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Than et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2008 9(10):764-778

Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE B

ISSN 1673-1581 (Print); ISSN 1862-1783 (Online)
www.zju.edu.cn/jzus; www.springerlink.com
E-mail: [email protected]

Review:

Chilli anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum species

Po Po THAN1,2, Haryudian PRIHASTUTI3,4, Sitthisack PHOULIVONG3,5,6,
Paul W.J. TAYLOR2, Kevin D. HYDE1,3
(1International Fungal Research and Development Centre, the Research Institute of Resources Insect,
Chinese Academy of Forestry, Kunming 650224, China)
(2BioMarka, School of Agriculture and Food Systems, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia)
(3Fungal Research Group, School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Tasud, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand)
(4Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Brawijaya University, Malang 65145, Indonesia)
(5Mushroom Research Centre, 128 Moo 3 T. Pa Pae, A. Mae Taeng, Chiang Mai 50150, Thailand)
6

( Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Laos, Vientiane, Lao PDR)

E-mail: [email protected]

Received Aug. 5, 2008; revision accepted Aug. 18, 2008

Abstract: Anthracnose disease is one of the major economic constraints to chilli production worldwide, especially in tropical
and subtropical regions. Accurate taxonomic information is necessary for effective disease control management. In the Colletotrichum patho-system, different Colletotrichum species can be associated with anthracnose of the same host. Little information is
known concerning the interactions of the species associated with the chilli anthracnose although several Colletotrichum species
have been reported as causal agents of chilli anthracnose disease worldwide. The ambiguous taxonomic status of Colletotrichum
species has resulted in inaccurate identification which may cause practical problems in plant breeding and disease management.
Although the management and control of anthracnose disease are still being extensively researched, commercial cultivars of
Capsicum annuum that are resistant to the pathogens that cause chilli anthracnose have not yet been developed. This paper reviews
the causal agents of chilli anthracnose, the disease cycle, conventional methods in identification of the pathogen and molecular
approaches that have been used for the identification of Colletotrichum species. Pathogenetic variation and population structure of
the causal agents of chilli anthracnose along with the current taxonomic status of Colletotrichum species are discussed. Future
developments leading to the disease management strategies are suggested.
Key words: Capsicum annuum, Disease management, Identification, Taxonomy, Pathogenicity
doi:10.1631/jzus.B0860007
Document code: A
CLC number: S432

INTRODUCTION
Colletotrichum is one of the most important
plant pathogens worldwide causing the economically
important disease anthracnose in a wide range of
hosts including cereals, legumes, vegetables, perennial crops and tree fruits (Bailey and Jeger, 1992).
Among these hosts, chilli (Capsicum spp.), an important economic crop worldwide (Poulos, 1992), is
severely infected by anthracnose which may cause
yield losses of up to 50% (Pakdeevaraporn et al.,

Corresponding author

2005). Typical anthracnose symptoms on chilli fruit

include sunken necrotic tissues, with concentric rings
of acervuli. Fruits showing blemishes have reduced
marketability (Manandhar et al., 1995).
In the Colletotrichum patho-system, different
Colletotrichum species can be associated with anthracnose of the same host (Simmonds, 1965; Freeman et al., 1998; Cannon et al., 2000). Anthracnose
of chilli has been shown to be caused by more than
one Colletotrichum species including C. acutatum
(Simmonds), C. capsici (Syd.) Butler and Bisby, C.
gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. and Sacc., and C. coccodes (Wallr.) S. Hughes (Simmonds, 1965;

Than et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2008 9(10):764-778

Johnston and Jones, 1997; Kim et al., 1999;

Nirenberg et al., 2002; Voorrips et al., 2004; Sharma
et al., 2005; Pakdeevaraporn et al., 2005; Than et al.,
2008).
There is little information concerning the interactions between the complexes of species involved in
chilli anthracnose (Than et al., 2008). This information is necessary for plant breeding purposes and
disease management. Some Colletotrichum species
respond differently to various control measures, e.g.,
C. acutatum was found to be moderately susceptible
to the fungicide, benzimidazole, while C. gloeosporioides was highly susceptible (Peres et al., 2004).
Correct and accurate identification will thus ultimately lead to more effective disease control and
management, e.g., selecting appropriate fungicides,
or long lasting resistant cultivars (Whitelaw-Weckert
et al., 2007).
The current taxonomic status of Colletotrichum
species is unclear (Sreenivasaprasad and Talhinhas,
2005). The broad host range of many species has
caused problems for plant pathologists who need to
identify specific plant pathogens to control disease.
Molecular techniques have provided additional data
to aid the naming of fungi, and have been applied to
taxonomically difficult genera including Fusarium
(ODonnell et al., 1998; Maxwell et al., 2005),
Pestalotiopsis (Jeewon et al., 2002; 2003; 2004; Lui
et al., 2007), Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs
(Crous et al., 2000; Mancini et al., 2006), but to a
lesser extent to Colletotrichum (Sreenivasaprasad et
al., 1996; Moriwaki et al., 2002; Photita et al., 2005;
Du et al., 2005). The management and control of
anthracnose diseases are still being extensively researched. This paper reviews the host chilli as well
as the causal agents of the chilli anthracnose, their
pathogenic variability and approaches leading to the
disease management.

