines, they have a greatly reduced number of moving parts, are more compact and significantly lighter. The
first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Donald
Clerk,

who in 1881 patented his design, his engine having a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged
engine, employing the area below the piston as a charging pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph
Day.
Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable) applications such as
chainsaws and motorcycles. They are used in diesel compression ignition engines in large and weight
insensitive applications, such as ships, locomotives and electricity generation. The heat transfer from the
engine to the cooling system is less in a two-stroke engine than in a four-stroke. This adds to the overall engine
efficiency. Two-stroke engines have higher exhaust emissions than four-stroke engines.

iii) Based on the shape of cylinder head

iv) Based on cylinder arrangement : -

a) I Head.

a) In-line engine

b) L Head.

b) Horizontally Opposed engines.

c) F Head.

c) V-type engine.

d) T Head.

d) Radial engine.

Constructional Details of an I.C Engine

In order to understand the operation, function of the engine, it is very essential that
the
constructional features of the I.C engines are known. The I.C engine produces power with the help of
stationary parts such as cylinder block, crankcase, cylinder head and cylinder liner coupled with
moving parts such as crankshaft, connecting rod, piston, piston rings.
The piston housed by the cylinder is linked to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. The
piston
rotates the crank shaft through the connecting rod. The crank shaft revolves due to the reciprocatory
motion
of the piston. The crankshaft drives the cam shaft. The camshaft operates the valves by means of
cam,
tappet, push rods and rocker arm. The flywheel stores up the energy produced during the power stroke
and
releases the energy during the other strokes.
The components are briefly explained as follows.
i) Cylinder Block

The cylinder block is usually

cast in a single block of one
piece. It has cylinders for
piston, ports for
valves and passages for cooling water
to flow. Oil passages are provided for
lubrication. There are tunnels
in the cylinder block for push rods.
These tunnels carry the crank shaft
and the cam shaft as well.
ii) Crank Case :
The crankcase is the base of
the engine. It supports the
crank shaft in bearings. The
cam shaft is
also held by the crank case in
bearings. This crankcase is fitted with
brackets that support the engine on
the
frame.
iii) Cylinder Head :The cylinder head has passages for circulation of coolant. It supports the valve, spring and
rocker
arm. The head also possesses the inlet & exhaust ports.

iv) Cylinder liners :

The cylinder undergoes wear due to the movement of piston against the cylinder walls. To
prevent
the cylinder from wearing, a cylinder liner is used which can be replaced when it is worn out.
Cylinder
liners are cast centrifugally in the shape of a barrel using a special iron alloy. They can be classified
into
dry and wed type of liners.
v) Piston
The piston reciprocates within the cylinder. Nowadays pistons are manufactured from aluminium
alloys and are made in one piece. The top portion of the piston gets the maximum heat during the
combustion process.
There are piston rings in the piston to prevent any leakage. Suitable grooves are provided on the
piston to fit in the rings. There are holes provided in the piston to house the gudgeon pin and is seated to
accommodate the connecting rod.

vi) Piston rings

a) Compression rings
It is made of cast iron. The rings are installed in the
grooves of the piston. The rings press tightly against the
cylinder wall and therefore the fresh mixture and exhaust
gas cannot pass through the
piston clearance.
b) Oil rings
As the piston reciprocates, it rubs against cylinder wall and causes scratches on the piston
and cylinder wall. To prevent the rubbing, oil is splashed to the cylinder wall through the oil rings.
No of oil rings depends upon the design of the piston.
vii) Poppet Valve.
The poppet valve has its head in the shape of a mushroom and so it is also called mushroom valve.
It
has a head, stem and a spring retainer lock groove.

viii) Connecting Rod

It is generally manufactured using steel or duraluminum. The top of the connecting rod called the
small end in connected to the piston pin and the bottom end called the big end is fitted to the crank shaft.
ix) Crankshaft.
The crank shaft is made of forged steel. The main parts of the shaft are journals, crankpins, crank
webs. The journals rotate the main bearings. The crank pin rotates the big end bearing of the connecting
rod. The webs join the journal to the crank pin and serve as balance weights. The flywheel is fitted to the
rear end of the crank shaft. A fan pulley is fitted in the front end of the crank shaft. Holes are provided in
the crankshaft from the main bearing journals to the crank pins for the lubricating oil to pass through.
x) Cam shaft.

It is made of forged steel or of cast iron. It has cams

for operating the inlet and exhaust valves against the
pressure of the valve springs. A gear is fitted to one
end of the camshaft to get the drive from crank shaft.
Functions of fuel Supply Systems
i)

Storing of fuel.

ii)

Filtering of fuel.

iii)

Delivery of fuel to injection pump.

iv)

Injecting the fuel into engine cylinders.

v)

Controlling the engine speed.

Fuel Injection System

The function of a fuel injection system is to inject proper quantity of fuel in to the engine cylinders
at the correct time and at a pre-determined rate.
Types of Injection System
i)

Common rail fuel injection system

In this type of injection system, a single injection pump with injector called as unit injector
is employed on each cylinder. The unit injectors are operated by rocker arms and spring similar
to the engine valves. A linkage connects the control racks of all the unit injectors so that fuel
injection in all the cylinders may be equal and simultaneously controlled.

ii)

Individual pump fuel injection system

Here, fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by means of a fuel feed pump which is operated from
the injection pump cam-shaft. The fuel injection pump then injects definite quantity of fuel in to
the individual cylinders in turn according to the firing order, through injectors fitted on them.
The injection pump is gear driven from the engine crankshaft so that it is driven at half the
engine speed. There is a governor which provides automatic speed control, relative to any set
position of the accelerator pedal.

Fuel Filter :
The most commonly used primary filter is the wire gauze installed on the suction side of the
feed pump. A better alternative is to use a sedimentation type primary filter. The fuel from the tank
enters the filter and flows around the conical diffuser funnel to accelerate downwards to the
sediments chamber. The secondary filter is installed after the feed pump and it separates out abrasive

particles and any water in the fuel. The fine pores of the filter element retain the abrasive particles and
other solid impurities.
Carburettors
Functions of a carburettor
i)

To keep a small reserve of fuel at a constant head,

ii)

To vaporise the fuel to prepare a homogenous air-fuel mixture.

iii)
load

To supply correct amount of air-fuel mixture at the correct strength under all conditions of
and speed of the engine.

Types of carburettors
i)

Simple Carburettor

ii)

Carter Carburettor

iii)

Zenith Carburettor

iv)

S.U. Carburettor

v)

Solex Carburettor

vi)

Solex Mikuni double venture carburettor.

Simple Carburettor
The main parts are a float chamber, fuel jet, venture, nozzle and a throttle valve. The needle
valve attached to the float lever serves to close or open the fuel inlet to the float chamber depending
upon the requirements. When the fuel level falls below a definite predetermined value, the float also
falls along with the fuel level, thus opening the passage for the fuel supply. The fuel starts flowing in
and the float rises gradually till the fuel level reaches the desired value. At this time, the float needle
closes the fuel inlet passage. Thus a constant head of fuel is maintained in the float chamber. This
constant level of fuel is slightly below the nozzle outlet, so that the fuel may not drop all the time
from the nozzle, evenwhen the engine is not working. A small vent in the float chamber keeps
the pressure inside is atmospheric. The fuel supply from the float chamber at any time is metered by
means of a fuel jet from where the fuel flows to the venture through the discharge nozzle. The
venture is simply a restriction in the air passage. Thus due to less area, the air velocity increases and
because of this increase in velocity, decrease in pressure is caused at the nozzle which is located in

the venture itself. Due to depression being applied at the nozzle, the fuel comes out and is vaporized
by the coming air stream. The mixture then goes to the inlet manifold, to the engine cylinders. The
amount of fuel delivered depends upon the jet size, float level and venture vacuum. The purpose of a
throttle valve is to control the quantity of air fuel mixture. It is attached to the accelerator pedal by
means of suitable linkage so that when the pedal is depressed the valve opens out.
MPFI. (Multi Point Fuel Injection)
In this system, there is a separate injector for each cylinder mounted in the inlet port. The
injectors direct fuel onto the back of the valve giving improved mixture preparation and distribution
compared to the conventional single point and carburettor systems. Air metering is controlled by a
throttle body and butterfly valve fitted in the intake manifold.
MULTI POINT FUEL INJECTION
For running of a petrol engine fuel should be mixed with air and supplied to the engine cylinders according to
the speed and load conditions. In earlier years this was achieved with the help of carburetors. But in modern
cars fuel injection system is used. It may single point, multi point or direct injection. In single point injection
there will be only one fuel injector placed at the inlet manifold which continuously spays fuel. In direct
injection

fuel

will

be

directly

injected

into

the

engine

cylinder

at

the

proper

timing.

Multi point fuel injection or MPFI uses several injectors, normally respective to the number of engine
cylinders and placed in the inlet port of each cylinders.It is to be noted that fuel spaying is taking place out side
of the cylinder at the correct time according to the piston position inside the cylinder.There will be electronic
control unit or ECU which will be receiving feed back from several sensors like engine speed sensor, fly wheel
position sensor, vehicle speed sensor, atmospheric temp. sensor, accelerator pedal position sensor intake
airflow sensor. This ECU will control the correct amount of fuel to be injected and the proper time at which the
fuel will be injected at any speed and load condition. This will ensure maximum power output at minimum
fuel.

IGNITION SYSTEM
Function
The function of the Ignition system is to produce a spark in the engine cylinder towards the end of
the compression stroke.
Types of Ignition System
i)Battery Coil Ignition System.
There are two basic circuits in the system, the primary and the secondary circuit. The battery,
primary winding of the Ignition coil, condenser and the contact breaker form the primary circuit,
whereas the secondary winding of the Ignition coil, the distributor and the spark plugs constitute the
secondary circuit.
When the Ignition switch is in the ON position, the current flowing in the primary circuit will
grow exponentially during the make period of the contact breaker. The electromagnetic energy on
account of this build-up of current in the primary circuit is stored in the laminated iron core of the
Ignition coil. As the contact breaker points open, the magnetic field built up by the growth of the
current collapses and the energy stored during the make period is projected into the secondary circuit. It
is this energy which is suddenly passed on to the secondary, inducing an e.m.f there. As the break is
made very sharp, the induced e.m.f. is very large being proportional to the rate of change of flux in the
winding. This self-induction effect is combined with the transformer step-up action of the Ignition coil.
As a result a sudden voltage surge of very high amplitude is produced in the secondary causing a spark
to occur at the spark plug electrodes.

ii)Magneto Ignition System

In the magneto ignition system, it is the magnet which produces and supplies the current in
the primary winding. The other parameters are same as that of battery coil ignition system.
The magneto ignition system is of two types.
a) Rotating Armature type.
b) Rotating Magnet type.

Advantages over rotating armature type

a) Larger armature may be provided, which means more space for insulation.
b) No centrifugal stresses occur in the windings, because these remain stationary.
c) Contact breaker and condenser are also stationary.
iii)

Electronic Ignition System.

In the electronic ignition system a timer is employed in the distributor instead of a
contact breaker. This timer may be a pulse generator or a Hall Effect switch which
triggers the
electronic ignition control unit. This control unit primarily contains transistor circuit whose
base
current is triggered off and on by the timer which results in the starting and stopping of

the
primary current. Other than this, the electronic ignition system works similar to
the
conventional system.

