TH E LI B R AR Y

THE U NIVER S ITY O F

B R ITI S H

C OLU M B IA

T H E N EW PO L I T I C S

BY

F RA N K B U

A ut h o r

of

F F I N G TO N V R O O M A N

Th eo do re

R oo

se ve l ,

Dy n a

mi

O XF O R D U NI V ER S I TY

35

G eo gra ph e r

P R ES S

A MER IC A N B R A N C H
W ES T 3 2 m S TREET
N EW Y O R K

CO P Y R IG HT 9 B Y
O X F O R D U NIV ER SITY P RE SS
A MER ICAN B R ANCH
1

1 I

TO ON E
I N W H O M I HA V E
T H A T RAR E ST

OF

OU ND

CO M B I N A TIO N S

A D AR I N G I M A GI N A TIO N A ND A CO N S ERV A TI V E
MY

R OT H ER

C AR L V R OO M A N

J UD G M E NT

C ONT E NT S
P AG E

e tte r

of

I n tro du c t i o n

F o r ew o r d

B OO K

I
II
III
IV
V
VI

P l i ti
E thi s

TH E

HI L

O SO P H Y

OF

I S HMAE L

ha o s
c
d I n d i vi d u a l is m
a
T he S e p a ra t i o n o f E thi c s f r o m E c o n o m i c s
Th e S e p a r a ti o n o f E thi c s f r o m P o l i ti c s
T he R ise o f t h e D e m o c ra c y o f I n d i vi d u a li s m
S p i ri t o f Ja c o b ini s m
o

c al

B OO K

II

TH E

HI L

O SO P H Y

OF

TH E

CO M M O N G OO D

I P o l i ti c s a n d E t hi c s
I I Th e G ree k Co n t ri b u ti o n t o P o l i ti c s
I I I P a t ern a l is m
IV S o c i a l i s m
V T he I n d i vi d u a l a n d P o l i ti c a l E n v i r o nm en t
V I F o un d a ti o ns o f Na ti o n a l is m
.

1 01
1 1

37

43

54

73

91

202

2 1 1

22

24

B OO K

I I I TH E D E M O CR A CY 0 F NA TI O N A LI S M
I T he O l d I ss u e
I I Na ti o n a l i t y a n d t he P u bl i c D o m a i n
I I I Na ti o na l i t y a n d I n te rn al Im p ro ve m e n t s
IV B a c k t o th e P e o p l e
V A Wo r d a b o u t S o v erei gn t y
V I T h e Na ti o n a l P a rt y
VI I To S u m I t U p
E p i l o gu e
.

57

7:

28

PREFAC E
The reade r wi ll O bserve that th is volu m e i s neithe r a
t reatise no r a collection O f essays The result o f th e
leisu re hou rs o f many busy days the autho r h a s decided
t o l et it go forth w ith all i t s repet ition o f ph rase and
i dea whi c h wh ile d o i ng v iolen c e t o hi s l iterary tastes
he hopes h as not been overdone i n h i s e ff ort to emphasi ze
a f e w fundamental p ri nci p les
The autho r desi res t o ackn o wledge h i s O bl igat i o ns to

hi s b r o thers Rev H i ra m V r o oman ( Autho r o f Religio n

Rat ionalized ) an d M r Ca rl S V rooman ( A u tho r o f

Ameri c an Railway Proble m s

Ox f o rd Uni ve rsity
Press
f or thei r help ful c rit i ci sms ; as well as t o
P ro fesso r Charles A B ear d ( Columbi a Un ivers ity )
Perhaps h ere i t will n o t b e o u t o f p lace i n behal f o f
h i s b rothe r th e l ate Walte r Vrooman Foun d e r o f R us
ki n College Ox fo rd fo r the author t o extend to P r o f es
s o r B ea rd fo r h i s ass istan c e i n that great m ovement
those publi c a c knowledgments o f appre c iati on whi c h
h i s t ragi c and unt i m ely death has m a d e forever i m po s
sible F o r o f all the m en Wa l te r V roo m an gathe red
around himsel f at Ox f or d 3 dozen y ea rs ago the w rite r
personally knows th ere wa s n o o n e to wh ose zeal a n d
abi l ities h e attri b ute d so muc h as t o tho se o f P ro f esso r
B eard
Wa s hi n gt o n D C J u ly 4 1 9 1 1
.

LETTE R OF I NTRODUCTI O N
To A N G LO S A X O N Y OUT H :
Y o ung men a n d w o men o f Great Britai n and the
United States this centu ry belongs to you I t will be
wh a t you make it There i s s o mething fundamentally
w r o ng i n th e c ivi lizat i o n t o wh i ch we we re bo rn I f
y o u d o n o t make i t ri ght i t neve r w ill b e righted fo r
s o meth i ng i s bei ng c rystallized i n the social melt ing pot
and s oo n w ill be p recipitated o nce f o r all a t least so
far as thi s n e w w o rld epoch i s c o ncerned up o n wh ich we
are n o w en te ri ng Y o u r Op p o rtunity to day i s l ike the

White Steed with ho o fs o f l ightni ng in the Ara b s fable

It will pass y o u r way b ut once
I f my o bse rvati o ns have b een t o the p o i nt they assu re
me that th o se o f you mostly wh o have you r i deals le f t

whom the New Pagani sm has passed ove r and le ft

unscath ed a re i n l i ttle sympathy w ith that era o f revo
l u t i o n and d i sintegration whi c h i s n o w c om ing to a c lose
the e ra o f ind ivi d ual ismand wh i c h must c ome to a
c l o se i f the B ri tish Empi re and th e Ameri can Republi c
a re to endu rei f th e wo rld suprema c y o f t he Anglo
S a x o n i s to be mai ntai ned
The question o f nat i o nal su rv ival i s o ff ens ive t o the
egoti sms O f o u r ra c e C o mme r c i a l j o urnal i sm and vaud e
ville literatu re and c and idates fo r o fce avoid i t But the
su rvival o f o u r nations on any terms re c o gn izable t o
posteri ty as th e states o u r f athers f o u n d e d and d ie d t o
-

LETTE R O F I NT RODUCTIO N

I O

found th em so d epends u pon the de m o c ra c y o f nat io na l

i s m superseding the demo c ra c y o f ind ividuali sm an d
whethe r you r pat riotism p ro m pts y ou to gi ve a s muc h
as your fathe rs gave
A re w e not by thi s time su rethose o f us wh o h ave
d rea med that thi s wo rld might be mad e a better pla c e to
l ive i n that the selsh i nst in c t and b ru te for c e O f the
p rehi sto ri c man beast on which ou r Pol iti c s and E c o
momies a re fra n kly founded and in whi ch a re imbedded
all dem o c racies o f i nd ividuali s m are funda m entally and
i rret rievably w rong ? A re w e not to be more than wi t
nesses o f the passi ng o f the c ivilizati on o f th e I sh m ael ite
and it s sullen g o spel o f ana r c hy and rapi ne and st ri fe ?
The re i s so m ething the m atte r w ith the m a n who i s
satised w ith the world as i t i s and has been ; who can
n o t see that too much o f the whole l i fe st ruggle o f th e
h u m an ra c e has been gi ven to the ba re mai ntenan c e o f
physi c al exi sten c e ; a game fo r the vast maj o ri ty ha rd l y

wo rth the c andle

Ch ri st ian c ivilizati o n c annot be sai d
to hav e penetrated t o sa y n o thi ng o f h a vi ng pe rm eate d
a system whi c h requ i res o f th e vast maj o ri ty o f t h e
hu m an race that v i rtually all the c onsci o us hou rs o f li fe
be gi ven up for insu fc ient f o od and c lothes an d p la c e
to sleep I f labo r i s the s o le reward o f a li f e o f u n r em i t
ting t o il ; i f o ver and ab o ve all th i s hangs the two edged
swo rd o f Damocles i n the c ertai nty o f n o better an d
th e u n c e rtai nty o f as go o d ; i f phantoms o f weakness
pau p e rism d i sease and death l ie i n ambush i n the road
ahead f o r myriad s o f you r b rothe rs and s iste rs and m ine
y o un g man an d y o ung woman and i f you a re still satis
e d with the world as you nd i t that wh ich i s distin c tly
,

LETTER OF I NTRO DUCTI O N

1 1

h u man c e rtainl y ever y vestige o f the divine has been

le ft o u t o f your natu re an d yo u would bette r close thi s
book he re for y ou wi ll never be able to u nderstand i t
Let u s hope that w e a re at the begi nning o f a n ew era
f o r we a re c ertainly at the end o f an o ld o ne The re
i s a n ew S pi ri t ab road I t i s not m e rely reaction no r
re fo rm I t i s renai ssance Anglo -Saxon youth i s wa k
i ng to n ew i deals emb racing a n ew ch ival ry embarki ng
on a n ew crusade There i s a n ew i deal and a n e w f a ith
Give these a chan c e S ci ence will take c are o f itsel f
The emphasi s th i s moment belongs o n S o ul not Things
Wi th o u r t ransit i onal age rent wi de o pen i n the cata
c l y sm s o f readj ustment the S pi rit o f man lim p i ng S O
fa r behind h i s advance i n material a c hievementwh o
would n o t lose faith i n that n e w all
su fc i e n c y
that n ew
i n fallibility called sci en c e ? The S pi rit o f man must
m aste r scien c e o r sci ence will dest roy t he Sp i ri t o f man
A generat ion ago we were a f rai d i t would d is p rove Gene
si s and make athei sts o f u s
The re i s a greate r mena c e
I s i t not mak ing material ists an d will not thi s make
atheists o f u s ? The spi rit o f thi s age i s openly and p ro
f esse d l y pagan
Ou r ethi c s and e c onomi cs and P o l iti c s
a re f o unded o n inte rests not p ri nci p les Th e spi ri t o f
the age i s a S pi rit o f open and unblushing sel f a ggr a n
d i z e m en t
Th i s boasted twentieth c entu r y world o f ou rs
i s a world o f Th ings The best elements o f human l i fe
are being suff o c ated i n Th ings Ou r m o r a l e i s s o l o w
that we have sough t to ach i eve suc c ess by any means
whi c h c ould be made t o ap p ea r legal and have thought
n o shame o f a busi ness system based frankly o n an
i llimitable greed ; o r o f a Polit ics on the sa m e foundations

LETT ER OF I NTRO DUCTI O N

1 2

w ithout th e fund a mental c o nside rat ion o f ri gh t and

w r o ng
What th i s c entu ry i s t o be d e p ends on you The futu re
o f the Anglo
S a x o n race de p ends on what th i s c entu ry
makes it
We c a nnot su rv ive i ndividual ism
The
futu re bel o ngs t o th e o rganized races O f manki nd Let
u s ad op t a p hi l o s op hy o f l i fe wh i ch will all o w us to get
t o gethe r We a re all m o re o r less l o nesome Let us
h a ve a s oc ial phi l o s op hy w ithout s oc i a l i sm
Let u s
unde rstand that m o re g oo d may be w r o ught by w o rking
togethe r f o r th e s a me th i ng than by w o rki ng agai nst ea c h
othe r f o r the sam e th ing Let us kn o w that i f ever there

i s t o be p e a ce o n earth
there m u st rst be good

will t o wa rd men
Let u s entertai n great i deals a n d
seek great aims We are n o l o nge r d o ers o f great deeds
We a r e make rs o f gre a t t rades Whe re onc e we re her o es
a re m o ney hea p s degene raci es and decay Great deeds
m a y be w r o ught ag a i n whe re luxu ry and i dleness walk
hand i n hand t o day Th e Sp i ri t o f ou r fathers may
fought
r e t u m th e spi ri t whi ch f o unded great nations
great battles bequeathed great princi p les recorded great
deed s regi ste red great p raye rs Whe re Ge o rge Wash

i n gt o n carried the su rvey o r s c o m p ass th r o ugh th e path

less w oo d s and sta rted the advancing hosts o f Americ a n
c o nque r o rs o ve r the Al l e gh a n i e s wh a t have we t o day ?
Pittsbu rg !
W here the l a n d i s d i m f ro m t y ra nn y
The re tin y pl ea s u res o c c u p y the pl c e
O f gl o ries a d o f d u ties : a s the f e e t
O f f bl e d f i ri es w hen the su n go es d o w n
T ri p o e r the g ro u n d w he re w rest l e rs s t ro v e b y d a y
.

TH E A UT H O R

d en ta ll y

c as t a

th ei r

sh r u g

n ess o

a ll

n
l
a
c
g

s h o u ld e r s

th a t w h i c h I h e r e

r
e
f
f

B u t t h ey wi ll be k i n d

t o be a r i n m i n d t h a t t h e l i ttl e w h i c h I

e n o u gh
ex

p h i l os o p h er s wh o m ay a c c i
o ve r t h es e p a ge s wi l l s u p er c i l i o u sl y
a t th e m e a g e r n ess a n d i n c o m p l e t e

D i s ti n gu i sh e d Ge r m a n

p r ess e d

l ea r l y

sa y

i n te l l i gen tl y , w h e r e as th e i r

an d

is

o wn

p r o fo u n du n fa th o m a bl y p r o f o u n d
v ery d eeps tu pen du o u sly d ee pa r e i n th e sa m e de
Of wh a t be n et t o t h e p e o p l e i s th e
g r e e u n i n t el l i gi bl e
wo r k s

a l th o u gh ve r y

gra i n
no

l oc ked

Th e

k ey ?

i n t h e gr a n a r i es t o w h i c h t h ey h a v e
m ass es a r e fa m i sh i n g f o r k n o wl e dge a n d

a wa y

wi ll t h a n k m e

f or

p o r ti o n o f

th e

th o u gh i t b e, wh i c h I h o n es tl y

i t is

Germ a n
in
o

lac k

n ot

sc

p r o p er
t h ei r

one

s ta n d

do m

h ol a rs

a bi l i ty

fr o m

l a n gu a ge

sh a r e

wi th th e m

I do

sm all

I be l i e v e

t h a t h o l ds ba c k t h e m aj o r i ty of

d i sc

u ssi n g r e l i gi o n a n d

I bel i eve i t i s

s tu d i es

o wn

t o th e m asses

l ea r n e d

i n t e l l e c tu a l br e a d

fe a r of

w h i c h t h ey d a r e
n o t sh a r e

th e

r es u l ts

n o t c o mm u n i c ate

fea r f o r
o f th e p e o p l e
th i s

h o l a r ; I m y sel f a m
t h e s even h u n d r e d w i se m e n

sc

p h i l os op hy

am

n ot a

am

Ge r m a n y

n ot
.

w i th t h e gr e a t m a ss es a t t h e p o r t a l s o f t h e i r w i s
A n d i f a tr u th sl i p s th r o u gh a n d i f t h i s t r u th fa ll s
,

i n m y wa y th en I w r i t e i t wi th p r e t ty l e tte rs o n p a p e r
a n d gi ve i t t o t h e c o m p o s i t o r , w h o s e ts i t i n l e a d e n t p e
y
,

an d

gi v es i t t o t h e

p r i n ter ;

t h e l a t t er

i t bel o n gs t o t h e wh o l e w o rl d

Ph il o s o phy

p r i n ts

it

and

th e n

Hei ne Rel igi o n and

B OOK

TH E P H I L O S O P H Y O F I S H M A E L

CHAPT ER I

P OLITI C A L C HA OS

The c haos reigni ng o ver Anglo Saxon Polit ics to

d a y i s a pathet i c c o mmentary u p on the vanity o f all
human h o pes
We nd everywhere d e mo c ra c y d i s
c redited a nd a d isapp o i ntment
and liberalism bank rupt
a n d that a fter all the m illennial d reams o f the ei ghteenth
a n d n i neteenth centu ries
Eve rywhere we se e S imul
t a n e o u sl y in the O l d w o rld and the new libe rali sm leap
i n g w ith starving avidity u p on th e p r o gram o f s oc ial is m
w ith n o j usticati o n i n l o gi c an d w ith n o excuse but
i t s o wn steril ity and em p t iness
I n England i t i s Cob
d e n i sm wh i c h represents the d emo c racy o f i nd i vi dual
i sm and l a i ssez fa i r e aband o nin g th e p ri n c iples wh i c h
o n c e m ade i t a rat i onally c o nsi stent ( fo r i t neve r was
a consi stently rational ) pol iti cal c reed
f o r a p rogra m o f
s o c iali sti c opportun ism
Th e only d i fferen c e between
B riti sh Libe ral is m an d i t s present tenden c ies and B riti sh
s o c iali sm and its p resent status i s that social i sm i s built
i n the fo undations o f p rinciples co nsistent w ith i ts
a rti c les whe re a s mod ern l ibe ral ism i ssues a p r o paganda
w hos e art i c les are f o unded o n the princi ples o f neithe r
i nd ividual is m no r sociali s m Thi s p o liti cal m lange i s
a so rr y c ommentary o n t he i ntelligence o r o n the S i n
c e r i t y o f m o de rn Briti sh libe ral statesmen
I n the United States it i s th e sel f styled Je ff ersonian
d em o c rats who i n the very moment o f shouting f o r the
D eclaratio n o f I n d ependence ( whi ch they st ill c onsider
-

TH E N EW POLITI C S

b y the wa y a polit ical i ssue ) abandon eve ry p rin c i p l e o f

the i nd ividualism whi ch gave i t bi rth and clam o r fo r an
extensi on o f national gov e rnment t o a d egree even u n
d reamed o f by Alexander Hamiltonexten ding Je ff e r

son s theo ry o f a nat i o nal g o ve rnm ent whi ch he de

c l a r ed must be a d epartment fo r f o reign a ffai rs only
to the ext ent o f governm ent ownership O f rail roads
Whethe r thi s i s a pue ril e abandonment o f eve ry vestig e
o f pol iti c al theo ry and eve ry sa feguard o f political
p ri nciple or a shameless opp o rt uni st appeal t o c at c h the
popula r vote i t i s i n ei the r case a patheti c spe c ta c le and
i llust rates th e i nadequa c y o f i ndividuali sm as a workin g
the o ry o f l i fe H ow rapidly the wo rld i s d ri fting away
f rom the t heo ri es o f Rousseau that o r ganizat ion i s a
blunde r an d c ivilizati o n a c rime and o f Adam S m ith o f
the essential harmony o f d isco rd m ay be seen by th e way
th e loudest p ro fessors o f t hese do c t ri nes a re tu rning t o
s oc ial ism
A nglo Saxon Politi c s i s oppo rtu ni st and destitute o f
a gu idi ng p rinci p le Sta rt i ng O ff over a hund red yea r s
ag o with the negat i ve idea that w e S hould k e ep j ust a s
nea r ana rchy as possi b le and still have an ex c use fo r a
gove rnment we th e A m eri c an c onti ngent have blun
dered al o ng m aking su c h h eadway as was ne c es sa ry to
a ra c e wh i ch bl i nd luck had given the best chances i n
the hi story o f human ity ; maki ng su c h pr o gress as we
co ul d not well avoi d b ec ause o f o u r g eographi c al an d
e c onomi c pos it ion
Neithe r Englan d n o r A meri c a enj oys the l u x u ry o f
sol itu d e i n i t s pol iti c al c on fusions The whole Angl o
Saxon wo rl d presents a pol it i c al c haos i n whi c h a ll
,

POLIT I C AL C HA O S

pa r ties a re i ndi s c riminately m ixed ; d evoi d o f an y f un d a

m ental l i ne o f c leavage and in no c ent o f the ve ry su s
i
i
o
n
f
a

rst
p
ri
n
c
iple
c
o
p
We a re br o ught to f ace th e i ndisputab le f a c t that
l a i ss ez fa i r e liberali sm i s i nadequate t o th e ne c essities o f
twenti eth centu ry politics o r t o any national li fe i n i ts
foreign relati o ns o r i t s domesti c con c e rns
I f there i s t o be an Angl o Sax o n herea fte r th e day has
c ome f o r somethi ng m o re than th e p o l iti ca l o ppo rtuni st
We must u nderstand that th e pa rt y b o ss i s a t raito r t o
h i s count ry and that there i s j ust n o w n o t rea son m ore
worthy d i re and summa ry d o om than the selsh p ro g ram
O f the i nd ivi duali st
I c hallenge th e p ret ensions o f th e modern i nd ividuali st
Republi can o r Democ rat : th e l a i ssez fa i r e l iberal whose
l at itudinarian is m i s su fc iently spa c ious t o engu l f a
so c iali sti c p rogra m
I c hallenge h i s right t o pol it i c al
leadershi p o n th e g roun d that he h imsel f d o es not know
where he stands ; that there i s f undamental and i rre
m e d i a bl e antagoni s m b etw een h i s pol i c ies and hi s pol iti c s ;
that h i s inherent an d O ppo rtuni st i deas the best o f wh ich
a re w itho u t root i n any rat ional syst em have b een sown
i nto su c h a j ungl e o f pol iti cal u ndergr o wth as to u nt
h i m f o r se riou s l ea dersh i p i n an y nat io n a l o r impe rial
c ri si s
Politi c ally the A nglo Saxon peoples have i nst in c t ively
f elt where they c ould not see thei r way They have
groped bl indly towa rd a sane r futu re towa rd a j uste r
social envi ronment and to a l imited extent h ave actually
i n c o rporate d i nto thei r national i nst itut ions cert ai n great
ri
nciples
wh
ich
th
ey
hav
e
n
o
t
yet
rec
o
gn
ized
as
such
p
.

T H E N EW POLITIC S

20

We hav e made one great b lunde r and that i s i n the

i o n that the wo rld o f politi c s i s a c hance wo rld
a ssum m
and n o t built i n law and o rder ; that i t i s a l a i ssez fa i r e

wo rld over which i s w ri tten Abandon reason all ye

who ente r here

Th e re i s n o p o liti cal sci ence i n America far sep a rated
f r o m the sc ienc e o f demag o gyo f manipulat ing S hib
b o l e t h s and newspape rs and contr o ll ing th o se f o r c es
wh ich c o nt r o l p ubli c Op i ni o nwhich lls p ubl i c o f c e
with men and cl o thes men w ith p o we r and too o fte n
p ro stitutes po we r t o ty ranny
We have c o me t o a p oin t i n the hi st o ry o f the Unite d
S tates when we can f o resee th e d est ruct i o n o f ou r lib
The failu re o f the dem o c racy o f i nd ividuali sm i s
e r t i es
regi stered i n th e multibill i o nai re

F el i x q u i po tu i t r e ru m c og n o s c e r e c a u s a s
quoth
Vi rgi l
Th e t ime has c o m e f o r s o me fundamental th inki ng
We must go st rai ght back t o rst p ri nciples and r e ex
ami ne and restat e o u r p o l itical c reed
F rankly w e a re getti ng t i red o f l a i ss ez fa i r ethe

Ishmael ite the o ry o f a f ree sc ramble with eve ry man s

hand aga i nst hi s b r o ther We may se e a ll ove r th e c ivi l
i z e d wo rld t o day a d ri ft aw a y f r o m th e i nd ividualism
and ana rchy o f t he e ighteenth centu rya movement i n
every realm o f hum a n th o ught a n d a ct i o n t o ward
c o mbi nati o n o rganizati o n s o cial izat i o n
c o Or d i n a t i o n
There i s a dange r that thi s m o vement may p roceed too
fa r I n pol it ics thi s would p lunge u s i nto so c iali sm The
wo rld i s growing wea ry o f i nd ividual ism and lonely i n
its uns o ci a l l i fe and th o ught I t i s qu ite certain we a re
,

P OLITI CAL CHAO S

2 1

th r o ugh wi th the rev o lut i o nary i de a s o f the eighteenth

centu ry I t i s not at all ce rt a i n w e will n o t g o t o the
other ext reme We h a ve seen i n th e ni neteenth century
the m o vement away f r o m l a i ss ez fa i r e and t o ward
n a ti o nali ty i n Germany France It a ly Switzerl a nd Gre a t
B ritain and Uni ted States B ut there i s a n o the r w o rld
m o vement alongsid e i t a n d that i s s o ci a li sm
I n the A nglo Sax o n w o rld the react i o n f r o m i nd ivi d
u a l i sm i s towa rd soci a l ism
The questi o n ari ses c a n we not nd a mi ddl e gr o und
co mm o n t o what i s t rue i n b o th these anti theti c systems
exclud i ng as fa r as po ssibl e what i s f a lse i n bo th i n
what might be c alled the d em o c r a c y o f n a ti o n a l i s m a
nationali sm whi ch i s really dem o c r a ti c and whi c h i s a t
th e same t ime ra ti o nal eth i cal and e fcient a nat i o nal
i sm based o u the i dea that the st a t e has a n ethical foun
dat i o n and a m o ra l m i ssi o n ? Th a t t he st a te i s a me re
c o nt ra p ti o n devi sed f o r th e p r o tect i o n o f
vested

i nte rests ; f o r se c u ri ng a l a i ssez fa i r e com p et it i o n t o

gua rantee a f ree el d i n whi ch the st r o ng a n d cunni ng
p rey up o n the weak i s a c o nce p ti o n whi ch i s losi ng it s
h o ld up o n the humaner elem ents o f manki nd
The Ameri c an pe o ple need a re examination O f thei r
political faith a realignment o f p o l iti cal p a rt ies There

i s no evidence that o u r statesmen wi ll essay thi s task

Has not the t ime co me f o r s o me o ne at least t o raise the
quest i o n ? I s i t n o t t ime t o st rike a n e w n o te t o i nsi st
upon nd ing a fundamental p o l itical i dea t o d i sc o ve r an
elemental li ne o f cleavage i f there be such between the
t wo great p o liti cal p arti es ?
I S the re anywhere gr o und
fo r hope o f a reali gn ment o f part ies along the l i ne o f
.