HOST: CHILLI
The genus Capsicum was originated in the
American tropics and has been propagated throughout
the world including the tropics, subtropics, and also
temperate regions (Pickersgill, 1997). The fruit of
Capsicum has a variety of names, such as chilli,
chilli pepper or pepper depending on place (i.e.,

765

differences between the English-speaking countries)

and type of fruits. The term chilli in most of the
world refers exclusively to the smaller, hot types of
Capsicum (Wikipedia, 2007).
Capsicum contains approximately 20~27 species,
5 of which are domesticated: C. annuum, C. baccatum,
C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens, and are
cultivated in different parts of the world. Among the
five species of cultivated Capsicum, C. annuum is one
of the most common cultivated crops worldwide
(Tong and Bosland, 1999) followed by C. frutescens
(Bosland and Votava, 2003).
Chilli has many culinary advantages. It comprises numerous chemicals including steam-volatile
oils, fatty oils, capsaicinoids, carotenoids, vitamins,
protein, fibre and mineral elements (Bosland and
Votava, 2003). Many chilli constituents are important
for nutritional value, flavor, aroma, texture and color.
Chillies are low in sodium and cholesterol free, rich in
vitamins A and C, and are a good source of potassium,
folic acid and vitamin E. Fresh green chilli peppers
contain more vitamin C than citrus fruits and fresh red
chilli has more vitamin A than carrots (Osuna-Garca
et al., 1998; Marin et al., 2004). Two chemical groups
produced by chilli are capsaicinoids and carotenoids.
The capsaicinoids are alkaloids that make hot chilli
pungent. A large number of carotenoids provide high
nutritional value and the color to chilli (Britton and
Hornero-Mndez, 1997; Hornero-Mndez et al., 2002;
Prez-Glvez et al., 2003).

CONSTRAINTS TO CHILLI PRODUCTION

Chilli is considered to be one of the most important crops in the tropics. The area cultivated with
chilli worldwide is about 1 700 000 ha for producing
fresh chilli, and around 1 800 000 ha for producing
dried chilli; a total area of 3 729 900 ha with a total
production of 20 000 000 t (FAO, 2003). The most
important producers and exporters of chilli include
China, India, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Thailand
and Turkey. Diseases caused by fungi, bacteria and
viruses are the major constraints to chilli production.
Anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum species,
bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum,
and mosaic disease caused by chilli veinal mottle virus
(CVMV) or cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) are the

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most serious destructive diseases of chilli (Isaac,

1992).
Anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum
species is one of the most economically important
diseases reducing marketable yield from 10% to 80%
of the crop production in some developing countries,
particularly in Thailand (Poonpolgul and Kumphai,
2007). Anthracnose is mainly a problem on mature
fruits, causing severe losses due to both pre- and
post-harvest fruit decay (Hadden and Black, 1989;
Bosland and Votava, 2003).

conidial masses (Fig.1). Under severe disease pressure,

lesions may coalesce. Conidial masses may also occur
scatteredly or in concentric rings on the lesions. Many
studies have concluded that disease management
practices are often inadequate to eliminate the diseases.
Breeding to develop the long-lasting resistant varieties
has also not been successful due to involvement of
multiple Colletotrichum species in anthracnose infection.

ANTHRACNOSE DISEASE
Anthracnose, derived from a Greek word
meaning coal, is the common name for plant diseases characterized by very dark, sunken lesions,
containing spores (Isaac, 1992). Generally, anthracnose disease is caused by Colletotrichum species
which belongs to the Kingdom Fungi; Phylum Ascomycota, Class Sordariomycetes; Order Phyllachorales; and Family Phyllachoraceae. The anamorphs
are Glomerella species. Anthracnose of chilli was
first reported from New Jersey, USA, by Halsted
(1890) in 1890 who described the causal agents as
Gloeopsorium piperatum and Colletotrichum nigrum.
These taxa were then considered as synonyms of C.
gloeosporioides by von Arx (1957).
Anthracnose causes extensive pre- and postharvest damage to chilli fruits causing anthracnose
lesions. Even small anthracnose lesions on chilli fruits
reduce their marketable value (Manandhar et al.,
1995). Many post-harvest diseases of fruit exhibit the
phenomenon of quiescence in which symptoms do
not develop until the fruit ripens. Colletotrichum
species are the most important pathogens that cause
latent infection (Jeffries et al., 1990). Appressoria are
known to form adhesive disks that adhere to plant
surfaces and remain latent until physiological changes
occur in fruits (Bailey and Jeger, 1992). Appressoria
that formed on immature fruits may remain quiescent
until ontogenic changes occur in the fruits (Prusky
and Plumbley, 1992). Anthracnose disease can occur
on leaves, stems, and both pre- and post-harvest fruits
(Isaac, 1992). Typical fruit symptoms are circular or
angular sunken lesions, with concentric rings of
acervuli that are often wet and produce pink to orange

