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Wrought Iron

This document discusses the material properties and historical uses of wrought iron. It begins by explaining that wrought iron contains less carbon than cast iron or steel. It then describes the characteristics of wrought iron, such as being soft, ductile, and malleable. The document outlines the indirect reduction process used to make wrought iron. It provides examples of typical historical uses from the 17th-19th centuries for decorative and structural purposes. Finally, it discusses common problems with wrought iron, including various forms of corrosion and deterioration over time or due to human impacts like vandalism.

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Abdul Hameed
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255 views4 pages

Wrought Iron

This document discusses the material properties and historical uses of wrought iron. It begins by explaining that wrought iron contains less carbon than cast iron or steel. It then describes the characteristics of wrought iron, such as being soft, ductile, and malleable. The document outlines the indirect reduction process used to make wrought iron. It provides examples of typical historical uses from the 17th-19th centuries for decorative and structural purposes. Finally, it discusses common problems with wrought iron, including various forms of corrosion and deterioration over time or due to human impacts like vandalism.

Uploaded by

Abdul Hameed
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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References

Gayle, Margot, Look, David, and Waite, John. Metals in America's Historic Buildings: Uses and
Preservation Treatments. Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1992.
Zahner, L. William. Architectural Metal Surfaces. New York: Wiley 2004.

Introduction
Iron is a dark grey metal and is the major constituent of a range of materials including wrought
iron, cast iron, carbonized iron (carbon steel) and steel, each of which has its own unique
properties. Iron was first used as a material for tools and weapons. Its uses have since grown to
include items for domestic use to architectural building components. The presence of iron in a
feature may be detected with a magnet.
Wrought iron differs from cast iron and steel in that it contains less carbon. The three metals are
ranked as follows in terms of their carbon content:
A. Wrought iron: Contains the smallest amount of carbon (less than .035%).
B. Steel: Contains a moderate amount of carbon (between .06% and 2%).
C. Cast Iron: Contains the largest amount of carbon (between 2% and 4%).

Characteristics of Wrought Iron

Soft.

Ductile.

Magnetic.

Strong - high elasticity and tensile strength.

Malleable - can be heated and reheated and worked into various shapes.

Becomes stronger the more it is worked.

Suitable for members in tension or compression (whereas cast iron is suitable for
members in compression only).

Stages of the Indirect Reduction Process for Making Wrought Iron


Stage 1: Preparation of puddled iron.
1. Pig iron was first smelted in blast furnaces and subjected to a reducing condition when it
apparently 'boiled'.
2. The boiling iron was worked continuously by the iron puddler and more impurities were
removed from the iron, making the iron stiffer.
3. The iron was boiled until virtually no carbon remained, leaving a pasty mass of iron. This
was evident when the carbon monoxide would stop bubbling through the iron.
4. The iron was then formed into balls to be molded.

Stage 2: Iron balls were hammered with a shingling hammer, to expel surplus slag or cinder
(shingled).
1. Shingling was completed in minutes and the finished product was a bloom of
approximately 5 inches x 5 inches x 3 feet.
2. The bloom, still at bright red heat, was then passed through rolling mills, becoming more
elongated and thinner in section after each pass, and finished as puddled iron bar.
Stage 3: The bars were reheated and reworked as required to achieve the desired grades.
1. This stage increased the ductility and tensile strength of the puddled iron.
2. The more times the metal was reheated and reworked, the stronger were its mechanical
properties.

Typical Uses
Historical uses during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were typically decorative and
included:

Fences, gates and railings.

Balconies.

Porches and verandas.

Canopies.

Roof cresting.

Lamps.

Grilles.

Hardware.

Historical uses during the nineteenth century were more structural and included:

Nails.

Iron cramps (i.e. to secure masonry veneer building frames).

Structural members in tension such as tie rods, bulb-tees and I-beams. The standard
sections of wrought iron included bar iron, angle itons, T irons, channel iron (half H
iron), rolled girder iron (rolled joist iron, beam iron, I iron, or H iron), various special
sections (sash bar, beading iron, cross iron, quadrant iron), iron bars, rivet iron, chain
iron, horseshoe iron, nail iron, plate iron, coated iron (tin or lead), and corrugated sheet
iron (generally galvanized).

Note: By the end of the nineteenth century, the use of wrought iron for structural purposes had
been superseded by steel.

Problems and Deterioration

Problems may be classified into two broad categories: 1) Natural or inherent problems based on
the characteristics of the material and the conditions of the exposure, and 2) Vandalism and
human- induced problems.
Although there is some overlap between the two categories, the inherent material deterioration
problems generally occur gradually over long periods of time, at predictable rates and require
appropriate routine or preventive maintenance to control. Conversely, many human induced
problems, (especially vandalism), are random in occurrence; can produce catastrophic results;
are difficult to prevent, and require emergency action to mitigate. Some human induced
problems, however, are predictable and occur routinely.

Natural or Inherent Problems


Chemical corrosion can attack decorative and structural wrought iron features in several ways:
A. Uniform Attack: Corrosion attacks the metal surface evenly.
B. Pitting: Attacks the metal surface in selected areas.
C. Selective Attack: When a metal is not homogenous throughout, certain areas may be
attacked in preference to others.
D. Stress corrosion cracking: Attacks areas in a metal which were stressed during metal
working and were later exposed to a corrosive environment. Old, hand wrought iron
items are more likely to be affected than are machine rolled wrought iron pieces.
E. Rust: Probably the most common form of chemical corrosion of wrought iron. It occurs
when unprotected metal is exposed to oxygen in the atmosphere in the presence of
moisture. Moisture can be in the form of normal humidity, rain, dew, condensation, etc.
Other gases, such as carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, soot and fly ash will exacerbate
the corrosion of the iron, as will airborne salts.
F. Galvanic (or Electro-Chemical) Corrosion: Galvanic corrosion occurs when two
dissimilar metals are in contact with one another and an electrolyte, such as rainwater,
condensation, dew, fog, etc. is present. Such a reaction will cause one or the other of the
metals to corrode. In the case of wrought iron, direct contact with copper or zinc, and to a
lesser extent galvanized iron or steel, will cause galvanic corrosion.

Vandalism or Human-Induced Problems


A. Mechanical or physical deterioration:
1. Fatigue: Failure of metal that has been repeatedly stressed beyond its elastic limit.
a. Wrought iron is generally fatigue resistant because it is so tough. It will
deform considerably, within its elastic limit, without failure.
b. Even if past overloading has caused deformation, wrought iron fixings
will usually continue to function.
c. Defects in the wrought iron itself, or stress points can cause a feature to
fracture.

2. Heat: Usually in the form of fire, will cause wrought iron features to become
plastic, distort, and fail.
3. Distortion: Permanent deformation or failure may occur when a metal is
overloaded beyond its yield point because of increased live or dead loads, thermal
stresses, or structural modifications altering a stress regime.
B. Connection failure:
1. Chemical and mechanical processes can breakdown or reduce the effectiveness of
structural metal fixings such as bolts, rivets, and pins.
2. Stress failure is often a contributor to breakdown situations. Iron water traps are
particularly susceptible.

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