T H E N EW POLITIC S

22

cleavage whi c h appears m o re o r l ess d isti n c tly f ro m the

begi nning o f Am eri c an Pol iti c s to th e p resent day ; o f
abandoni ng th e selsh an d whimsi c al o pp o rtun i sm whi c h
constitutes the cente r an d c i rcum fe rence o f Ameri can
political li fe and build i ng towa rd a sound and rationa l
futu re t o ward an ethical and const ru c t ive democ racy
o n th e basi s o f a f e w p ri n c iples whose valu e has been
amply demonst rate d i n a centu ry and a thi rd o f o u r
nat i o nal exi sten c e ? Shall we have a polit ical philos o phy
i n thi s c ount ry ? I f so S hall i t be als o an ethi c al
ph il o so p hy ? I s there en o ugh mo ral ber amon g u s to
S hi ft the f o undati o ns o f Ame ri can Politi cs fr o m i nterest s
t o p ri nci p les ? A re we ca p able o f rising ab ov e the p lane
o f p r o t and l o ss ? A re we c o mpletely besotted i n o u r
selshness o r have we su fcient i ntelligence to serve as
a cleari ng house f o r rst p ri nci p les ? Da re w e h op e that
the ri ot and ana rchy o f sel f i nterest the v o id o f reas o n
and ethi c which p rev a ils i n o u r pol iti c al machi nes plat
f o rm s S pee c hes and b o sses S hall give way to a succ i nct
challenge o f p rinci p les u nde r whi c h i ssues will take c are
?
O f themselves
Shall w e meet th e twent ieth c entury i ssue squarely i n
th e a pp ro a chi ng t itani c st ruggle between the dem o c ra c y
o f i nd ivi du a l ism and the demo c ra c y o f eth ical an d c on
st ruct i ve statec ra ft ?
Th e rst thing we want i s o u r f undamenta l i dea Fo r
beh i nd p o lit ical po li cies i s o r ought to b ea rat i o nal
Pol itics And behi nd a theo ry o f p o l iti c a l association
i s a theo r y o f l i fe
And th e f undamental fault i n
American Pol it ics i s the Am e ri c an theo ry o f l i f e an d
that the o ry o f l i fe i s eg o i sm i nd ividuali sm breaking
,

POLI TI CAL C HAO S

23

commer c ialism n o w a s n a n c i a l i sm
a lw a ys mate rial ism
We have p layed all the v ariati ons on f reedom and
equality i ndividual l ibe rty natu ral rights Thes e h ave
bec o me the und is p uted the o retical poss es s i on o f m an
ki nd We want a n ew m o ti f That m o t i f i s the co mmo n
g oo d
We have lai d clai m to all o u r ri ghts and some o f us
t o m o re Wh o want s to name h i s dut ies ? We have
ha rp ed on the ph rases o f the Decla ration o f I n d e pen d
e nce u nti l the har p i s o ut o f tune
We must tu rn t o
the pu rpos ive eth i c a l mi ss i o n named i n the p reambl e t o

the C o nstitut i o n T o p r o m o t e the g en e r a l w el fa r e

The task o f th e statesm a n o f the twentieth centu ry
i s to p ro tes t with o ut calculati on a gainst the hell o f i ndi
v i d u a l i sm ; t o c re a te a r a t i o nal the o ry o f p oliti cal a ss o
c i a t i o n on Ame ri can and real dem o c rat ic f o undat i o ns
d rag i t u p f rom the tu rm o i l o f confl i ct give it eth ical
mo tive and rati o nal f o rm and b reathe i nt o i t a spi ri t
which S hall l i ft it t o the level o f a pat ri o tism
Ou r task i s t o disc o ve r th e p ri n c i p les u nde rlyi ng ou r
great m ovements th e u nclass ied u p wa rd st ruggles o f
a m ighty p e op l e ; t o be able i ntelligently to gu ide the
reboun d o f p oliti cal the o ry and pra c ti cal state c ra f t i n the
p resent an d unmi stakable re a cti o n f ro m the ext reme o f
i nd ividual ism t o the ext reme o f so c i al is m T o c rush
ana rchy and p revent so c ialism ; t o h e w th e highway
st rai ght f o r the middle way ; to d i rect the devel o pment o f
Ame rican Politi c s on sa f e an d yet hu m an l ines
thi s is
o u r task
The best way o f framin g a rati o nal P o l it ics i s to b egi n
n ow

o ut

as

TH E N EW P OLITI C S

24

by readi ng hi sto ry backwa rd I f w e h a ve a nat i o n a

nat ional l i fe a n d a nat i o nal i dea nati o nal i nstitut i o n s
w o rth p rese rvi ng o r w o rth im p r o vi ng n o o n e will deny
the righ t o f se a rch f o r t h o se p rinci p les whi ch hav e m ad e
u s a n a ti o n i nstead o f a bunch o f feeble and wa rri n g
States I t i s n o m o re d i fcult to t ra c e the hi sto r y o f a n
o rgani c and r a t i o n a l Un ion back to the at o mi sm o f C o n
fede rat i o n and St a t e Right s than t o t race a rat i o nal an d
o rderly universe back t o the re mi st F r o m such a p r o c
ess we may d o mo re than d ra w seemly c o nclusi o ns W e
may d i sc ov er laws and p rinci p les and they alway s
li e al o ngsid e l a w and p ri nc i p le
A s i n physics o r
ast ron o my s o i n p o l itics I t i s sca rcely su fcient that
each ex p a ndin g bosom solemnly announc e as law such
the o ries as seem t o him go o d A s to rst p ri nciples i n
politics h i st o ry leaves the only unim p ea c hable testi

monies F o r a fte r a ll t he re i s some truth i n Freeman s

fav o rite p h rase that h ist o ry i s past pol itics and p o l itic s
i s p resen t h i sto ry
I s the re n o t s o me ab idi ng p rin c i p l e somewhe re out
S i d e i nd i vid u a l ism and s o ci a li smo utsid e u n o rga nized o r
o rganized selsh i nsti nct b y whi ch we can regulate o u r
pol itic a l l i fe and wh ich will o ffe r a r a t i o n a l e f o r human
exi stence and p resent th e b a si s o f an envi r o nment wher e
the S pi ri t may l ive and man may gr o w ?
D e T o cquevi ll e p oi nted out over two generati ons a go
that th e p rogress o f dem oc ra c y meant the nal ann ihila
t ion o f th o se t ies whi ch held togethe r the Ol d r egi m e ;
an d that anar c hy would f ollow the d i si ntegrat ing p ro c ess
Th i s i s exa c tly what has happened f o r p erhaps i n
A meri ca more than i n any othe r c ount ry where d e m o c
.

'

POLITI CA L CHAO S

racy h a s gained headw a y the p ri nci p les wh ich b rought

d em o c racy i nto being hav e i ssued thr o ugh l a i ss ez fa i r e
i nto a f ree f o r all race with n o rec o gnit ion o f the p ri n
i n whi ch i ndust ri a lly commer c ial ly
c i pl e s o f hand ica p
an d nanci a lly c o mpetit i o n h as at last destr o yed or i s
dest r o ying i tsel f The p ri nci p le as a wo rki ng theo r y o f
l i fe was benecial t o a certai n e poc h wi th c ertain c o n
d i t i o n s i nt o lerable be c ause thi ngs were so bad that any
thing whi ch w o uld dest r o y w o uld benet
A fter i t s
rev o lutionary work w a s d o ne i t be c ame a denial o f l a w
and o rder and the r a ti o n a l e o f l a w and o r d e r ex c ept as
l a w a n d o rde r were cons ide red a s a ve ry crude pr o t e c
t ion o f the i nd ivi dual against v i o lence aimed at hi s p erson
o r p roperty I t was not t o the i nterest o f th e ex p loiter
th e nancie r th e p o l it ician ( i n the Ameri can sense and
t o have the weak p rotected
spelle d wi th a smal l
o r to have the devious m ethods o f c unning subj e c t t o
th e stat e co nt r o l
Thus dem o c r a cy a r o se i n i ndivi duali sm an d i ndivi d
u a l i sm i n anarchy and ana rchy i s p r o test a g a i nst human
g o vernment
T he dem o c racy o f i nd ivi du a li sm a r o se
wh en a narchy c o mpr o mised w ith such g o ve rnment as
was c o nsidered a necessary evi l and w o uld p r o tect l i fe
an d p ro p erty f ro m overt physical fo rce leavi ng w id e
O pen all th e a pp roaches to cunni ng ex p l o it a ti o n and
ch icanery He re i s where the expe riment o f the d e m o c
ra c y o f i nd ividual ism has failed i n eve ry Eu r op ean
c ount ry and whe re i n the Weste rn H em isphe re i t stand s
t o d a y d is c redited and a d i sappoi ntment Th i s i s why
t he wo rld o ve r t o -day l iberali sm i s bankru p t
Out o f the exi sti ng con fusi o n s O f p revail ing a t o mi sm
,

T H E N EW POLITI C S

26

wh i c h nowhere contai n the poten cy o f an ethi c a l state

c e r tai n n e w elements a pp ea r both ethi c a l and rational
whi c h gi ve the p romi se o f an adequate envi r o nment fo r
that mighty o rgani sm o f humanity whi c h shall some
day do no violen c e t o the th o ught o f G o d
T he i ndividuali sm o f the eighteenth c entu ry has been
weighed and f o und wanti ng Ou r eth ical Hedonism i s
an i nadequ a te f o undat ion fo r a rat i o nal stat e
P ro fess o r Butche r says that the E p i c urean the o ry o f
the state an asso c iat i o n f o r the p r o tecti o n o f rights and

n o thing mo re gai ned acce p tance i n the decl ine o f G reek

l i fe and wa s i tsel f a symptom O f de c l i ne and Le c ky

says o f i t that i t has p roved l ittle mo re than a p ri nciple

o f d isi ntegrat i o n o r a n apology f o r v ice

Anar c hy

i s th e c reed o f un reaso n i n Politi c s says the late P ro

and i s a polit ical ph ilos o phy o nly in the

f e s so r Rit c h ie
sense i n wh ich absolut e scept i c i sm m ay be called a m eta

physical system
( Natu ral Rights P re f )
The sto ry i s t o ld o f the boyhood o f E p icu rus that
w ith hi s teache r h e was read ing the l i nes o f Hesiod :
X g f
r
H
c
p
pw
p
,

roz

'

ee

r caa

'

az

eu

ooe

vo g

n a vr

ao

wv

e ve

e oo c

a ur a

'

ao

a /l s c
p
g

e rre r a

a re :

Ad a va r w v

E ld es t

b ein g s

ro se
T hen c e E a rt h w i d e st re t c he d t he s te a d fa s t se a t
T he I m m o rt a l s
o

Ch a o s rs t

o f a ll

T he i n qui siti ve youth at o nce asked

And Chaos whence ?

Whence Cha o s ?
F r o m Epi c u rus I sh o uld sa y
.

his

p re c epto r

C H APTER I I
ET H I C S

AND

I N DI V IDU A LI S M

T here i s naught i n these pages intelligible t o any man

with wh o m i t i s not agreed at the outset that n o th ing

human can be settled apart f rom the ethi c al c o n
s ideration
The p roblems o f p o l iti c s w ill be held as uns o lvable
without g o i ng back to the everlast ing questi o ns o f right
and w r o ng a nd rat i o nal ity By reas o n o f thei r essent ial
natu re they i nvade th o se ch a oti c v o i ds which i nd ividual
i sm h a s bere ft o f l a w and o rde r and whe re a stat e o f
anarchy has le ft free pl a y f o r an u nbridled scramble f o r
t h e wealth place and po we r o f the w o rld ; where t h e
g reeds and h a t red s o f men masquerade under the

unctu o us catchwo rd s o f Jacobini sm : freedom o f c on

t ra c t
free t rade
free c o mpetiti o n
i ndivi dual i ni

t i a t i ve
Thes e ph rases o nce had a
l a i ss ez fa i r e etc
m eani ng But they n o l o nge r even cl o ak the hyp oc ri sy
a n d greed they once t ried t o expose
What we want to day i s an eth i c al theo ry o f p o li ti c s
b ased o n a n eth i c al theo ry o f l i fe
I f we agree t o agree so fa r with Kant that the o nly
u n c onditi o ned go o d i n the unive rse i s the element o f go o d
w ill w e m ust abandon at on c e the wh o l e theo ry o f i n

d ividual is m that f re e c ompetit ion where the big eat

the l itt l e and both the p o l iti c s and ec o nomics wh ich are
the c on cl usions O f a ph ilosophy o f l i f e whi c h j usties

a m an s selshness to hi m sel f
.

TH E N EW POLITI C S

28

But the eth ical fo rm i s not en o ugh A rt and Sc ien c e

a re po werles s to a c c o u c h e the new a ge because the ethi
c a l o bj ective i s i ncom p lete wi thout it s Sp ri ng and m o t ive
f o rce the ethic a l subj e c t ive
N o benign futu re li es
o ve r th e sensu o us h ills o f c o l o r and f o rm a n d there i s

n o su rce a se o f s o rr o w fr o m man s i nh umanity t o

m an
w ith o ut th e v ital f o untai n o f all rati o nal human
c o nduct the e t h i c a l m o t i v e o f g o o d w i ll
Ou r groun d i deas must not o nly p r o v ide an answe r
wh ich shall say why a s o ld ie r w ill rush t o death i n
battle f o r h i s count ry o r why men t o i l w ith o ut h op e
o f rewa rd th a t li fe may be sweete r f o r th o se still unb o rn
but they must s o me w he re un f o ld a faith p u issant an d
adequ a te t o ki ndle pat ri o ti c res and i nspi re th e spi rit
o f p o liti c al he r o i sm on c e m o re
We must nd that
which n o t only accounts f o r nobil ity o f l i fe but which
c a lls it f o rth Any po litical the o ry n eglecti ng thi s element
i s false o r faulty becau se P o lit i cs l oo ks f o rw a rd as well a s
backward and c o nside rs the o ught as well as th e f a ct
I f we a re t o s o lve ou r po l itical pr o blems w e must
rst kn o w what i s th e m a tte r with u s The matte r w ith
u s i s th a t o u r the o ry o f li fe d o mi nates ou r p o l it i c s and
econ o mics and o u r the o ry o f l i fe i s a S l ightly m o d ied
E p icu rean H ed o ni sm egoism atomi sm anarchy
Th e m o st o f u s a re t oo o ld i n heart i f not t oo o ld i n
yea rs t o fa c e th e p resent ec o nomi c anarchy w ith an
ethical i deal and a p ri nci p le and a point o f view Shal l

the p resent m o ral wave swee p ove r th i s count ry then

bl o w o ut a st o p cock and escape i n h issi ng steam ? I s
i t any mo re than a c raze ? Will i t l a st longer and a c c o m
nat ional enthusiasm f o r
pl i sh mo re than ou r mad
.

ETH IC S A ND I N DI V I DUALI SM

29

T r i l by s f oo t o r Teddy s bea r ? We Ameri c ans are

mercu rial We d o n o t hold form o r heat Just n o w
w e a re ve ry angry because we have been bunc o ed by a
s et o f nan c iers wh o m a little while ag o we w o rshiped
a s c ertai n gilt deiti es o f a n e w o rder o f G o lden Rule
N o w we th e Ame rican pe o ple d o n o t l ike t o be bun co ed
I n ou r i nd ignati o n we res o rt at o nce t o w rit ing a f ew
a rti c les and making a f e w s p eeches
Then when w e
h a ve bl o wn ou r blast lawyers p reachers j o u rnali sts
a rt i sts pr o fess o rs st o ckh o lde rs and h i red men am o ng
u S w e step cheer fully i nt o the p r o cess i o n agai n and
stand i n li ne w ith a n op en and i rri t a ted palm beh i nd o u r
back and without batting an eye take o u r t ip l ike a hea d
waiter
Let i t be made as clea r as poss ible j ust he re that n o
o n e i n these d a ys but t he pr o fess i o nal ana r c h ist lays
clai m to th e the o ry o f pu re i ndivi duali sm Th o se who
class i fy themselves unde r thi s categ o ry p r o fess t o believe
i n a h ighly m o d ied art i cle and the re are as many m o d i
c a t i o n s a s there a re i ndividual ists
I t i s plai n that any
attempt t o den e them all would lead t o an unend ing
con fusi o n I beg t o re fe r at o nce t here f o re t o th e s o me
wh a t b ri e f and i nadequat e deniti o n o f ind ivi dual ism i n

Baldwi n s Di c ti onary O f Phil o s op hy a n d Psych o l o gy

I nd ividual ism i s :
.

R ega r d

or

ex c

l u si v e

Th e d o c t r i n e t h a t t h e
th e
at

ex er c

i se

r es t ra i n e

all

g o v er n m e n t
t er m s

or

e x c ess i v e

p u r s u i t of

i n d i v i d u a l i n i ti a t i v e

d by

sh o u l d

th e

be

s t a te

sh o ul d

an d

r e du c e d

s el

to

i n t e r es t

f
i n te r es t

b e l i t tl e

and

or n ot

fu n c ti o n o f
l o wes t p oss i bl e

th a t th e

th e

s el

TH E NEW POLITI C S

30

Th e d e ni ti on goes on to state that i n ethi c s th e te rm

i s applied t o th o se theo ries deriving the mo ra l i deal o r
standard f rom the i nd ivi dual m a n I hope h o weve r t h e
c ontent ion w ill be co nsidered fai r fo r the pu rposes o f
t hi s ar gument that i nd ividual i sm m ust be co nsidered a s
a system o f thoughta ph ilos o phy o f l i fewhi c h m ust
stand o r fall as a system and not as m o d i ed by t enets
antagoni sti c t o it s mai n thesi s Neve rtheless i t m ay b e
remembered that w e hav e h ere a deniti o n o f not a pu re
i ndivi duali sm but a ni neteenth centu ry a rt i c le ; o n e so
m odied by the expe rien c e o f men sin c e the revolution s
o f the eighteenth c entu ry as t o di sti ngu i sh i t f ro m pu r e
anar c hy As P ro fess o r H ibben o f P ri n c eton has c l ea rly
state d it : The theo ry o f i ndi vi duali sm i n i ts ex t re m e
fo rm leads t o ana rchy whi ch i s th e reducti on o f govern

mental fu nct ions t o zero

H e fu rthe r des c ribes such an ant ithesi s as i s her e
unde r d i scu ssi o n as S o c i a l a t o m i s m o pp o s e d t o th e
.

s oc

o r ga n i sm

i al

I f an c y t here a re some th i n g s i n wh i c h we a re all

bette r and some i n wh ich w e a re all wo rse than o u r
c reeds But th e plai n u n c orrupted an d unmodied theo ry
o f th e demo c ra c y o f i nd ivi duali s m p resent s that i dea o f
the state wh ich i s s imply the apotheosi s o f th e p o l iceman

Thi s con st itutes th e busi nes s theo ry o f th e state

B eyon d th e a rea o f the beat and the auth o rity o f th e

baton th i s theo ry says eve ry man f o r h imsel f

The
weak peri sh an d the c unning and th e st rong su rvive B e
c ause th e st ron g and c unn ing wi n they ought to win Th i s
i s th e essen c e o f the ethi c s o f i ndiv i d uali s m Whatever
there i s that i s admi rable o r i n d ee d ethi c al i n the t ea c h
,

ETH I C S A N D I NDIVI DUALI SM

31

i ngs o f the demo c ra c y o f indiv iduali sm i s where i t h a s

depa rted from the i ndividuali sti c motive whi ch i s the
selsh i nstinct and where i t has i nt r o du c ed j uster and
sane r relations i n other w o rds m o re r a ti o nal and s o cial
relat i o ns among manki nd i n o p posit ion to the funda
mental p rinci p les O f its creed
The plai n brutal t ruth i s that o u r po lit ics a re f ounde d
not princi p les
o n i nte rests
He re we a re fundamentally w r o ngI mean ethically
w rong
The critici sm o f L o rd Sal isbu ry ( Ox fo rd
Essays 1 8 5 8 ) i n re f erence t o B riti sh Politics i s equally

appl i c a b le t o o u r o w n
NO o n e act s o n pri n c i ples o r

reason s f ro m them
Thi s i s a seriou s i nd ictment an d
i t ma y b e applied to A nglo Saxo n Pol iti c s S i nce the
c entur y o f i ndividual i sm and revolution
I nstea d w e have fo r th e m ost part th e t ragedy o f
t he f rank avowal o f a l i fe philoso p hy whi c h f a c es th e
universe an d attempts i t s riddles up o n th e si m ple p ropo

What i s there i n i t fo r me ?
We have ex
si t i o n :

pose d the age we live i n t o a c ritici sm as old as Plat o s

rest ri c tions o n A nt isthenes and th e Cyn i c s who

i gnored al l they c ould not grasp wi th teeth and

h an d s
I t i s a so r ry co i nci d ence that o u r national l i fe had its
beginning i n that era whi ch mo re than an y other e ra o f
reco rded hi sto ry was f ullest o f th e di sintegrat ing phi
l o so ph y which was revolt agai nst rati o n a lity govern
m ent a r c hitectoni c statec ra ft I f l ater w e tu rne d ou r
selves t o c onst ru c tive state buildin g i t was o n l y becaus e
the wise r m en among th e f athers f o un d that Jacobinis m
O ff ere d no ra tional f oun d ation fo r an en d u ring stat e ;
,

TH E NEW POLITI C S

and thus one was mad e out o f th i rt eensu rely a n u n

lucky numbe r

Thus i t c a me that th i s busi ness the o r y o f the state

o f o u rs based o n th e E p i cu rean ethi cs an d theory o f l i fe
i s that i nto wh i c h o u r n e w American nat i o n was b o rn
and as i t were ba p tized
At bott o m we a re st ill
H ed o ni sts i n m o rals and atomi sts i n po litic s A seri o u s
su rvey o f the s o rdi d and patheti c spectacle o f Ameri can
Politicsa c a lm perusal o f th e selsh a n d unintell igent
st o ry o f Ameri can po l itical h i sto ry w ill not j ust i fy the
F o u rth o f July o rat i o ns which h a ve been em p ti ed upon
them n o r the Americ a n Jac o bini sm which i s here d is
cl o sed
Th e ethics o f i nd ivi dual ism has m a gnied the a c quis i
t ive i nst i nct
I t i s the system which i n j ust i fying a

m an s selsh ness t o h imsel f has carrie d on the wo rk o f

t he d i si ntegrati o n o f soci ety and o f o u r pol it ical i n st i t u
t i o ns u nti l o u r wh o le c o ntribution o f modern demo c racy
h a s been framed w ith re fe rence to the su c cess and per
t
i
n o f th e acqu i si tive i nst i nct
A pol itical system
t
u
a
o
e
p
founded o n inte rests n o t p rinci p les c an m eet w ith n o
o the r fate A n econ o m i c S ystem f ramed i n the i nte rests

o f econ o m i c man which ( o ne cann o t sa y wh o ) i s s imply

a c o vet o us m a ch i ne can reach no othe r conclus ion s than
t o p resent u s w ith one m a n who owns o r cont rols o ne
eleventh o f all the wealth o f th e richest nat i o n the
worl d has ever seen
H o w s o on w ill he c o nt r o l it
all ?
The n a rr o w H ed o ni st s t o wh o m we o w e o u r gr o und
i dea i n eth ics ec o n o mi cs a n d po l iti cs f ramed a st ri ng
o f n o t i o ns s o congeni a l t o t he i mmatu re and u n r e ge n
.