Fig.1 Anthracnose symptoms on chilli fruits

Causal agents of chilli anthracnose

In the Colletotrichum patho-system, different
Colletotrichum species can be associated with anthracnose of the same host (Simmonds, 1965; Freeman
et al., 1998; Cannon et al., 2000). Colletotrichum
species causing anthracnose of chilli have been reported from different countries and regions (Table 1).
Although these species have been the subject of numerous investigations, there remain many gaps in the
knowledge of the disease process and understanding
of the complex relationships between the species
involved. Kim et al.(2004) reported that different
species cause diseases of different organs of the chilli
plant; for example, C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides infect chilli fruits at all developmental
stages, but usually not the leaves or stems, which are
mostly damaged by C. coccodes and C. dematium.
Leaf anthracnose of chilli seedlings caused by C.
coccodes was first reported in chilli growing in a field
in Chungnam Province of Korea in 1988 (Hong and
Hwang, 1998). Different Colletotrichum species may
also play an important role in different diseases of
mature stages of chilli fruit as well. For example, C.
capsici is widespread in red chilli fruits, whereas C.
acutatum and C. gloeosporioides have been reported
to be more prevalent on both young and mature green
fruits (Hong and Hwang, 1998; Kim et al., 1999).

Than et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2008 9(10):764-778

767

Table 1 Reported causal agents of chilli anthracnose

Countries and regions
Causal agent
Reference
Australia
Simmonds, 1965
Colletotrichum acutatum, C. atramentarium, C. dematium, C.
gloeosporioides var. minor, C. gloeosporioides var. gloeosporioides
India
C. capsici
Maiti and Sen, 1979;
Paul and Behl, 1990
Indonesia
C. acutatum, C. capsici, C. gloeosporioides
Voorrips et al., 2004
Korea
C. acutatum, C. gloeosporioides, C. coccodes, C. dematium
Park and Kim, 1992
Myanmar (Burma)
Gloeosporium piperatum E. and E., C. nigrum E. and Hals
Dastur, 1920
Papua New Guinea
C. capsici, C. gloeosporioides
Pearson et al., 1984
New Zealand
C. coccodes
Johnston and Jones, 1997
Taiwan
C. acutatum, C. capsici, C. gloeosporioides
Manandhar et al., 1995
Thailand
C. acutatum, C. capsici, C. gloeosporioides
Than et al., 2008
UK
C. acutatum, Glomerella cingulata
Adikaram et al., 1983
USA
C. acutatum
Roberts et al., 2001
Vietnam
C. acutatum, C. capsici, C. gloeosporioides, C. nigrum
Don et al., 2007

Anthracnose caused by C. coccodes does not result in

severe epidemics on chilli fruits (Hong and Hwang,
1998). C. gloeosporioides, the predominant species
on chilli in Korea, was differentiated into G and R
strains by isozyme analysis of esterase, leucine amino
peptidase, phosphatase and glutamine oxalocetic
trasminase (Park et al., 1987).
Colletotrichum species can survive in and on
seeds as acervuli and micro-sclerotia (Pernezny et al.,
2003). Survival of mycelia and stomata in colonized
chilli seeds had been reported (Manandhar et al.,
1995). It has been shown that the pathogen readily
colonizes the seed coat and peripheral layers of the
endosperm even in moderately colonized seeds.
Heavily colonized seeds had abundant inter- and
intracellular mycelia and acervuli in the seed coat
endosperm and embryo, showing disintegration of
parenchymatous layers of the seed coat and depletion
of food material in endosperm and embryo (Chitkara
et al., 1990).
Fungi can overwinter on alternative hosts such as
other solanaceous or legume crops, plant debris and
rotten fruits in the field (Pring et al., 1995). Colletotrichum species naturally produce micro-sclerotia to
allow dormancy in the soil during the winter or when
subjected to stressful conditions, and these micro-sclerotia can survive for many years (Pring et al.,
1995). During warm and wet periods, conidia from
acervuli and micro-sclerotia are splashed by rain or
irrigation water from diseased to healthy fruit and
foliage. Diseased fruit acts as a source of inoculum,

allowing the disease to spread from plant to plant

within the field (Roberts et al., 2001).
Initial infection by Colletotrichum species involves a series of processes including the attachment
of conidia to plant surfaces, germination of conidia,
production of adhesive appressoria, penetration of
plant epidermis, growth and colonization of plant
tissue and production of acervuli and sporulation
(Bailey and Jeger, 1992; Prusky et al., 2000). Anthracnose is mainly a problem on mature fruits,
causing both pre- and post-harvest fruit decay resulting severe economic losses (Hadden and Black,
1989; Bosland and Votava, 2003). Appressoria that
formed on immature fruits may remain quiescent until
the fruits mature or ripen.
Disease cycle and epidemiology of anthracnose
Environmental factors play a major role in the
development of disease epidemics. The relationships
among rainfall intensity, duration and crop geometry
and the dispersal of inoculum possibly lead to different levels of disease severity (Dodd et al., 1992).
The effects of temperature often interact with other
factors, such as leaf surface wetness, humidity, light
or competitive microbiota (Royle and Butler, 1986).
The duration of the surface wetness, however, appears to have the most direct influence on the germination, infection and growth of the pathogen on the
host. Generally infection occurs during warm, wet
weather. Temperatures around 27 C and high humidity (a mean of 80%) are optimum for anthracnose

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disease development (Roberts et al., 2001).