COOLING SYSTEM
Introduction
All the heat produced by the combustion of fuel in the engine cylinder is not converted into
useful
power at the crank shaft. It is seen that the quantity of heat given to the cylinder wall is considerable and
if
this heat is not removed from the cylinders it would result in pre-ignition of the charge. In addition,
the
lubricant would also burn away, thereby causing the seizing of the piston. Excess heating will also
damage
the cylinder material. Keeping the above factors in view, it is observed that suitable means must
be

provided to dissipate the excess heat from the cylinder walls, so as to maintain the temperature
below
certain limits. However, cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable because it decreases the
overall
efficiency of the engine.
Methods of Cooling
i)

Air Cooling

ii)

Water Cooling
a) Thermo syphon System of cooling
b) Pump circulation system.

Components of water cooling system

i)

Radiator.
The function of the radiator is to ensure close contact of the hot coolant coming out of
the
engine with outside air, so as to ensure high rates of heat transfer from the coolant to air.
A
radiator consists of an upper tank, core and the lower tank. Besides, an overflow pipe in
the
upper tank and drain pipe in the lower tank are provided. Hot coolant from the engine enters
the
radiator at the top and is cooled by the cross flow of air, while flowing down the radiator.
The
coolant collects in the collector tank from where it is pumped to the engine for cooling.

ii)

Pressure Cap and expansion reservoir

A pressure cap contains a pressure valve and a vacuum valve. When due to severe
working
conditions, the coolant starts boiling and vaporises, the pressure in the system exceeds a
certain
predetermined value, the pressure blow-off valve open releasing the excess pressure to
the
atmosphere through the overflow pipe. On the other hand if due to any reason a vacuum
is
created inside, the vacuum valve operates to avoid collapse of the radiator.

iii)

Thermostat
To keep a rigid control over the cooling, a thermostat is used, which automatically keeps
the
cooling water temperature at a pre-determined value. Moreover, it also helps the engine to reach
the operating temperature as soon as possible after starting.
Two types of thermo stats are used in automobiles
a) Bellows or aneroid type.
b) Wax or hydrostatic type.

iv)

Coolant Pump:
A coolant pump is a necessity for the forced circulation type of engine cooling system.
The
pump is mounted at the front end of the engine and is driven from the crank shaft by means of
a v-belt. Centrifugal type pump is the one which is used for this purpose. The coolant from the
radiator enters the pump at the centre where inlet is located. The flow of the coolant depends
upon the pump speed which is proportional to engine speed. The main parts of the pump are
casing and a shaft mounted impeller having number of vanes. The impeller shaft is mounted on
bearing while the seal serves to prevent the leakage of coolant around the shaft.

v)

Fan
When the vehicle is going at high speed with light load, the natural draft of air passing
through the radiator may be sufficient for cooling of the engine, but when the vehicle is moving
under heavy load and at a slow speed, the natural draft is certainly insufficient to produce the
desired cooling. That is why fan is a necessary part of the cooling system. It is mounted behind
the radiator on the same shaft on which the water pump is mounted. It is driven by a v-belt from
the crankshaft pulley. It may have four to seven blades, sometimes spaced unevenly to reduce
noise. It is generally made of sheet metal, but these days moulded plastic materials are being used
for making fans.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Introduction
Lubrication circuit is one of the most important ones in the engine. The engine cannot run
smoothly for more than a few minutes without lubricating oil.
Functions of Lubrication

i)

It reduces the friction between moving parts & so that power loss in minimum.

ii) It reduces wear of the moving parts.

iii) It provides cooling effect.
iv) It provides cushioning effect.
v) It provides cleaning action.
vi) It provides sealing action.
Systems of Engine Lubrication
The various systems adopted for the lubrication of automobile engines are
i)

Petroil System.

ii)

Splash System.

iii) Pressure System.

iv) Dry-Sump System.
The main parts of an automotive engine which require lubrication are
i)

Main crankshaft bearings.

ii)

Big end bearings.

iii) Gudgeon pin bearings.

iv) Piston rings & Cylinder walls.
v)

Timing Gears.

vi) Camshaft and camshaft bearings.

vii) Valve Mechanisms.
viii) Electrical Equipments.

Components of Lubrication System

i)

Oil Strainers.
Oil strainer is attached at the inlet of the oil pump to guard it against the entry of grit etc.
The strainer is made of ordinary wire mesh screen. A good practice is to install a floating strainer,
which is hinged to the oil pump inlet. The floating strainer remains at the surface of the oil, whereas
the grit,dust etc., remains at the bottom of the crankcase. The result is that very small amount of
impurities goes to the strainer screen and hence the chances of it being blocked up are minimised.

ii)

Oil Pumps
Next to oil strainer in the lubrication system sequence, comes the pump. Its function is to
supply oil under pressure to the various engine parts. The oil pump is generally located inside
the crankcase below the oil level.
The pump is usually driven from the end of the distributor shaft, which gets its drive from
the camshaft through a skew gear if a low-mounted camshaft is employed. In some automobile
engines mounted transversely, the oil pump is driven directly from the camshaft end through a
coupling, since no separate shaft is required, this is a compact arrangement. The oil pressure in the
engine increases with the increase in engine speed which would increase the pump speed.The size
of the pump should be sufficient to maintain the desired pressure with reasonable amount of wear.
The different types of pumps used are.
a) Gear Pump.
b) Vane Pump.
c) Rotor Pump.
d) Plunger Pump.

iii)

Oil Filters
The lubricating oil with use is deteriorated resulting in the formation of sludge, lacquer and
carbon. Further it is contaminated by various by-products of combustion of fuel. In addition to
these the fine particles of metal due to wear are the other impurities present in the oil. It is
therefore necessary to remove these impurities to avoid permanent damage to any running parts of
the engine. Commonly used materials for filtering are wire gauze, cotton, plastic impregnated
paper etc. The filtering element must let the oil pass through without much resistance, but should
prevent the undesirable particles from entering the oil gallerie

Oil filters are basically of two types, the primary and the secondary, the primary filter is also
called as surface filter or strainer since the impurities are retained on the outer surface of the
filter. The secondary filters used in the automobile engines are of various kinds.
a) Cartridge Type.
b) Edge Type.
c) Centrifugal Type.
iv)

Oil Coolers.
In all heavy duty engines, the temperature of oil becomes quite high because of high engine
temperature. As the viscosity of the lubricating oil decreases with temperature rise, the oil film
in the bearings might break and the conditions of boundary lubrication may be created instead
of fluid lubrication which is desired. To avoid such thing oil coolers are provided. Oil coolers
are simple heat exchangers.

v)

Oil Pressure Gauges

If any leakage occurs at any part of the lubrication system, the pressure in the entire system
would fall, reducing consequently the oil supply to various bearings as a result of which they
are bound to starve and be damaged. Thus is very important for the driver to keep a watch on
the oil pressure in the gauge. The gauges generally are bourdon type or electrical type.

MethodsofBraking
i) MechanicalBraking.
ii) HydraulicBraking.
iii) ElectricBraking.
iv) VacuumBraking.
v) AirBraking.
ComponentsofHydraulicBraking
Thetwomaincomponentsofthehydraulicbrakingsystemaremaster&wheelcylinder
i) MasterCylinder
Incanberightlynamedastheheartofthehydraulicbrakingsystem.Itcontainsthereservoirfor
thebrakefluid.Itisoperatedbythebrakepedalandisfurtherconnectedtothewheelcylindersineach
wheelthroughsteelpipelines,unionsandflexiblehoses.

Therearetwomainchambers.Oneisthefluidreservoirandtheotheristhecompressionchamber
inwhichthepistonoperates.Thefluidinthereservoircompensates foranychangeinthefluid
volumeinthepipelines.
Theseareanumberofholesinthepistonheadonthehighpressureside.Twoholesconnectthe
fluidreservoirtothecompressionchamber.Thepushrodisoperatedwiththefootbrakepedalthrough
linkage.Asthepedalispressed,pushrodmovesthepistontotheleftagainsttheforceofthespring,
tillitcoversthebypassport.Furthermovementofthepushrodcausesbuildingupofpressureinthe
compressionchamber.Finallywhensufficientpressurehasbuiltup,theinnerrubbercupofthefluid
checkvalveisdeflected,forcingthefluidunderpressureinthelines.Thisfluidentersthewheel
cylinderandmovesthepistonstherebyapplyingthebrakes.
Wheelcylinders.
Theyaremeanttoforcethebrakeshoesagainstthedrum.Eachwheelcylinderisprovidedwith
pistons,rubberseal,springsanddustcovers.Thebrakelinefromthemastercylinderisattachedtothe
inletportandableederscrewwithacoverisprovidedtobleedairfromthesystem.Wheelcylinders
aremountedonthebackplate.
Whenbrakesareappliedthefluidunderpressurefromthemastercylinderenterstheinletportand
forcesthepistontomoveoutwardstopushtheshoesagainstthedrum.Similarlywhenthebrakesare
released,thebrakeshoeretractorspringsforcethebrakefluidoutofthewheelcylinderbypushingthe
pistoninwards.
AssemblingProcedure
i) Fittheretractorspringandthewheelcylindersappropriately.
ii) Mountthebrakedrumoverthebrakeshoeassemblyandtightenthelocknuts.
iii) Fitthelinkagesfromthemastercylindertothewheelcylindersincludingtherubberhoses.
iv) Fillthereservoirofthemastercylinderwiththebrakefluidandremoveanyairpresentinsidethe
cylinder.
v) Fitthemastercylinderandconnectthepushrodofthecylindertothecorrespondinglinkofthe
brakepedal.
vi) Finallyensureproperworkingofthebrakesystem.

STUDY OF MULTI-CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE

Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the Automotive
Engine Systems & Sub Systems.
Theory:
(a) Multi-cylinder: Diesel and Petrol Engines.
Both are internal combustion engines. The difference is that Diesel engine is CI (compression Ignition) and
petrol is SI (Spark Ignition). In a petrol engine spark is used to initiate the ignition of the petrol air mixture. In a diesel
engine the Air is compressed to 21 times its normal volume (Approx) and then fuel is injected into the Cylinder head/ or
piston, due to the high compression the temperature rises and as fuel is injected it ignites.
Both diesel and petrol engines may be 2 stroke or 4 stroke engines. In 2 stroke cycle engine: The engine
revolves once (two strokes of the piston, one down, one up) for a complete cycle of the engine. Whereas in 4-stroke
cycle engine: Each complete cycle of the engine involves four strokes of the piston, a down, an up, a down, and an up
stroke for each complete cycle of the engine (which is two revolutions of the engine).
A single cylinder four-stroke piston engine spends three quarters of its running time exhausting burned gas,
drawing in fresh mixture and compressing it. On only one of the four strokes the power stroke is any energy produced
and this makes the output of a single cylinder four stroke engine very uneven. This can be smoothed out if more
cylinders, with their pistons driving a common crank shaft, are used. A twin-cylinder four stroke, for instance, will
produce one power stroke for each revolution of the crank shaft, instead of every other revolution as on a single cylinder
engine. If the engine has four cylinders it produces one power stroke for each half-turn of the crankshaft and at no time
is the crankshaft free wheeling on one of the three passive strokes. Even better results can be obtained using six
cylinders, as the power strokes can be made to overlap, so that the crankshaft receives a fresh impulse before the
previous power stroke has died away on an in-line six-cylinder engine the crankshaft receives three power impulses each
revolution. In theory, the more cylinders you can use to drive the crank- shaft, the smoother the power output, and 8 and
12 cylinder engines are used on some of the more expensive cars. A large number of cylinders can pose practical
problems. An engine with eight cylinders in a straight line for instance would have a very long crank- shaft which would
tend to twist and be more likely to break at higher engine speeds. The car would also need a long bonnet to enclose the
engine. So in the interests of crank- shaft rigidity and compactness, 8 and 12 cylinder engines have their cylinders
arranged in a V, with two cylinder heads and a common crankshaft. There are also V-6 and V-4 cylinder engines.