'

ETH I C S A ND I NDI V I DUALI SM

33

rate sou l o f m a n that the y have b een fo llowe d m ore

j oyously an d thei r tea c h i ngs l ived u p t o mo re pio u s l y
than an y othe r ethi c al system dev ised by man I t i s so
s imp l e There i s but o n e ethi c al m ot iv e a p petite Al l
endeavo r i s p rompted by appeti te The desi re fo r selsh
grat icat io n i s t he f o unt f ro m which all blessi n g s o w
There i s b ut o n e standar d o f j u d gment the selsh
opi ni o n o f an eg o ist There i s o n e m ainsp ri ng o f acti o n

the desi re fo r one s o wn selsh grati c ation What

s oeve r quot h H obbes i n L eviathan i s the o b j e c t o f

any man s appet i te o r desi re that it i s whi c h he f o r hi s

pa rt c alleth go o d and th e obj ect o f h i s hate a n d ave rsion

evil
M y p leasu re i s my su mm u m b o n u m an d a s I
am the o nly j udge o f what I want I a m th e only j udge
Thus H ob bes and h i s d is c iples
o f my c hie f g o od
Locke R o usseau an d all othe r E p i c u reans an d Utili
tarian atomi sts and m ate rial ists be fo re an d S i n c e h i s d ay
T hi s i s the p revai li ng Anglo Saxo n theo ry o f ethi cs
Thi s i s the f oundat i o n o f o u r p o l itics an d e c onomi c s
and much o f o u r religion This i s th e s imple ethi c s o f
i ndividual ism
The i nd ividuali s m o f to -d ay i s d i ff e rent f rom what i t
wa s i n th e rst c ru d e and barba rous ebullition o f its
youth s imply an d solely b e c ause men fo und they co uld
not hold so c i ety togethe r and lead the l ives o f human
b ei ngs whi le allow ing the selsh i nst i n c ts o f the st rong
and c unni ng t o ru n rampant and unc o nt r o lled by society

A da m S m ith s c ontent ion that the goo d o f all woul d some

h o w fo llow the selsh antagoni sm O f each so o n f oun d
itsel f enveloped i n a halo o f i nterrogat i o n points i n th e
fact o ry legi slation and th e great masses o f other a c ts
c

TH E N EW POLITI C S

34

passed s in c e hi s day eve ry one o f wh i c h has atly denied

hi s fundamental thesi s
Eighteenth centu ry i ndi vi dualis m o ff ered no other
standard o f a c ti o n than acqu i ri ng p rot and es c a p ing
harm I t became the p rin c i p le o f th e p o liti cal ph ilos o phy
o f the French and Engli sh speaking pe o ples and has

domi nated th em f o r a hund red an d fty years H o bbes s

theo ry o f the reduct ion o f all the a ct ivities o f the h uma n
w il l to sel f p reservati on and sel f i ndulgen c e i n othe r
w o rds t o a m odern Epi c u reanism became th e ph il o
S o p h ical f o undat i o n O f th o se f o r c es o f i nd ividuali sm
which d o m inat e W hatev e r o f p o l iti c al th e o ry we have

i n Ameri c a S how ing itsel f i n t he business theo ry o f

state
One need n o t look fa r t o se e h o w the c reed o f Ben
tham that b enevolence must give wa y t o sel f i nte rest o f
James M ill that there i s n o p lace i n a th e o ry o f so c i ety
f or a m ora l sense ; o f Malthus who opposed b rut e insti nct
to benevolence as th e fo undation o f ethi cs and o f the busi
ness an d soci al o rder ; o f th e M ancheste r sch oo l which
b ro o ked n o legi slativ e c ont rol o f i ndustrial co mmercial
ravening mo re than maniacal d emoniacal h o w these
and o ther such monst r o u s belie fs p revail in g i n a w o rld
n ominally Ch ri st ian and really i ndividu a l i stic have d o m i
mated ni neteenth c entu ry c i vil izat ion an d t o thi s day
I f the French R evolut io n was t h e o ff spri ng o f
i ndividual ism n o less was the c omme rc ial an d in d ust rial
anarchy o f England wh i ch has so mu c h t o answe r f o r i n
d i es i rre f o r eve ry hollow eyed child o f th e tens o f
th o usands o f unhappy ch ild ren whose very esh and bones
were woven into the c otton fabri c s o f Man c hester and
,

ET H I CS A ND I ND IVI DUALI S M

35

B i rmi ngham wh o se s o uls were t rans f o rmed by the

alchemy o f i ndividuali sm i nt o th e g o lden f o undati o ns o f

England s wealth
Bentham and James M ill i ndeed the wh o le early sch oo l
o f l a i ss ez fa i r e ec o n o mi sts an d Radicals pre a ched a
S im p le way to th e millenn ium All that kept humanity
f rom ach ieving it were ari st oc rati c rule and m o n a rchic
g o vernment
Sweep these aw a y and place the manu
factu rer an d m illi o nai re t radesman i n the pl a ce o f ki ng
and noble an d l ab o r would b e p rotected and mankind
w o uld come t o i t s o wn Th e middl e c lasses w o uld guar
antee t he lowe r classes i n thei r r ights Th e y o unger M i ll
seeing t he m i se rable f ai lu re o f these c rude d reams l o st
much o f hi s ea rly faith i n demo c ra c y ; i e the democ r a c y
o f i nd ivi duali s m which he grew t o l oo k u p o n as t h e
m i s rule o f m ed io c ri ty whi ch would c rowd the h ighe r
vi rtues o f m ankin d to the wall ensl a ved by an i nsi di o us
desp o t ism A dead weight o f d em oc rati c conse rvati sm
m assed an d b oun d i n i t s o wn i ne rt ia w o uld because o f
its o wn in c apacity f o r f raming a rational p rogram se t
i tsel f a c ross the p a th O f p rogress and keep the s ta tu s
q u o b y a poli cy o f veto
It i s greatl y t o th e cred it o f M ill that h i s de f ens e o f
utilitariani s m has d o ne mo re to unde rm ine th e S v st em
than an y othe r b ook w ritten i n hi s c entu ry
I f he

a cc e p ted Bentham s do c t ri ne o f pleasu re and p a i n he

t ransmitted the dogm a th rough h i s o wn superb cha ra c te r
into so m ething t o tally d i ff erent f rom what Bentha m
a c tually taught
I n a nutshell M ill taugh t th a t happi ness
i s the resul t o f goodness ; there f o re the l o ve o f pleasu re
i s the love o f v i rtue ; and there f ore th e pu rsuit o f vi rt u e
,

TH E NEW POLITI C S

36

i s the pu rs u i t O f pleas u re B ut M ill with a ll h i s powe rs

o f a rgu ment h a s not been able t o m ake rea l m oral it y
subse rv ient to H ed o nism A syste m m ust be j udged b y
i t s e ff e c t upon th e masses o f manki nd and d isi nte rested
a c ts o f sel f sa c r i c e w i ll never be done by the masses

fo r the fun o f i t
To sa y t hat the pat riot imm o lates
himsel f o n the alta r o f h i s count ry because i t i s a ple a su re
t o h im i s to beg th e question
I t i s t o deny the existen c e
I t m ight b e admitted that
o f a di si nterested m o t ive
Flo rence Nighti ngale o r Cla ra Ba rton found mo re pleas
u re i n mi ni steri ng t o h uman su ff ering than i n a li fe d e
voted to the game e g o f S ocial p receden c e
But
u n f o rtu nately t he m aj o rit y o f the human race i s not
c onstituted that way There fo re the do c t rine o f pleas
u re a n d pain util itari anismdoes not m ean the same
t o the m Thi s do c t ri ne means to the m asses o f mankin d
that pleasu re i s sel f i ndulgen c e an d t o the m asses o f
manki nd unde r util itariani sm sel f i ndu l gen c e i s e re c te d
i nto a m o ral p ri nci p l e But t hi s i s assu redl y and openly
admitted by th e cl a ssical economists whose m illenniu m
l ies i n th e d i recti o n o f ea c h i ndividual pu rsuing h i s own
pleasu re ; i e the m asses o f mankind f ollowing blind
selsh i nstin c ts i nstead o f adopt ing a n ar c h ite c toni c
rati o nal ethi c al i dea whi c h the y m ay e re c t i nt o a grea t
i nst itut ion called a state
The c ru c ial poi nt at wh ich the ethi cs o f i nd iv i dual
i s m f ails i s i n n o t d ist i ngui sh ing between pleasu re and
the obj e c t o f an a c tion o r perhaps goi ng f u rthe r and
i den t i fyi ng p leasu re wi th th e obj e c t o f all a c t ion an d
a ff e c ti on Thi s redu c es th e mot ive o f ethi c s to se l sh
ness Th i s H edoni sm falls down be c ause i t takes n o
.

ETH I CS A ND

I ND IVI DUAL I S M

37

cc ount o f a di si nterested a ffection o r a c ti o n There i s

n o d isti n c ti o n between t he obj ect o f an a ct ion and the
pleasu re whi c h ac c ompani es the exercise o f that a c ti o n
o r a ff ect i o n
A man l ov es h i s c o unt ry H e g o es into
b attle and gets himsel f sh o t be c ause i t gi ves pleasu re t o
a pat ri o t to get himsel f shot
A man l o ves h i s so n H e
d oes things fo r h i s so n because i t gives the father pleas
u re
B ut thi s i s n o adequate a c c o un t o f p a t riot i c o r
paternal l o ve
Neithe r a h om e no r a nation c an be
b u ilt up o n i t America n Polit ics need s a n e w pat ri o ti sm
and p at rioti sm i s n o t p o ssible unde r a st ri c t ind ividual ist
theo ry o f l i fe
M i l l c ut away the last p ro p fr om t he tottering ut ili
t a r i a n i sm i n wh i c h he wa s nu rtu red i n hi s essa y o n

B enth am
A fte r a sear c hi ng c riti c is m o f Bentham s
t heo ry o f li fe ( whi c h i s the rst quest i o n t o rai se h e
cl aims i n rega rd to any man o f Sp e c ulat i o n ) h e sh o w s
h o w l ittle i t c an d o fo r the i ndividua l
Then he S how s
h o w m u c h less i t c an d o fo r s o ciety
I t w ill do noth in g

fo r t he S pi ritual i nterest s o f so c i ety ( ex c e p t sometimes

as an i nst rument i n th e hands o f some h i ghe r

That wh i c h al o ne c auses any m ate rial i nterest s t o exist

whi ch al o ne enables any body o f human beings to exi s t
a s a so c iety i s nat i o nal characte r ; that i t i s whi c h c ause s
a nati o n t o su c ceed i n what i t attempts an o the r t o fail ;
o n e nat ion to understand and aspi re to elevated thi ngs
another t o grovel i n mean ones ; whi c h makes th e gre a t
n ess o f o n e nati o n last ing an d do o ms anothe r to ea rly

an d rapi d decay

Bentham m a d e the mi stake o f su ppo sing that th e

b us iness pa rt o f human a ff ai rs was th e whole o f them ;
a

TH E NEW POLITI C S

8
3

all at least that the legi slato r and mo ral ist ha d t o d o

w ith
Again
a
p h i l o s o p h y o f l a w s a n d i n s ti tu t i o n s n o t
.

fo u n d ed
a bs u r d i ty

on

p h il osop hy

n a t onal

h a ra c t e r i s

an

M ill s statement i s i rre futa b ly t rue I t i s whe re the

whole scho o l o f ph il o soph i c radi c als and o rthod o x
e co nomi sts m iserably faile d i n being u nequal t o f raming
a theo ry o f p o litics o r e c on o mi c s o n any but the f o u n d a
t i o ns o f materi a l ism
Thei r f ault wa s f u n d a m ental
Thei r theo ry o f l i fe wa s w rong I t nowhere c o ntai ned
th e element s ne c essa ry to a s o und ph ilosoph y o f national
c ha racte r I t was i nca p able o f suppo rt i ng a rational
theo ry o f na t iona l c haracte r be c ause i t held no rationa l
t heory o f i ndividual c hara c ter
The the o ry was u n
I t p redi c ated o f the state
so c ial
so c ietyo f
of
humani ty S O many human units i n a state o f wa r I t
deni ed the element o f good w ill Ea c h man wa s t rying
t o get the m ost pleasu re and es c ape t he m o st pai n

Th i s theo ry o f l i fe i n sho r t w a s W hat H o bson c alls the

p rotean falla c y o f i nd ividuali sm which feigns the exist
ence o f se p a rat e i nd ividual s b y abst ra c ti ng and neglect
ing the s o cial rel a ti o ns whi c h belong to them and m ake

th em what they a re

M ill s gr o wth i s all the m ore i nte rest i ng i n that the

A ngl o Sax o n w o rl d has not kept up w ith i t We a re
still as a ra c e groveling i n the lai rs o f i nd ivi dual is m
wh ich thi s m an grew u p i n and grew out o f
Wood row Wilso n has said i n a re c ent thought

ful add ress b e f ore the Nat ional Ba r A ssociat ion The
whol e h i sto ry o f l ibe rty has b een a st ruggl e f o r the
.

ETH I C S A ND I ND IVI DUALI S M

39

re c ognition o f ri ghts not only but fo r the e m bo d i m ent

rights i n l a w i n c ou rt s and magist rates and
of

assemblie s
Th i s i s a n exa c t statement o f th e modern highest ty pe
Where the nat ionalist
o f m u c h m o d ied i nd ivi dual ism
will take a c ademi c i ssue w ith hi m i s i n that he negle c ts
enti rely the element o f reci p ro c it y I t i s always and o nly

rights
The nationalist would sa y The whole hist o ry
o f freedom has been a st ruggle fo r a re c ogni tion o f rights
n o t o nly but an asse rt ion o f duti es and the embodiment
o f o bligat i o ns as well as ri ghts o f both man and nat ion

i n law i n cou rts and magist rates and assemblies

Th is i s a s tatement o f nat ionali sm the old and the
,

n ew

I t i s here that i nd iv idualism fails

I t neglects th e
p rin c iple o f re c ip ro c ity whi c h i s th e soul o f sociality
I t o ffers a de c laration o f rights and n o duties and we
c annot avoid the c on c lusion o f Th o mas H i l l G reen that

all rights a re relat ive to mora l ends or dut ies

Th i s system decla res f o r all ri ghts and no dut ies and
s ets up bou nda ri es between i nd ividuals th rough which
the gates swing b ut o n e way Whe n th e ele m ent o f
du ti es ente rs i t m eans S imply that what the i nd i vidual
d oes not w i sh to be done to himsel f he must not d o t o
othe rs Th e pri n c ipl e o f ethi c al de m o c ra c y ente rs i n th e
volunta ry aspe c t o f re c i p ro c ity that the re c ip ro c al l a w i s
not i m posed from w ithout but from w ithin Thus we
m ay see that a ph ilosophy o f rights and d uties o r rec i
p rocity i s s imply a real izat ion ( i f o nl y i n the i d eal )
o f the Gol d en R u l e
.

T H E NEW POLIT IC S

40

The sou l o f the dem o c ra c y o f alt ru i s m i s re c i pro c it y

the Golden R ule I ndividuali s m i s b ased o n the phi
l o so ph y o f li fe wh i c h i s a s ea r c h a f ter happi ness w ithout
obl igat ions and thi s theor y o f ri ghts stated b y i nd ivi d
u a l i sm means eve ry time unde r anal y si s b ru t e s u pre m
a c y and beh i nd i t th e san c t ion o f m i g ht
1
The weak pe ri sh ; th e st ron g wi n
Indivi dual i sm th ere fo re i s the bulwa rk o f the c o n
tention that M ight i s Right Sta rt i ng with th e proposi
t ion i n polit i c s whi c h i n e c on o m i c s Adam S m i th an d
t he other e c onomi st s have p rea c hed t o t he busi nes s
wo rld fo r a hund red yea rs Hobbes c laimed that th e
selshn es s o f man y c ond u c es t o the happiness o f all
i nasmu c h as the state i s a m a c h ine fo r pu rpo ses o f

realizi ng enl ightened selshness

Two c on c eptions
says A rnold Toynbee a re woven i nto every a rgu ment
o f the Wealth o f Nations t he bel ie f i n t he sup reme valu e

o f ind ividual libe rty and c onvi ct ion that Man s S el f -l ov e

i s God s p rov iden c e that th e i ndivi dual i n pu rsu ing h i s

I t i s easy
o w n i nterest i s p ro m oti ng the wel fa re o f all
to see t hat i f under a political o r e c onomi c me c hanism
selshness wo rks towa rd g oo d selsh ness becomes a
mo ral pri n c i ple and makes M ight R ight
But then th i s i s th e the o ry o f l a i ss ez fa i r efree an d
u nlimited c ompetition whe re the st rong o r th e cunni n g
i gh t o f t h F o t h o f A g t 7 8 F d l i w
bol i h d i
O
th
c O t h t i gh t M l t f ro m i p i t io w h ic h w i ll d o h o o t o h i
F
m m o y h d d j d h i co ll g t t k i t o o i d r t io t h l t o f l bo i g
cl
to o p b
o f c h i t y t o t b l i h w o k h o p f l bo r A l o w oi
o th y p d
C m w i h d th to d d d c l t io o f d t i
d Mi b
d c l t io o f ri gh t Th p o po i t i o w
w ot
t
j ct d
th t t h
w
th r
wo t h y
po li t ic l
mb ly Wh t
q i bb l i g
c ll d q i bb l w
o l t io
Mi b
Th t h two d o t i b g to p t
.

ran

ra

a ra

u re a u x

e au

us

on

r n es

us

e e

an

ns

un

rev

se

ra

es a

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ETH I C S A ND I ND IVI DUALI SM

41

w i n F o r i f they w i n i t i s o n the pri n c i p le that ea c h

a c t s f o r h i s o wn i nterest an d that the resultant i s t h e
agg regat e o f individual good there bei ng n o c o mm o n

good S o that Thomas H ill Green s c austi c c riti c i s m o f

the theo ry o f Hobbes ( Pri nciples o f Politi c a l Obligat ion

p 3 7 0 pa r 4 7 ) i s u nanswerable : Where th ere i s no

re c ognition o f a c om m on good the re c an b e n o right i n

an y other sense than power

I t i s the do c t ri ne w e are a c custome d t o un d er the
re g i m e o f i nd ivi dualism i n th e absen c e o f ethi c s o r
the possi b ili t y o f ethi c s under f ree t ra d e l a i ssez fa i r e
where the weak peri sh and the st rong o r c unni ng wi n
where the selshness o f the many i s the good o f the all
Th i s f undamental and f alse foundat ion o f the democ ra cy
indivi duali sm m akes t wo th ings necessa rythat
of
Mi gh t m a k es r i gh t and th at P r ogr ess i s fo r tu i t o u s a n d
.

n o t ra ti on a l

I sa y t hat thi s apotheosi s o f u nrest ra in e d and i rre

sponsible gree d c alled i ndividuali sm and wh i c h redu c ed
to i t s lowest te rm s present s sel f seeki ng a s the sol e
o b j e c t o f the human w ill i s th e negation o f all ethi c s and
al l rel igi ons and i s not the m ot ive no r does i t l ie i n
th e di recti on o f the h ighest devel o pment o f the human
ra c e
That th eo ry o f l i fe called ind ivi d ual ism wh i c h has
ruled w ith s c a r c ely a S hadow o f tu rning the l i fe h i sto ry
o f th is planet f o r a myriad o f c entu ri es b e fo re the re ever
c ame a c reatu re who could f rame a th eo ry o f l i f e i s
only t o o palpably i nsu fc ient fo r a mo d ern state i n i t s
ideal its motive and its poi nt o f v iew
It s ideal i s that each pa rti c ula r o rgani sm c onned to
,

T H E NEW POLITI C S

42

i ts pa rti c ula r to rso S hall manage t o th rill to as m an y a s

p o ssible pleasu rable sensat ions ( and as f e w pain fu l ones )
be fo re i n t he c ou rse o f huma n events i t c eases t o respond
t o anyth i ng at all
I ts moti ve i s sel f i nterest
I ts poi nt o f v iew i s sel f
Thi s i s i nd ividuali sm
Thi s i s the ph il o s o phy o f I shm ae l
Thi s i s the ph il o so p hy o f l i fe o f the A ngl o -Saxon
wo rld t o day I t may n o t be c onned to the Anglo
Sax on wo rld but th e w o rld s business i s bei ng ca rried on

a nd the wo rld s l i fe i s bei ng lived u nde r a ph il o sophy

an d
o f l i fe which has n o adequate ethi c al foundation
i s dev o i d o f th e very possibility o f a n ethi c al f oundat ion
.

Perhaps I m ay be pe rm itted to registe r a pe rs o nal c on

wo rld aim and
v i c t i o n that th e p resent w o rld a c t ivity
outlook w ill neve r be p ro f o undly modie d ex c ept by a
world rel igi ous movement Sh o uld eve r we nd an a b so
l u t e l y t ru e ethi c al ph ilos o phy i t c an ap p ea l only to a few
I t w ill be adequate to such phil o s o phers as m ay b o th
comp rehend believe and foll o w i t I t will sustain thos e
who al ready c onsti tute the elect but f o r th e st ruggl i ng
and stri cken ho rdes o f humanity thei r souls c an
never be welded int o a fundamental an d sustai ning pri n
Ethi c a l sy s
c i pl e except i n th e wh it e heat o f passion
tems wi ll c o ntinue t o th row light upon th e pathways
o f men but m en a re so c onstituted they m ust have
heat as well as light and action m u st f ollow d i r ec t ion
and behi nd knowledge the re must be th e a c tive will
I t has been growing upon me the m o re I rea d o f
,

ETH I C S A ND I ND IVIDUALI SM

43

h istory and th e mo re I se e o f m y f ellow m en

t hat what thi s w o rld needs m o re than all else j ust now
i s n o t so much m o re kn o wledge as liv ing up to the best
w e kn o w

It needs Kant s onl y u n c ond itional goo d go o d wi ll

h uman

C HAPT ER I I I
TH E

S EPA RA TIO N O F E T H I C S F R O M E CONO M I C S

The d i vo r c e o f ethics f r om mode rn e c onomi c theo ry

h a s resulted i n the sepa rati o n o f moral s f ro m m o d e rn
busi ness li fe Thi s separation i s due m o re to Adam
Smith than to any other man who eve r l ived ex c eptin g
perhaps the m an wh o d i d most t o separate eth i c s f rom
politics be fore h im M a c hiavell i
Smith has bee n f ol
lowed blindly fo r f o u r gene rat ions an d the syste m he
founded stil l exer c i ses a fea r ful i nfluen c e u pon the
Anglo Saxon m in d
H i s c hie f c ont ribut ion s are h i s
method and poi nt o f view whi c h have been pec ul iarl y
agreeable to the Anglo Saxon mi n d Ad am S mith sepa
rat ed f rom e c onomi c s whateve r f oun d ation s i n ethi c s it
eve r had Thi s was done by th e i solati o n o f th e study
Wh il e
o f the subj ect o f wealth f rom human values
Goethe i n Ge rmany was clamo ri ng fo r that exalted po i nt

an d se e i t whole t he
o f vi ew which co uld se e l i fe

rea c t i o n start ed by th e Wealth o f Nat ions was not

merely analytic as i n th e body o f i t i s d evel o ped the
theory o f the d iv i sion o f labo r but i t wa s also d e st ru c
t i ve i n the i solati o n o f the study o f wealth f rom human

values
H e sim p ly d i scu ssed th e questi o n o f wealth

says P ro fesso r Cunni ngham

I ts bea rin g o n the c on

d it i on o f the stat e was an a fte rt hought

S o I f an cy
was i ts b ea ring o n the c ondition o f humani ty
The keyn o t e o f th e me r c antile system whi c h th e
Smi thian s c heme supe rseded was national efc i en cy
.

44

ETHI C S A ND ECO NOM IC S

45

N at iona l wealth wa s c ons idered as a m eans to nat iona l

Smit h sai d , i n substan c e , s o far as thi s i nqui ry

p owe r
i s c on c erned , wealth i s the end o f human endeavo r
Th e
.

atheti
c
thi
n
g
about
it
all
i
s
that
fou
r
generations
of
p
d i s c iples wh i c h have i ncluded severa l hund reds o f m i l
l ions o f human bei ngs have l ived by the p ropositio n
Th is ve ry
t h at weal th i s th e end o f human endeavo r
i solati o n o f wealth f r o m eve ry deepe r hu m an i nterest
u niversally co mmende d b y e c on o mi sts has ha d
so
They te ll
t h e m ost u n f o rtunate even t ragi cal results
u s that i t i nt r o du c ed an i m mens e S im p lication ; tha t i t
ena a s with physi c al obj e c t s
d ealt with economi c phen o m
a n d natural laws ; that while t o h i s English p rede c esso rs
e co n o mi c s had been a depa rtment o f politi c s and mo ra l s

h i s Engli sh successo rs recognized that in Smith s han d s i t

b e c ame anal o gou s t o phys i c s and that they delighte d

an d
t o t reat it by th e meth o ds o f mechani c a l scien c e
t hat thi s h as b rought about the development o f m ode r n

e c onomi c theo ry
The e co nomi sts t ell us that th i s m e c hani c al t reat m ent

o f a human subj e c t
i nt roduce d an i mmense S i m pli c a

t ion
So it d i d I t di d so by st ri pp i ng from i t eve r y
relat ionsh i p i t sustai ned to the spi ritual wo rld It d i d
so
b y redu c i ng i t to a sheer sodden mate rial is m

I m mens e S impli c ation i ndeed !

S o was that later
physiology whi c h i solated the human b o dy separated i t
f ro m soul stated huma n l i f e i n te rm s o f che m ist ry an d
s pi rit i n te rm s o f p hys ics e
g a mode o f moti on
The d ivo r c e o f ethi cs f rom econ o mi cs has resulted

i n what Carlyle c hara c terized a s the d ismal scien c e

H ence the En gl ishman u nd e r th e system o f economi c
,

TH E NEW POLITI C S

46

i ndiv i duali sm which o we red out o f the Glasgow S c hoo l

i nto the Mancheste r Scho o l becam e such a c reat u re

that t o aw a ken hi s real bel ie fs Carlyle sai d o f h im : Y o u

m ust des c end to h i s st o mach pu rse and adj a c ent

regions
Thi s d i smal science was f o unded o n an
attempt to c rea te a ce rt ai n phase o f human econ o mics
with out re fe ren c e t o the human havi ng f o i sted i n it s

p lace a c e rtai n c ovet o u s machin e whi c h f o r want o f a

better n ame o r w o rsewa s called economi c man

Thi s monstrou s the o ry would have been bale ful enough
exud i ng classi c p o i so n i n academi c S hades U n f o rt u
i t escaped these connes and spread o ver th e
n a t ely
busi ness wo rld like runn i ng re Had not Smith di s
c o vered a n ew law i n l i c ense and that every st rea m o f
un rest ri cted selsh i nst i nct t ri ckled nally i nto the m illen
n ial river o f th e c om m on g o od ? The result o f th e
Smithian sch eme has been perhaps the nea rest a pp roach
t o pu re and absolute ana rch y eve r seen i n the world i n
any c omm and i ng po sit i o n fo r so gre a t a len gt h o f t ime ;
that ana rchy f o und i n t he polit ical i ndust rial and com
m e r c i a l h i story o f th e Angl o Sax o n pe o ples i n thei r
c entu ry l o ng o rgie o f l a i ss ez fa i r e sometimes known a s
the gos p el o f Man c hester

Leroux th e French So c ial i st sai d Man i s an anima l

t ran s fo rm ed by reason and un ited to human ity

The Anglo Saxon i nd ivi dual ist s taught that m an o r
e c onomi c m an i n whose i mage they t ried t o re c reat e
mank i nd was a b rute t ran s fo rmed by an u nrest rai ned
and acqui sit ive greed and detached f ro m humanity
T hu s e c onomi c s d i sgui sed and pa rad i ng i n the m a s
q u e ra d e o f unctuous ph ra ses and o f wor d s humbugge d
,

ETH I C S

A ND

ECO NOM I CS

47

an d bere f t o f all o riginal and law ful c o ntent entered

the l ist s a s wel c om e c hampion o f the S carlet Lady o f
n a n c ial p rivi lege and i t has remai ned faith ful to i ts
i lli c it a m ou r t o th is day
Sta rti ng with the anar c hy o f i ndivi duali s m a selsh
an d wh o lly i rrespons ible i nsti n c t to be not o nly grati ed
b ut glutted thi s s c ho o l tu rned i ts back up o n t he futu re

and it s face toward that barba ri sm n atu re red i n tooth

and claw and h it the t rail o f th e i c h th i o sa u r and pter o

d a c tyl
Assumi ng as Ruski n has sai d not that the
h u m an being has no S kelet o n but that it i s all skeleton
i t f ounds an o ssi f a n t t heory o f p r o gress on th is negati o n
o f soul and havi ng shown the utm o st that c an be mad e
b o nes an d const ru c t i ng a number o f i nterest ing
of

g eomet ri cal gures w ith death s heads and humeri su c

c e ss f u l l y p roves th e i n co nvenienc e o f the reappea rance

o f a soul among these co rpuscular st ru c tu res

The f o undation o f the Glasg o w and the M ancheste r
s ch oo ls o f econ o mi cs was the same a s that o f the j u ri s
p ruden c e o f B entha m and the p o lit ics o f Rousseau and
o f hi s perhaps t w o most d i sti ngui shed di sci p les Thomas
Je fferson and Maximi llian Robespierre
That foun
dati o n was i ndivi duali sm
The fundamental e rro r o f
the e c onomi sts was i n thei r co ncepti o n o f values ; i n
m aki ng wealth the sol e end o f m a n i nstea d o f m an the
sol e end o f wealth
The result was n o t a p ol itical
economy but an economy o f comme rciali sm whi c h was
a pu re money getti ng materiali sm o n Ma c hi avellian foun
dations Considering everyth ing from the standp o int o f
egois m they set up a c rass and b rutal end to be gained
an d su b o rdinate d h u m anitythat i s to sa y a ls o ethics
,

T H E NEW POLITI C S

48

and reli gi onto the role o f m eans to th e attai n m ent o f

th e end Smith ian ec ono m i c s i s Ma c hiavell ianism on the
ba rgai n c ounter
Thi s i s why e c o n o m ics knows no
ethi c s and i s as wh o lly d i v o rc ed f ro m a philosophy o f
right and w rong as i s a table o f logari thmswh y th i s

enlightened sel f inte rest ( a phrase whi c h ap o logizes

fo r i tsel f ) S m i t h i a n i sm u s as th e Ge rmans c all i t
i s i n busi ness what M a c h iavellianism i s i n pol iti c s
The p leas ing c t ion o f eco nomi c man acting un d e r
ec o n o m i c law was about as t rue to li fe as was Rous

s e a u s man i n a state o f natu re where i ndeed e c onomi c

I t i s a highly suggest iv e
m a n m i ght have been evo l v ed
fact th a t when Darwin l ooked about h im fo r a phrase
to t th e st ruggle o f th e b east fo r exi sten c e he fo und

what he was l o okin g f o r i n the ethi c s o f the Man

c hester s c hool namely th e su rvival o f the st rong and
c unn ing ( although h e named it i na cc u rately an d u n

fo rtun a tely th e su rvival o f th e

Th i s i s a plai n statement o f the economi c l a w o f u n re
and
s t rai ned c o m p et ition where th e big eat the l ittle

Darw i n f rankly admitted that Malthu s on P o pulation

O ri gi n o f the S p ecies
s uggested th e
T he a c ademi c sepa rat ion o f eth i c s and pol iti c s ha d
p receded the separati o n o f eth ics an d e c onomi c s P ra c
t ical statesmen i ndulging thei r o w n sel f l o ve h a c k ed
and p r o m o t ed by p o we r ful i nterests w hich knew no
m otive but th at o f the primeval selsh i nstin c t f o und i t
o nly t o o easy to take th e academi c ian at h i s wo rd
M a c h iavell ian Politi c s i s c on c erned o nly with su cc ess
S m ithian E c onomi cs i s c once rned only w ith wealth
N eithe r has t he sli ghtest lean i ng toward a fun d amenta l
.