Colletotrichum species utilize diverse strategies
for invading host tissues, which vary from intracellular hemibiotrophy to subcuticular intramural necrotrophy (Bailey and Jeger, 1992). Colletotrichum
species produce a series of specialized infection
structures such as germ tubes, appressoria, intracellular hyphae, and secondary necrotrophic hyphae
(Perfect et al., 1999). These pathogens infect plants
by either colonizing subcuticular tissues intramurally
or being established intracellularly. The preinfection
stages of the both are very similar, in which conidia
adhere to and germinate on the plant surface, producing germ tubes that form appressoria which in turn
penetrate the cuticle directly (Bailey and Jeger, 1992).
Following penetration, the pathogens that colonize
the intramural region beneath the cuticle invade in a
necrotrophic manner and spread rapidly throughout
the tissues (OConnell et al., 1985). There is no detectable biotrophic stage in this form of parasitism. In
contrast, most anthracnose pathogens exhibit a
biotropic infection strategy initially by colonizing the
plasmalemma and cell wall intracellularly. After the
biotrophic state, intracellular hyphae colonize one or
two cells and subsequently produce secondary necrotrophic hyphae (Bailey and Jeger, 1992). These
pathogens are therefore regarded as hemibiotrophs or
facultative biotrophs (Kim et al., 2004). For example,
C. gloeosporioides on avocado, chilli and citrus can
produce both types of colonizations: intracellular
biotrophy at an early stage and intramural necrotrophy later (OConnell et al., 2000).
Although the mechanisms developed by Colletotrichum species appear similar in prepenetration
events, there are differences between species in the
later mechanisms such as spore adhesion, melanization and cutinization in penetration of the plant cuticle
by the appressoria. For example, the host-pathogen
interaction of C. acutatum appears to be more
biotrophic than that of some other species such as C.
gloeosporioides (Wharton and Diguez-Uribeondo,
2004). Based on studies with C. acutatum on specific
hosts, four types of interactions or infection strategies
were described by Peres et al.(2005) as follows:
(1) Biotrophic growth of C. acutatum with secondary conidiation in which conidia germinate to
form appressoria and quiescent infections, and secondary conidia are formed after germination of the

appressoria (e.g., predominantly biotrophic disease

cycle on citrus leaves).
(2) Subcuticular intramural necrotrophy with
hyphal development within periclinal and anticlinal
walls of epidermal host cells which are swollen and
wider apart (e.g., predominantly necrotrophic disease
cycle on strawberry).
(3) Hemibiotrophic interaction with infection
vesicles and broad primary hyphae within host cells.
Inter- and intracellular hyphal growth could be seen
as the subsequent necrotrophic phase (e.g., combination of biotrophy and necrotrophy but mostly a
biotrophic disease cycle on blueberry fruits).
(4) Hemibiotrophic and subcuticular, intra- and
intercellular development of C. acutatum (e.g., combination of biotrophy and necrotrophy but mostly a
necrotrophic disease cycle on almond leaves and
fruits).
There are only a few detailed studies on penetration and colonization by Colletotrichum species on
chilli. Kim et al.(2004) noticed that there was no
biotrophic infection vesicle found during the infection process of C. gloeosporioides in susceptible
chilli (C. annuum cv. jejujaerae). Epidermal cytoplasm became condensed and small vacuoles increased and cell destruction extended to the subepidermal cells of the plant, which are likely to be
damaged by the pathogen enzymes. At later stages of
infection, tissues were colonized inter- and intracellularly by the pathogen. This structural feature indicated that the infection was governed by necrotrophic
fungal growth.
Colletotrichum species are generally able to
survive in or on seeds and one of the ways that anthracnose is introduced to the chilli field is through
infected transplants (Manandhar et al., 1995). C.
capsici infection of chilli was shown to have two
pathways: invasion through the seed coat and invasion through the openings of the testa (Jewsakun,
1978). Jewsakun (1978) mentioned that C. capsici
caused root rot of seedlings; however, whether chilli
anthracnose can be seed-transmitted, and the role of
seed infection and seedling infection in pre- and postemergence damage of chilli plants are still questionable. We have found that C. acutatum can infect chilli
seeds either by reducing the germination rates or by
causing damping off of seedlings. However, very
little is known about the disease cycle of the patho-

Than et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2008 9(10):764-778

gens that cause anthracnose in chilli. There are still

several questions to be answered.