Fig: In line engine or 6 cylinder engine

Fig: V8 Engine
The construction, working principle and operation of multi cylinder engines is same as single cylinder diesel and
petrol engines so are explained as follows:
Single-cylinder Petrol Engines:
Working Principle and Operation of 2-Stroke (S.I) Engines: In a 2-Stroke engine, the filling process is accompanied
by the change compressed in a crank case or by a blower. The induction of compressed charge moves out the product of
combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore, no piston stroke is required. Out of these 2-strokes, one stroke is for
compression of fresh charge and second for power stroke. The charge conducted into the crank case through the spring
loaded valve when the pressure in the crank case is reduced due to upward motion of piston during the compression
stroke. After the compression & ignition expansion takes place in usual way. During the expansion stroke the charge in
crankcase is compressed. Near the end of the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and the cylinder
pressure drops to atmosphere pressure as combustion produced leave the cylinder.

Fig: 2 stroke petrol engine

Working Principle and Operation of Four Stroke (S.I) Engine: In a four stroke engine, the cycles of operations is
completed in 4 strokes of piston or 2 revolution of crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 180 & hence the fuel cycle
consists of 720 of crank rotation. The 4-Strokes are; Suction or Intake Stroke: It starts at, when the piston is at top dead
centre & about to move downwards. The inlet valve is open at that time and exhaust valve is closed due to suction
created by the motion of the piston towards the bottom dead centre, the charge containing air fuel mixture is drawn into
the cylinder. When the piston reaches BDC the suction stroke ends and inlet valve is closed. Compression Stroke: The
charge taken into the cylinder during suction stroke is compressed by return stroke of piston. During this stroke both the
valves are closed. The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now compressed into the clearance volume. At
the end, the mixture is ignited with the help of electrode of spark plug. During the burning process the chemical energy
of fuel is converted to heat energy. The pressure is increased in the end due to heat release. Expansion Stroke: The burnt
gases escape out and the exhaust valve opens but inlet valve remaining closed the piston moves from BDC to TDC and
sweeps the burnt gases out at almost atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve gets closed at the end of this stroke. Thus,
for one complete cycle of engine, there is only one power stroke while crank shaft makes 2 revolutions. Exhaust Stroke:
During the upward motion of the piston, the exhaust valve is open and inlet valve is closed. The piston moves up in
cylinder pushing out the burnt gases through the exhaust valve. As the piston reaches the TDC, again the inlet valve
opens and fresh charge is taken in during next downward movement of the piston and the cycle is repeated.

Fig: 4 stroke petrol engine

Construction Details
Cylinder is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating produces. Piston is a cylindrical
component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of combustion system. It fits in cylinder perfectly.
Combustion Chamber is the space enclosed in the upper part of cylinder, by the cylinder head & the piston top during
combustion process. Inlet Manifold is the pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of engine. Exhaust
Manifold is the pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of engine. Inlet / Exhaust Valves are
provided on the cylinder head to head to regulate the charge coming into or going out of the chamber. Spark Plug is used
to initiate the combustion process in S.I engines. Connected Rod connects piston & the crank shaft. Crank shaft converts
the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of output shaft. Gudgeon pins form a link between
connection rod and the piston. Cam shaft controls the opening & closing of the valves. Cam opens the valves at the
correct tunes. Carburetor used in S.I engine for atomizing & vaporizing and mixture it with air in varying proportion.
Single-cylinder Diesel Engines:

Working Principle and Operation of Two Stroke (C.I.) Engine: In two stroke engines, the cycle is completed in one
revolution of the crankshaft. In 2-stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge compressed in
crankcase or by a blower. The induction of compressed charge moves out of the exhaust ports. Therefore, no piston
strokes are required for these 2 operations. Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle one for compressing the
fresh charge and other for expansion or power stroke. Compression is the air or charge is inducted into the crankcase
through the spring loaded inlet valve when the pressure in crankcase is reduced due to upward motion of piston.
Expansion, during this, the charge in the crankcase is compressed. At the end the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and
cylinder pressure drops to the atmospheric pressure. Further movement of piston opens the transfer ports, permitting the
slightest compressed charge in the crankcase to enter the engine cylinder.

Fig: 2 stroke diesel engine

Construction Details
Cylinder is in it the piston makes a reciprocating process motion. Piston is a cylindrical component fitted into the
cylinder forming the moving boundary of the combustion system. It fits into cylinder. Combustion Chamber the space
enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the head and the piston top during the combustion process. Inlet/ Outlet
ports, they are provided on the side of cylinder to regulate the charge coming in and out of cylinder. Fuel Injector injects
the fuel in combustion chamber to initiate combustion process for power stroke. Connecting Rod interconnects crank
shaft and the piston. Fly Wheel, the net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the
engine fluctuating change in angular velocity of shaft. In order to achiever uniform torque an internal mass is attached to
the output shaft & this is called as fly wheel.
Working Principle and Operation of Four Stroke (C.I.) Engine: In four strokes C.I. Engine compression ratio is
from 16 to 20. During suction stroke air is inducted. In C.I. engines high pressure. Fuel pump and injectors are provided
to inject the fuel into combustion chamber and ignition chamber system is not necessary. During suction stroke, air is
inducted through inlet valve. During Compression stroke the air inducted is compressed into the clearance volume.
During Expansion stroke the fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the compression stroke. The rate of injection is
such that the combustion maintains the pressure constant inspired of piston movement on its expansion stroke increasing
the volume. After injection of fuel, the products of combustion chamber expand. During Exhaust stroke the piston
traveling from BQC to TDC pushes out the products of combustion out of cylinder.

Fig: 4 stroke diesel engine

Construction Details:
Cylinder is a cylindrical vessel in which a piston makes up and down motion. Piston is a cylindrical component making
up and down movement in the cylinder. Combustion Chamber is the portion above the cylinder in which the combustion
of the Fuel-air mixture takes place. Inlet and Exhaust valves, the inlet valves allow the fresh fuel-air mixture to enter the
combustion chamber and the exhaust valve discharges the products of combustion. Crank Shaft is a shaft which converts
the reciprocating motion of piston into the rotary motion. Connecting Rod connects the Piston with the crankshaft. Cam
shaft controls the opening and closing of inlet and Exhaust valves. Fuel Injector is located at the top of head to inject the
fuel into the combustion chamber.
(b) Engine cooling & lubricating Systems.
Engine Cooling Systems: The cooling system removes excess heat to keep the inside of the engine at an efficient
temperature, about 200oF (94oC). There are two types of cooling systems found on automotives, they are liquid cooling
system and air cooling system.
Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Air Cooling System:
The air cooling system will have metal FINS on the outer perimeter of the engine. The heat is transferred from the
engine, through these fins, into the atmosphere.

Fig: Air Cooling System

Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Liquid Cooling System:
The cooling system is made up of the passages inside the engine block and heads, a water pump to circulate the coolant,
a thermostat to control the temperature of the coolant, a radiator to cool the coolant, a radiator cap to control the pressure
in the system, and some plumbing consisting of interconnecting hoses to transfer the coolant from the engine to radiator
and also to the car's heater system where hot coolant is used to warm up the vehicle's interior on a cold day.
A cooling system works by sending a liquid coolant through passages in the engine block and heads. As the coolant
flows through these passages, it picks up heat from the engine. The heated fluid then makes its way through a rubber
hose to the radiator in the front of the car. As it flows through the thin tubes in the radiator, the hot liquid is cooled by
the air stream entering the engine compartment from the grill in front of the car. Once the fluid is cooled, it returns to
the engine to absorb more heat. The water pump has the job of keeping the fluid moving through this system of
plumbing and hidden passages. A thermostat is placed between the engine and the radiator to make sure that the coolant
stays above a certain preset temperature. If the coolant temperature falls below this temperature, the thermostat blocks
the coolant flow to the radiator, forcing the fluid instead through a bypass directly back to the engine. The coolant will
continue to circulate like this until it reaches the design temperature, at which point, the thermostat will open a valve and
allow the coolant back through the radiator. In order to prevent the coolant from boiling, the cooling system is designed
to be pressurized. Under pressure, the boiling point of the coolant is raised considerably. However, too much pressure
will cause hoses and other parts to burst, so a system is needed to relieve pressure if it exceeds a certain point. The job
of maintaining the pressure in the cooling system belongs to the radiator cap. The cap is designed to release pressure if
it reaches the specified upper limit that the system was designed to handle. Prior to the '70s, the cap would release this
extra pressure to the pavement. Since then, a system was added to capture any released fluid and store it temporarily in
a reserve tank. This fluid would then return to the cooling system after the engine cooled down. This is what is called a
closed cooling system.

Fig: Liquid Cooling System

Engine Lubricating Systems: The engine lubrication system includes the lubricating oil, oil pump, oil filter and the oil
passages. Oil lubrication provides a barrier between rotating engine parts to prevent damage by friction. The engine oil

provides a method of cooling engine parts that are not cooled by the engine cooling system. Engine oil helps to protect
engine components from corrosion by neutralizing harmful chemicals that are the by-product of combustion.
Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Lubricating System:
To protect moving parts and reduce friction, automotive engine oil provides a barrier between the rotating or moving
engine components. Ideally, a film of oil should exist between moving components. This is called full film lubrication.
In order to achieve full film lubrication, a constant supply of clean oil is required. The engine oil system constantly
filters and circulates engine oil to ensure that all components are protected. The engine oil is stored in the crankcase.
Most engines hold between 4 to 6 quarts of oil. The engine oil pump pressurizes and circulates the engine oil. The oil
will flow from the pump to the oil filter, where it is cleaned. The cleaned engine oil then moves through passages, into
the crankshaft where it circulates through the engine bearings. The crankshaft has passages bored into it that allows oil
to travel to all the bearing surfaces. The cylinder walls and pistons are lubricated by the oil that is thrown from the
crankshaft as it rotates. This is sometimes referred to as splash lubrication. Engine oil will leave the crankshaft, usually
at a passage in one of the main bearings and is fed to the camshaft and lifters. On some overhead valve engines, oil will
travel through the pushrods up to the valve train to lubricate the rocker arms. Other designs use a passage to feed oil
through a rocker arm shaft to achieve the same purpose. The oil then returns to the crankcase by return holes in the
cylinder heads. It is then picked up by the oil pump to be circulated again.