ETH I CS A ND ECO NOM IC S

49

ppre c iat ion o f values an d neither h a s an adequate c on

c e pt i o n o f humanity
I n both eth i c al and sp i rit u al c on
s iderat ions must be c ons idered only a s m eans towar d
m aterial ends

The i nt rusion o f ethi c s i nto e c ono m ics says P r o f e s

so r Keynes
cannot but mult iply and perpetuate sou rces

n
o f d is a greement
H
obso
Th
e
same
may
be
said
)
(
o f the i nt rusi o n o f eth i c s i nto Pol it i c s and government

Th e sou r c es
o r i ndeed the i nt rus ion o f religion i nto li fe

o f d isagreement
i n t he great quest i o ns o f human wel
fa re appea r as rapidly as the ethical c ons iderat ion

int rudes
But why i nt rudes ? The language i s an
im p udent i nt im a ti o n that eth ics i s so m e Sp o radi c and
non essent i a l non hu m an quality AS a m atter o f fact
all human relations i nvolve f undamentally such eth i c a l
c onsi derations i n that they a re unimaginable a part f rom
these eth i c al foundations They i nv o lve not only the
economi c p roblems o f waste and uti lity but the ethi cal
questi o n o f human rights and human uses a n d a buses

Ethics c annot i nt rud e where these p r o blems exi st

The ve r y p r o blems themselves a re ethic a l and i f they
m ultiply and perpetuate sou rces o f d is a greement th o se
sou rces may be found where the cl a ims o f p ri vilege assert
themselves an d those o f j usti ce determine
One o f the most c u rious and i ndeed the most uni n
t e ll i ge n t c o rollari es o f the Mancheste r system
i s the
devel o p m ent and use o f the wo rd l a w I t has resulted
i n one o f the most piti ful o f the c on fusions o f m o de rn
t imes I t may be partly owing to the po ve rty o f o u r
language that th e w o rd l a w has been u sed f o r the p u r
pose o i mislead ing the p o pula r mind
When the su c
a

TH E NEW POLITI C S

0
5

Smith began t o t reat e c onomi c ph enomena on

the basi s o f a phys ic a l o r mechani cal science they

deduced c ert ai n law

The pe o ple we re u sed to c o n
s i d e r i n g a law as a rule o f co ndu c t
I t was somethi ng
whi c h must be o beyed The le a ders o f thought d id n o t
m ake th e prope r d i sti nct ions between a law o f s c ien c e
wh i c h i s n o th ing mo re o r less than a statem ent o f h o w
c e rtai n th ings behave a n d a law whi ch i s ev o lved in the
social st ructu re c ont a i ning a S pi ritual element wh ich
the pu rely physi cal realm does not In scien c e a law
has n o ethi c al beari ng I n th e relat ions o f manki nd a
l a w i s i n co n c eivable as n o t i nvolving a n element o f obl i
ga t i o n a p rinci p le o f right and w rong
It may be sai d w ith j ust ice that the M an c heste r s c hoo l
knew p racti c ally n o law as outside the realm o f physi
c al sci ence we are used t o i nterp reting the w o rd l a w
fo r i t was destitute o f ethi c s The ve ry basi s o f all
human l a w p oliti cal o r e co nomi c the m o re s o mo ral
law i s o bli ga ti o n The o nly obligation rec o gnized i n the
wh o le l i fe p hil o s op hy o f i nd ividual i sm was that t o get
pleasu re th e m o st o f whi ch was t o get riches Prudence
t oo k the p la c e o f duty H o nesty was no m o re than th e
best p o l icy I f i t eve r co uld be S h o wn o r i f i t ever
ap p ea red that i n o rder t o get rich the re was a mo re
e ffe c tive p o l icyso much the wo rse f o r h o nesty So
w ith a l l the othe r p rudences w hich the old fash i o ned had
known as vi rtues The wh o le system was a s o ulless
scheme o f ex p loitat i o n built o n the denial o f Sp i rit
leaped u po n by the ign o blest elements i n mankind and
pe rpetuated i n j usti c at i o n o f thei r i gn o bility When
the Man c heste r s c ho o l began to talk ab o ut e c onomi c law

c e s so r s o

ETH I C S A ND ECO NOM IC S

i t began t o apol o gize fo r itsel f and m ade an exhibition

at on c e ign o rant and ludi c r o us
The e co n o mi c m an behaves so and so A statement
I t i s natu ral f o r him t o
o f hi s behavi o r i s ec o n o mi c l a w
follow h i s selsh i nst inct Each man f o llowi ng h i s sel f
i sh i nsti nct w o rks f o r the g oo d o f the whole there f o re

ea c h man ought to foll o w hi s selsh insti n c t qu o d e r a t

.

d em o n s tr a n d u m

L a w must be obeyed
Th i s i s the e co n o mi c l a w

People must behave i n busi ness as econ o mi c m en not

f o r getti ng wealth i s
a s human bei ngs and Ch ri stians
the c hi e f end and thi s gets we a lth The weak must pe ri sh
Th e st rong and c unning must su rvi ve
Because they
su rvive they a re tt e stn o t ttest t o thei r env i r o nment ,
bu t ttest to su rvive Ec o nomi c l a w i s Whateve r i s i s

right
Be c ause i t i s so i t o ught t o be so People are
selsh there f o re they o ught t o be selsh

H ere wa s a l a w men we re only to o willi ng t o o b ey

I t t oo k no u nc o mm o n casu i st ry t o ci r c umvent th e littl e
d i fculties a S h ri nki ng c o nscience m i ght heap i n its way
The Man c h ester mo rali st d i d not even tea c h that M ight
i s Right because i t d i d n o t recognize the need o f right
I t substituted f o r I o u gh t I wa n t This n e w categ o ri c al
im p e rative has domi nated the busi ness wo rld f o r ove r a
hund red years
Th i s benign and m o st Ch ri sti an philos o phy i s stated
by the R ev Malthu s i n all i t s nake d ness i n the append ix
to h i s ess a y o n P op ulation

The great Auth o r o f Natu re by making the p assion

o f sel f l o ve beyond co m p aris o n st ronger than the p assi o n
o f benevolence has at on c e impelled u s t o that li ne o f
.

T H E NEW POLITIC S

52

c on duc t wh i c h i s essentia l to the prese rv atio n o f the

h um an ra c e H e has enj oi ne d eve ry man to pu rsue as
h i s prima ry obj ec t h is o wn sa fet y and happi ness ( i n cl ud
ing hi s family ) By thi s w ise provi sio n the most i gno rant
a r e led t o p romote th e general happi ness a n end whi c h
they would have totally f ailed to attai n i f the m ovi ng

p ri n c i ple had been benevolen c e

A m o de rn ph ilos o pher who h as been w rongl y c lassed
wi th th e i ndiv iduali sts opposes t o the saying o f the rev
So much benevol enc e
e r e n d gentleman above quoted

as a man hath so mu c h l i fe has he

I t was th e Ge rma n
ph il o sopher who found benevolen c e the deepest o f all
things i n t ime o r spa c e f o r it was Emmanuel Kant who
sai d that good w ill i s the only uncondit i o ned good i n the
u niverse
Adam Smith argued that i f t rade we re le f t alone i t
w o uld d i sc o ve r h o w i t c o uld go best and that to f o llo w
sel f i nte rest w o uld p rom o te the best i nterests o f so c iety

M r Lesli e Ste p hen nai vely rema rks

Adam Smith s

positi o n i s i ntelligible I t was he thought a p r oo f

o f p r o vi dential o rde r that each man by hel p ing h imsel f

rst unintentionally hel p ed h i s neighbo r

I t i s fai rly
pr o bable that a c o nsi stent i nd i vidual ist will h elp himsel f
rst and i f he helps h i s nei ghb o r i t will be un intentional
When Bentham w rites on economi c legislat i o n
Manual
o
f
Pol
iti
c
al
E
c
onomy
a
fte
r
stat
ing
hi
s
(
theo ry t hat secu rity and f reedom are all that i ndust ry
requ i res he concludes that all economi c legi slation i s
imp roper Out o f thi s theo ry wh i ch A rnold T o ynbee

sums up as Man s sel f l o ve i s God s p ro v iden c e

grew the o rt hodox pol iti c al e c ono m y an d th e ut ilita rian
.

ET H I C S A ND ECO NOM IC S

53

j uri spr ud en c e an d the whole syste m o f what i s known

as Co bde n s Cal i c o M illenn iu m an d whi c h m igh t be

not i napprop riately styled a dough philosophy S in c e the

g et g ai n and the c heap

t wo arti c les o f h i s c reed were

loa f i s the chi e f end o f m an

C a rlyle i n o n e o f h i s gent l est moo d s thu s c ha racte r

izes th e p revailing ethi c s o f i nd ividual ism : M o ral

evi l i s unattai nability o f P i gs wash ; m o ral goo d attain
able good o f d itto I t i s the m ission o f universa l Pi g
ho o d an d the duty o f all Pigs t o d i m i ni sh t he q uantity
A ll knowl
o f unattai nable and i ncrease the attainable
edge an d d evi c e and e ff o rt ought to be di re c te d th ither
and th ither only ; Pi g S c i en c e Pi g Enthus ias m and
Devot ion have thi s o n e aim I t i s th e whole duty o f
Pi gs ! ua rrelin g i s attended with f ri ght f ul e ff usion o f
the genera l stock o f Hogs wash and rui n t o large sec

t i ons o f uni ve rsal Swi ne s t rou gh ; Where f o re l et quar

reling be avoided
The c on c ept ion has been S low l y g rowi ng u po n the wo rld
that there are oth er laws t o be c onsidere d than those
ru les unde r wh i c h a f ew e c onomi c Ca l i b a n s and nan c ial
F r a n k e n st e i n s m a y get r ich ; laws wh i c h i nvolve th e
elements o f obligat ion and spi ri t f ra m ed w ith re f eren c e

t o a worl d s wel fa re wh i ch i s the result o f someth ing

othe r than a j ungl e o f selsh i nst i n c t s
,

CHA PTER IV

T H E S E P ARA TIO N

OF

E T H I CS FR O M PO LITICS

Machiavelli says Bona r ( Phi losophy a n d P o liti c al

Ec o n o my p
has been said by Kn ies to have
th row n ethi cs o ut o f po lit ics as S p inoza th rew Ethi cs

out o f Eth ics

I t could have been sai d mo re c o m
l
r
h
n
s
i
v
that
those
thi
nke
rs
have
th
r
o
wn
ethics
o
ut
e
e
e
p
y
o f p o l it ics and eco nomics and eve n out o f eth ics wh o have
f o unded eth ics on a ph ilosophy o f l i fe wh i c h j ust ies
hum a n selshness
The j usticat ion o f the selsh i nsti nct i s the denial
o f go o d w ill and t he el imi n a t ion o f g oo d w ill rem oves
the b o ttom f rom an ethi cal a n d rat i o nal s o ci ety
When o ne t hi nks o f h o w Em p i res and States have
been t o ssed ab o ut f r o m hand t o hand by the chances o f
w a r and b rute f o rce o f M ight i n a w o rd ; h o w h o rdes
o f marauders have fr o m the m o rr o w o f s o me success
ful c a m p aign c onti nued t o s it d iv idi ng the Sp oils o f
wh o le c o unt ries am o ng themselves f o r c entu ries while
th r o wing the leavi ngs t o the vanqu i shed as to thei r
d o gs ; o r h o w i n i ndust rial a ges bands o f s p eculat o rs
ri si ng on the b a cks o f the pati ent multitude and by b e

co ming multimilli o nai res ( the multibilli o nai re has been

i nvented w ithin a few m o nths ) raisi ng o r depressi ng th e

m a rkets o f the w o rld at thei r p leasu re with the st roke
o f a pen ; when o ne th inks o f th i s and o f h ow those wh o
feel th e pi nch o f i t i n thei r n a rr o w and straitened
h o usehol d lives ( regarding it as they m ight a fami ne o r
,

54

ETHI C S AND POLITIC S

55

'

any othe r visitat ion o f G o d ) think it all qu ite nat u ra l

w ith these e ff ronte ries o f Powe r sta ri ng us i n the fa c e
o ne feels that to p r o fess to take se riously all the o rgan
i z e d ma c hi nery o f c o u rts o f L a w an d Justi ce b y
wh ich a re ni cely determ i ned the exact am o u nt o f ri ght
o r w r o ng o f praise o r penalty i nv o lved i n the st ealing
o f p ence o r S ixpen c es i s an elab o rate hy po c ri sy
Eme rs o n said that you m ight a s well S it i n a chu r c h and
l isten w ith p i o us hyp oc ri sy to do c t rines wh ic h y o u n o
longe r bel ieved f o r i f y o u went outs ide int o the st reet

th i ngs we re j ust as bad

C rozi er goes o n to state :
2
Hi
st
o
r
y
o
f
I
ntel
l
ectual
D
evel
o
pment
vol
i
i
i
p
2
(
3 )

that right w il l come t o its f ruit i o n without dou b t i n

some m illenn ia l t ime ; but i t w ill come neithe r wi th moral
p reachi ng no r mo ral d i scussi ons I t will c ome when t he
Material and Social C o ndi tions wh i c h have pe rm itt ed o r
encou raged a sect io n o f the C o mmuni ty t o load the dice
while the rest lo o k on and give the m a f ree hand by r e
ga rding i t as right and natu ral i t wil l co me wh en these
m aterial an d soci a l cond iti o ns a re alte red an d not t il l
then
By which I mean t hat Mo ral Phil o s o phy and
Ethi cs are a d ep a rtment o f Pol it ics have thei r r o ots i n
P o l iti c s and c an not o n pai n o f falseho o d and e rr o r b e
d iv o rced fro m P o liti cs ; a s Pol iti cs i tsel f i n t u rn h as its

roots i n c ivilization
I wi ll go f u rthe r than thi s an d say :
There i s no hope o f th e p o l itics o f thi s wo rld u nti l
they have been m o ral ize d and no hope o f m o rals unt il
they hav e been s p i ritual ized The u ntame d fe ro c ity o f
the human hea rt i s the b o tto m fact we have to deal w ith
The wild beast i n manki nd will neve r be t a med o r
,

TH E NEW POLITI C S

56

even c aged unti l th e l i fe ph ilosophy o f a co n siderabl e

po rt ion o f the race has aband o ned i nd ividual i sm ; unti l
thei r habi ts and i nsti tut ions have elimi nated the p ri nc iple
o f f ree c ompetit ionst ri fei f not based on hat red the
mother o f hat red ; and u nt i l to a la rge degree go o d w ill
has be c ome a mot iv e am o ng m en
The co nt ribution o f the C h ristian religi on i s th a t
h um anity must be b r o ken up i nt o i nd ividual ities whi ch
m ust be per fected so to Sp eak be fo re th e wo rld c an
assum e anyth i ng like a proper soc ial fo rm These un it s
m ust be bo rn agai n i e tu rned i ns ide outi e m us t
be c ome God centered in stead o f sel f -c entered beings as

the ve ry elemental cond it i o n o f th at earnest e x pec

A
t a t i o n o f c reat ion which shall reveal sons o f God
hum an so c i ety c omposed o f i ndividuals re b o rn and per
f ec t e d out o f the an c i ent despoti c state s m ashed i nto
i t s i nd ivi dual and component pa rts ; and a stat e gr o wi n g
out o f th e c ommon reason and common c ons c i en c e and
c o m mon li fe ; and thi s state rat ionally co n c eived and
sel f w rought and sel f im p osed ; i n o the r w o rd s an ethi cal
d em o c racy wherei n th e very f o rms o f associati o n embody
an i mmanent reason and eth i c i s th e state mad e possible
by th e Ch ri st ian revelat ion
S o fa r the p r oc ess i s but hal f complete The ind ividua l
has been eman c i pated but not rebo rn Thi s o f c ourse
i s not to sa y but that there are a few Chri stians i n the
world The ty ranny o f Rom e im p ose d f r o m the o utside
i s bei ng d i si ntegrated by the i nd ividual ism o f P rotes
t a n t i sm but i n the o logy as i n Pol i tics we have not yet
ex c eeded o u r po i nt o f v iew which i s i nd ivi d ual i nsti n c t
o r ou r m o tive wh ich i s sel f love There i s nothi ng al ive
,

ET H I CS AND PO L ITI C S

57

i n C hristendom wh i c h gives promi se that h um an

ity i s adequat e t o emb o dy the Chri stian faith i n b o n a
n the basi s o f re c i
and
o
rganize
human
s
oc
i
ety
o
d
es

p ro c ity i nstea d o f that t o day un iversal reign o f l a i ssez

fa i r e sel f l o ve
In pol itics and e c onomi c s the proble m b e c o m es o n e
a s t o wheth er the element o f good will S hall nd l ess o r
mo re s c ope whether the area o f th e common good shal l
be enlarged o r rest ri c ted ; whether in f a c t the hi ghest
develop m ent o f the hu m an ra c e l ies towa rd the mot ive
o f goo d will and th e idea l o f a un ited an d f riendl y
human ity o r i n the mot ive o f th e selsh i nstin c t and th e
i d eal o f atoms at wa r He re l ies t he p roblem o f p o litics
and th e fate o f dem o c racy i n wh ich i e in t he t ru e
demo c ra cy n o t th e f alse i s i nv olved the f utu re o f hu m an
f reedo m
Thi nkers o f the s c hool o f P l ato an d H ege l hold u p
the realizat ion o f th e mo ral l a w as the end o f th e stat e
Whatev e r Plato and H egel m ay have taught n o a c tual
state has so f a r set o u t t o real ize the whole m oral l a w
Legi slation laps la rgely ove r the m o ral l a w b ut there are
mo ral fun c ti ons w it h whi c h the state may qu it e p rope rly
hav e nothing t o d o But then i t w il l n o t do t o reaso n
f ro m thi s t o the separat ion o f ethi c s an d pol it i cs as so
m an y have done The state f or o n e th ing m ust real
ize w ithi n it s o wn i nst itutions the moral l a w ; i e
i ts laws an d C onstitut ion m ust be t h e p roj e c t ion o f a
rat ional and ethi c al idea Thi s i s v e ry d i ff erent fro m
the Platoni c Hegelian c on c eption that the whole m o ral
c ode mu st be en f o rce d I t means t hat wh a t ev er i s real
i z e d an d i nst itut ionalized must be real ized ethi c ally
t o-d a y

TH E NEW POLITIC S

8
5

But the testimony i s ove rwhelmi ng i n the l i f e an d

literatu re o f modern t imes that the political theo ries o f
c i vilization a c tually have been se p arated f r om ethi c s ;
that P o liti c s at th e begi nn i ng o f the twent ieth c entu ry
i s i n a state as pagan a s selsh and material isti c as
i n d ividuali sti cp erhaps almost as c ompletel y a s i f
Ari stotle and Jesus had neve r l ive d
,

Between th e days o f G reece i n her glo ry an d I ta l y

o f the Renai ssance t he re i s li ttle to atter th e egoti s m
o f mank i nd The Crusades we re the rst grea t chal
lenge t o i ndivi dual ism du ring t he med i eval age They
c rystallized to a degree the i deas o f a n e w era ; c u rtailed
and mitigated the f rat ricidal c ruelt i es o f private wa r ;
i n thei r rough way reinspi red Chri stend o m w ith the
S pi rit o f solidarity and altru i sm ; st rove a fte r something
highe r th a n f ratri c i dal bl o odshed and pol it i cal pi ra c y i n
rea c hi ng out wi th a n unselsh motive not to c o nque r

new l a nd s but t o re c ove r the patrim o ny o f the C ruc i

e d
They were the rst great e ffo rt o f med ieval li f e
t o go bey o nd the pu rsui t o f selsh and i s o lated am b i
t i o ns ; they we re the t rial feat o f the new world essayi n g
t o use t o th e Glory o f G o d and the benet o f man t he

a rm s o f its new Knighth o od

Stubbs
Le
c
tu
res
on
(
Med iev a l and M o de rn H ist o ry p
Alas to f ai l
f rom j ealousies d issensions st ri f es i nd ividual ism a t
last !
One i s not su rp ri sed at the political i de a ls o f the R e
n a issance when h e knows s o mething o f the feroc ity o f
the p e op le o f the period But one o f th e t ragi c thi ngs
o ve r which a man o f ethi cal insight loses his reputat i o n
.

ETH IC S A ND POLITI CS

59

patience i f n o t h i s faith i n m ankind i s the spectacle

o f Ma c hiavellianis m t ri ump hant i n the twenti eth century
Says Lo rd A c t o n o f Ma c hiavelli ( I nt roduction t o I I

P ri ncipe Essays o n Liberty p 2 3 1 )

H e i s the earl iest
c onscious and a rt i culate exp o nent o f c e rtai n l iv ing f o rces
in the present w o rld Religion p rogress ive enl ighten
m ent the perpetua l vigilan c e o f publi c o pinion have n o t
reduced h i s empi re
H e o btai ns a n e w lease o f l i f e
f r o m c auses t hat a re still prevaili ng and f r o m d oc t rines
that a re st ill appa rent i n polit i c s phi l o s o phy and science
We nd him nea r o u r common level
a c on
stant and contem p o ra ry i nuence
rationally i ntel
l i gibl e when illust rated by l ights falli ng n o t only f r o m
the c entu ry he w r ote i n but f r o m o u r o w n wh i c h has
seen the cou rse o f its hi st o ry twenty v e times d iverted

b y a c tua l o r attempted c rime

Thi s age with i t s li fe an d thoughtespe c ially it s
e c on o mi c and poli tical theo ries i s th ri c e accu rsed i n that
l ike the c rimi nal o f o l d i t i s conde m ned t o car ry a co rps e
c hai ned to its backth e c o r p se o f Ma c h iavelli
Machiavell i wa s rst among the mo dern advo c ates

i
h
not

rst
i
n
time
b
ut

rst
i
n
s
m
al
ign
p
o
wer

rst to
)
(

state c lea rly the p o l i ti c a l th e o r y wh i c h ju s ti es a m a n s

Thi s i s what Chri sten d om and
s h n ess t o h i m se l f
s el
sci ence an d phil o s op hy have not yet re f uted b ut ad op ted

what the Chri stian wo rld stand s f o r ; wh o se do c tri ne

mode rn li fe apologizes fo r th i s h ist o rian o f n o t t h e

desperate resou rces o f pol iti cians at bay but the avowe d

p racti c e o f dec o rous and rel igi o u s m agi st rates

( Lo rd Act o n )
Wh o has n o t re a d Th e P r i n c e ? Wh o has t ri ed to
for

60

T H E N EW POLITI C S

take any respo nsible pa rt i n the world s l i fe o r h as rea d

an y c onsiderabl e re c o rd o f it i n th e hi sto ri es o f m en
d ead and gone o r i n th e last m orni ng pape r who has
n o t ru n u p agai nst the openly avowed prin c iples o f Th e
P r i n c e ? To be su re we have not many o f u s been st i
l et t o e d o r poisoned unless a f ew b y the d isti ngu i she d
c ount rym en o f ou r ph ilosophe r whom w e have i n o u r
l o v ing ki ndness made ou r hono red gu ests at Elli s I slan d
and given th e Black Han d th e g lad hand ! F eli c itation s
to ou r superlative compla c en cy !
One n d s room t o menti o n but o n e exampl e an d tha t

briey Let u s sa y o f C aesar Bo rgia vulgarly spoke n

o f as Duke Valenti no wh o lai d b road the fou ndations

whereon t o rest hi s f utu re power

L et u s se e j ust what th i s m an Ma c hiavell i m eans
th i s m an who m ore nea rly than Jesus rules th e wor l d
t o d ay Speaki ng o f the Duke the h i sto rian ph i l o so

phizes : And S i nce th i s part o f hi s c onduct m er i ts bo th

a tt en ti o n a n d i m i t a ti o n I sh all not pass over i t i n silence

The subj ugat i on o f Romagna t o the Holy See wa s
a cc ompl ished on pavin g stones o f assassi nat ion Th e

Duke set o ve r i t i n o rde r to establ ish good government

M esser Romei ro d O r c o wh o w i th mu c h c redi t to h im

sel f resto red i t to t ranqu illi ty and o rde r

Knowi n g
that past seve riti es had generated i ll feel ing agai nst h i m
sel f
and avail ing h imsel f o f the p retext wh i c h thi s
a ff o rded h e o ne mo rn i ng c aused Romei ro ( wh o had b ut
served him f aith fully ) to be beheaded and ex p osed i n t h e
ma rket pla c e o f Ce se ra with a bla c k and bloo d y a x b y
h i s S ide
The barba ri ty o f wh i ch spe c ta cl e at on c e

a stounded and sat i sed t he popula c e

,

ETH I C S AN D POLITI CS

61

Th i s i s o n e o f the i n c i dents t o m e ri t b oth attention

A f ter relating m u c h m o re and perhaps

a n d i m itation
wo rse o f this m an the ph ilosopher and founder o f

m o d ern pol iti c al eth i c s says w ithout a shive r : Takin g

a l l these a c t ions o f the D uke togethe r I c an nd n o fa u l t

w ith h im
Tai ne i n h i s Le c tu res o n t he Ph il o sophy o f A rt ( p
t
b
ri
ngs
t
very
c
lea
rly
th
e
fa
c
t
that
polit
i
c
al
e
u
o
97
eth ics i ndee d m oral ity i n general i s not at all depend
ent upon c ultu re and a rt H e c i tes the c ase o f C aesa r

Bo rgia and says : You have but j ust seen the repeate d
p roo fs o f this h igh cultu re ; W h ile manners have bec o me
elegant and tastes delicate the h ea rts and c haracte rs o f
m en hav e remai ned fer oc i o us These pe o ple who a re
l earned c riti cal ne talkers p o l ished and men o f society
a re at the same t ime freebooters assassins and mu rde r
e rs Thei r a c ti o ns are th o se o f intell igent w o lves Sup
pos e n o w t hat a wol f S hould f o rm j udgments o f hi s
S pecies ; he would p r o bably f o un d hi s cod e o n m u rde r
Thi s i s what happened i n Italy ; the ph il o sophers e rected
the cust o ms o f whi ch they were w itnesses i nt o a the o ry
and ended by believing o r saying t h a t i f y o u w ish t o sub
s ist o r exis t i n thi s w o rld you must a c t like a sc o u nd rel
The mo s t p ro found o f t hes e the o ri sts was M achi a velli
a great m an and i n d eed an h o nest man a p at ri o t a
superio r gen ius wh o wrote a work c a lled Th e P r i n c e
to j ust i fy o r at least to san c tion t rea c hery and a ssa ssi

nation

Eve ry body knows h o w laudable i t i s fo r a P rin c e to

keep hi s word says Mach iavell i Let us not be deceived

We a re not read ing th e I nstitutes o f Calvin o r a mode rn
.