IDENTIFICATION OF COLLETOTRICHUM SPECIES

Conventional methods
Accurate identification of Colletotrichum species
along with the knowledge of populations responsible
for epidemics are essential for developing and implementing effective disease control strategies
(Freeman et al., 1998). Traditionally, identification
and characterization of Colletotrichum species have
been based on morphological characters, such as size
and shape of conidia and appressoria; existence of
setae; the teleomorph state and cultural characters
such as colony colour, growth rate and texture (von
Arx, 1957; Smith and Black, 1990). These criteria
alone, however, are not always adequate for species
identification due to overlap in morphological characters and phenotypic variation among species under
different environmental conditions. Conidial shape
has been applied as a reliable means of discriminating
certain species; for example, conidial shape has differentiated Colletotrichum species pathogenic to
strawberry (Denoyes and Baudry, 1995). However, in
other cases, identification can be complicated because
of overlapping ranges of conidial morphology and
variation in colony characteristics (Adaskaveg and
Hartin, 1997). Correct taxonomic identification is
important in disease management such as choosing
appropriate fungicides (Whitelaw-Weckert et al.,
2007). For instance, it could be seen in different responses of C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides to
benzimidazole-based fungicides (Peres et al., 2004).
Molecular genetics approach
To overcome the inadequacies of traditional
morphology based identification schemes, DNA sequence analyses have been used to characterize and
analyze the taxonomic complexity of Colletotrichum
(Sreenivasaprasad et al., 1996; Moriwaki et al., 2002;
Du et al., 2005; Photita et al., 2005; Than et al., 2008).
Cannon et al.(2000) stated that data derived from
nucleic acid analyses should provide the most reliable
framework to build a classification of Colletotrichum,
as DNA characters were not directly influenced by

769

environmental factors. Most fungal phylogenetic

studies utilized sequences from the ribosomal gene
cluster, since they were present in large numbers as
tandem repeats and evolved as a single unit (Mitchell
et al., 1995). In particular, sequence analysis of the
internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions which lie
between the 18S and 5.8S genes and the 5.8S and 28S
genes, has proved useful in studying phylogenetic
relationships of Colletotrichum species because of
their comparative variability (Sreenivasaprasad et al.,
1994; 1996; Moriwaki et al., 2002; Photita et al.,
2005). Apart from ITS region, sequence analysis of
protein coding genes such as partial -tubulin gene,
has also been applied to resolve phylogenetic relationships among C. acutatum species complexes
(Sreenivasaprasad and Talhinhas, 2005). Sequences
of introns from two genes (glutamine synthase and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) were
also used to evaluate a diverse collection of isolates of
C. acutatum (Guerber et al., 2003). C. acutatum isolates clustered into groups (Guerber et al., 2003;
MacKenzie et al., 2008; Peres et al., 2008). These
groups might represent phylogenetically distinct
species of C. acutatum sensu lato (Guerber et al.,
2003). Yun et al.(1999) stated that, because of the
high intra-species variability and the low inter-species
variability, MAT1-2 mating type sequences gave
strong support for branches, allowing differentiation
of closely related Cochliobolus spp. whose relationships were not resolved by ITS sequences alone.
Consequently, Du et al.(2005) confirmed that
MAT1-2 mating type was useful in differentiating the
groups of isolates from the species complexes (C.
graminicola, C. gloeosporioides and C. acutatum).
However, there is no report concerning the use of
these genes to differentiate between the Colletotrichum species involved in chilli anthracnose.
A combined application of molecular diagnostic
tools along with traditional morphological characterization is an appropriate and reliable approach for
studying Colletotrichum species complexes (Cannon
et al., 2000). Than et al.(2008) differentiated isolates
of chilli anthracnose from Thailand into three species:
C. acutatum, C. capsici and C. gloeosporioides, based
on morphological characterization, sequencing based
on rDNA-ITS region and partial beta tubulin gene and
pathogenicity testing. Hong and Kim (2007) reported
that Korea isolates of C. acutatum were phyloge-

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netically separated from the global groups of C.

acutatum A1 to A8 based on the sequences in partial
beta-tubulin 2 (exons 3-6). Restriction fragment
length polymorphisms (RFLP) of ITS region resulting
from AluI, RsaI and BamHI digestions have also been
employed to differentiate Colletotrichum species
from chilli anthracnose in Taiwan region (Sheu et al.,
2007). Four species of Colletotrichum were identified
by ITS-RFLP fingerprinting and observation of undistinguishable isolates of Colletotrichum from their
studies indicated the various inter- and intra-species
variations in Colletotrichum species. Ratanacherdchai
et al.(2007) distinguished C. capsici and C. gloeosporioides causing chilli anthracnose in Thailand
using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
markers.