Fig: Engine Lubrication System

(c) Engine starting Systems: The "starting system", the heart of the electrical system in the engine. The starting system
converts electrical energy from the batteries into mechanical energy to turn the engine over.
Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Engine starting System: Engine starting system, begins with the
Battery. The key is inserted into the Ignition Switch and then turned to the start position. A small amount of current then
passes through the Neutral Safety Switch to a Starter Relay or Starter Solenoid which allows high current to flow
through the Battery Cables to the Starter Motor. The starter motor then cranks the engine so that the piston, moving
downward, can create a suction that will draw a Fuel/Air mixture into the cylinder, where a spark created by the Ignition
System will ignite this mixture. If the Compression in the engine is high enough and all this happens at the right Time,
the engine will start.
The starting system has five main components: the ignition switch or start button, a neutral safety switch (an option on
some vehicles), the starter solenoid, the starter motor, and the batteries.

When the key is turned in the ignition switch to the start position, or the start button is pushed, electricity flows from the
batteries to the starter solenoid. Some vehicles are equipped with a neutral safety switch. If the vehicle is in gear when
the key is turned, the neutral safety switch blocks the signal to the batteries, so the engine doesn't start cranking.
Otherwise, the vehicle could jump forward or backward when the key is turned. The starter solenoid is an
electromagnetic switch mounted on the starter motor. When coils inside the solenoid are energized by electricity, they
create a magnetic field which attracts and pulls a plunger. Attached to one end of this plunger is a shift lever. The lever is
connected to the drive pinion and clutch assembly of the starter motor. The starter motor is a small but powerful electric
motor that delivers a high degree of power for a short period of time. When the starter motor is energized it engages the
flywheel ring gear and produces torque, which turns the flywheel and cranks the engine. When the driver releases the
ignition switch from the start position to the run position, the solenoid is deactivated. Its internal return springs cause the
drive pinion to be pulled out of mesh with the flywheel, and the starter motor stops.

Fig: Engine Starting System

(d) Contact Point & Electronic Ignition Systems: An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. There
are two common ignition types associated with automotive engines, they are contact points and fully electronic. For
many years, the contact point ignition was the favored system to control the timing of the ignition spark. However, as
electronics in general became more reliable and less costly to produce, manufacturers turned to full electronic systems
cutting out the mechanical contact points.
Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Contact Point Ignition System:
The contact point ignition system consists of:
1. A battery or magneto to supply low voltage current for the spark
2. Mechanical contact points to control the point of ignition
3. A rotating cam to operate the contact points
4. A condenser to reduce arcing across the contact point surfaces
5. An ignition coil
6. A spark plug
The job of the ignition system is to supply a spark at the correct time within the cylinder. The distributor cam is a part of,
or is attached to, the distributor shaft and has one lobe for each cylinder. As the cam rotates with the shaft at one half of
engine speed, the lobes cause the contact points to open and close the primary circuit. The contact points, also called
breaker points, act like spring-loaded electrical switches in the distributor. Its function is to cause intermittent
current flow in the primary circuit, thus causing the magnetic field in the coil to build up and collapse when it

reaches maximum strength. Wires from the condenser and ignition coil primary circuit connect to the points. The
condenser, also known as a capacitor, is wired in parallel with the contact points and grounded through the
distributor housing. The condenser prevents arcing or burning at the distributor contact points when the points are
first open. The condenser provides a place where current can flow until the contact points are fully open. With the
engine running, the distributor shaft and distributor cam rotate. This action causes the distributor cam to open and
close the contact points. With the contact points wired to the primary windings of the ignition coil, the contact
points make and break the ignition coil primary circuit. With the contact points closed, the magnetic field
builds up in the coil. As the points open, the magnetic field collapses and voltage is sent to the spark plugs.
With the distributor operating at one half of engine speed and with only one cam for each engine cylinder, each spark
plug only fires once during a complete revolution of the distributor cam. To ensure that the contact points are closed
for a set time, point dwell, also known as cam angle, is set by using a dwell meter. Point dwell is the amount of
time given in degrees of distributor rotation that the points remain closed between each opening. A dwell period is
required to assure that the coil has enough time to build up a strong magnetic field. If the point dwell is too small,
the current will have insufficient time to pass through the primary windings of the ignition coil, resulting in a
weak spark. However, if the point dwell is too great, the contact points will not open far enough, resulting in
arcing or burning of the points.
The spark must be sufficiently strong enough to jump a gap at the spark plug electrodes. To achieve this, the voltage
must be increased considerably from the motorcycles electrical system (6 or 12 volts) to around 25,000 volts at the
plug. To achieve this increase in voltage, the system has two circuits: the primary and the secondary. In the primary
circuit, the 6 or 12 volt power supply charges the ignition coil. During this phase the contact points are closed. When the
contact points open, the sudden drop in power supply causes the ignition coil to release stored energy in the form of the
increased high voltage. The high voltage current travels along a lead (HT lead) to a plug cap before entering the spark
plug via the central electrode. A spark is created as the high voltage jumps from the central electrode to the ground
electrode.

Fig: Contact Point Ignition System

Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Electronic Ignition System:
The basic difference between the contact point and the electronic ignition system is in the primary circuit. The primary
circuit in a contact point ignition system is open and closed by contact points. In the electronic system, the
primary circuit is open and closed by the electronic control unit (ECU).The secondary circuits are practically the
same for the two systems. The difference is that the distributor, ignition coil, and wiring are altered to handle the high
voltage produced by the electronic ignition system. One advantage of this higher voltage (up to 60,000volts) is that
spark plugs with wider gaps can be used. This results in a longer spark, which can ignite leaner air-fuel mixtures. As a
result engines can run on leaner mixtures for better fuel economy and lower emissions.
The basic components of an electronic ignition system are as follows: The trigger wheel, also known as a reluctor,
pole piece, or armature, is connected to the upper end of the distributor shaft. The trigger wheel replaces the
distributor cam. Like the distributor cam lobes, the teeth on the trigger wheel equal the number of engine cylinders.
The pickup coil, also known as a sensor assembly, sensor coil, or magnetic pickup assembly, produces tiny
voltage surges for the ignition systems electronic control unit. The pickup coil is a small set of windings forming a
coil. The ignition system electronic control unit amplifier or control module is an "electronic switch" that
turns the ignition coil primary current ON and OFF. The ECU performs the same function as the contact points.

The ignition ECU is a network of transistors, capacitors, resistors, and other electronic components sealed in a
metal or plastic housing. The ECU can be located (1) in the engine compartment, (2) on the side of the distributor,
(3) inside the distributor, or (4) under the vehicle dash. ECU dwell time (number of degrees the circuit conducts
current to the ignition coil) is designed into the electronic circuit of the ECU and is NOT adjustable. Electronic
Ignition System Operation With the engine running, the trigger wheel rotates inside the distributor. As a tooth of the
trigger wheel passes the pickup coil, the magnetic field strengthens around the pickup coil. This action changes the
output voltage or current flow through the coil. As a result, an electrical surge is sent to the electronic control unit, as the
trigger wheel teeth pass the pickup coil. The electronic control unit increases the electrical surges into ON/OFF cycles
for the ignition coil. When the ECU is ON, current passes through the primary windings of the ignition coil,
thereby developing a magnetic field. Then, when the trigger wheel and pickup coil turn OFF the ECU, the
magnetic field inside the ignition coil collapses and fires a sparkplug. Hall-Effect Sensor Some electronic distributors
have a magnetic sensor using the Hall effect. When a steel shutter moves between the two poles of a magnet, it
cuts off the magnetism between the two poles. The Hall-effect distributor has a rotor with curved plates, called
shutters. These shutters are curved so they can pass through the air gap between the two poles of the
magnetic sensor, as the rotor turns. Like the trigger wheel, there are the same number of shutters as there are engine
cylinders. Each time a shutter moves through the air gap between the two poles of the magnetic sensor, it cuts off
the magnetic field between the poles. This action provides a signal to the ECU. When a shutter is not in the way,
the magnetic sensor is producing voltage. This voltage is signaling the ECU to allow current to flow through the
ignition coils primary winding. However, when the shutter moves to cut off the magnetic field, the signal
voltage drops to zero. The ECU then cuts off the current to the ignition coils primary winding. The magnetic
field collapses, causing the coil secondary winding to produce a high voltage surge. This high voltage surge is sent
by the rotor to the proper spark plug.

Fig: Electronic Ignition System

Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of
the Automotive Engine Systems & Sub Systems is completed.

DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF MULTI-CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE

Ex:No:
Date:
Aim:
Todismantle,Studyandassemblethegivenfourstroke,MultiCylinderpetrolengine.

ToolsRequired
i)

Doubleendspanner.

ii)

SocketSpanner.

iii)

ScrewDriver

iv)

Extensionrod.

v)

VernierCalliper.

vi)

TelescopicGauge.
DismantlingProcedure
i) Removethecrankshaftpulleyandthetiminggearsetup.Noticethatyouhavemarkedthereference
point.
ii) Removetherockercover
iii) Removetheinletmanifoldfromthecylinderhead.Thecarburettoralongwiththeairfilter
shouldalsoberemoved.
iv) Removetheexhaustmanifoldfromthecylinderhead.
v) Removetherockerarmassemblyandthepushrods.
vi) Dismountthecylinderheadafterremovingthelocknuts.
vii) Tilttheengineandthenremovethecrankcaseandtheoilpump.Makesureyouhavedrained
theoilcompletelybeforeremovingthecrankcase.
viii)

Removetheconnectingrodbigendcapanditsbearing.

ix) Removethepistonalongwiththeconnectingrod.
x) Removetheoilandcompressionringsfromthepiston.
xi) Removethecrankshaftmainbearingandpulloutthecrankshaft.
xii)Removethecamshaftfinally.

Study

i)

Theengineisa4Cylinder,In4strokelinetypeengine.

ii)

Thearrangementofvalvesisoverheadvalvetype.

iii)

Thetypeofcoolingiswatercooled.

iv)

Thetypeoflubricationinpressurelubrication.

v)

Thecrankshafthasgotthreemainbearings.
AssemblingProcedure.

i)
ii)

Fitthecrankshaftandcamshaftalongwithitsbearings.
Neatlycleantheringsandlubricatethemwithgreasebeforeplacingtheminthegrooveofthe
piston.

iii)

Fitthepistonalongwiththeconnectingrodwithinthecylinderblock.

iv)

Fitthebigendoftheconnectingrodandtightenthelocknutsappropriately.

v)

Fitinthecrankcaseandfillthemwiththeoil.

vi)

Mountthecylinderheadsuitablyandtightenthelocknuts.

vii)

Appropriatelyfitinthepushrodandtherockerarmassembly.

viii) Fittheexhaustandtheintakemanifoldalongwiththeaccessorycomponents.
ix)

Mounttherockercoverandtightenthelocknuts.

x)

Finallypositionthetiminggearaccordingtothereferencepointandfitit.

xi)

Fitthepulleyandtightenthemcorrespondingly.

Result:
Thusthegiven4stroke,4CylinderPetrolenginewasdismantled,studied,measurements and
assembled.

DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF MULTI-CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE

Ex : No :
Date :
Aim:
Todismantle,studyandassemblethegivenmulticylinderdieselengine.
ToolsRequired
i)

Doubleendspanner.

ii)

Ringspanner.

iii)

ScrewDriver&Hammer.

iv)

Telescopicgauge.

v)

VernierCalliper.
DismantlingProcedure
i) Removethecrankshaftpulleyalongwiththetiminggear.Makesureyouhavemarkedthe
referencepoint.

ii)

Removetherockercover
iii) Dismounttheintakemanifoldanditsaccessories.Removethefuelinjectoralongwiththepump.

iv)

Removetheexhaustmanifold.

v)

Removethecylinderheadbyunlockingthelocknuts.Beforedoingso,ensurethatyouhave
removedthevalvesalongwiththerockerarmassemblyandthepushrods.

vi)

Removethecrankcaseanddraintheoil.

vii)

Removetheconnectingrodbigendcap

viii)

Removethepistonalongwiththeconnectingrod.

ix)

Removethepistonringsalongwiththecirclips.

x)

Removethecrankshaftbearingsandpulloutthecrankshaft.

xi)Removethecamshaftaswell.