TH E N EW POLITI C S

62

Sun d ay S c hool ! uart erly

Ma c h iavelli p rea c he r o f
righteousness a p pea rs n o w and then i n the praise o f
vi rtue : I t i s bette r t o tell the t ru th than to lie when
ever i t pays as well B ette r let a man l ive than to poi son
himi f i t equally su its you r pu rposes Assassination
sh o uld not be c o nsidered a p astime
Everybody knows
h o w laudable it i s fo r a p ri n c e t o keep hi s wo rd
but th o se princes have a c com p l i shed great things who
have m ade little a cc ou nt o f thei r faith and have kn o wn

how th rough c ra ftiness t o tu rn men s b ra ins and have

at last dest r o yed those wh o built u pon thei r loyalty
A wise seigni o r c a nn o t o r ought not to keep hi s
word when that i s i nj u ri ou s t o him
I t i s ne c essary
to be a competent c heat and dissimulato r
And men a re so S imple
that he wh o de c eives always

nds some o ne who lets h imsel f be de c ei ved

L o rd A ct o n ( Essays o n Liberty I ntroduct io n to I I
P ri n c ipe p
himsel f a Cath o l i c declares that
Mach i a vell i was p o pula r at R o me and that the Med i c ean
popes enc o u raged him to w rite a n d we re n o t o ff ended

at the th ings he w r o te fo r them Le o s o wn dealings

with the ty rants o f Pe rugia we re c ited by th e j u ri sts as
a suggestive m o del fo r men wh o have an enemy to get
ri d o f
Clement c on fessed t o Contari ni that h o nesty
w o uld be p re fe rable but that honest men get the w o rst

o f it
H o w l o ng a f ter th i s was i t that Walpole w rote :
N 0 great count ry was eve r saved b y good men be c ause
g o od men will n o t go t o the lengths that may be me c es

sary
Romulus i s j ust ied i n slayi ng Remu s on the

p rop osition that a good result ex cu ses any v io l en c e

( Di scourses o n Li vy )
,

ETH IC S A N D POLITI C S

63

One almost fea rs i n studyi ng the Ma c hiavellian

rem ai ns i n human so c i e ty t o d ay that there i s t ruth i n

the w o rds o f Gu i c c i a r d i n i h i s co ntem porary : That p ast

things shed l ight o n futu re t hings fo r the wo rld wa s
always o f th e same so rt an d all that whi c h i s and will
be h a s been i n f o rmer times ; and th e same th ings return

under di ffe rent names

But M achiavelliani sm i s the sa m e thi ng and c an be
c alled by th e same name The re i s an unholy v itality i n

Machiavelli s doct ri nes Everywhe re f r o m Ma c h iavelli

unti l thi s m i nute w e nd the vicious Jesu it m axim :
,

Cu i l i c e t

n i s

i ll i

m e d i a per m i ssa

et

su n t

I n p o l itics i n business in s oc iety w e a re re f erred

to the results rathe r than th e m o tivesand the results
o f thi s doct ri ne have led to the i nterpretat ion O f results

i n materi ali st i c te rms

The en d j ust ies the means
Who has not met i t i f o ut o f h is t eens h e has ever
t ried to d o bu siness Good faith i n busi ness i s almost a
negligible quant ity o n the No rth Ameri c an Conti nent
pe rhaps i n a much w i d e r eld Do o u r po l iticians kee p
f aith ? Wh o will sa y so wh o has d ealt c losely with them ?

I t i s easier to exp o se erro rs i n p ra c ti c al p o lit i c s t h a n

,

to

r e m o ve

th e

m o d er n wo r l d

e th i c a l
em

p l oy s

ba s i s
in

'

f j

u dgm en ts

wh i c h

th e

Ma c h i a v ell i
P ri ncipe Essays o n

c o mm o n

wi th

I
I
Lo
rd
Acton
I
nt
r
o
duct
ion
t
o
(
L i b erty p
It i s n o t w i thi n ou r p rovi nce here to d iscuss th e nai ve

b rutal ity o f Machi avell i s teach ings a s relating t o matters

o f i nt ernational eth i cs But it i s pe rtinent t o ask i f the
foundat ions o f M achiavelliani sm a re the f o un d at ions o f

the modern ethi cal state

,

TH E NEW POLITIC S

64

I s th i s wo rld as Ma c h iavelli sa w i t w ithout p ri n c iple

o r c ons c i en c e ?
I s m an as M a c hiavell i sa w and under
sto o d him w ithout cons c ien c e or p rinciple ? P ro fesso r

Villa ri Ma c h iavelli s biograph er says we must leap from

the Pol iti c s o f A ristotle t o Ma c hiavelli to gai n a n

othe r st ep i n advan c e ( vol i i p

The p r o blem p roposed b y A ri stotle i n h is Pol iti c s

was mai nly an i nqu i ry i nt o the best fo rm o f Govern
m ent
But Ma c hiavelli had an o ther o bj ect i n
v i ew and thus th e g ove rnments imagi ne d b y ph i l o so
A ris
ph e r s was not o f the slightest impo rtan c e t o him
t o t l e ch iey sought t o establi sh that whi c h men an d
governments S hould be ; Ma c h iavell i d e c lared such i n q ui ry
t o be u seless and rather t ri ed to d ete rmi ne that wh i c h

they a re and that wh i c h they might actually be whose

foundat ion i s the st iletto and wh o se bulwark i s po i s o n
Mach iavell ianism i s not th e j usti c ation o f an
oc c asional mu rde r It i s t he pr o paganda o f a ph il o sophy
o f c rime I t i s not n o n m o r a l as s o many have called i t
I t i s n o t even i mm o ra l only I t i s c riminal And the
modern wo rld uph o lds i t and t he p hil o sophy o f l i fe

underneath it the j ustication o f a man s selshness to

h imsel f ; the theo ry t h a t migh t i s right t hat success
j usties i tsel fthe R e a l P o l i t i k o f Sch ille r D i e We l t
,

Gesc h i c h te i s t d a s

Wel t

Ge r i c h t

C HAPT ER V

R IS E

TH E

OF

TH E

D E M O CR A CY

OF

I NDI VI DU A L I S M

It i s m o re than a c oi n c i den c e f o r the cu riou s that t h e

ea
r
the
publicati
on
w
ith
Gibbon
s
R
o
me
an
d
s
a
1
6
w
77
y

To m Pai ne s Co mm on Sense o f Ada m Sm ith s Wealth o f

Nations J erem y Bentham s F ra gment o f Gove rnment

It
a n d T homas Je ff erson s De c laration o f I ndependen c e
i s a s i f th ree stars o f the rst magn itude ha d risen over the
h o rizon ea c h p romi s ing t o be a new wo rld by i tsel f i n
E c onomi c s Ju ri sp ruden c e P o l iti c s ; and these three men
stand fo r these th ree realms r st an d f o remost spokes
m en o f the Ne w Thought and phil o sophy o f i nd ividual i s m
o u t o f wh ich grew the age o f rev o luti o n and rev o lt
The wo rld movement o f whi ch these i nc idents were
i ndi c ations wa s the resilient rea c t ion o f the human m i nd
f ro m age long opp ress i o n towa rd personal libe rty We
can hardly wonde r that the swi ng o f th e pendulu m
ca rried t o the o ther ext reme It can not b e sai d that i n
the past human government was al l that c ould have been
expected o f i t I t n o t only had b een tyrann ical and o ppre s
s i ve but f o r thousands o f years tyranny and opp ressi o n
h a d been the p rinci p al subj ect o f th o se w h o essayed to
w rite histo ry Perhaps the futu re reade r o f hist o ry w ill
sa y that the m ost wonder f ul th ing revea l e d i n i t i s the i m
m easu ra b le pat ien c e o f m anki n dthat so m any ki ngs
hav e d ied i n thei r be d s

Be fo re the revolution says Lou i s B l a n e the domi

nant fa c t w a s the oppression o f the i n d i vi d ual Unt i l
,

65

66

TH E N EW POLITI C S

then the movements o f governments had been known

only by thei r ty rannies and rapines M en aspi red o nly
t o b reak the molds o f d es po ti sm i n the fo rm i n wh ich

they were ( Fren c h Rev o lut ion v o l 1 p

The dom inant n o te o f as p i rat i o n be fo re and du ri ng
the rev o lut ion there fore was relie f Libe rty was b o th
catchw o rd and watchwo rd and i n those days l a is sez
fa i r e was bi g w ith meani ng
No wonder th e people l istened to Jean Ja c ques when he
w rote : T o nd a fo rm o f asso c iation which de fends
and p rotects t he person and p rope rty o f each assoc iate

with all the c ommon f o rce ; an d followed him as the y

would a n ew M essiah
The ei ghteenth centu ry seems to have been o n e o f
th o se f e w d isintegrati ng pe riods o f the human min d
wh ich hav e been only too f ew i n the histo ry o f ou r race
S o wi d e an i ndi gn ati o n f o ll o wed by so un ive rsal a
rev o lt mu st have had some puissant c ause I t i s not so
easy as m ay be imagined to t ra c e the s o u r c es and c a uses
o f Anglo- Sax o n d emoc racy
They are f o und i n the
main howeve r i n the i deas whi c h d omi nated the
eighteenth centu ry the c entu ry o f rev o lt and r ev o l u
ti o n Although these i deas may be f o un d scattered a ll
al o ng t he h i sto ry o f hum a n thought i t was not until the
eighteen th centu ry that they becam e the powe r ful causes
o f a w o rld movem ent o f the demo c ra c y o f the modern
w o rld
I n one wo rd m odern d emocra c y had its ri se i n i nd i

v i d u a l i sm
I t i s imp o ss ibl e to understand the e rrors o f

a great w rite r says th e lat e P ro fesso r Edwa rd Cai r d

unless we do j u st ice to the t ruth which und erl ies them

.

OF

RI S E

DEM OC R ACY

67

Th e same th ing m a y be said o f world m ovements The re

was a p r o f o und reality u nde rneath the w o rld m o vement
eighteenth c entu ry ind ividual i sm
While i t i s
of
in c ontestable that Ja co bi ni sm i s th e l o gi c al developmen t
o f i nd ivi duali sm it i s als o t ru e that m o d ern hist o ry begins
with the rise o f ind ivi duali sm
The c ontribut i o n to p r o gress o f i ndivi duali s m as a
theo ry o f li fe must n o t be belittled I t was one o f the
great phases o f t rans iti o n and o nce lay towa rd p rogress
But i t lies i n that d i rect ion no l o nge r I nd ividualism per
fo rmed its m i ss ion
B ut i ndivi dual ism i s a r ev o l u
I t was the vehi c le o f t ransit i o n Revo
t i o n a ry c reed
l u t i o n i s n o t a rational and pe rm anent status
.

The c entu ry i n whi c h and o f wh ich the Am eri c an

nation was bo rn was o ne which Carlyle decla red h a s n o
h ist o ry and can have little o r n o ne a centu ry so o pulent
i n a cc u m ulated falsit ieso pulent i n that way as never
c entu ry was ! Which had n o longer the c o ns c iousness
o f bei ng false so false had it growna hypo c ri sy wo rthy
o f bei ng hidden and fo rgotten T o me the eighteenth
centu ry h a s n o th ing grand i n it ex c ept that grand uni
vers a l su i c id e named F ren c h Revolut i o n by whi ch i t
terminated i t s otherwise m o st worthless existen c e w ith at
least one wo rthy act ; sett ing re t o its o ld h o me and
sel f and going up i n ame and vol c ani c ex plo s ion
There was need on c e m o re o f a D ivi ne Revelat ion to
th e t o r p id f rivolou s c h ild ren o f men i f they were n o t t o

s ink altogethe r I nto the ape co nditi ons ( F rederick the

Great )
How th i s man c o ntinues Ca rlyle Sp eaki ng

o f F rederick I I o fcially a ki ng withal compo rted h im

T H E NEW P OLITIC S

68

S el f i n t he eighteenth c ent u ry an d m anag ed n o t to b e a

L ia r and Charlatan as h i s c entu ry was d ese rves to be

s ee n a little by men and ki n gs

One o f the regrets that
Carlyl e i s n o longe r w ith us i s that i t i s n o w fo rever
i m possibl e to c all hi s attentio n to the Am eri c an c onti nent
to o u r Geo rge Wash in gt o n and a f e w oth er m en

Steuben
who were not l ia rs ( h o w
t
a
a La F ay e te
he would have reli sh ed the sto ry o f an eighteenth c entu ry
boy a hatchet and a cher r y t ree ) and we re not Cha rla
tans either
Pe rhaps the f a c t would hav e i nterested
h im t oo that there was an A m eri c an Revolution w ith
the adoption o f c e rtai n eighteenth c entu ry p ri n c iples i n

7 6 and certai n nineteenth c entu ry p ri n c iples i n 8 7

which i t may take th e whole twent ieth c ent u ry to
catch u p to I f it was not the sp i ri t o f thi s u n m en
which was the d yna m i c
t i o n a b l e eight eenth c entu ry
cause o f t wo revoluti o ns whi c h have m a d e over
the wo rld and which h a ve set human footsteps in a
pathway neve r be fore t r o dden by manki nd i t was the
spi ri t o f th e eighteenth century wh i c h became the melt
i ng pot i n which w o rld th o ught w a s reduce d to re
m i st aga i n and out o f whi c h chaos co smos has ( let us
dare to hope ) b egu n to cast up its rugged headlands

Neve rthel es s when all has been said Ca rlyle s c har

a c t e r i z a t i o n i s i n substance c o rre c t and i t i s one o f t hose
c alamitous c oi n c idences whose evil e ffe c ts a thous a nd
yea rs m ay not o ve rco m e that th e ph il o sophism o f the
eight eenth c entu ry h as had so much t o d o with the begi n
n i n gs o f
o u r nation w ith i t s i nstitut i onsthat ou r

nati onal l i fe was l ike Noah s A rk laun c he d on thi s

cha o ti c ood
,

69

RI S E OF D E M O C RA CY

f ai rly wid e el dw hi ch we c oul d not trav erse i n

thi s piti ful and u ni nterest ing and reeki n g
a l i f etime
l i f e and th ought o f th e ei ghteenth c entu ry T he th ink ers
wh o have m ost pro foundly affe c ted i t a r e those
un f o rt u natel y t o whom i n a great m easu re we still a re
bendi ng t he knee o f obei sance
Thi s i s perhaps th e
Th e c e n tu r y wa s m a t e r i a l i s ti c

ost
that
c
an
be
sai
d
o
f
i
t
i
n
f
o
u
r
wo
rds
and perhaps
m
t h e wo rst
The ei ghteenth c ent u ry i s an obj e c t l esso n o f a
m ate riali sti c ph ilosophy
Pe rhaps th i s i s th e worst that c an b e sai d f o r a phi
Carlyle speaks o f a sim ila r obj ec t lesson i n
l OS Oph y

D i derot : S o that D iderot s Athei sm c omes i f not to

m u c h y et t o somethi ng : w e learn thi s f ro m i t an d fro m
what i t stands conne c ted with an d may rep resent fo r us :
that the M e c hani cal System o f Thought i s , i n i t s essen c e
Athei st i c ; that whosoever w ill admit no o rgan o f t rut h
but logi c an d noth i n g t o exi st but what c an be a rgued
o f , must eve r c ontent h i m sel f w ith th i s sa d resu l t
as
the only sol i d o n e h e can a rri ve at ; and so with th e
best gra c e he c an o f ethe r make a gas ; o f God a f o r c e ;
o f th e se c ond w o rld a co fn ; o f man an aimless non

d es c ript littl e bette r than a ki nd o f ve rm i n

Carlyle
(
Essay on D i derot )
The b light o f eighteenth centu ry li f e an d thought still
hangs over the ea rt h like a pal ! I t i s the sa m e c u rse
wh ich darkens the days we l iv e i n i mmensely m od ied
but i n no way mi tigated by ou r great p rosperity and o u r
phys i c al s c i en c e It h a s been i mmensely mod ied and
m iti gate d but i t i s because we a re c hanging o u r
It is

TH E NEW POLITI C S

0
7

eighteenth centu ry p o int o f view We a re abandoni ng

athei sm materiali sm H edoni sm ind ividuali sm
We
have d is c ove red the Sp i rit agai n
Pat rioti sm and th e
i deal m ay live once mo re to the c o nt rary D r Caban i s

and hi s doct ri ne that poetry and reli gi on are the product

o f th e smaller i ntesti nes

A great dealand pe rhaps a great deal t oo mu c h
has been sai d as t o the F rench Revolut i o n being the begi n
n ing o f m odern hi st o ry I t i s als o a shabby t ru ism that
the n i neteenth centu ry i s u nintelligible w ithout re f eren c e
to the same event
Th e real t ruth i s that whi c h Ca rlyle m i ssed that th e
begi nni ng o f the Ame ri c an nati o n i s the begi nning o f
m ode rn hi sto ry b e c ause the wh o l e w o rld has been m o d i
e d by the develo p ment o f dem o c racy i n the Unite d
States It i s n o t c osmopol itan j udgment t o re c kon the
F rench Revoluti o n as the begi nning o f millenn ial days
Pa rentheti cally it has not fullled its p romise o f l iberty
equality and fraternity
We must co nside r th e Ame ri c an and Fren c h R ev o l u
tion s as b o th the outgrowth o f the spi ri t o f the e ighteenth
c entu ry with a st rong pr o babili ty that th e second w o ul d
n o t have taken place had n o t the rst been a suc c ess I f
Na po le o n was ri ght o r even nea rly s o when h e de c la red
that i f R o usseau had n o t l ived th ere w o uld have been n o
F ren c h Rev o lut ion may we not c onclude with some
assu rance th a t the c o n a gra t i o n b roke o ut i n France b e

c a use the heathe r was a r e here ?

AS a matte r o f fact th e i nuence o f th e F rench Revo
l u t i o n up o n the w o rld and even upon France h as been
greatly o verestimated
I t i s o ne o f the m o st lu ri d
.

OF

RI S E

DEM OCRACY

71

d ramas ever p resented o n the stage o f h istory A n d

there wa s s o me element o f p lay acti ng i n i t too w it h
so m e o f i t s sec o nd rate gilded and gari sh h u m bug an d
u n real em o t i o n O f c ou rse only s o m e
Whateve r ge rm i nal ideas there were i n that soil o f
F ren c h th o ugh t c ame m ostly f r o m Great B ri tain And
ge rm i nal initiat i ve came fr o m America Thi s particula r
cataclysm at least i s the o ffs p ring o f B riti sh t h o ught and
A m erican example No r h a s America been w ith o ut he r
germ i nal th i nking f o r the theori es and f o rmulas a n d
ph rases which sa w servi ce i n tw o rev o lut i o ns and whi c h
perhaps dened Jacobini sm o n t wo h emisphe res we re al l
deb ated and th reshed out stated and a cc epted i n nati o nal
and l oc al decla rati o ns i n Ame ri c a be fo re they be c ame cu r

rent i n Fran c e
Ten yea rs a fter the Am e ri c an Alliance
( with France ) th e Rights o f M an whi c h ha d been p r o

cl a imed i n Ph iladelphi a were re p eated at Ve rsailles

( Lo rd Ac ton H i st o ry o f Freed o m )
Rea d t he names o f th o s e wh o were m ake rs o f Rev o
l ut i o n i n France
We nd the most o f them i n Lond o n
wit h Pope and Addison and Bol ingb roke and Sw i ft with
Newt o n and H u m e and H o bbes and Lo c ke We nd
them i n the c o ffee h o uses sal o ns We see them studyi ng
English laws and i nst itut i o ns with Engli sh l iteratu re
V o ltai re and M ontesqu ieu B ri sso t and Bu ff on Mau
i
r
t
u
s
i
e
and
G
o
u
rnay
u
ss
eu
Mo r e l l e t and L a F a y e tt e
p
J
Helvetius Cloots and M i rabeau the Rolands and Rous
1
se a u
Th r o ugh these m i nds th e Rev o luti o n siphoned it s
f o rce fr o m the ge rm i nal mi n d s an d institutions o f
B ritai n i nto F ran c e
.

Mo r l e y

o lt i

a re

T H E NEW POLITI C S

2
7

B oth En gl and an d Am eri c a ha d m o re i n u en c e o n

F ran c e than Fran c e has exe r c i sed o n eithe r c ou nt ry AS

P ro fesso r Rit ch i e has sai d When La F ay et t e sent th e

ke y o f the Bastille b y Thomas Pai ne to George Wash
i n gto n he was i n a pictu resque sy mb ol c on f essi ng t h e

d ebt o f F ran c e t o Am eri c a ( Natu ral Rights p

What gave Rousseau a power f a r ex c eed ing t hat whi c h
any polit i c al w ri te r had eve r attained was the p rogres s

o f events i n Ameri c a
( L o rd A c t o n )
That was a st range and fate ful allian c e between th e
su cc esso rs o f th e Gra n d e M o n a r c h e and the Am erica n
fo r Fren c h nobles and c om m on soldie rs
sa n s c u l o t t es
al ike went home f rom th e Am eri c an Revolution to pro
c laim th e blessings o f freedom and the d ignity o f revolt
I n any event even w ithout th e all iance the whole F ren c h
n ation would have been rea d y to sympathize with t h e
Am eri c an i nsu rgents We re they not enemies o f Eng
land ? Were they not alli es o f Fran c e ? Were they not
utteri ng th o ughts wh i c h Fren c hmen ha rdly da red t o
d ream ? Th e Sp i rit o f the eighteenth centu ry was b e
c oming cl o thed i n esh and blo o d and gunp o wde r
espe c ially blood and gu np o wderand as s o me one has
said th e whole pe o ple o f Fran c e were w a t c hi ng w ith
bated b reath th e st ruggle fo r l iberty a s i f f rom beh in d
p ri son doors and as i t were th r o ugh i ron bars

Ameri c an i ndependence was the beginning o f a n ew

e ra says Lo rd A c t o n
N o t merely as a revi val o f
R ev olut ion but because no other Revolution ever pro
c ee d e d from so slight a c ause o r was ever conducted wi th
s o mu c h moderati o n
The Eu ro p ean mona r c hies su p
po rted i t The greatest statesmen i n Englan d averred
.

RI S E OF D EM OC RACY

73

that i t wa s j ust It established a pu re d em o c ra cy

I t resembled no other known de m ocra c y fo r i t respe c ted
f reedo m autho rity and l a w
An c i ent Eu rope opene d
i t s m i nd to t wo n ew ideas that R evoluti on with v er y
little prov oc atio n may be j ust ; and that dem o c ra c y i n

v ery la rge dimensi o ns ma y be sa fe

The philosophy o r rathe r philosoph is m o f the eight
e e n t h c entury d i d not pro foundly a ffect publi c opin ion
i n France u ntil the c entu ry wa s hal f gone A f ew wo r d s

were o n men s l ips reason and t o leran c e liberty

equalityand a nati on made them c atchw o rdsfo rm e d
a c reed Th e ph ilos o phers had aband o ned the Ca rtesian
i sm which had reigned i n Fren c h th o ugh t an d they ha d
learned the precepts o f Ba c on the physics o f Newt o n
and the sensati o nali sm o f Lo c ke Th ese they b rought
ac ross the channel
The t ranslat ion o f English ph i
l o so ph y i nto F rench li fe lost the conse rvat iv e and j udi
c i o u s B riti sh temper
I t be c ame aggress ive with bei ng
radi c al The B ri t o n c ould thi nk rad ically and act c o n
s e rv a t i v e l y
Not so the Latin Th e restated mat erial
i st i c i nd ivi dual ism o f H obbes and Locke be c ame revo
l u t i o n a ry
But i t redi s c ove red the i nd ivi dual and hi s
dignity was asserted as it neve r had been even i n the
m o rn ing o f Gree c e To Voltai re Dide rot and t he En
c y c l o p aed i sts th e m asses we re unconsi dered c a n a i l l e but
R o usseau conceived h i s p hi los o phy as M i chelet a fter
wa rd re c o rded the rev o luti o nary reco rd o f h is wo rk f rom

th e standpoint o f the p ri n c ipal actor the anonymous

hero the peopl e

The doct ri ne that the i nd ivi d ual i s b o th sta rt i ng p oint
and end o f po liti cal p hilosophy impl ie d i n the w rit ings
.