PATHOGENIC VARIABILITY OF COLLETOTRICHUM SPECIES

When any of the progeny exhibits a characteristic that is different from those present in the ancestral
individuals or descent individuals, this individual is
called a variant (Agrios, 2005). This may involve a
change in any conceivable biological characteristic,
such as color, shape, growth rate and reproduction
rate. In the case of pathogens, changes in host range
may occur, i.e., it may be able to infect a variety of the
host plant or cultivar not previously infected by the
ancestor, or in virulence, i.e., it may produce a milder
or much more severe disease than the ancestors
(Agrios, 2005). This is the way that resistance of a
plant variety is broken down (Agrios, 2005). The
spread of a resistant genotype capable of escaping a
current prevalent pathogen will be challenged by a
new parasitic strain that harbors a virulent gene which
is capable of overcoming that resistance (McDonald
and Linde, 2002). Compatibility of plant-pathogen
interactions is often governed by the gene-for-gene
model in many pathosystems (Flor, 1971). This suggests a continuous co-evolutionary change in both
host and parasite.
Some pathogen populations are known to be
pathogenitically diverse, and the diversity seems to be
due to continuous generation of novel pathogenic
variations (Taylor and Ford, 2007). Information on
pathogen diversity and the geographic distribution of

the pathogen population is therefore a prerequisite for

accurate assessment of durable resistant germplasm in
breeding programs (Abang, 2003). Taylor and Ford
(2007) suggested that knowledge of pathotype diversity is important when choosing the appropriate isolates to screen for resistance in plant breeding programs.
We have studied pathogenic variation among 10
isolates of C. acutatum against 7 cultivars including
reportedly susceptible species of Capsicum (Capsicum annuum Bangchang) (Mongkolporn et al.,
2004a) and resistant species such as Capsicum
chinense PBC 932 (AVRDC, 1999; 2003; Mongkolporn et al., 2004a), Capsicum baccatum PBC 80
and PBC 81 in Thailand. This revealed two pathotypes based on qualitative differences in infection of a
reported resistant genotype, C. baccatum genotype
PBC 81. Interestingly, of 10 isolates assayed, the
genotype showed complete resistance against 5 isolates tested, whereas it showed a highly susceptible
reaction to the other 5 isolates tested. Sharma et
al.(2005) studied the pathogenic variability in C.
capsici in India and proposed that 15 pathotypes of C.
capsici existed among 37 isolates from different chilli
growing regions from Himachal Pradesh in India.
However, these pathotype differences were based on
quantitative differences in host reaction, i.e., level of
aggressiveness.
Taylor et al.(2007) defined the pathotype as a
subclass or group of isolates distinguishable from
others of the same species by its virulence on a specific host (genotype), i.e., a qualitative difference in
disease severity and the aggressiveness as the
natural variation in virulence or level of disease
(measured quantitatively) within the pathogen population. According to Taylor and Ford (2007), there
might be confusion as to whether true pathotype differences exist, or whether the differences observed in
disease severity are a measure of the natural distribution of aggressiveness within a population, ranging
from low to high. However, the level of aggressiveness of isolates is also an important consideration in
resistance breeding programmes and disease control
management. Genotypes with partial resistance
would result in lower level of infection which eventually will decrease the inoculum amount in the field
to limit the potential of epidemics.
Several studies (AVRDC, 1999; Yoon et al.,

Than et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2008 9(10):764-778

2004) have screened C. acutatum, which is the very

virulent species (Than et al., 2008), against chilli
genotypes and found that Capsicum baccatum genotype PBC 80 is a genetic resource pool for resistance
to anthracnose. We have also confirmed this. This
genotype is assumed to be useful for studying genetics of resistance and practical breeding in chilli pepper. However, we found that another genotype of C.
baccatum, PBC 81, showed high susceptibility to
some C. acutatum isolates. This would make it questionable as to whether C. baccatum species are a
useful genetic resource pool for breeding for resistance to anthracnose.
In contrast to C. baccatum, susceptibility of the
C. annuum cultivars has been reported in several
studies (Mongkolporn et al., 2004b; Park, 2007). In
addition, Capsicum chinense PBC 932 has been
reported as a resistant variety to Colletotrichum capsici and hence has been introgressed with C. annuum
Bangchang to produce F1 progeny (AVRDC, 2003).
However, Yoon et al.(2004) and Than et al.(2008)
found that the PBC 932 was highly susceptible to C.
acutatum isolates. Nevertheless, this information
about highly susceptible reaction of PBC 932 will
help chilli breeders to be aware of the potential for
breaking down its resistance to C. acutatum.

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND MOLECULAR

MARKER TECHNIQUES
The genetic structure of plant pathogen populations, the potential for gene flow and long distance
dispersal, and the relative contribution of sexual and
asexual reproduction have direct inference with agricultural ecosystems (McDonald and McDermott,
1993; McDonald, 1997). Abang (2003) stated that
genetic population structure refers to the amount and
distribution of genetic variation within and between
populations. For example, how rapidly a pathogen
can evolve could be indicated by the amount of genetic variation maintained within a population and
then which may eventually be used to predict how
long a control measure is probable to be effective
(McDonald and Linde, 2002). Pathogens with large
genetic variations are assumed to adapt faster to
fluctuating environments (e.g., resistant genes and
fungicides).