Study:
i) Thegivenengineisa4cylinder,4strokeInLineverticaltypeengine.
ii) Theengineiswatercooledandispressurelubricated.
iii) Thefuelisdirectlyinjected(DIinjection).Naturallyaspirated.
iv) Valvearrangementisoverheadvalvetype.
AssemblingProcedure
i) Fitthecrankshaftandthecamshaftassemblyinthecorrespondingspaceprovidedintheblock.

ii) Carefullyinsertthepistonalongwiththeconnectingrod.Notethatyouhaveproperlycleanedand
lubricatedtheringsbeforeassembling.
iii) Fittheconnectingrodbigendcapandtightenthelocknut.
iv) Fitinthecrankcasealongwiththelubricatingoil.
v) Mountthecylinderheadandtightenthelocknuts.
vi) Placethepushrods,rockerarmassemblyandthevalvescorrespondingly.
vii) Mounttheintakeandexhaustmanifoldrespectively.
viii)

Fitthefuelinjectionsystemalongwiththeinjector.

ix) Fittherockercoverandtightenthelocknut.
x) Fitthecrankshaftpulleyalongwiththetiminggearsetupbasedonthereferencepoint.

Result:
Thusthegivenmulticylinderdieselengineisdismantled,studied,measurementsandassembled.

STUDY OF PETROL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM

Ex No:
Date:
Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the Fuels supply
systems.
Apparatus: Models of
(a) Carburetors
(b) Diesel Fuel Injection Systems
(c) Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems.
Theory:
(a) Carburetors: A carburetor is a mechanical device on an internal combustion engine, for the purpose of mixing air
and gasoline into a combustible fine vapor, in automatically changing proportions, depending on the operating
conditions of the engine. As an example, an engine that runs continually at one speed, day in and day out has need only
for a carburetor of the simplest construction. One that has only to mix air and gasoline in one fixed ratio. However, when
the demands of the engine are changed and it is desirable to run it at variable speeds, the carburetor must mix air and
gasoline in different proportions and therefore, its construction must be more complex.
Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Carburetors:

In the part of the carburetor known as the body is located the float bowl or chamber. This chamber is used for the storage
of a certain quantity of gasoline. It serves two purposes, namely, to keep all the other circuits of the carburetor supplied
with the amount of fuel they need and to absorb the pulsation of the fuel pump, as it delivers the gasoline to the
carburetor. Though its construction is simple, it plays a very important part in the proper functioning of the engine. The
float system consists of the following: float chamber or bowl, fuel inlet, needle valve and seat, float, float pin and on
some carburetors a float pin retainer, and the float chamber or bowl cover which contains the float chamber vent. The
pump system consists of pump cylinder, pump plunger, plunger operating rod, plunger spring, intake check valve, outlet
check valve and pump jet. It also contains the throttle system and choke system.

Fig: Carburetor parts

A carburetor is a tube attached to the intake port of the engine and open to the atmosphere. On the intake stroke a
volume with little to no pressure develops in the combustion chamber. As a result air flows from outside to inside the
engine. As the air flows through the carburetor, the fuel is metered, atomized and vaporized. To have available fuel, the
carburetor must have a source of fuel. In the float type carburetor this source is the fuel bowel. A pressure difference is
also needed to cause the fuel to flow from the fuel bowel into the air stream. This is accomplished using a venturi,
Bernoullis principle and a tube connecting the mouth of the venture to the fuel bowel.
This is a functioning carburetor and it will operate an engine as long as it has a constant load and constant speed. Very
few engines operate at a constant load and constant speed. To adjust the rate of fuel flow a throttle is used. When the
throttle is in the closed position there is minimum air flow through the carburetor. When the throttle is in the wide open
position, there is maximum air flow through the carburetor. To provide a means to adjust maximum fuel flow, a needle
valve was added to the orifice in the emulsion tube. A carburetor with this design would function well under varying
loads and speeds. Starting is a different condition; an engine needs a richer fuel-air mixture. This was accomplished by
adding a choke. Closing the choke increases the pressure difference between the fuel bowel and the venturi. Once engine
starts the choke must be opened to prevent the engine from running too rich. The addition of a choke/primer improved
engine starting, but this carburetor still has a problem if the engine needs to idle. When the throttle is in the idle position,
almost closed, the area with greatest restriction, and greatest pressure difference, moves from the venturi to the area
between the throttle plate and the wall of the tube. This problem was solved with the addition of an idle circuit and idle
needle valve. To have constant fuel flow with constant pressure difference the lift, distance from the top of the fuel to the
top of the main nozzle, must remain constant. A constant level of fuel is maintained in the fuel bowel by the float, float
needle valve and float needle valve seat.

Fig: Carburetor Operation

STUDY OF DIESEL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM

Ex No:
Date:
Diesel Fuel Injection Systems: The injection system in diesel engines can be of two types as air injection and
airless injection. In air injection system the diesel is injected along with the compressed air whereas in
airless injection system only the liquid diesel is injected into the cylinder.
Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Diesel Fuel Injection Systems:
The construction details of diesel fuel injection system are fuel tank, fuel filter, fuel pump, fuel injector, nozzle.

Fig: Diesel Fuel Injection System

A fuel tank is used for storage. The feed pump is used to feed the fuel to filter where fuel can be filtered. A fuel injection
pump is used to supply precisely metered quantity of diesel under high pressure to the injectors at well timed instants. A
fuel injector is used to inject the fuel in the cylinder in atomized form and in proper quantity. Main components
of fuel injectors are nozzle, valve, body and spring. The nozzle is its main part which is attached to the nozzle holder.
Entry of fuel in the injector is from the fuel injection pump. Diesel injector nozzles are spring-loaded closed valves that
spray fuel directly into the combustion chamber. Injector nozzles are threaded into the cylinder head, one for each
cylinder. The top of the injector nozzle has many holes to deliver an atomized spray of diesel fuel into the cylinder.
(c) Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems: A modern gasoline injection system uses pressure from an electric fuel pump to
spray fuel into the engine intake manifold. Like a carburetor, it must provide the engine with the correct air-fuel mixture
for specific operating conditions. Unlike a carburetor, however, pressure, not engine vacuum, is used to feed fuel into the
engine. This makes the gasoline injection system very efficient.
A gasoline injection system has several possible advantages over a carburetor type of fuel system. Some advantages
are as follows:

1. Improved atomization: Fuel is forced into the intake manifold under pressure that helps break fuel droplets into
a fine mist.

2. Better fuel distribution: Equal flow of fuel vapors into each cylinder.
3. Smoother idle: Lean fuel mixture can be used without rough idle because of better fuel distribution and lowspeed atomization.

4. Lower emissions: Lean efficient air-fuel mixture reduces exhaust pollution.

5. Better old weather drivability: Injection provides better control of mixture enrichment than a carburetor.
6. Increased engine power: Precise metering of fuel to each cylinder and increased air flow can result in more
horsepower output.

7. Fewer parts: Simpler, late model, electronic fuel injection system has fewer parts than modern computercontrolled carburetors.

There are many types of gasoline injection systems. Before studying the most common ones, you should have a basic
knowledge of the different classifications:
1. Single- or Multi-Point Injection
2. Indirect or Direct Injection
The point or location of fuel injection is one way to classify a gasoline injection system. A single-point injection system,
also call throttle body injection (TBI), has the injector nozzles in a throttle body assembly on top of the engine. Fuel is
sprayed into the top center of the intake manifold.
A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector in the port (air-fuel passage) going to each
cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into each intake port and toward each intake valve. Thereby, the term
multipoint (more than one location) fuel injection is used.
An indirect injection system sprays fuel into the engine intake manifold. Most gasoline injection systems are of this
type. Direct injection forces fuel into the engine combustion chambers. Diesel injection systems are direct type. So,
Gasoline electronic Direct Injection System is classified as multi-point and direct injection systems.
Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems:
Its construction details consists of parts as fuel tank, electric fuel pump, fuel filter, electronic control unit, common rail
and pressure sensor, electronic injectors and fuel line.
1. Fuel tank is safe container for flammable liquids and typically part of an engine system in which the fuel is stored and
propelled (fuel pump) or released (pressurized gas) into an engine.
2. An electric fuel pump is used on engines with fuel injection to pump fuel from the tank to the injectors. The pump
must deliver the fuel under high pressure (typically 30 to 85 psi depending on the application) so the injectors can spray
the fuel into the engine. Electric fuel pumps are usually mounted inside the fuel tank.
3. The fuel filter is the fuel system's primary line of defense against dirt, debris and small particles of rust that flake off
the inside of the fuel tank. Many filters for fuel injected engines trap particles as small as 10 to 40 microns in size. Fuel
filter normally made into cartridges containing a filter paper.
4. In automotive electronics, electronic control unit (ECU) is a generic term for any embedded system that controls one
or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a motor vehicle.
An engine control unit (ECU), also known as power-train control module (PCM), or engine control module (ECM) is a
type of electronic control unit that determines the amount of fuel, ignition timing and other parameters an internal
combustion engine needs to keep running. It does this by reading values from multidimensional maps which contain
values calculated by sensor devices monitoring the engine. Control of fuel injection: ECU will determine the quantity of
fuel to inject based on a number of parameters. If the throttle pedal is pressed further down, this will open the throttle
body and allow more air to be pulled into the engine. The ECU will inject more fuel according to how much air is
passing into the engine. If the engine has not warmed up yet, more fuel will be injected. Control of ignition timing : A
spark ignition engine requires a spark to initiate combustion in the combustion chamber. An ECU can adjust the exact
timing of the spark (called ignition timing) to provide better power and economy. Control of idle speed : Most engine
systems have idle speed control built into the ECU. The engine RPM is monitored by the crankshaft position sensor
which plays a primary role in the engine timing functions for fuel injection, spark events, and valve timing. Idle speed is
controlled by a programmable throttle stop or an idle air bypass control stepper motor.
5. The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is
nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple
fuel injectors with high pressure fuel.
6. The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically activated a hydraulic valve
(consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the
desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically actuated the injection
pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square
injection rate. If the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and rate will be the
same for each of the multiple injection events. The injectors can survive the excessive temperature and pressure of
combustion by using the fuel that passes through it as a coolant. The electronic fuel injector is normally closed, and
opens to inject pressurized fuel as long as electricity is applied to the injector's solenoid coil. When the injector is turned
on, it opens, spraying atomized fuel at the combustion chamber. Depending on engine operating condition, injection
quantity will vary.
7. Fuel line hoses carry gasoline from the tank to the fuel pump, to the fuel filter, and to the fuel injection system. While
much of the fuel lines are rigid tube, sections of it are made of rubber hose, which absorb engine and road vibrations.

Fig: Electronic Gasoline Fuel Injection System

Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of
the Fuels supply systems is completed.