TH E N EW POL ITI C S

74

o f Grotiu s had been elabo rated by Hobbes and L o c k e,

and taken by V o ltai re Diderot and Rousseau I t b e
c a me the foundati o n o f the p revai ling philosophy o f the
s i ec le
Locke had p e rsuaded eighteenth c entu ry France that
all knowledge p roceeds fr o m experien c e that experien c e
i s the o utcome o f c o mbi nati o n s o r p e rmutat i o ns o f o u r
ph y sical sensat ions Despi si ng metaphysi cs the move
m ent o f th e new philoso p hy seemed to tend toward those
thi ngs w ithi n the eld o f th e ve senses and c o n se
quently an impetus was gi ven to t he s c iences i n all o f
whi c h great p rogress was made but with reaction t o ward
an atheisti c mate riali sm as h op eless and des o late as that
i n wh i c h any nat i o n was eve r lost B ut u nder th e n ew
enlightenment there were st range pa radoxes and i n c o n
s i st e n c i e s
Th e s o mbe r messenge rs o f athei sm r o lled
stones away f r o m sepul c h ers where the Chu rch had laid
th e c rucied v i r tues and Ch ri stian p rinciples cam e
fo rt h from the d ead ; l ibe rty equality j ust ice frate rnity
I t i s imp o ssible to c onnect lo gi c ally with a blank
atheist i c mate rialism the d ivi ne sent iment o f f raternal
i sm o r t o con c eive o f a l o gi c al place i n a G o dless u ni
ve rse f o r a brotherhood o f o rphans I t i s impossible t o
ha rm onize a c on c ept ion o f man as a sensuous conscious
ness without a soul with a faith i n l iberty j ustice and
t o le rat ion
The re i s no logi c a l sequence between a beli e f wh i c h not
merely negatives but wh ich hold s that s c i en c e p r o ves
there i s neither God s o ul f reedom o r h o p e o f here
a fte r and a belie f i n th e essential and inherent d ignity
o f the least and h um blest o f all the human ra c e Neithe r
,

RI S E O F D EM OCRACY

75

the re l o gi c a l relati o nsh i p between the i r alt rui s m and

thei r i nd ividuali sm
We m ust l o ok fu rt he r f o r ex p lanat ion o f the fact
that they so o ften appea r togeth er and wonder h o w
religi o us a race eighteenth c entu ry Fran c e would have
been had o nly the Chu rch been t rue
Th e F rench E c o n o m i s t es ( Physiocrats ) wh o were th e
p re c u rsors o f Ada m Smith and o rthod o x poli ti cal ec o n
o m y had als o de rived thei r i nspi rati o n f r o m Dut c h and
Engl i sh So u rces ! uesnay foll o wi ng Grot ius and Locke
calls hi s system phys io c rat i c S i nce he co ncei ves i t a
devel op ment o f th e nati o n o f a l a w o f natu reo r that

Const itut ion o f Government wh i ch i s best f o r man

b e c ause m o st i n a cc o rdance with Natu re

Natu ral o rder
i s antecedent to natu ral right They have been a cc used
o f advocating a pate rnal despotis m They d id advo c ate
state a c t ivity i n p o o r relie f an d e d ucati o n B ut they
paved the wa y fo r l a i ssez fa i r e and revolut i o n Th ei r
general p o li ti c al do c t ri ne wa s that o f the so c ial c ont ra c t
that g o ve rnment i s an evi l ( but
o f the Engl ish sch o ol
ne c essa ry u p t o th e point o f gai ni ng secu rity o f p ers o n
and p r op e rty ) I n econo m i cs labo r S hould b e u n fettered
and t rad e f ree an d p roperty sa c re d Thi s i s the bour
geo i s c reed
The p ri nci p al contribution o f Montesqu ieu that social
as well a s physical phen o mena a re t o be regulated by
ju s n a tu r w easily falls i n with th e dei sm o f the peri o d
an d fo rms the bas i s o f th e ph iloso p hy ( where d o ubtless
M o ntesqu ieu and Voltai re learne d i t ) o f Bol ingb r o ke

Swi ft P op e o f whateve r i s i s righ t

I t i s a swi ft
t ransition fr o m natu ra l law t o natu ral rights and up o n
is

TH E NEW POLITI C S

76

thi s the polit i c al theo ry O f th e eighteenth c entu ry i s

founded and i ssues at on c e i n i n d i vi d uali s m f ree t rade
and l a i ssez fa i r e
Montesqui eu wh o ha d studie d cl osel y the B ri tish Co n
st i t u t i o n and whose theo ry o f government had been p ro
f o u n d l y in uenced by t he w ritings o f Locke was an
advo c ate o f Constitutional re form i n F ran c e al o n g
English l i nes as opposed to th e revolutiona ry the o rie s
o f Rousseau whi ch were also d rawn f ro m th e study o f
Lo cke But a revolution l ike that o f 1 6 8 8 i n Englan d
c ould hardly be a peaceable and personally c ondu c ted
a ff ai r i n Fran c e a c ountry whe re the c row n was suprem e
and where there had been no assembly o f the States
General f rom 1 6 1 4 to I 7 8 9a hund red and seventy v e
years The do c t ri nes o f the s o ve rei gn ty o f the peopl e
and th e so c ial cont ra c t Rou sseau t o ok from H obbes an d
L oc ke and adapted t o the c ontinental envi ro nm ent
Th e do c t ri ne o f the l a w o f natu re was a cc e p tabl e to th e
F rench masses mostly be c ause i t off ered someth ing radi
cally d iff erent fr o m th e exi sti ng regime What they
had was not natu ral What was natu ral mu st be g o od
Th e doct ri ne went through many fo rm s and lent itsel f
t o almost an y number o f i nd ivi dual interp retat ions while
i nsi sti ng on the right o f i ndividual inte rp retat i o n Th e
popula r feeli ng became i named Th e doct ri ne be c ame
aggressive and rev o lut iona ry One st ream o f t hought

o w ing f rom i t with i ts catchw o rd s o f reas o n an d

natu re etc be c am e c rystallized i n th e athei sti c sy s

t ems o f Holbach Di derot and th e En c y c lo p aedi sts and
the w o rk o f Helvetiu s wh i c h Loui s Blan c c haracterizes
as Th e v e ry c o d e o f i n d i v i d u a l i sm th e th e o ry o f m y
,

R I S E OF D EM OC RA C Y

77

Th u s i n th e b ook o f H e l v et ius th e abso l ute was

b ani shed f ro m the wo rl d V i rt u e t ruth d evot ion he ro
i sm i ntellect genius eve ry thi ng was relative a n d ea c h
o n e ju dgi n g o f ev er y th i n g bu t by h i m se l f a l o n e so c iet y

f ell i nto dissolution

Rousseau taught that h i story was a p ro c ess a rrange d
b etween c onspi ra c i es o f p riests and l awye rs and ki ngs
t o d e frau d the people o f thei r ri ghts ; the re fo re laws and
religions a re humbug and must b e swept away
He
c laime d that the ri c h an d c ra fty were able t o tu rn t o
t hei r o wn a d vantage the ve ry des i res an d e ff o rt s o f the

oor
f
r
thei
r
n
p
rote
c
t
ion
Th
ey
fo
r
m
ed
a
p
roj
e
c
t
o
o
w
p

the most astute that eve r entere d th e human

h e says
Sp i rit by w hi c h to c onvert thei r a d versaries i nto thei r
d e fenders t o inspi re the m w ith wh o lly n e w maxims
a n d to int rodu c e i nstitutions wh i c h woul d be as f avo r
able t o them a s natu ral l a w and th e l a w o f th e st rong
Thi s s ucc ee d ed i n thei r i nst itut i o ns
w ere the c ont ra ry
o f l a w and government when c ivil ization gave n ew fet
t ers t o the f ee b le , and n ew fo r c es to the ri c h whi ch d e
s troyed bey o nd re c ove ry natu ral l i b e rty xe d f o reve r the
l a w o f p rope rty an d i nequal ity c onverte d a c leve r u s u r
at
io
i
nto
an
i
rrevo
c
a
bl
e
right
and
f
o
r
the
p
rot
o
f
a
u
p
f e w amb itious m en subj e c te d hen c e f o rth a l l th e h u m an

r a c e t o se rv itude an d m i se ry
I f the c o m mon people we re everywhere b o rn f ree an d

w ere everywhere i n chai ns R ousseau s f ollowers c laimed

t hat i t was t ime f o r them t o m ake anothe r c ontra c t and
t ake soverei gnty b a c k i nto thei r o wn han d s I n a way

Rousseau s m ethod wa s qu ite logi c al o n a dei sti c bas is

b u t qu ite unimagi na b le f ro m a theist i c poi nt o f v ie w

s el

TH E NEW POLITI C S

8
7

I t was so m ethi ng like th i s : Man c annot imp rove on

God s method Natu ral law i s bette r than man s law

The m ethod o f natu re i s better t han th e a rti cial m ethod
o f m a n The re fo re let us g o b a ck t o nature The idea
o f an immanent God wo rking th rough the reason and
will o f man neve r in th e rem o test sense oc c u rred t o him
Thi s i s whe re he m issed h i s clue H e re c u rred to a state
o f natu re mu c h like the pa rad ise o f Calvi n o ut o f whi ch
man fell all at on c e only t o co nceive o f i t as something
out o f whi c h m an h a d been falling f o r a l o ng t ime
Pu rsu ing th i s c himeri c al p hantasm i nstead o f return i ng
to the alleged o ri gi nal parad ise h e went back t o natu re
red i n tooth and claw and ad o pted the meth od s o f a
repti lian age w ith all the S i lurian i nsti ncts o f the c hil d
ho o d o f the worldl a i ss ez fa i r e i nd ividual i sm
Th e
logi c i s i rre futable i f the p rem ises a re granted I f th e
woes o f manki nd a re due to the i nte rventi o n o f human
i ntelligence and w ill i n othe r wo rd s human i nstituti o ns
take these away S in c e all g o vernment i s S lave ry th e
less gove rnment we have th e bette r L a iss ez fa i r e l a i s
T hus arose the democ racy o f
sez p ass e r l a i ssez a l l e r
i nd ivi dualism Thi s i s why the eighteenth c entu ry b e
l i e v e d to o little i n any government too little i n l a w and
o rde r and too m uch i n personal l ibe rty and the pol i c y

o f d ri ft and chance Ro usseau s beli e f that the work o f

c i vil ization S hould be undone so f a r as possible f ound a
champion i n Robespierre ; and the c orollary o f thi s

belie f that the wo rk o f c iv il ization i e o f m an s c on

s c ious e ff o rt politi cally to improve himsel f S hould as
fa r a s possible be avoided found expressi o n i n the l a i ssez
fa i r e demo c ra c y o f Thomas Jeff erson and h i s s c hool
.

, 3

OF

RI S E

D EM OCRACY

79

And yet thi s man Rousseau who di d more than any

o n e mode rn f o r the establi shment o f dem o c racy de c l a red
i t a g o vernment fo r g o ds but u nt for man H a l f a
maniac and the othe r hal f a degenerat e ( a wh o le
p r op het neve rtheless o f these t wo h a lves ) h o ldi ng t o
neithe r system no r l o gi c n o r consi stency a neu r o ti c
and sentimentali st h e played o n one emot ion until he
t o u c hed th e heart o f Eu r o pe The wh o le message may
be summed up i n the sove reignty o f the mo b In th i s
h e c reated a despot mo re f righ t ful than any wh i c h had
eve r c u rsed the anci ent regime I t wa s a geni e h e let
out o f the bottle mild enough at rst S ight but a raven
i ng despot at best that o f a reckless anar c h ic a l maj o rity
o f a mobwhy n o t best o w u po n i t an epithet Volt a i re

on c e gave to Pas quier ( Lette r to D Al em b e r t )

A

t ige r wi th the eyes o f a cal f ? Under th is regime I n

the na m e o f the Social Cont ract R o bespierre an d hi s

c l ique put to death all wh o se interests were op p osed t o th e

Rousseau the o ry o f the stat e ( Ma c pherson Centu ry

o f Polit i c al Development vide p 3 9 40 ) these men

wh o b egan thei r d emocrat i c c aree r by p reaching the

g os p el o f Liberty Equality and F rate rnity Equality
b e c ame the equality o f the b rigand w ith h i s S tand and

deliver ; l ibe rty be c ame the libe rty o f th e executioner to

take o ff the heads o f hi s vi ct ims ; and f rate rnity be c ame

the f raterni ty o f Cai n wh en he Sp illed hi s b rother s

b lood u pon the ground ( id em )

Out o f Rousseau s
gospel o f Liberty grew th e Terro r and then c e grew

Napoleon s g o s p el o f Desp o ti sm ( idem )

,

The Protestant Re f o rmation

h ad

been a m o vement o f

80

T H E N EW POLITI C S

the i ndivi du a l ism which assaile d the f ou ndati ons o f

C hu rc h and StateC atholi c is m and feudali s m I t was
s u cc ess ful i n that i t red is c ove red th e value and d i gn ity
o f the hu m an i nd ivi dual q u a in d ivi dual
I n d eed thi s
was the cont ribution o f P r o testantis m I ts f ailu re lay
i n o ff eri n g a po i nt o f vi ew which lai d the fo un d ations o f
t he great movements o f i nd ivi dualism w ithout o ff eri ng
a c ohes ive principl e o r a c onst ru c tive i dea su fc ient fo r
Chu rc h o r State
And f o r Chu rch and S tate the
R e fo rmation began the m ovement wh i c h f ounde d its
phil o sophy on a t rans it ional idea
The theo ri es wh ich produ c ed the revolutions o f the
eighteenth and nineteenth c entu ries had c reated the
Re fo rmati on be fore them They b rought fo rt h f ru it o f
d is integration and revolt i n S pi rit m etho d and result
The p rodu c t o f the ideas o f the Re f o rm ation i s seen i n

the revolutiona ry c reed and p rogram

Ca l vin s Cc

neva
says th e late Pro fesso r Ritchie
i n due t i m e
b rought fo rth Rousseau an d Engli sh Pu ritanism o r
Ame ri c an soil produ c ed the De c la ratio n o f I n d e pen d

ence
The fatal ove rs ight o f th e theo rists o f R e fo rmation
and Rev o lut ion was that they f o und ulti m ate reality i n
th e i nd ivi dual They denie d i t o f th o se spi ritual and
othe r relat ions which existed and wh ich might exi st b e
tween i nd ivi dual s The re was no real ity i n th e state
i n the c hu r c h i n the family
I ndi vi d ua l i s m d ecla re d
fo r atomis m and a n a c h y
The re was no un iversal
p ri n c i pl eno v ital bi nding pri n c i p le wh ich c oul d give
reality to a human i nsti tut ion Reality exi sted solely i n
Thu s ou r thi nki ng be c a me atomist i c
t h e human monad
.

RI S E OF D EM OC RACY

8I

I t wa s w ithout fo rm and void It gave u s b oth th eo r y

a n d p rac tice o f d isi ntegration
Somewhere he re I take
i t i s t he nub o f the ethi c al wh i c h i s to sa y t h e ph i l o so ph i
And i f th i s pr o p o s i
c a l S ide o f thi s question o f politi c s
ti o n i s t rue the assumpti o ns o f i n d iv i d ual i sm a re f als e
whi c h re f er everything to the i ndivi dual co u rt o f ap p eal
o r i n other wor d s t o s o me billi o n and a ha l f co u r ts o f a
p
peal ; an d whi c h nds ulti m ate reali ty i n the i n d ividual
m a n o r i n other wo rds a b illion an d a hal f i ndivi du a l
men
The Re fo rm ation i s sai d to have been an appeal to
r eason
I f so it i s barely i n the hal f sense o f the reaso n
o f the i nd ivi dua l man and not th e reason o f the social
o r the co rpo rate mi n d
I f it b egan the eman c ipation o f
t he in d iv i dual f ro m S lavery to the tyranny o f Chu r c h
and State i t di s c l o se d no r a ti o n a l e o f Chu rch an d State
The result o f thi s i n th e tempo ral a ff ai rs o f m en was
ana r c hy T he revolut iona ry ph i losophy b rought forth
a rev o lutiona ry era an d the Chu rch wa s so S plit i nto
sc reaming and d isco rdant se c ts that a w i tty Fren c hman
c o uld c o mplai n o f Ame ri c a as the land where the y had
t wo hund red rel igi o ns and only one gravy
The eighteenth centu r y m en w rote the en d o f the Dark
Ages not the beginning o f a New Age ( Mazzini )
Thei r c opie rs and imitators hav e p er fected the work o f

t rans iti on th e phas e we a re n o w passing th ro u ghand

i f we c rystallize t he transitional and negative p rin c i ple
int o perm anent institut ions we will reduce i t t o an a b
su rd ity and a c rime Out o f th e d i si ntegrat i ng ideas o f
the i nd ivi duali sts o f the eighteenth centu ry in whic h
the old regime wa s d i ssolved do not appea r the a i rm a
.

TH E N EW POLITI C S

82

t ive p ri n c iples which c o ntain the promi se an d poten c y o f

the New Age Th e p hil o s op hy o f Th e Enl ightenment

was dangerously nea r the ap o theosi s o f selsh i nstin c t
d ivo rced from God and man
I t bel iev ed i n men
I t had no faith in man
I t was n eeded t o b reak
u p the old foundations o f a cc umulated ty ranny I nd i
v i d u a l i sm st o rm ed th e Bastil e and e rected the gu illot i ne
I nd ividual ism ente red the a rena o f a c cus a t i o n sa t i n the
t ribun a l s and d rove the tumbrils o f the rev o luti o n Like
Cadmus i t slew t he d rag o n but i t planted h i s t eeth
F rom th e bl oo dy gr o und whe re the red eyed despot had
so long guarded th e waters o f libert y sp rang the m ighty
a rm y o f dest ruction each ready to S lay hi s c ompani o n

i n arms A vast a rmy each d ead by a c om rade s hand

i s th e allego ry o f i nd ividual ism handed u s by the G reeks
T he F rench Rev o lut i o n i s its realiz a t ion by th e eight
centu ryi n th i s bli nd un reas o ni ng stri fethi s
e en t h
des o lating hat red thi s aw ful rage o f eve ry m an fo r
himsel f
I nd ividual ism fu rn i shed pu rely a dest ru c tive and nega
t ive fo rce When th e dest ru ct ive wo rk has been d o n e
and the deb ri s has been c lea red away i nd ividuali sm has
had it s day and i s n o l o nge r an adequ a te theo ry O f li f e
The a rch ite c t and build ers must f o ll o w the w recki ng
c rew The c reed o f the Revolution has d o ne i ts w o rk i n
th e w o rld I t i s not the c reed f o r to day I t has ceased
to be t rue
The demo c racies o f the past have been i n a la rge de
gree f o rm s o f the democ racy o f i ndivi duali sm Even
a n examinati o n o f the dem o cra c y o f th e Greeks sh o ws
a the o ry i n some res p ects i dentical w ith that o f th e

OF

RI S E

D EM OC RACY

s3

Je ff ersonian democ ra c y o ver two t h o usa nd yea rs late r

The dem oc racy o f ind ividuali sm upheld S lave ry and ex
I
o
n thei r politi c al ancesto r and
i
t
not
t
he
j
oke
l
i
s
t
o
e
d
p
thei r foll o wers and thei r c reed ; upon the ma n wh o
heral d ed w ith f an fa re o f t ru m ph et s that all men a re
created f ree and equal and that l i fe l ibe rty and ha pp i
ness a re th e i nali enable rights o f all ? I f the d em oc racy
o f i nd iv idualism pe r p etuated human slavery u nti l w ith i n
the m emo ry o f men l iv ing and i f the human ra c e i s
s om e hund reds o f th o usands o f yea rs o ld what c han c e i s
th ere f o r the d emo c ra c y o f alt rui sm i n o u r day ?
I t was the demo c racy o f i nd ivi d uali sm wh i c h u p held
S lave rythe dem oc ra c y o f all rights and n o dutiesand
neithe r a democ racy no r a civilizat i o n n o r a Ch ri sti an ity
o f i ndi vi d uali s m eve r has b een o r eve r c an be ethi c al
A s long as h uman S lavery existe d i n o u r c ount ry the
cat c hwo rds o f the Decla rat i o n o f I ndependence and

Je ff ersoni an D emoc racy

Equal ity
and

Frate rn ity
were all p h rases o f a farce whi c h had
sh rieke d u nt il it was h o a rs e N o t only was th e po l itics
but we have n o t been t ru e
o f o u r founde rs inadequate
even to those i deals f o r o u r enti re social phi l o s ophy to day
revolves a round the idea u nde rneath the Decla rati o n o f
I nde p endence i ndividual ismsu ffi c ient fo r any P rot es
pol iti cal o r religi o us so long as po l iti cs o r
t a n t i sm
religi o n i s co ntent t o remai n in th e stage o f me re P r o tes
t a n t i sm o r even Di ssent
The d emo c racy o f the eighteenth c entu ry was the
result o f the co n ict between i nd ividual f reed o m a n d
o rganized selshness The failu re o f th e dem o c racy
o f i nd i vidu a li sm h a s been i n the assum p t i o n th a t
.

TH E NEW POLITIC S

84

there i s n o i n d ivi d ual selshness an d no o rganize d

f ree d om
Modern demo c ra c y ha d i ts ri se i n ind iv i dualism I t
i s the task o f the twentieth centu ry to see that i t does n o t
have its f al l i n i nd ivi dualis m
.

CHAPTER V I
S

P I R IT O F

J A CO B I NI S M

I t wa s the Ameri c an Revoluti o n not the F ren c h

Revoluti on i f i t was a rev o luti o n at all whi c h was the
begi nning o f m odern history On th e other hand i t i s
qu it e t ru e that th e Revoluti on o f the F rench an d i t s
u nder l ying ideas p ro f o undly m od ie d th e results o f the
Am e ri c an st r u ggle and d eterm i ned th e c o u rse o f Am e ri
c an politi c al t hought fo r a hund red years Am eri c an
Ja c obi nism i s largely a Fren c h i mp o rtation It i s the
F ren c h Ameri c an i nter p retation o f th e eighteenth c en
tu ry I f t he F ren c h Revolut i o n was the d i rect out c ome
o f Bri ti sh thought and Am eri can example th e i deas o f
th e Revolut i on an d th e Re d Terro r i ssued i n Ameri c a
i n anarchy an d di si ntegration i n a wo rd i n Ja c obi ni sm

The Fren c h Rev o luti on says C o l H iggi nson reall y

d rew a red hot pl o wsha re th rough th e h istory o f Ame r
i c a as wel l a s th rough that o f F ran c e I t n o t m erely d i
v i d ed pa rt ies b ut mo lded them ; gave them thei r demar c a
t i ons thei r wat c hwords and thei r bitterness Th e ho m e
i ssues were for a time subord i nate co llate ral : the real
party l ines we re establi shed on th e othe r S i de o f t h e

Atlant i c
R obe rt Goodloe Harper the South Carol ina Fe d era l
i st i n a debat e i n th e House o f Fo reign M in isters o ut
l ined th e S i tuation by atta c ki ng the Republ icans ( D em o
as revo l utioni sts who m h e d ivided i nto th ree
c rats )
c lasses : the phi l osophers th e Ja c obi ns and the so n s
,

85

86

TH E NEW POLITIC S

c u l o t tes

The rst he said d is c ou rse d upon al l the m is

e ries o f mankind the vi c es o f rule rs all o f wh ich they

engage to remove p r o vided thei r the o ri es should o n c e h e
adopted Th e Jac o bins a re ty rant s i n po we r and dema

ff
when
not
Je
e
rson
h
e
sai
d
retu
rned
from
o
u
e
s
g g
France a m i ssiona ry t o conve rt Ame ri cans to the n ew

faith o f Phil o s o phi c a l Jacobi nism

Je ff erson le ft Pa ri s soon a fte r the fall o f the Bastile
full o f the the o ri es o f th e Revolutio n and the i deas wh i c h
generated i t I n th i s he was at o ne w ith the m ass o f
the Ame ri can peo pl e and pe rhaps i t was d ue to th is that
h e so so o n r o de i nt o powe r The Ameri c ans were grate f u l
t o France f o r t hei r assi stan c e
They hated Englan d
They d id not analyze the causes o f the F rench allian c e
They soo n c a m e t o d is c ove r the anti B rit ish m ot i v es
c roppi ng u p i n Napoleon which had p rompte d th e a c tion
They tu rned to those wh o i nspi re d the Jaco b i n
o f Loui s
Te rro r They t o ok no t roubl e to d ist in gu i sh b etween
the Kin g and nobles wh o had sent the m aid and the m ob
who had cut o ff thei r heads and f rom who m L a F a y e t t e
and h i s asso c iates were eeing f o r thei r l ives As Olive r
1
says : What had beneted the c olonists i f we m ay
bo rrow th e f elici tous ph rase wh i c h Je ff erson su b se
quentl y adopted to desi gnat e the most un fo rt unate o f
m ona r c hs ha d been the c old bloo d ed c al c ulat i o n o f a

hu m an t ige r
What had c om fo rted thei r hea rt s ha d
been th e h igh o wn c h ival ry o f c omrades i n a rm s to
who m F ran c e n o w o ff e re d the gene rous c hoi c e o f f u rt iv e
exile th e dungeo n o r the gu illot ine The deb t o f Am eri
can gratitude was due i f at all t o a King and h i s nobles
.