771

In general, organisms reproduce by means of a

sexual process. Variation in progeny is introduced
primarily through segregation and recombination of
genes in meiotic division of the zygote (Agrios, 2005).
However, in the case of anamorphic fungi such as
Colletotrichum, reproduction is mainly or exclusively
vegetative (Katan, 2000). Parasexual reproduction, by
which a system of genetic recombination can occur
within fungal heterokaryon, will likely lead to variation. The new variants come into existence, which
may be identical in appearance to that of the ancestral
types, but behave differently as far as disease production is concerned (Agrios, 2005).
In recent decades, molecular markers have been
widely used to measure the variation in a pathogen
population. Random amplified polymorphic DNA
(RAPD), simple sequence repeat (microsatellite), inter
simple sequence repeat (ISSR), amplified fragment
length polymorphism (AFLP), and genomic DNA
RFLP, are among the most frequently used neutral
genetic markers in population genetic studies (Brown
et al., 1996; Milgroom, 1996; McDonald, 1997).
Despite its importance, there have only been a
few studies concerning the diversity of Colletotrichum species associated with chilli anthracnose.
Sharma et al.(2005) found a variable population of C.
capsici causing fruit rot/die back or anthracnose of
chilli in the northwestern region of India based on
differential inoculation tests and RAPD analysis. In
contrast, examination of C. acutatum from a limited
collection of isolates from chilli anthracnose epidemics in Brazil, Korea, Taiwan region and the US
indicated that they belonged to a single group based
on mtDNA-RFLP analysis (Correll et al., 2007). They
also found that most isolates (36 out of 43) examined
from the various countries and regions belonged to a
single vegetative compatibility group (VCG). As the
sexual stages of C. acutatum have never been found in
nature (Wharton and Diguez-Uribeondo, 2004), the
asexual reproduction mode of C. acutatum is likely to
be an important role in its population structure.

DISEASE MANAGEMENT OF CHILLI ANTHRACNOSE

Bailey (1987) and Agrios (2005) recommended
integrated management techniques, as no single spe-

772

Than et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2008 9(10):764-778

cific management program could eliminate chilli

anthracnose. Effective control of Colletotrichum
diseases usually involves the use of a combination of
cultural control, biological control, chemical control
and intrinsic resistance (Wharton and DiguezUribeondo, 2004).
Cultural practices
Pathogen-free chilli seed should be planted and
weeds eliminated. Crops should be rotated every 2~3
years with crops that are not alternative hosts of
Colletotrichum. Transplants should be kept clean by
controlling weeds and solanaceous volunteers around
the transplant houses. The field should have good
drainage and be free from infected plant debris. If
disease was previously present, crops should be rotated away from solanaceous plants for at least 2 years
(Roberts et al., 2001). Sanitation practices in the field
include control of weeds and volunteer chilli plants.
Choosing cultivars that bear fruit with a shorter ripening period may allow the fruit to escape infection
by the fungus. Wounds in fruit from insects or other
means should be reduced to the extent possibly because wounds provide entry points for Colletotrichum
spp. and other pathogens such as bacteria that cause
soft rot. At the end of the season, infected plant debris
from the field must be removed or deep ploughed to
completely cover crop diseases (Agrios, 2005).
Use of resistant cultivars
The use of resistant varieties not only eliminated
losses from diseases, but also eliminated chemical
and mechanical expenses of disease control (Agrios,
2005). Some genetic resources resistant to anthracnose in chilli have been independently reported from
different countries and regions (Kim W.G. et al., 1986;
Kim B.S. et al., 1987; Park et al., 1987; Hong and
Hwang, 1998; Pae et al., 1998; AVRDC, 1999; Yoon
and Park, 2001). In particular, some lines of C. baccatum show strong resistance to the pathogen, and
pathogen inoculation resulted in no or limited lesions
on the chilli fruits (Yoon, 2003). However, to date, no
strong resistance has been found in Capsicum annuum, which is the only species grown worldwide
(Park, 2007). Mongkolporn et al.(2004a) carried out a
genetic study of anthracnose resistance to C. capsici,
which was expressed in the interspecific cross of Thai
susceptible C. annuum cv. Bangchang and an-