STUDYANDMEASUREMENTOFLIGHTANDHEAVYCOMMERCIAL
VEHICLEFRAME
Ex No :
Date :
Aim:
Tostudyaboutvariousfeaturesandmeasurethevariousdimensionsofthegivenchassis.
ToolsRequired
i) Lightvehiclechassisandheavyvehiclechassis.
ii) Measuringtape.

iii) Wheelalignmentmachine.

Procedure
i) Studythelayoutofdriveemployedinvehicle
ii) Checkwhetheritisofconnectionalframeconstructionorintegraltype.Drawtheframeconstruction
includingthedetailswheretheslidemembershavebeanjointedwithcrossmembers,thepositionof
axlesandlocationofsuspensionattachment.Drawthecrosssectionofmembersofframeandmeasure
thedimensionofit.
iii) Identifythetypeofclutchandgearboxusedinthevehicle
iv) Identifythesuspensiontypewhetheritisofrigidaxelsuspensionorindependentsuspension.Findout
thetypeofsuspensionfittedinthefrontandrearofvehicle
v) Identifythetypeofrearaxledrivewhetheritismadeupofoneortwouniversaljoints,Oneortwo
piecespropellershaftwithrearorwithoutslipjointetc.Thetypeofrearaxlehousingandthetypeof
rearaxleemployed.
vi) Identifythedetailsofsteeringsystemincludingthetypeofsteeringboxused.Itslinkageetc.
vii) Identifythebrakingsystemandtypebrakeusedinvehicle.
viii)Identifythetypeofwheelsandtyresfitted
.
ix)Thesteeringgeometrycanbeobtainedbytheprocedureasdescribedbelowbeforemeasuringit
isadvisabletosetthat.
xi) Frontwheelsaretruerunningandwheelbearingareproperlyadjusted.
xii) Tyresareinflatedasspecified.

xiii)Frontsuspensionspringareproperlyscattedandballjointsarenotexcessivelyloose.
xiv)Thevehicleisintheladenorunladenasrecommendedbythemanufactories.
xv)Asfaraspossiblethesurfaceoverwhichthevehiclebeingcheckedshouldbeperfatlyused.
xvi)Measurethewheelbase,wheeltrack,overalllength,maximumwidth,overallheight,ground
clearancefrontoverhangrear,overhangetc.Usingmeasuringtape.
Exp;fig1,2,3

Heavydutycommercialvehicleframe;
S.NO

1
2

SPECIFICATION
a) Wheal base -1
b) Wheal base-2
a) Maximum length-1

DIMENSION
(MM)

b) Maximum length-2
a) Maximum breadth-1
3

b) Maximum breadth-2
a) Diagonal length-1

b) Diagonal length-2
a) Wheel track-1
5.

b) Wheel track-2

Lightdutycommercialvehicleframe;
S.NO

SPECIFICATION

DIMENSION
(MM)

a) Wheal base -1
1

b) Wheal base-2
a) Maximum length-1

b) Maximum length-2
a) Maximum breadth-1

b) Maximum breadth-2
a) Diagonal length-1

b) Diagonal length-2
a) Wheel track-1

5.

b) Wheel track-2

Result;

Thevariousfeaturesofthechassisarestudiedanditsdimensionshavebeenmeasured.

STUDY , DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF FRONT AXLES

Ex : No :
Date :
Aim:

Todismantle,studyandassemblethegivenfrontaxle.
ToolsRequired.
i) DoubleendSpanner.
ii) RingSpanner.
iii) Socketwithextension.
iv) Hammer.
v) Screwdriver.
DismantlingProcedure
i) Removethesteeringknucklearmjoint.
ii) Removethewheelbearing.
iii) Removethebrakeshoeassembly.
iv) Withtheuseofkingpinremover,removethekingpin.
v) Finallyremovethesteeringknuckle.
Study:
Conventionallythefrontaxleisadeadaxle.Howeverforfourwheeldrivevehiclesandmostofthe
cars,itisaliveaxle.ThemajorityoffrontaxleshavesteelI beamforthemainmember.Frontaxle
consistsofabeam,whichextendsacrosstheundersideofthevehicleforalmosttheentirewidthofthe
tread.
Swivellingdeviceisattachedtobothendsofthisbeam.Thebeamisattachedtothevehicleframeby
meansofsprings.Theswivellingdeviceiscalledsteeringknuckle.Thesteeringknuckleisattachedtothe
beambymeansofkingpins.

ComponentsoffrontAxle
TypeofstubAxles
ElliotAxle.
IntheElliotaxle,eachendofthemainbeamisopentoformaCShapedyoke.Thesteering
knucklefitsbetweentheupperarmsofthisyoke.Thekingpinextendsthroughtheupperarmofthisyoke
throughtheknuckleandintothelowerarmoftheyoke.Usuallythekingpinissecuredinthesteering
knucklesothatwhentheknuckleswivels,thekingpinturnsintheyoke.
ReverseElliotAxle:
InreverseElliotaxle,theyokeisapartofthesteeringknuckleandfitsovertheendoftheaxle.
Thekingpinissecuredinaverticalholethroughtheendoftheaxlebeamandtheknuckleswivelsonit.

Steeringknuckles:
Thesteeringknuckleconsistsofaspindleforthewheel,devicesforattachingtheunittothemain
beamoraxleandanarmforholdingtheknuckleinanydesiredpositioninitsswingortravel.

Steeringknucklearm

Thesteeringknucklearmisaleverforswivellingtheknuckle.Oneendofthearmissecuredto
theknuckle.Thefreeendofthearmismadewitheitheraballoraholeforattachingtherod.

AssemblingProcedure
i) Carefullypositionthesteeringknuckle.
ii) Fitthekingpinappropriatelyinthesteeringknuckle.
iii) Mountthebrakeshoeassemblyinthepositionappropriately.
iv) Fitthewheelbearings.
v) Connectthesteeringknucklearmtothetierodassembly.

Housing and Tube, Front Axle

Socket, Steering Tie Rod, Right
Clamp, Cross Steering Tie Rod Socket
Crank Bell, Steering Connecting Rod, Up to Serial No.
199079
Crank Bell, Steering, After Serial No. 199079
Nut, Hex, 1/2"-20, Left Hand, Wheel Hub Bolt (10

Needed)
Nut, Hex, 1/2"-20, Right Hand, Wheel Hub Bolt (10
Needed)
Shim, Adjusting, .010" (4 Needed) See Shim Kit Below
Shim, Adjusting, .030" (2 Needed) See Shim Kit Below
Flange, Drive, Axle Shaft (2 Needed)
Washer, Drive Pinion Nut
Pin, Cotter, Axle Shaft Nut, 7/34" x 1-1/2" (4 Needed)
Nut, Hex, 3/4"-16, Axle Shaft (4 Needed)
Cap, Wheel Hub (4 Needed)
Bolt, Hex, 3/8"-16 x 1-1/2" Axle Shaft Flange
Lockwasher, 3/8" (12 Needed)
Socket, Steering Tie Rod, Left, Left Rod
Shaft
and
Joint,
Left
Shaft and Joint, Right
Rod, Tie, Left
Socket, Steering Tie Rod, Left, Right Rod
Kit, Shim
Result:
Thusthegivenfrontaxleisdismantled,studiedandassembled.

STUDY, DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF REAR AXLES

Ex : No :
Date :
Aim:

Todismantle,Studyandassemblethegivenrearaxle.
ToolsRequired
i) Doubleendspanner.
ii) Socketwithextension
iii) Ringspanner.
iv) Hammer.
v) Screwdriver.
DismantlingProcedure
i) Removethewheelbearing.
ii) Removethebrakedrumfromthebrakeassemblyunit.
iii) Removethebrakeshoeassembly.
iv) RemovethetaperbearingsofthehalfaxleShafts.
v) Pullthehalfaxleshaftsthataresplinedtothesungearofthefinaldriveunit.
Study:
Therearwheelsaremountedonbearingsontheendsoftheaxleshaft.Therearetwohalf
shafts.Variousforcesandtorquesexperiencedbytherearaxleare.
i) Weightofthebody.
ii) Drivingthrust.
iii) Torquereaction.
iv) Sidethrust.
Therearetworearaxledrives.Inallthedrivesemployedfornearaxle,thespringstaketheweightof
thebody.Thedrivesarei)HotchkissDriveii)TorqueTubedrive.

TypesofRearAxleShaftsupport
i)SemiFloatingaxle.
Thewheelhubisdirectlyconnectedtotheaxleshaftorisanextensionofthesame.Theinnerendof
theaxleissplinedandissupportedbythefinaldriveunit,whereastheouterendissupportedbyasingle

bearinginsidetheaxlecasing.Inthisalltheloadslistedabovearetakenbytheaxleshaft,thevehicleload
istransmittedtoeachofthehalfshaftsthroughthecasingandthebearing.Thiscausesabendingloadand
atendencytoshear.
ii)FullyFloatingaxle.
Theaxleshaftshaveflangesattheouterends,whichareconnectedtotheflangedsleevebymeansof
bolts.Therearetwotaperrollerbearingssupportingtheaxlecasinginthehub,whichtakeupanyside
load.Thusisthiscasetheaxlecarriesonlythedrivingtorque.

AssemblingProcedure
i)

Insertthehalfaxleshaftssuchthattheinnerendiskeyedtothesungearofthefinaldriveunit.

ii)

Fitthetaperrollerbearingintheappropriatepositionwithinthehousingoftheaxlecasing.

iii)

Fitinthebrakeshoeassembly.

iv)

Fitinthewheelbearingandcompletetheassemblyprocess.

Result:
Thusthegivenrearaxleisdismantled,studiedandasse

STUDY DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF DIFFERENTIAL UNIT

Ex : No :
Date :
Aim:
Todismantle,Studyandassemblethegivendifferentialunit.
ToolsRequired.
i) Doubleendspanner
ii) Socketwithextension
iii) Ringspanner.
iv) Hammer.
v) Screwdriver.
DismantlingProcedure
i) Removethetwohalfaxleshaftsoftherearaxle.
ii) Removethecrownwheelwiththedifferentialassembly.
iii) Disconnectthedifferentialassemblyfromthecrownwheelbyremovingthemountingbolts.
iv) Finally remove the sun gear, planet pinion and cross pin or spider from the differential
assembly.
Study
Tothecrownwheelofthefinaldriveisattachedacage,whichcarriesacrosspinoraspider.Two
sungearsmeshwiththetwoorfourplanetpinions.Axlehalfshaftsaresplinedtoeachofthesegears.
Thecrownwheelisfreetorotateonthehalfshaft.
Whenthevehicleisgoingstraight,thecageandtheinnergearsrotateasasingleunitandthetwohalf
shafts revolve at the same speed. In this situation there is no relative movement among the various
differentialgears.
Whenthevehicleistakingaturn,assumethatthecageisstationary.Thenturningonesungearwillcause
theothertorotateintheoppositedirection.Thatmeansthatifleftsungearrotates n timesina

particular time, the right sun gear will also rotate n times in the same period but in the opposite

direction.Thisrotationissuperimposedonthenormalwheelspeedwhenthevehicleistakingaturn.

AssemblingProcedure
i) Assemble the differential unit by keeping all the planet pinions in the cross pin and by
positioningthesungearsinthecage.
ii) Fitthedifferentialunitwiththecrownwheelbytighteningthemountingbolts.
iii) Assemblethecrownwheelwiththedifferentialunitintherearaxleandensurethatthecrown
wheeltoothmesheswiththepinionteeth.
iv) Finally the two half shafts of the rear axles are positioned and checked for proper working
conditions.