Al

e x an

d r Ha m i l t o
e

S PI RI T O F JACOB I N I S M

87

but by a n eff o rt O f the p op ula r imagi nat i o n the bill wa s

made payable t o the assassi ns o f the t ru e c red itors

H o w easily a nati o n may be led t o any ext rem e
th rough the phrases o f the d oc t ri n a i re and with o ut the
b alance wheel o f a st rong go vernment i s seen i n the
p r o digious popularity o f Cit izen Genet which became so

near a f renzy that that gentlema n dared i nsult the

P resi dent o f the Un ited States and that Pres i dent Ge o rge
Washi ngt on Je ff e rson wh o had secretly en c ou raged
h i s i ntolerable i ns o lence and wh o had d o n e h i s utm o st
t o lead the United S tates again t o war against G reat

B ri tai n as France s ally was c o m p elled by Washin gton

to re p udiate Genet and p romulgate the Wash i ngton de c
l a r a t i o n o f neut rality wh ich it i s s a i d wa s as v i o lently
exe c rated by the d emo c rat s a s a de c la ration o f mona r c h y
Th i s wa r i nt o whi c h the bumpti ous and i ntolerable
Genet c ame f ro m the Rev ol ut ionary t ribunal to d rag the
n e w nati o n o ffere d what advantage ?
Unl imited c o st i n
?
blo o d an d money Fo r what To de fend the mu rderers
o f Mada m e Ro land Cond o rcet Lav o i s ie rwho wante d
t wo weeks o f l i fe t o nish s o me c he m i c al experiments

and d i d not get them

Grat itu d e to Fran c e u nde r
Je fferson and th e i nd iv i d ual ists wanted wa r with Eng
lan d to u p hold the assass in s o f the friends o f Ameri c a
wh o a de c ade o r t wo s i n c e had f o ugh t here by thei r S ides
Such was the party spi rit o f Ja c obi n pa rt i c ulari s m

so
i ntelligen t and so pat rioti c
.

That whi c h the Am eri c ans have been taught to look

upon as o u r pe c ulia r bless ing may p rove ou r s p ecial
cu rse Ou r nati o n was born and as it were b a p t iz ed
.

88
in

TH E N EW PO L ITIC S
o o d -t i d e

the
o f eight e enth c entu ry i nd ivi dual ism a n d
w e h ave made the aw ful m i stake o f basing a pe rmanent
phi losophy upon a t ransitional i dea To thi s fa c t we o we
th e d reary wastes o f ou r rst three quarters o f a c entu r y
o f h i sto ry ou r civil wa r and the despoti sm o f moder n
n a n c i a l i sm i e to a se t o f i deas under whi c h might
becomes right and the bi g ea t the little
We se t out on ou r nat ional ca ree r lashed t o the w il d
ass o f li c ense We gained ou r l iberty and we lost ou r
f reedom We have not found o ut to th i s day that o u r
whole t rouble i s mostly due to what Taine has c alled

the Jacobi n mi nd
I t ac c e p ts c e rtai n p rinci p les a s
polit ical axiomsth e right s o f manth e so c ial c on

t ra c t l ibe rty equal ity th e people S u c h a re the ele

menta ry noti o ns P re c i se o r not they ll the b rain O f
the n ew se c reta ry F requently they a re there only a s

grandi o s e and vagu e w o rds

The Ja co bi n m ind i s
n o t soun d O f the t wo f a c ulties wh i c h ought t o pull
e qually an d together one i s smi tten w ith at r o phy th e
othe r w ith hy p ert rophy
The co unte rpoise o f fa c t s

i s n ot th ere to balan c e the weigh t o f fo rm ul a s ( L a

H e m i ght have added that t h e
C o n qu t e Jac o bi n )
balance wheel o f pri n c iple i s not the re t o j u sti fy the
c on ict O f i nterests
The message o f t o d ay i s that the o cc upation o f th e
Ja c obi n i s gone
H e sh rieked l o ud and long f o r hi s
ri ghtsan d g o t them and more t oo H e has been reti
c ent abou t hi s obl igati o n s H e d is c ov ered that l a w and

gove rnm ent two aspe c ts o f a necessa ry evil depend

upon co nt ract a c ont ract neve r m a d e i n an age whi ch
never exi sted Back i n th i s state o f natu rei n a pre
,

89

S PI RI T O F JACOBI NI SM

h i stori c and myth i c paradi se when c e man was d riven by

th e serpent whi c h was a st range c omp o und o f lawyer,
p riest and ki ng th e c ompa c t was made whi c h give s
wh i c h are c o n c erned
v ali dity to l a w and government
m erely with the p rotect i o n o f i ndi vidu a l rights o f p e rs o n
and p roperty
Th e stat e has n o other S phere
Th e
state i s an unpleas ing and d i sagreeable c t ion Reali ty
exi st s al o ne i n the i nd iv idual and there fore the state
having no reali ty has n o ethi cal fun c t ion Thus a ros e
th e m o dern dem oc rati c business theory o f the state

The ph il o so p hers o f the J a c o bi n e ra were s o lemnly

a cc red ited with havi ng d isc o ve red and b r o ught forth t h e
c harte r o f libert i es o f th e human race and w ith havi n g
A hund re d
a c c o u c h e d th e muses o f m i llenn ial dawn
y ears and more a re gone and i n thi s land o f fe rti lit y

and plenty the greatest ( i n a material sense ) th e

ri c hest and th e m o st prosperous the wo rld has eve r

seen o r eve r will see the masses o f the pe o ple a re
en m eshed i n th e s inuou s toils o f n a n c i a li sm ; m illion s

o f the housewives o f the m en who a re d o i ng th e nat ion s

wo rk a re unable t o m ake ends meet o wing to th e universa l
ri se i n p ri ces and a re haggli ng i n th e market pla c e ove r
the price o f l iver o r the c ut o f a S hank b o ne wh ile o ne
m an has ten o r twelve t housand mill ion d o lla rs ( perhaps
h e does n o t know h o w mu c h ) and eleven othe rs like
h i m could own the wh o le nati o n an d everyth i ng and
everyb o dy i n it S o mehow the Jac o bi n has failed t o ful
ll h i s p r o mise and demo c racy i s somewhat ta rdy with
t he millenn i um Sw o llen w ith the c o ncei t o f o u r hack
and bl inded by the t i ssu e o f Op t imi sti c
n e y e d p h rases
l ies w ith whi c h we hav e su rrounded o u rselves we have
,

TH E NEW POLITIC S

90

bo asted o f o u r i ne x h austible res o u rces wh ile a f e w

nanc ie rs we re taki ng t hem away f rom us
Th e vi ews o f many o f the fathe rs a re bette r known
than those o f one wh o se w rit ings co uld be studied wi th
p r o t tod ay
I n h is rema rkabl e add ress be fo re th e
Pennsyl vania convention at Philadelph ia i n 1 7 8 7
James Wi ls o n sai d o f th e f ru i ts o f anar c hy and Ja c obi n
i sm ( W o rks v o l i i i Lo renz o P ress Phila
I t has been t o o well kno wni t has b een too severely
feltthat the p resent c on federat i o n i s i nadequate t o the
gove rnment and t o the exigencies o f the United States
The great st r uggle f o r l iberty i n th i s country S hould i t
be u nsu cc ess ful w ill p robably b e the last one wh i c h she
will have f o r he r exi stence and p rosperity i n any p a rt o f
the globe A nd i t must be c on fessed that thi s st ruggle has
i n some o f t he stages o f i t s p r o gress been attended w ith
symptoms that fo rebode d no f o rtunat e i ssue To the
i ron hand o f ty ranny whi ch was l i fted up agai nst her
she mani fested i ndeed a n int repid su p erio ri ty
But
S h e was envi roned by dange rs o f anothe r k i nd
and
sp ri ngi ng f r o m a ve ry d i ff erent sou rce
li cent i o us
ness was sec retly u nderm ini ng th e ro c k o n which S h e

stood
Those who m fo reign st rength c o uld not o ve r
powe r have well n igh be c ome the vi c tims o f inte rnal

anar c hy

The c ommen c ement o f pea c e was the com mencement

o f ev e ry d i sgra c e and d ist ress that could be fall a people i n
a pe a c e ful state Devo id o f nationa l power we could not
rest rai n the e x t ravagan c e o f ou r i m po rtations no r c ould
we de ri ve a revenu e fro m thei r exces s
Devoi d o f
nati onal impo rtance w e c oul d not p ro c u re fo r o u r ex
.

S PIRIT O F JACO BI NI SM

91

po rt s a tole rable sale at foreign m a rkets Devoi d o f

n at ional c redit w e sa w o u r publ i c secu rities m elt i n the
hands o f the holde rs l ike snow be f o re th e su n D evoi d
o f nat io n al d ignity we co uld n o t i n some i nstances per
f o rm o u r t reaties on o u r pa rts ; an d i n other i nstan c es
we could neithe r obtai n n o r co m pel the pe r f o rman c e o f
them o n the pa rt o f others Devo id o f nati o nal ene rgy
we c oul d n o t carr y i nto exe c ut i o n o u r o wn res o luti o ns

de c i sions o r laws
The i n d ividual ist o f to day as o f yesterday h a s m isse d
hi s guess o n thi s questio n o f c ent ralizati on I t i s not
st ronger sel f gove rnment it i s not nati o nal sel f g o ve rn
m ent we need fea r j ust now but the riot and ana rch y
p revaili ng ove r those areas where there i s nei the r stat e
nor nat ional c ont rol and ove r whi c h i t i s coolly p r o p o sed
by M r B ry an an exponent o f i nd iv iduali sm and stat e
rights that fo rty ei ght p o pula r m aj o riti es o f earnest
m en w ith u nselsh pu rpose an d cont rolled only fo r th e

publi c goo d w ill b e able t o agree o n such legi slat ion

p rese rv e fo r the futu re the i nheritan c e we have

a s S hal l

re c eive d f rom a bount i ful P rovi den c e

The ind iv i dualist i s not only a frai d o f cent ral izat ion
but like h i s prede c ess o rs he i s a f raid o f th e ve r y p rin
H e hates
c i pl e o f u nio n and o f nationa l sovereignty
u nity pe r s e H e hates nat ional ity H e sees monarchy
i n c o Ope ra t i o n and absoluti sm i n an attempt t o get
together The re fo re h e i s raisi ng a h ue and c ry Th e
old n o ises whi ch assailed t he ears o f Wash i ngt o n and
H a mi lt o n and thei r patri oti c c o n fre res a re p rev a il ing
i n the m arket p lace to day The pa rt i c ula ri sts and null i
e r s a re agai n abroad battering the Const itut ion o f the
.

'

TH E N EW POLITI C S

Un ited States These con fusers o f O pinio n still l ive i n

a rev o lutiona ry world Like Ri p van Wi nkle they have
S lept th rough years o f p r o gress but u nlike him they
h av e n ot wakened Th ey c on side r t he Decla rat ion o f
I nde p endence a l iv ing i ssu e o n F o u rt hs o f July and
d eny i n p r a cti ce the p ri n c iples they el o quently m a i ntai n
They have not advanced bey o nd the De c la rati on o f I nde
They
do
n
o
t
th
ink
pol
iti
c
ally
i
n
t
e
r
m
s
la
rge
r
n
n
d
e
c
e
e
p
th an a state and p ractically no larger than ea c h man f o r
h imsel f They fai l to grasp the idea o f nati o nal ity and
i gno rantly o r m a liciously accuse o f ty ranni cal and i m
i
l
i
t
i
t
endencies
th
o
se
who
lean
toward
nat
ionality
r
a
s
e
c
p
instead o f state right s ; who beli eve i n sho rt i n the p o ssi
b i l i ty o f a whole p eople g o verni ng i tsel f
I t i s n o t qui te clear whether the present c on fusion o f
the i nd ividual ist o f st r o ng cent ral cont r o l o f nati o nal
con cern s w ith mona rchi cal im p eriali stic and tyranni c al
t endenci es i s due t o the i ncom p etence o f i ts advo c ates
t o understand the natu re o f t ru e democ racy o r whethe r
i t i s a deliberate attempt t o co n fuse the m i nd o f th e
pe op le fo r p a lt r y parti san purposes
I t i s however as certai n that the re a re a f ew le ft
wh o still think o f all gove rnment as ext raneous an d
super im p osed a nd c onsequently all gov ernmen t as an
evil as that thei r positi o n i s anti quated and inadequat e
to the demand o f an i ntell igent demo c ra c y
Thi s fea r and h a t red o f g o ve rnment thi s c on f usi o n
o f l iberty w i th l icense thi s l eani ng towar d th e un t e
st rai ned im p ulse o f savage man th i s j ealousy o f c o n st ru c
t ive reason and o f o rderly l i fe c onsti tute the faith o f t h e
eighteenth n ot the twenti eth c entu r y I t i s th e o l d revo
.

S PI RIT O F J A COBI N I S M

93

spi rit o f reb ellion agai nst g o ve rn m ent qu a gov

e r n m e n t when the i dea was i nconceivable to the masses o f
the people t hat government wa s the a rti c ulat ion o f a
uni ted and f ree people attune d to the c onst ruct iv e i deas
c o hes ion o rganization as o ppose d to the
o f synthes i s
d estru c t ive idea o f ato m i sm anarchy and st ri fe
Th e S ini ste r hat red o f the Je ff ersonians fo r Unio n and
National Government was due pa rtly at rst to hat red o f
mona rc hy partly t o p rov incial habits o f mi n d and partly
to a love o f parti c ular ism and all it stood fo r as expressed
i n State Ri ghts B ut thi s soon passed to a party S logan
and a pa rti san des i re t o d iscred it Wash i ngton an d Ham
i lton While Je ffe rson wa s plead ing fo r a l ittle rebellion

n o w and then
to clea r the atm o s p here an d S h a y s s
Re b ellion and the Whisky I nsu rrecti o n we re weathe r
vanes o f th e p revaili ng S p i rit Wash i ngt on was com p lai n

ing o f t he c o m bustibles i n eve ry stat e whi ch a S park

might se t re to
H e spoke o f the d iso rde rs o f the
ram p ant i nd ivi dualism o f the States and c ried Good
God wh o besi des a To ry c ould have foreseen o r a

B ri to n p red i c t ed them
Du ri ng these days Wash ingto n

wrote that Even respe c table cha ra cters were talki ng

without ho rro r o f monarchy and Hamilton was w ri ting

f o r a Strong Coe rc ive Union

No w then the Demo c rats ( I mean o f c ou rse thei r
p rede c esso rs th e Je fferson ian Republi c ans ) believed i n
nothi ng c oe rcive mu c h less a Union espe c ially a st ron g
one Coer c ion even sel f c oe rc ion was pe rnici o us and
hate f u l to the i n d ivi du al ist who believed i n the i n d i vidua l
doi ng a s he pleased It was there fo re ty rannical And
t y ranny o f c o u rse wa s m ona rc hy F rom th is poi nt they

l u t i o n a ry
,

T H E NEW POLITI C S

94

attacked Washin gt o n and Hamilton and ru ng a l l the

c hanges i n ass oc iat i ng th e qual ity o f st rength i n Go v

which was sy n o n y
e rn m e n t with the i d ea o f a des p ot
m ous with coer c ion Thi s m o t i f with all its variations
has been ha r p ed o n until thi s day Neither Jefferson no r
h i s f o llowe rs believed t reason o f Wash i n gt o n o r Hamil
ton n o r i s i t c red ibl e to d ay that hi s su cc essors bel ieve
W hat they say o f m o dern nat i o nal ism
I f the p resence o f a common peri l i n the War o f th e
R evolution had b een sca rcely able to preserve th e
semblance o f Union and i f C ivil Wa r so nearly p revailed
at the t ime o f the wa r wi th B ritain h o w l ittl e c ohes ive
f o rc e w o uld remai n when that pressu re wa s rem oved ?
A s H amilton pred i c ted so it happened Little m inds p re
t e rn a t u r a ll y sw o llen with the all prevailing ph rases o f

Natu ral rights unanchored to co rrespond ing duties

ha rdened thei r hea rts t o th e p ropheti c voi c es o f Wash
i n gt o n and Ham ilt o n and Jay
Each chesty ind ividu a l uni t enli sted i n t he c o mmon
c ause a b o ut the o nly co mm o n causeo f the d e i c a t i o n
O f selshness and the ap o theosi s O f med io c rity Th i s
spi ri t o f i nd i vidual ism was mani fested i n th e states wh i c h
establ ished th i rteen ta ri ff s and came n early o rganizi ng
th i rteen standi ng a rm ies Tw o states a rose i n rebelli o n
and wa r seemed i nevi table between Ve rmont New
Hampsh i re and New Y o rk between Pennsylvania and
C o nnecticut
Petty i nte rests w ith o ut nati o nal spi ri t
and pat ri o ti sm led t o st ri fe and st ri fe led to hat red and
the desi re f o r a c o mm o n de fense unt il i t s o on b e c ame
clea r t o every man o f vi si o n that the C o n fede rat ion was
t for the pu r po ses o f nei the r wa r n o r p ea c e
,

S PI RIT O F JACOBI N I SM

95

When the war was o ver i t was only a fa rsighted f ew

wh o sa w that the real c ri sis had begu n The Con federa

ti on had bee n n o thi ng but a leagu e o f fri endship fo r a

c o mmon de fense supe rsedi ng the C o nt inental Congres s
u nder whi c h the wa r had been p rosecuted and i t s i n effi
c i e n c y du ring the last t w o years and S i x mont hs o f the
wa r and the y ears foll o wi ng t ill the ad o ptio n o f the
Constitut ion gave Wash i n gt o n some p r o v o catio n to sa y
w ith pa rdonable b itterness that I n fl u en c e i s n o t Go v er n

And n o o n e knew bette r than h e what he had

m en t
put o n re co rd o f th e mi se rable makeshi ft o f the G o vern
m ent o f the Con federat ion that t he wa r would have
ended so o ne r and w o uld have c ost less i n blood and
money had the Government possessed m erely th e powe r
o f taxat ion
To those wh o look back from th i s vantage gr o und o f
experience i t seems n o thi ng less than monst rous that
the i ssues o f wa r and peace S h o uld have had no othe r
sanct i o n than the sentiments o f h o no r o f m
e n wh o pro
c ee d e d at o nce t o the selsh re p udiati o n o f a nati o nal
d ebt by i ngrates wh o se behavi o r c an neve r be erased
f rom th e page o f o u r hi sto ry but wh i c h has been pa rtly
redeemed by Washin gt o n W ith o ut whose single and i n
c om p arable cha racte r the wa r c ould n o t have bee n wo n ;
and by Hamilt o n w ithout wh o se dari ng cam p aign fo r
the nat i o nal hon o r f o r an adequate cent ral and nat ional
Government th e Ameri c an Uni o n would never hav e bee n
achieved
When the Fath er o f hi s Count ry rst to o k the o ath o f
i c e as P resident o f the n e w nati o n with a stand ing
O
army o f 8 0 men w ith o ut a shilling i n the treasu ry with
,

TH E NEW POLIT IC S

96

c a rc ely a rag o f c ent ral government to c o ver the nat ion s

nake d ness wit h t he pat rioti c a rm y whos e blood y f eet
h a d staine d the snows o f Valley Fo r ge c la m o ring f o r
t he paltry stipend a nat ion o f i ngrates was rea dy to
repudiate ; when th e Je ff ersonian i n d ivi d uali sts were
m a rshali ng all th e host s o f c on fus ion and lawlessness
and revolt th i s superb cha ra c te r who had led h i s c ount ry
m en th rough Revolut ion and Con federation w ith H am
i lton at hi s side f ought anothe r wa r and wo n it H e
c a rried h is c ount ry th rough a th i rd c ri s is prese rv e d hi s
gove rnment f rom d i si ntegrat ion an d h i s nat i o n from
d iss o luti on a th i rd time
There i s someth i ng awe i nspi ri ng i n th e ponde ro u s
i ne rt ia o f t hi s i m m o bi le gu re to whose unchanging
and i m p re gnable c hara c te r a nat ion was an c hored
through th ree st o rm s
I t i s pe rhaps too ea rly to j udge the livi ng b u t o f th e
imm o rt al names wh i ch have passed i nt o ou r histo ry
s a ve Li ncoln the re a re th ree who have been i n d i spe n
sable to the nation wi th out any one o f wh o m th i s
nati on would have been something d i ff e rent p erhaps
n o nati o n at all pe rhaps n o w the d isc o rd a nt f a ctions
o f helpless chance and p rey t o th e o rganized ra c es o f
m ank ind
Washi ngt onH amilt o n Ma rshall these th ree No
othe r am o ng the dead o r l ivi ng wi ll measu re wi th them
Why ? Be c ause thei r li ves we re immo rtal p rotests
agai nst the ind iv idualism and ana rc hy o f revo l ut ion ;
be c ause they we re ar c hite c ts an d bu i l de rs o f a national
sel f gove rn m ent
Washin gt on and Ha m ilton f o r nearly a qu arter

S PI RIT O F J A COBI NI S M

97

ent u r y working s i d e b y S i d e an d seeing e y e t o eye

o u r Am eri c an Jov e an d M er cu ry h i s wi nge d m essenge r
-w rought what even Je ff erson
Stat e R ights repudia
t ion se c ession n u ll i c a t i o n an d al l the b roo d o f i n d i
v i du a l i sm have f ai l e d t o u n d o
c

B O OK I I

TH E P H I LOS O P H Y O F TH E C O M M O N
GOOD

99

C HAPT E R I
P OLITI CS A ND E T H I CS

We S h a ll neve r get to the b ott o m o f thi s question o f

Ameri can P o lit ics w i th o ut a m o re c a re ful exami nat ion
o f i t s ethi c al as p ect s than any o f u s hav e see m ed t o be
w illing hitherto t o give to i t A me ri c an Politi cs i s founde d
i nte rests not p rin c iples
I n muni c ipal stat e o r
on
nati o nal con c e rn s the most super c ial o b serve r wi l l n o t
fail to see that th e prevailing motive i s not the publi c
g oo d but i nd ividual sel f i nt e rest There i s an i n d e sc r i b
a ble pathos i n t h e spe c ta c le o f a whol e pe o ple wh ich
m ight be a great people worki ng f rom such des p icabl e
mo t ives a s ea c h one fo r h i s o wn sel f aggrand izement
Th i s i s n o t S O m u c h the f ault o f th e Ame ri c an pe o pl e
t hemselves as o f t hei r phil o s o phy o f li fe
Becaus e th e
A m e ri c a n Government wa s i n a way the rst fru i t o f
the revolutionary i de a s o f the eighteenth c entu ry i n
ethi c s po liti cs and p ol it i cal ec o nomy to say n o th ing o f
religi o n eve ryth i ng everywhere became S imply the ex
pressi o n o f th e c ree d o f revoluti on and revolt The pre
vail ing c reed o f i nd ividualism swept away the f o u n d a
t ions o f ethi c s i n the dest ruction o f an alt ru i sti c motiv e
although o f cou rse i t i s u nnecessary t o sa y i t was not
blotted out f r o m human l i fe B ut i t o ff e red an eth i cs so
called whose only m o tive i s sel f i nterest Th e ultimate
appeal o f o u r mo rali ty was t o selshness
Even the
util itarians wh o o ffered m o re o r less o f a humanitarian
c ree d
pla c e d i t o n selsh foun d at ions and n o matte r
.

1 01

T H E N EW POLIT IC S

1 02

what good m a y have c ome fro m it that good has b een

i ncidental fo r Loc ke and H obbes Adam Smith and
Tho m as Jeff e rson Rousseau and Bentha m Go dwi n and
Ja m es M ill and thei r kind have sa d dled a c u rse upo n
futu re gene rat ions i n f raming a ph ilosophy whi c h j usti

es a man s selshness t o h imsel fi n t ranslat i ng

Ma c hiavellian ism i nt o modern l i fe
There i s a growi ng co nviction a m ong an i n c reasi ng
n um ber o f men that ou r p o l iti cs must be a pa rt o f ou r

eth i c s They p rotest agai nst the b reaki ng up i nto f ra c

t ions o f h um an unity and demand it s restitution

We
can no longe r tolerate theories w hich se p arate eth ics
fro m pol it ics
Twen tieth c e ntu ry pol i ti c s must i nvolve a c ons ide ra
t io n o f the S pi ritua l element i n m an and in thi s the
m ate rial i sms o f both i nd i vi d uali sm and so c ial ism f al l
sho rt The fa c t i s that humanity begins i n asso c iat i o n
is i n c onceivable wi thout associ a tion and ass o ciation i s
founded i n S pi rit Juxta position i s not all there i s to it
That men a re s o c ial and not me rely grega rious makes
a state possible They a re s o c ial wi th i n a large a rea
whi c h we may c all the c ommon good an d thi s i s a
rati o nal wh o le t o ward wh i ch each human at o m ben d s h i s
w ill submits t o o beys as it we re ad op ts an d nds v o l
u n t a ry satis facti on i n ; and thi s i s th e basi s o f that wh ich
d i st ingu i sh es c ivi lized and savage man

M y d o mini o n ends
sai d Na po le o n
whe re th e

d om in ion o f c o nscience begins There i s an o mi nous su g

gest ion i n th e aw ful ambigu ity o f this ph rase That a
l i ne c a n be d rawn j ust h ere where po l it i cs end s and
where c o ns c ien c e begi nsi s sufci ently suggestive That
,

POLITIC S A ND ETH IC S

1 03

i t has been d rawn i n the sepa ration o f ethi c s fro m poli

t i c s i s one o f the m ost overwhelmi ng c alami ties whi c h
have ove rtaken hu m anity
There c an be no doubt but o n e o f the greatest fo r c es
f o r goo d i n the wh o le revolutiona ry peri od wa s that
st range re fo rme r whose ethi c al c reed and mo ra l pu rp o se
were at such c r o ss p u rposes w ith ea c h o the r th rough a
long and use ful li fe The open i ng wo rds o f Jerem y

Bentham s P ri nciples o f Legislati on are : The publ i c

goo d ought to b e th e obj ect o f the legislato r ; general

utility ought t o be the f oundation o f h i s reasoning

Again he says : Natu re has pla c ed man unde r the e m
pi re o f p l e a su r e and p a i n We o we to the m all o u r i deas ;
we re fer t o them all o u r j udgm ents and all th e deter
the pri n c ipl e o f utility su b
m i n a t i o n s o f ou r l i fe
t
everyth
ing
t
o
these
t
o
m
ot
ives
I
t
exp
resse
c
s
w
s
e
j
the p roperty o r tenden c y o f a th ing t o p revent s o me
evil o r t o p ro c u re s ome good Evil i s pai n o r the cause
G o od i s pleasu re o r the c ause o f pleasu re
o f pain
H e wh o ad o pt s the p rincip l e o f ut il ity esteems vi rt ue to
be g o od only o n a c count o f the pleasu res wh i ch result
f ro m i t H e regard s vice as an evil only because o f th e
pains whi c h it produ c es M oral good i s goo d only by
Moral evil i s
i t s tendency to p r od uce physi c al go od

evil o nly by its ten d ency to p r o duce physi c al evil

Bentham d o es c omp romi se wi th an ant i material ism
b y stating f u rthe r that when h e says physi c al he
means th e pai ns and p leasu res o f the s o ul ( wh ich I
bel ieve h e p racti c ally deni es ) a s well as the pai ns and
pleasu res o f the senses H e stat es fu rther that a l l the
v i rtues o r thei r o pp osi tes whateve r w e might c all them
.