thracnose resistant C. chinense CM 021. The genetic purity of the F1 was proven by using molecular
marker analysis. Recently, Voorrips et al.(2004) have
found one main quantitative trait locus (QTL) with
high significance and large effects on resistance and
three other QTLs with smaller effects on the F2
population (cross between C. annuum and C.
chinense) on the traits they tested, such as infection
frequency, the true lesion diameter and overall lesion
diameter after inoculation with C. gloeosporioides in
the study of resistance to anthracnose disease in Indonesia.
Use of chemicals
Chemicals are the most common and practical
method to control anthracnose diseases. However,
fungicide tolerance often arises quickly, if a single
compound is relied upon too heavily (Staub, 1991).
The fungicide traditionally recommended for anthracnose management in chilli is Manganese ethylenebisdithiocarbamate (Maneb) (Smith, 2000), although it does not consistently control the severe form
of anthracnose on chilli fruit. The strobilurin fungicides azoxystrobin (Quadris), trifloxystrobin (Flint),
and pyraclostrobin (Cabrio) have recently been labeled for the control of anthracnose of chilli, but only
preliminary reports are available on the efficacy of
these fungicides against the severe form of the disease
(Alexander and Waldenmaier, 2002; Lewis and
Miller, 2003). The disease can be controlled under
normal weather conditions with a reasonable spray
program. However, there are numerous reports of
negative effects of using chemicals on farmers income and health, and toxic contamination to the environment, particularly in developing countries
(Voorrips et al., 2004).
Use of biofungicides
The control of chilli anthracnose fruit rot has, for
many years, relied on chemicals and resulted in many
undesirable problems. There is a need to incorporate
alternative control components that are effective in
field. Biological control of fruit rot and dieback of
chilli with plant products tested in many laboratories
and field trials showed that the crude extract from
rhizome, leaves and creeping branches of sweetflag
(Acorus calamus L.), palmorosa (Cymbopogon martinii) oil, Ocimum sanctum leaf extract, and neem

Than et al. / J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2008 9(10):764-778

(Azadirachia indica) oil could restrict growth of the

anthracnose fungus (Jeyalakshmi and Seetharaman,
1998; Korpraditskul et al., 1999). Among the biofungicides used against the fungus Colletotrichum
spp. on chilli fruit, Charigkapakorn (2000) found that
the most effective control was sweetflag crude extract
when applied in two intervals when the majority of
the plants were at the first bloom stage and at the
mature bloom stage.
Biological control
So far, biological control methods for chilli anthracnose disease have not received much attention.
The potential for biological control of Colletotrichum
species had been suggested as early as in 1976 by
Lenn and Parbery (1976). Jeger and Jeffries (1988)
also stressed the possibilities of biological control of
post-harvest fruit diseases by using Pseudomonas
fluorescens. Antagonistic bacterial strains (DGg13
and BB133) were found to effectively control C.
capsici, the major anthracnose pathogen in Thailand
(Intanoo and Chamswarng, 2007). It is also believed
that Trichoderma species are able to effectively
compete for surface area, thereby reducing pathogen
infection success (Jeffries and Koomen, 1992;
Maymon et al., 2004). Trichoderma species have
been applied to control Colletotrichum species in
chilli (Boonratkwang et al., 2007), strawberries
(Freeman et al., 2001), and citrus in Belize (Moretto
et al., 2001) with concomitant disease reduction.
Other biological control agents that have been tested
for efficacy against C. acutatum include Bacillus
subtilis and Candida oleophila (Wharton and
Diguez-Uribeondo, 2004).

ASPECTS TO CURRENT STATUS OF CHILLI

ANTHRACNOSE DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Management and control of the anthracnose
disease are still under extensive research (Yoon et al.,
2004). Among disease control management, the use
of resistant cultivars is the cheapest, easiest, safest
and most effective means of controlling the disease.
This is not only to eliminate losses from the disease
but also decrease the cost of chemical and mechanical
control, as well as reduce contamination of the environment from the use of toxic chemicals. However,

773

management of disease through breeding of pathogen-resistant cultivars has only had limited success
due to frequent breakdown of resistance under field
conditions. Commercial cultivars of Capsicum annuum resistant to the pathogens that cause anthracnose have not yet been developed (Park, 2007).
Nevertheless, high levels of resistance to the Colletotrichum species that infect chilli have been found in
some species of Capsicum, for instance, C. baccatum.
Current research is focusing on introgression of this
resistance into susceptible commercial cultivars of C.
annuum (AVRDC, 2003; Pakdeevaraporn et al.,
2005). Recently in Thailand, Mongkolporn et
al.(2004a) have studied the inheritance of resistance
to anthracnose specifically caused by Colletotrichum
capsici, in a Capsicum annuum population established from a cross between accession 83-168 and
cv. KKU-Cluster, and their progenies. They observed a promising dominant gene responsible for the
resistance to C. capsici. Voorrips et al.(2004) found
one main QTL with high significance and strong
resistance against C. gloeosporioides associated with
chilli anthracnose disease in Indonesia.
Although there are currently extensive research
on disease control management including breeding
programs for resistant cultivars to anthracnose, the
current status of the chilli anthracnose disease still
requires improvement. There remain many questions
to be answered concerning characterization of Colletotrichum species associated with anthracnose; in
particular species present in different countries and
regions; pathogenetic or genetic diversity of Colletotrichum species worldwide; infection processes and
the disease cycle of Colletotrichum species leading to
effective disease control and resistant plant breeding.
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