Result:
Thusthegivendifferentialunitisdismantled,studiedandassembled,

STUDY DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF CLUTCH.

Apparatus: Models of
(a) Coil-Spring Clutch
(b) Diaphragm Spring Clutch.
(c) Double Disk Clutch.
Theory:
A Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the driven shaft may be started
or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus provides an interruptible connection between two
rotating shafts. Clutches allow a high inertia load to be stated with a small power. A popularly known application of
clutch is in automotive vehicles where it is used to connect the engine and the gear box. Here the clutch enables to crank
and start the engine disengaging the transmission and change the gear to alter the torque on the wheels.
(a) Coil-Spring Clutch: The coil spring clutch shown in figure uses coil springs as pressure springs (only two pressure
spring is shown). The coil-spring clutch has a series of coil springs set in a circle. At high rotational speeds, problems
can arise with multi coil spring clutches owing to the effects of centrifugal forces both on the spring themselves and the
lever of the release mechanism.

Fig: Coil Spring Clutch

(b) Diaphragm Spring Clutch: The diaphragm spring clutch shown in figure. The diaphragm spring clutch has
consistently eliminated bolt springs which means it very from coil spring clutch by type of spring used.

Fig: Diaphragm Spring Clutch

(c) Double Disk Clutch: Basically, the clutch needs three parts. These are the engine flywheel, a friction disc called the
clutch plate and a pressure plate. When the engine is running and the flywheel is rotating, the pressure plate also rotates
as the pressure plate is attached to the flywheel. The friction disc is located between the two. When the driver has pushed
down the clutch pedal the clutch is released. This action forces the pressure plate to move away from the friction disc.
There are now air gaps between the flywheel and the friction disc, and between the friction disc and the pressure plate.
No power can be transmitted through the clutch.

Fig: Double Disk Clutch

Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Automotive Clutches:
A clutch is that part of engine which engages or disengages power from the engine crankshaft to transmission. A clutch
is mechanism by which you change the gears. In simple words, it turns on or off power to rear wheel. A clutch is made
of clutch assembly which includes clutch plate, Clutch basket, Clutch hub, pressure plates, Clutch springs, lever and
clutch cable.
Clutch Basket: It is bowl shaped basket which holds entire clutch assembly. It has teethes on the outside surfaces which
fix on the primary drive teethes. It means that it is connected with the transmission. It is bolted onto the end of clutch
shaft.Clutch Hub: The clutch hub places between clutch basket and pressure plate. The clutch plates are mounted on it. It
has teethes in the centre hole which rotate with main shaft. It means it is connected with the engine.
Clutch Plate: There are two types of plates in clutch plate. One is Drive (friction) plate another is Driven (Steel) plate
Drive (friction) plate: The friction plate is ring shaped and coated with fiber. It is a wear and tear part of clutch assembly.
The friction plate surfaces interface between the clutch basket tangs (gaps) and pressure plate. It has teethes on the
outside surfaces. These teethes fix on the cutouts between clutch hub tangs (gaps). It is coated with the same material as
you see in brake pad (shoe).Driven (steel) plate: It is ring shaped and made of steel and sometime of aluminum. The
surfaces of steel or aluminum plate interfaces between pressure plate and clutch hub. It has teethes on inside surfaces.
This teethes are fix on the cutouts of clutch hub. Mostly steel plates are used in clutch assembly due to their durability.
The aluminum plates are used in Moto GP due to their lighter weight. These plates are worn out very fast compare to
steel plate.
Pressure Plate: It is the moving part of the clutch assembly which works against clutch spring tension. It releases the
clamping action on the clutch plates when the clutch lever is engaged.
Clutch springs: The clutch springs shape is like short coil. These springs continuously hold the friction and steel or
aluminum plates through spring tension. It also prevents slippage except when the clutch lever is engaged. Most of
motorcycle has five or more springs used per clutch assembly. For higher engine output stiffer or more springs are used
while softer or few springs used in order to lighter clutch level pulling effort.
Lever: It is metal rode which pivots on a perch located of the left handlebar. It gives input to clutch assembly.
Clutch Cable: The clutch cable is a cable through which the riders input passes to the clutch internals.
Clutch Cover: It covers the entire clutch assembly.
Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of
the Automotive Clutches is completed.

STUDY DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF CLUTCH

Ex : No :

Date :
Aim:
Todismantle,studyandassemblethegivenclutchsystem.
ToolsRequired
i) Doubleendspanner
ii) RingSpanner
iii) Socketwithextension
iv) ScrewDriver
v) Hammer.
DismantlingProcedure
i) Holdtheclutchcoverassemblyinthevice.
ii) Removethelocknutsoftheclutchcoverbycompressingthecoverspringwiththehelpofa
specialtool.
iii) Removetheclutchspring,releaselever,adjustingscrewandcotterpinfromtheirlocations.
iv) Finallytakeouttheclutchplateandthepressureplateseparately.
Study:
Thepowerdevelopedintheengineistransmittedtothegearboxthroughtheclutch.Whenthe
clutchisdisengaged,thepowerisnottransmitted.Clutchwillalwaysbeinengagedpositionunlessthe
clutchpedalisdepressed.Theclutchpermitsthegradualtakingupoftheload.Whenthepressureon
thefrictionplateisdecreaseditautomaticallydecreasestheloadontheengine.Bythefrictionalcontact
betweentheflywheelandthepressureplateittransmitsthetorquefromtheenginetothegearbox.

Working
Theclutchplateisplacedbetweentheflywheelandpressureplate.Pressureplaterigidlyforcesthe
clutchplatetowardstheflywheelbythespringforce.Whentheclutchpedalisinordinaryposition,it
fullyengageswiththeflywheel.Thereforethepoweristransmittedfromtheenginetothegearbox.When
thepedalispressed,pressureplateisforcedagainstthespringforceandagapiscreatedbetweenthe
pressureplateandtheflywheelandhencenopoweristransmitted.
AssemblingProcedure
i) Place the cultch springs, adjusting screw, Cotter pin, Release lever, lock plate in the appropriate
locations.
ii) Placetheclutchcoveroverthespringsandthenthecoverisheldbymeansofthespecialtoolto
compressthesprings
iii) Assemblethecoverbytighteningthelocknuts.

Result:
Thusthegivensingleplateclutchwasdismantled,studiedandassembled.

STUDYOFGEARBOX
Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the Automotive
Drive Lines & Differentials.
Apparatus: Models of
(a) Rear Wheel Drive Line.
(b) Front Wheel Drive Line.
(c) Differentials, Drive Axles and Four Wheel Drive Line.
Theory:
(a) Constructional details, Working Principles and Operation of Rear Wheel Drive Line:
Rear-wheel drive (RWD) typically places the engine in the front of the vehicle and the driven wheels are located at the
rear, a configuration known as front-engine, rear-wheel drive line. The vast majority of rear-wheel-drive vehicles use a
longitudinally-mounted engine in the front of the vehicle, driving the rear wheels via a driveshaft linked via a
differential between the rear axles. Some FRL(front engine rear wheel drive line) vehicles place the gearbox at the rear,
though most attach it to the engine at the front. Some of the advantages of FRL are even weight distribution, weight
transfer during acceleration, steering radius, better handling in dry conditions, better braking, towing, serviceability and
robustness.

Fig: Rear Wheel Drive Line

(b) Constructional details, Working Principles and Operation of Front Wheel Drive Line.
Front-wheel-drive lines are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven. The most popular lines used in cars
today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. This line
is typically chosen for its compact packaging; since the engine and driven wheels are on the same side of the vehicle,
there is no need for a central tunnel through the passenger compartment to accommodate a prop-shaft between the
engine and the driven wheels. As the steered wheels are also the driven wheels, FFL (front-engine, front-wheel-drive
line) cars are generally considered superior to FRL (front-engine, rear-wheel-drive line) cars in conditions such as snow,
mud or wet tarmac. Some of the advantages are interior space, cost, improved drive train efficiency, placing the mass of
the drive train over the driven wheels moves the centre of gravity farther forward than a comparable rear-wheel-drive
layout, improving traction and directional stability on wet, snowy, or icy surfaces.

Fig: Front Wheel Drive Line

(c) Constructional details, Working Principles and Operation of Differentials, Drive Axles and Four Wheel Drive
Line:
In four wheel drive line vehicles, differentials are fitted to both front and rear axle assemblies. When a two-wheel drive
range is selected, the drive is transferred through the rear final drive and the differential gears to the rear axle shafts and
road wheels. The differential gears allow the rear wheels to rotate at different speeds when the vehicle is turning, while
continuing to transmit an equal turning effort to each wheel. When four-wheel drive is engaged, the drive is transmitted
through both front and rear axle assemblies, and differential action occurs in both. However, in a turn, side-swiveling of
the front wheels for steering makes the front wheels travel a greater distance than the rear wheels. This causes a
difference in the rotational speeds of the front and rear wheels. Since there is also a difference between inner and outer
wheels, each axle shaft now turns at a different speed. Differences in speed can also arise from differences in tread wear
between front and rear, or in tire inflation pressures. Since front and rear propeller shafts are locked together at the
transfer case, the difference in speed cannot be absorbed in the transmission, and the transmission drive line can be
subjected to torsional stress.

Fig: 4 Wheel Drive Differential Axle Line

Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and operation
of the Automotive Drive Lines & Differentials is completed.

STUDY ,DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF GEAR BOX

Ex : No :
Date :
SLIDINGMESHGEARBOX
Aim:
Todismantle,studyandassemblethegivenslidingmeshgearbox.
ToolsRequired
i) Doubleendspanner.
ii) RingSpanner.
iii) Socketwithextension
iv) Hammer.
v) ScrewDriver.
DismantlingProcedure
i) Removetheclutchshaftfromthegearbox.
ii) Removethemainshaftwiththegears
iii) Removetheidler(or)reversegearfromitsshaftinthegearbox.
iv) Removethelayshaftfromthegearbox.
Study.
Gearboxisamainpartofthetransmissionsystem.Thetorqueproducedbytheenginevariesonly
bynarrowlimits.Thereforethereisanecessitytochangethetorqueproducedbytheengine.The
changeoftorqueinthegearboxesishelpfulintakeoffofthevehiclefromrestorwhenfullloaded
duringnormalspeed.Duringhighspeedthereisnoneedofhightorquesandhenceyoucanchangethe
torquetothelowestgear.

i)

ii)AssemblingProcedure.

iii)
iv)

i)Assemblethelayshaftinthegearboxhousing.

v)

ii)Positionthereverse(or)idlergearinitslocation.

vi)

iii)Assemblethemainshaftwithgearsintheappropriateplace.

vii)

iv)Putbacktheclutchshaftintheotherendofthegearbox.

viii)

v)Afterfitmentofalltheshaftandgears,thegearboxischeckedforproperworkinginall

gears.
ix)

x)

xi)

xii) SYNCHROMESHGEARBOX
xiii)
xiv) DismantlingProcedure
xv)
i) Removetheclutchshaftfromthegearbox.
xvi)
ii) Removethegearsfromthemainshaftandthenremovethemainshaft.
xvii)
iii) Removethesynchronizerringfromthemainshaft.
xviii)
iv) Removetheidlergearfromitsshaft.
xix)
v) Removethelayshaft.
xx)

xxi)
xxii)
xxiii)
i)
xxiv)
ii)
xxv)
iii)
xxvi)
iv)
xxvii)
v)
xxviii)
vi)

AssemblingProcedure
Fitthelayshaft.
Assembletheidlergearshaftandtheidlergear.
Placethegearsinthemainshaftappropriately.
Fitthesynchronizerringinitsposition.
Fittheclutchshaftintothegearboxassembly.
Finallycheckproperworkingofthesystem.
xxix)

xxx)
xxxi)
xxxii)
xxxiii)

Result:

xxxiv)
xxxv) Thusthegivenslidingmeshandsynchromeshgearboxisdismantledandassembled.
xxxvi)
xxxvii)
xxxviii)
xxxix)

xl)
xli)
xlii)
xliv)
xlv)
xlvi)

xlvii)

Ex : No :

xliii) STUDYOFSTEERINGSYSTEM

Date :

xlviii)

Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the
Automotive Steering Systems.

xlix)
l) Apparatus: Models of
li) (a) Manual Steering Systems, e.g. Pitman arm steering, Rack & Pinion steering.
lii) (b) Power steering Systems, e.g. Rack and Pinion Power Steering System.
liii) (c) Steering Wheels and Columns e.g. Tilt & Telescopic steering Wheels, Collapsible Steering Columns.
liv)
lv) Theory:
lvi) (a) Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Manual Steering Systems, e.g. Pitman
arm steering, Rack & Pinion steering:

lvii)
lviii)

The Pitman arm is a steering component in an automobile or truck. The pitman arm shaft is attached to
the steering box by a spline and nut. As the driver turns the steering wheel, the steering box mechanism moves
the steering linkages via the pitman arm shaft either left or right, depending on the direction in which the
steering wheel is turned. The steering box provides the change of angle at 90 to the steering linkage. The idler
arm is attached to the chassis and is positioned parallel to the pitman arm. The track rod connects the pitman
arm shaft to the idler arm shaft. In this way any movement in the pitman arm shaft is directly applied to the idler
arm shaft.
lix) The tie rods connect the track rod to the steering arms that are located on the steering knuckles. Thus all
movement from the pitman arm shaft is relayed directly to the front wheels, which steer the vehicle. Tie rod
ends are attached to the tie-rod shaft. These pivot as the rack is extended or retracted when the vehicle is
negotiating turns. Tie-rods and tie-rod ends are left or right hand threaded. The adjustment sleeve connects the
tie-rod to the tie-rod end.

lx)
lxi) The primary components of the rack and pinion steering system are: rubber bellows, pinion, rack, inner ball
joint or socket and tie-rod. This rubber bellows is attached to the Rack and Pinion housing. It protects the inner
joints from dirt and contaminants. In addition, it retains the grease lubricant inside the rack and pinion housing.
There is an identical bellows on the other end of the rack for the opposite side connection. The pinion is
connected to the steering column. As the driver turns the steering wheel, the forces are transferred to the pinion
and it then causes the rack to move in either direction. This is achieved by having the pinion in constant mesh
with the rack.
lxii)
The rack slides in the housing and is moved by the action of the meshed pinion into the teeth of the rack.
It normally has an adjustable bush opposite the pinion to control their meshing, and a nylon bush at the other
end. The inner ball joint is attached to the tie-rod, to allow for suspension movement and slight changes in
steering angles. A tie rod end is attached to the tie-rod shaft. These pivot as the rack is extended or retracted
when the vehicle is negotiating turns. Some tie-rods and tie-rod ends are left or right hand threaded.

lxiii)
lxiv)

(b) Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Power steering Systems, e.g.
Rack and Pinion Power Steering System:
lxv)The use of electronics into automotive steering systems enables much more sophisticated control to be achieved.
Electric steering is more economical to run, and easier to package and install than conventional hydraulic power
steering systems. Electrically Powered Hydraulic Steering, or EPHS, replaces the customary drive belts and
pulleys with a brushless motor that drives a high efficiency hydraulic power steering pump in a conventional
rack and pinion steering system. Pump speed is regulated by an electric controller to vary pump pressure and
flow. This provides steering efforts tailored for different driving situations. The pump can be run at low
speed or shut off to provide energy savings during straight ahead driving. An EPHS system is able to
deliver an 80 percent improvement in fuel economy when compared to standard hydraulic steering systems.
Electrically assisted steering or EAS, is a power-assist system that eliminates the connection between the engine
and steering system. EAS or direct electric power steering takes the technology a step further by completely
eliminating hydraulic fluid and the accompanying hardware from the system, becoming a full electronic power
steering system or EPS. An EPS Direct electric steering system uses an electric motor attached to the steering
rack via a gear mechanism and torque sensor. A microprocessor or electronic control unit, and diagnostic
software controls steering dynamics and driver effort. Inputs include vehicle speed and steering, wheel torque,
angular position and turning rate.
lxvi)

lxvii)
Pinion

Rack and

lxviii)
g Ball
lxix)
lxx)

Recirculation

lxxi)

lxxii)

Worm and Roller

lxxiii)
lxxiv)

lxxv)
lxxvi)

Worm and Nut type

Worm and Sector

lxxvii)
lxxviii)
lxxix)
lxxx)
lxxxi)
lxxxii)

Cam and Peg

There are four primary types of electric power assist steering systems:
1. Column-assist type. In this system the power assist unit, controller and torque sensor are attached to
the steering column.
lxxxiii)
2. Pinion-assist type. In this system the power assist unit is attached to the steering gear pinion shaft.
The unit sits outside the vehicle passenger compartment, allowing assist torque to be increased greatly without
raising interior compartment noise.
lxxxiv)
3. Rack-assist type. In this system the power assist unit is attached to the steering gear rack. It is located
on the rack to allow for greater flexibility in the layout design.
lxxxv)
4. Direct-drive type. In this system the steering gear rack and power assist unit form a single unit. The
steering system is compact and fits easily into the engine compartment layout. The direct assistance to the rack
enables low friction and inertia, which in turn gives an ideal steering feel.

lxxxvi)
lxxxvii)

Fig: Power Steering

lxxxviii)
lxxxix)

(c) Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Steering Wheels and Columns
e.g. Tilt & Telescopic steering Wheels, Collapsible Steering Columns:

xc)
xci)

The original Tilt Wheel was developed by Edward James Lobdell in the early 1900s. Originally a luxury
option on cars, the tilt function helps to adjust the steering wheel by moving the wheel through an arc in an up
and down motion. Tilt Steering Wheels rely upon a ratchet joint located in the steering column just below the
steering wheel. By disengaging the ratchet lock, the wheel can be adjusted upward or downward while the
steering column remains stationary below the joint. Some designs place the pivot slightly forward along the
column, allowing for a fair amount of vertical movement of the steering wheel with little actual tilt, while other

designs place the pivot almost inside the steering wheel, allowing adjustment of the angle of the steering wheel
with almost no change it its height. Telescope Wheel was developed by General Motors and can be adjusted to
an infinite number of positions in a 3-inch range. The Tilt and Telescope steering wheel was introduced as an
exclusive option on Cadillac automobiles.

xcii)
xciii)

Fig: Tilt & Telescope Column

xciv)
xcv)
xcvi)
xcvii)
xcviii)

Fig: Tilt &

Collapsible
long
back
but
applications.

Telescope Wheel
not

steering columns were invented

successful in case of crash

xcix)

c) Fig: Collapsible Steering Column

ci)
cii) Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and
operation of the Automotive Steering Systems is completed.

ciii)
civ)
cv)
cvi)
cvii)

ToolsRequired

cviii)
i) Doubleendspanner.
cix)
ii) Socketwithextension.
cx)
iii) RingSpanner.
cxi)

iv) Hammer.
cxii)
v) ScrewDriver.
cxiii)
cxiv)
cxv)
i)
cxvi)
ii)
cxvii)
iii)
cxviii)
iv)

DismantlingProcedure
Removethejointthatconnectthesteeringgearboxandthesteeringcolumn.

Removethedroparmfromthecrossshaftofthesteeringgearboxunit.
Removetheotherlinkagessuchaslinkrod,trackrod,trackarm.
Finallythesteeringgearboxisdismantled.

cxix)
cxx)

Study:

cxxi)
cxxii)

Functionsofsteeringsystem

cxxiii)
i) Toachieveangularmotionofthefrontwheelstonegotiateaturn.
cxxiv)
ii) Toprovidedirectionalstability.
cxxv)
iii) Toprovideperfectsteeringcondition.
cxxvi)
iv) Tofacilitatestraightaheadrecovery.
cxxvii)
v)
Tominimisetyrewear
cxxviii)
ConstructionofaSteeringSystem

cxxix)
cxxx)

cxxxi)

Thedroparmisrigidlyconnectedtothecrossshaftofthesteeringgearatitsupper

end,whileitslowerendisconnectedtothelinkrodthroughaballjoint.Totheotherendofthelinkrod
armisthestubaxleonwhichtheroadwheelismounted.Eachstubaxlehasaforgedtrackrodarm
rigidlyboltedtothewheelaxis.
cxxxii)
cxxxiii)

Theotherendsofthetrackrodarmsareconnectedtothetrackrodbymeansofball

jointsanadjusterisalsoprovidedinthetrackrodtochangeitslengthforadjustingwheelalignment.The
steeringgearprovidesmechanicaladvantagesothatonlyasmalleffortisrequiredatthesteeringwheelto
applyamuchlargerforcetothesteeringlinkage.
cxxxiv)
cxxxv) Whenthesteeringwheelisturned,theswingingactionofthedroparmimpartsalinear
motiontothelinkrod.Thismovementistransmittedthroughthelinkrodarmtothestubaxle.
cxxxvi)
cxxxvii)

Typesofsteeringgearsused

cxxxviii)
i) Wormandwheelsteeringgear

cxxxix)
cxl)
cxli)
cxlii)

cxliii)
i) Wormandnutsteeringgear.
cxliv)
cxlv)
cxlvi)

cxlvii)
cxlviii)
ii) Recirculatingballtypesteeringgear
cxlix)

cl)

cli)
clii)
iii) Rack&pinionsteeringgear.
cliii)

cliv)
clv)
clvi)
clvii)
i)
clviii)
ii)
clix)
iii)
clx)
iv)
clxi)

AssemblingProcedure
Fitthecomponentsofthesteeringgearbox.
Assemblethetrackarm,tierod,linkrodwiththecorrespondinglinkages.
Fitthecrossshafttothedroparm.
Fitthesteeringcolumntothesteeringgearboy.

v) Checktheassemblyforproperworkingofthesteeringsystem.
clxii)
clxiii)
clxiv)
clxv)
clxvi)
clxvii)
clxviii)
clxix)
clxx)
clxxi)
clxxii)
clxxiii)
clxxiv)
clxxv)
clxxvi)
clxxvii)
clxxviii)
clxxix)
clxxx)
clxxxi)
clxxxii)
clxxxiii)
clxxxiv)
clxxxv)
clxxxvi)
clxxxvii)
clxxxviii)
clxxxix)
cxc)
cxci)
cxcii)
cxciii)
cxciv)
cxcv)
cxcvi)
cxcvii)
cxcviii)
cxcix)
cc)
cci)
Result:
ccii)

Thusthegivensteeringsystemwasdismantled,studied&assembled.