T H E N EW POLITI CS

1 04

a re t o b e c lassied u n d e r the c atego ry o f pleasu re o r

pai n and that pleasu re o r pai n i s what eve rybody feel s
to b e su c h peasant o r p ri n c e without c onsulting Plato
o r A ri stotle I n chapte r ve h e says also I t i s t ru e tha t
Epi c u rus alon e o f all the anci ents had th e me rit o f hav

ing known the t ru e source o f morals

Here i n t hese bald I might say stark -naked state
m ent s are the f ou ndat ions o f th e ethi cs o f poli ti c al
i ndivi dual i sm They a re per fe c tly f ai r sam p les o f th e
apho ri sms o f the da y whi c h outl i ned a pretty c onserva
t ive i nd ividual i sm ( because B entham was among t h e
Conservatives ) as i s seen by the keynote st ru c k i n h i s

rst senten c e i n the P rinciples o f Legislation Th e

publi c good ought to be the obj ect o f the Legi slato r

M o st o f th e ind ivi duali sts o f that day deni ed poi ntblan k
that the end o f th e legislato r was anythi ng mo re than
the p rote c ti on o f l i fe and pro p erty f rom violence and
that to a dvanc e th e publi c go o d was t o vi olat e th e
sa c red pri n ci p le o f i ndividual freed o m
The reason the early i nd ividualists se p arated ethi cs
f rom p ol it i cs was because they dest r o yed eth i c s by
sweepi ng away th e f o undati o ns o f ethi cs and as in t h e
c ase o f Bentham h imsel f though mostly to a lesse r d e
gree they w o uld have d est royed politi c s i n any sens e
exce p t that o f politi c al o p p o rt un ism had i t not been f o r
the i ngrai ned and he red ita ry i nstin c ts and qualiti es o ver
and ab o ve and bette r th an thei r ado p ted c reed i n the Bri t
i sh sto c k Benth a m was an exam p le o f the man wh o i s

better than h i s c reed John Stua rt M i ll the saint o f

rati o nal i sm i s a bette r example still

But th e fa c t remains that i ndiv idual ism was a d i s
,

POLI TIC S A ND ETH IC S

1 05

i ntegrating force and le ft to itsel f wa s the negat ion o f

ethi c s and the d est ruct i o n o f th e stat e w ith the ex c ept ion

o f the po li cema n s o f c e whi ch wa s only a co m p r o m is e

o n the basi s o f i t s being a necessary evil
M r Lesl i e
Steph en states th i s c ase pretty clea rly ( Engl ish Util i
t a ri a n s p
A mai n cha racte ri st i c o f the whol e
s o c ial and po l iti c al order about 1 8 1 0 i s what i s n o w

o r the gospe l a cc o rd i ng t o
called i ndividuali sm
Adam Smith l a i ss ez fai r e and so f o r th
Engli sh
men took l iberty mai nly i n the sense o f rest ri c ti ng l a w
Governm ent i n general was a nui sance th o ugh a n e c e s
S i t y ; and p roperly em p loyed o nly i n mediat ing between
co n i c ting i nt erests and rest rai ning the vi olen c e o f i n
d i v i d u a l s f o r c ed i nto c o nta c t by outward ci rcumstan c es
Th e people w o uld u se thei r autho rity to t i e the
hands o f the rule rs and limi t them st ri c tly t o th ei r p rope r
and na rrow fun c tions The absence agai n o f the i dea
o f a state i n any othe r sense im p lies anothe r tenden c y

Th e idea wa s not requi red

Engl ishmen we re c o n

c erne d rather w ith d etails than w ith rst pri nciples ( p

,

)
Mr S tephen S peaks fu rther w i th s o me rened sc o rn
o f the F rench wh o had thei r politi cal the o ri es all w o rked
out but whi ch fell at o n the English mi n d
B o th were w r o ng Th e English despi sed pol it ical p h i
l o so ph y bec a use th i s i nv o lved ethi cs and ethi cs a n n i h i
l a ted the l a i ssez fa i r e regime and the l a i ss ez fa i r e regim e
was ne c essa ry fo r the ri ch that they might b ecom e ri cher
The French apparently obl ivi o us t o th e testim o nies o f
h isto ry and th e fu ndamental assumpti o ns o f sci entic
c ri ti ci sm and the i nduct ive re a s o n ing genera lly seemed
1

33

1 06

T H E N EW POLITIC S

to spi n thei r theo ries like spi ders webs f rom thei r o wn
m o uths
D r P ringle -Patti son sums u p B enthami sm i n the fol
l owi ng wo rds : The abstract simpli c i ty o f the per fec t
state c o rres po nd s t o the abst ract sim p li ci ty o f the ph i l o
sophi c al p ri n c iples f ro m whi ch i t was deduced
Un
adulte rated selshnes s i s th e mot ive u n iversal b e n e v o
len c e i s the end these a re th e tw o xed po les o f

Bentham s thought
There i s no possi b le way o f ha rm o n izing p ri nciples
except i n the pe r
so d i am et ri c ally opp o s ing each o the r
s o nal cha racte r o f Bentha m himsel f
Un f o rtunately
there i s a v ery small mi n o ri ty o f the h uman ra c e who
c an seek u niversal benev o len c e as the end o f thei r l ives
w ith unadulte rate d selshness as th e mot ive o f thei r
endeav o rs The re can be no doubt that vast g o od has
resulted t o the human ra c e th r o ugh the eff o r ts o f the
S ch oo l which Bentham f o unde d notwi th stand ing the
eth ic a l atomi sm o n whi c h i t was based
It was not
necessary t o recon c ile benev o len c e to selshness i n thei r
the o reti c al b ea rings when i n the pers o nal cha racter o f
Bentham a n d th e two M ills and thei r f o llow i ng it wa s
quit e ce rtai n th a t thei r ch ie f en d and aim were b e n e vo
lent but where i t i s n o t c e rtai n that th ei r mot ive was
selshness Pe rhaps a f ter all too mu c h c redi t has been
given t o B enth am an d h i s sch oo l for the humani
ta rian awaken ing o f the rst p art o f th e n ineteenth
centu ry and to o little to men l ike S o uthey W o rd sw o rth
and C o le ridge and es p e c ially Wesley who perhaps had
m o re t o d o w ith the a wakeni ng o f the i nd iv i dual i n
b ri nging it t o a c o nsci o u sness o f itsel f than any one fo rce
.

POLITIC S AND ETH IC S

1 07

i n the B rit ish nat ion i n hi s c entu ry A fte r all ei ghteenth

centu ry tho u ght i nvolved mo re than anything else th e
pri n c iple o f analysi s and thi s wa s both cause and e ffect
o f i nd i v id u alis m The i n d ividual i sts a n d even t he utili
t a r i a n s fo r the m ost pa rt d i d not because they c onsi st
ently c oul d not suppo rt the great measu res f o r the
publi c good and i n thi s they foll o wed thei r ethi c al
motives o f unadulterated selshness rathe r than the end
o f u nive rsal benevolence
S o me o f the ut il ita rians

i t i s t rue says D r P ri ngle Pattison ( ! ua rt e rly Rev iew

Ju ly 1 90 1
were bette r than thei r c reed and supporte d
the fa c to ry legi slation but the s c hool wa s oppose d t o
it o n p ri nciple The utilita ri ans were i n f a c t
the
c hi e f elab o rato rs o f the c lassi cal p o liti c al e c onom y and
they a cc epte d i ts d o c t ri nes not as abst ra c tions an d laws
o f tenden c y p rovi sionally t rue i n given c i r c u m stan c es

but a s a n absolut e the o ry o f s oc iety

One i s duly astonished the re fo re when he sees so
abl e a schola r and so c are ful a hi sto rian as P r o fesso r
D i c ey c laim ing fo r i nd ividualis m the results o f the legi s
lat ive re fo rms o f England i n the ni neteenth c entu ry
Had he m ade th i s claim fo r util ita rianism h e might at
least have f oun d su f c i ent f o o ti ng t o j usti fy an attem p t
at an a rgument AS a matte r o f f a c t i nd ividual ism itsel f
was sterile I t was negat ive c riti cal dest ruct ive I t
wa s not and could not hav e been an d c an never be con
st ruct ive t o sa y nothi ng o f a rch itectoni c
M r D i c ey says i n Law and Opini on i n England

( H a rvard Le c tu res ) : Du ring th e long c on i c ts whi c h

have m ade up the co nstitut i o nal h isto ry o f England
ind ivi duali sm has meant h at red o f the a rbit ra r y p re
.

1 08

T H E N EW POLITI C S

rogat ive o f th e c rown ; o r i n other wo rd s o f the c ollee

t ive an d autoc rati c autho rity o f th e state
Th e
st rength o f Benthami sm lay then
i n its bei n g a

response t o the nee d s o f a parti c ula r era

The fact i s that Bentham was t rue t o an ethi c al pu r
pose and was n o t consistent with th e unethi cal mot iv e
he s o lemnly ann o unced
H e was bitterly o pposed t o
anythi ng like pu re i nd ivi dual ism ; s o much so that
o f all h i s generation h e wa s o n e o f the most caust i c
crit i c s o f the Decla rati o n o f I ndependence and the Dec
l a r a t i o n o f Ri ghts
The rst o f thes e h e called a hodge

podge o f con fusion and absu rd ity

O f the se c on d h e
w rites What has been th e o bj e c t o f th e Decla ration o f
p retended Rights ? T o add as much fo r c e as p o ss ibl e
t o t hose passions al re a dy too st rong to bu rst the co rds
that hold them i n
t o sa y to the selsh passions
th ere eve rywhere i s you r p rey ! To the angry pass ions

there eve rywhere i s you r enemy !

The ph il o s op hi cal rad icals o f th e n i neteenth c entu ry
we re fo r the m o st part very able and very ea rnest men ;
men o f the h i ghest moral cha racters and i n thei r c harac
t ers pe rha p s th e o we r o f thei r age n o twithstandin g

th ei r pr o fessi o ns o f unadulte rated selshness

They
were i nd ividu a li sts s o far as i nd iv idu a l ism served thei r
pu rpo se A s P ro fesso r Di cey says thei r c reeds se rved a

p a rt i c ula r era
I t was i ndeed needed f o r a p eri o d

and was u sed f o r a period i n i ts hat red o f the arb i

o r the collectiv e and

t r a r y p re rogat ive o f th e cr o wn

Utilita rian i sm fo un d
auto c rati c autho rity o f th e state

that i t had no r a i s o n d et r e as an exponent o f me re i n

d iv i dualism and i n o rde r t o secu re the v ital ity which
.

POLITIC S AN D ETH IC S

1 09

oul d all o w it to exist at all and do an et h i c al work i t

to o k o n a so c ial and alt ru isti c fo rm About all o f c o n
s truct iv e ethi c al value utilita rianism has bequeathed to
histo ry has been that i n which i t has ex c eeded the mot ive
I t i s a m atte r o f co m
o f i ndivi dual i sm an d its out l ook
m ent that th e learned Pro fesso r should have overlooked
thes e f a c ts ; that the i nd ivi dual isti c p rotest against auto
c rati c and i rres p onsible m ona rchy havi ng gai ned i t s p o i nt
w hich wa s a pu rely negative o ne m ust take u p a pos i
t ive and c onst ru c tive and social i ssue in d i re c t d epa rtu re
f rom the pri n c i p le o f i ndividual ism o r g o o u t o f bus i
I t added t o the c ree d o f i ndivi dual happi ness a n
n ess
a rticle o n national well being ; i n other words the publ i c
good F o r has not Bentha m su rren d ered the whole o f
t he position o f i nd ivi d ual ism i n th i s ve r y c rit i c i sm o f

t he Declarat ion o f Rights : The th ings that people stan d

m ost i n need o f are o n e would th ink thei r duties ; f o r
thei r ri ghts whatever they m ay b e a re apt enough to
take c a re o f the m selves
the great enemies o f t h e

pu b l i c pea c e a re the sels h and d i s s o c i a l pass ions

P ro f esso r D i c e y was not unawa re o f th i s a r raignment
f o r I have quote d i t
o f the p ri nci p les o f i nd iv idual ism
f ro m h i s Ha rvar d Lectu res
I t i s a m ost i nte rest ing study t o f ol l ow o u t P ro f esso r

D i c ey s c on f us ion i n h i s d evelopment o f th e fou r o bj e c ts

at whi c h Bentha m ism was aimed ; th e t rans f e ren c e o f
p o liti c al powe r i nto hand s f ri endly to th e greatest g o od
o f the greatest number ; the p ro m otion o f hu m ani tarian
i s m ; the extension o f i nd ividual l ibert y ; the c reat ion o f
an a d equate legal m a c h ine ry f o r the p rote c tion o f the
e q ual rights o f all c it izens
c

T H E N EW POLI TIC S

1 1 0

Th e Re fo rm a c t gave p redomi nant autho rity t o the

middle classes o f England Th e M uni c ipal Re fo rm A c t
o f 1 8 3 6 gave to the i nhabitants o f boroughs the govern
ment and management o f the cit ies i n whi c h they l ived
doing nothi ng f o r count ry laborers
The n e w Poo r
La w i n p lac i ng poo r rel ie f under th e supe rvi s ion o f the
state i naugu rated a precedent i n so c ial i sti c legi slati on
wh i ch had n o t o nly not been exceeded but n o t even r e
i
n
the
h
i
sto
ry
o
f
Ameri
c
an
o
r
Engli
sh
l
aw
a
t
e
e
d
p
The m iti gati o n o f th e c rimi nal law o f Engl a n d ; the
ab o l it i o n o f the pillo ry o f the whipping o f women o f
hanging i n c hai ns th e i nau gurati o n o f p ri son re f o rm
and redu c t i o n o f c apital puni sh m ent th e adoption
o f laws regulati ng chi ld labo r p rote c ting lunati c s
and p revent ing sane m en f ro m imp ri s o nm ent i n mad
houses ; laws fo r th e p revention o f c ruelty to ani m a l s
the eman c ip a tion o f negroes ; not o ne o f these laws
can be sai d t o have been enacted from an i nd ivi d uali sti c
but p lainly all a re f rom alt ru isti c m o t ives and all are
depa r tures from th e p ri n c iples o f the political the o ri es
o f ind ivi dual ism whi ch i nveighs agai nst all legislation

and says i n the langu age o f Lo rd B rougham

Why

can t you l et u s al o ne ?
So w ith l egi slatio n f o r i nd ivi dual f reed om It wa s
alt ru i sti c I t was not indivi d ual i st i c even here on i ts
own groun d
M o st c u ri ously and nai vely P r o f esso r

Di c ey states the c ase : By th e legi slati o n o f 1 8 2 4 B en

t h a m i t e s an d Ec o nomi sts that i s enl ightene d i nd iv id
u a l i st shad extended the right o f combinat i o n i n o rde r

to en l arge the a rea o f i ndividua l freedom ; i n whi c h the

whole a rgument fo r ind ivi dual i sm i s given away ; and i n
.

POLITI C S A N D ET H I CS

1 1 1

whi c h i s stated th e funda m ental pri n c iple o f so c iety f o r

real l iberty i s not found i n the extensi o n o f the p rinciples
o f i rresp o nsible i ndi vi d u al freed o m but th r o ugh rat iona l
f o rms o f asso c iat ion An d thi s i s at denial o f i nd i
,

v i d u a l i sm

I a m the last o n e t o d is c ount the t remen do us value o f

the Benthamite passion to p rote c t i nd ivi dual f ree d o m
but I a m o n e o f the rst to protest that i t s wonder ful
p rogress i n the nineteenth c entu ry and the Sp lend i d
pa rt ial succes s i t a c h i eved i s due to i t s d epartu re f rom
t he spi rit and meth o ds o f ind iv i duali sm ; fo r they we re

o bliged a s all rati onal legi sl a tors are obliged t o extend

the ri ght o f c ombin a ti o n o r the p rin c iple o f asso c ia

t ion i n o rder to enla rge the a rea o f i nd ivi d ual f ree

dom
I n adm itti ng the value o f the fo u rt h p ri n c iple o f
Benthami sm the c reati on o f legal ma c hi nery fo r pr o m o t
i ng t he c o mmon go o d P ro fess o r D i c ey agai n su rrenders
th e gr o und wo rk o f i ndivi duali sm

What man o u t o f Bedlam says P ro f esso r D i c ey

eve r d ream e d that a c ou nt ry wa s h a ppi er fo r the c onstant

rec u rrence o f pe st ilence fam i ne and wa r ; but who
then c an deny that laws whi ch p r o mote the c ultivat ion
i nsu re th e publ i c health keep the cou nt ry
o f the s o il
at peace and avert i nvas i ons are a s f ar as they go good

laws ?
P ro fesso r D i c ey says Th e a ge o f i n di v i du a l i s m was
,

p h a ti c a l l y

f h u m a n i ta r i a n i s m

T o sa y that the age o f i nd iv idual ism an d t he era

o f humanitariani s m we re m erely c oi n c id ent woul d b e

an accu rate statement But t o a rgu e p o s t h o c e rgo p r o c
em

th e

er a

T H E N EW POLITI C S

1 1 2

t er h o c

i s unseemly o f so able a s c hola r lawye r an d

h i sto ri an Th e fa c to ry legislat ion whi c h followe d the

agi tat ion sta rted by Oa st l e r s S l a v e ry i n Y o r k s h i r e i n

o ne o f th e most fright ful a rrai gnments o f ind ivi d ual is m
eve r w ritten u ntil the blue books took u p th e subj e c t
was a hal f c entu ry p rotest agai nst the hell i ndividual
i sm had mad e The learned P ro fesso r S peaks c o rre c tly
when he says t hat i nd ivi dual i sts o f eve ry s c hool were
o nly too keenly al ive t o the danger that the s in iste r
i nte rest o f a class S hould wo rk evi l to the weak and help

l ess
But he i s not a cc u rate when h e says that the re

was nothing i n the ea rly fa c to ry m ovement wh i c h wa s

o p p osed t o Benthami s m o r t o the do c t ri ne o f th e most

ri gi d polit i cal e co nomy

H ere P ro f esso r D i c ey i s the
advocate f rami ng an a p ol ogi a f o r i nd ivi d ual is m
No
o n e knows bette r than he that the o rthodo x po l it i c a l

c
on
o
my
o
f
the
t
ime
w
a
s
ind
ividual
isti
c
and that so
e
fa r as i t was i nd ivi dual i st ic i ts pol icy wa s l a i ss ez fa i r e
f ree co mpeti tion between economi c mena f ree f o r all
ra c e agai nst the eld Thi s o f c ou rs e i s n o t to sa y but
m ost ind ividuali sts even i n those d read ful days ex c ee d e d
i nd ividual ism and were bette r than thei r c ree d
B ut i t i s to say m ost emphat i c ally that the w rath o f
a n ange red pe o ple wh i c h arose i n Englan d and pla c e d
th e gyv es o f alt ruisti c ena c tmen t o n the w rists o f the
c h ild m u rde re rs o f Man c heste r wa s a w rath o f a l trui s m
o f the fear o f God an d the love o f manwh i c h c u rsed
th e re c kless and i rresponsible greed o f i ndi vidualis m an d

s ai d that t he t ime had c ome to gri n d the raven ing tooth

,

f l a i ssez

fa i r e

Many i nd i vi d ualists at thi s ti m e d enoun c e d the out

POLITI C S A N D ET H I C S

1 1

rages agai nst the l ittle white slaves

I t wa s M a c a u la y

the in d i v i d u alist wh o w rote : M o lo c h i s a m o re mer c i fu l

f riend than M a m mon Death i n the a rm s o f the Ca rt h a
gi nian i dol wa s m er cy t o the Sl ow waste o f l i f e i n th e

facto ries
Agai n the early i n d ivi du al ists as the y opene d thei r
hearts t o ward hu m anitarianism found there were c e rtai n
persons a fte r all whose i nte rests needed sa fegu a rd ing ;
i e who i n t he s tr i c t es t sen s e we re unable t o p r o tect them
selves and needed the spe c ial aid o r p rote c tion o f the state
and they f o u nd it ne c essary t o any rat ional t heo r y o f
c iv ilizat ion to rest ri ct f reedom o f c o nt ra c t
S u c h legisl a
ti o n as p rote c t s women an d c hild ren an d even tenant far m
e r s ; a s de fen d s s o ciety agai nst p oison f o ods and med i
c ines ; as w ill not all o w a man under ne c ess ity o r p res
su re t o bargai n away h i s rights could not alth o ugh the
c ustom o f Bentham it e re fo rm agitation b e called i nd i

l egi slat i o n
M r D i c ey says
The most
v i d u a l i st i c
t hor o ughgoing Bentham ites st renuously i nsist upon
the p ri n c iple that fo r c e rtai n pu r p oses all pers o ns nee d
s tate p rotection ; e g f o r the p revention o f assault don e
t o them by th e b reake r o f a c ont ra c t o r by a w r o ng
doe r
Th i s i s a summary o f the aims o f i ndivi dualist i c
j uri sp rudence Real cons i stent i ndi vi d uali sts l ike G o d
wi n i nsi ste d that all l a w i s an i nstitut i o n o f the most

perni c i o us tenden c y
Th ey had retreate d so far i nto
the bat i nh abited c averns o f anar c hy that a mo died

i nd ivi dual ist l ike Lesl i e Ste p hen speaks o f Godwi n s

c on c ept ion o f m anki nd as a vast num b e r o f i nca rnate

syllogisms
P ro fesso r D i c ey i n apologizing fo r the existen c e o f
.

,3

1 1

T H E NE W POLITI C S

any l a w at all says B ut su c h p rote c t ion o r state aid

as understood by c onsi stent ind iv iduali sts i s i n reality
nothing but the d e fense o f i nd ivi dual l iberty and i s there
f o re not an ex c eption to but an appl i c ation o f the i nd i

v i d u a li st i c c reed
I wonder i f P ro fesso r D i c ey wh o has admitted that
the p ri ncipl e o f asso c iation enla rges the a rea o f i ndi
v idual freedom will d eny i n th e i nterests o f i ndi vi dua l
l ibe rty the w i sdo m o f the extension o f the p ri n c iple o f

associ ation and the utility o f su c h legi slation as ex

ten d s i t M o reover another q uest ion would be pert i
n ent he re
I s individual liberty the sum total o f human
good ? A re there no othe r no hi gher aims f o r human
en d eavor ? M ust j u ri s p ruden c e and pol iti c s stand o r
fall a s the y are measu red by thi s no rm ? I s it i ndivi d ual
l ibe rty fo r ea c h man to d o as he pleases ? Does hu m an

pe r f ect ion l i e towa rd th e greatest happi ness o f Ben

tha m o r the greatest nobleness o f Carlyle ?

Towa rd pu re ind ivi dual liberty li es li c ense Toward
c onsti tut ional libe rty l ies d isci p l i ne
Under th e old regim e the i nd ividual awakene d But
he awakened only to i nd ividual itynot th rough i ndi
but th rough the d i scove ry that th e ind ividual
v i d u a li sm
i s devel o ped an d p er f ected only i n and th rough rat ional
as sociat i o n
I f the st rong eth i c al b ias o f the c ha ra c ters o f su c h
m en as Bentham Adam Smith and Thomas Jeff erson
and indeed most all th e bette r s o rt o f the leaders o f the
revolutiona ry movement who S pent thei r l ives i n really
t ry ing t o w o rk out the betterment o f mankind sta rted
a re a l l iberating a n d rej uvenati ng movement du ri ng the
,

P OLI TI C S A ND ET H I C S

1 1

revoluti onar y age it also m ay be t rue that th e utili

tarian pro p aganda based o n an egoi sti c ph i losophy wi ll
result eventually i n more har m t o the human ra c e than
it ever h a s don e good The re has been n o s ingle y ear
o u t o f these o n e hund red an d th i rty v e years S i n c e
Jeff erson and Smit h and Bentha m bu rst upon th e world
which h a s been with o ut its w itness to the f a c t that there
i s someth i ng f undamental i n human natu re wh i c h p ro m pts
its best p rodu c t i o ns t o d o noble a c t s w ithout val u e
re c ei ved and t o pe rfor m heroi c deeds w i th o ut c ou nti ng
the c ost The p ro fou nd and f ar reaching har m wh i c h
the philosophy o f these men h a s done and i s doing an d
w ill conti nue t o do i s i n o ff e ring a p o l iti c al and e c on o mi c

ph ilosophy found ed o n a n e th i c s th a t jus ti es a m a n s

,

se l

s h n e ss

t o h i m se l

C H A PTER I I

T H E G REE K CO NT R I B UTIO N TO P O LITICS

Th e New Polit i c s p resents a th eo ry o f the state o f
w ide r s cope than th e m e re p rote c ti o n o f l i fe and p ro p
I t o ff ers
c rt y and fo r the res t the bi g eating the l ittle
a theo ry co mprehens ive enough to c over the wh o le wel
fa re o f all th e peopl e I ts c reed i s that p r o gress i s
planne d and w rought that i t is no c han c e ower i n th e
M icawbe ri sh ga rden o f l a i ss ez fa i r e
The relations establ i sh ed between men i n the i n st i t u
t ions o f the state while not o f the hi gh w a te r mark
d ene p retty well th e average level o f nati o nal m o ral ity
and capa c ity fo r reason They d ene the element i n
comm o n between the i ndi vid uals o f th e nation v iz
nat ionali ty
Th e relations outl i ned by a c ivi c com
m unity a re not only th e embod iment o f the mo ral c a
o
f
the
nati
o
n
but
a
re
the
abs
o
lutely
necessary
a
i
t
c
y
p
means o r c hannel s o f fulllment o f the mo ral l i fe o f th e
nation w ithout wh i c h manhood itsel f woul d be st ripped
The state is
o f i ts d i sti nct ive functi o n and att ributes
a s i t were the c ompos ite ethi cal po rt rait o f the nati o nal
rational cha racte r I d iosync rasies elimi nated there i s
a large c ommon a rea H e re i s the nub o f the wh o l e
uesti
on
o
f
pol
iti
c
s
:
Th
i
s
very
i
dea
o
f
a
c
ommon
good
q
and the f a c t o f a c ommon good i nvolve by i nexo rable
logi c al ne c essity duties as well as righ ts ; an d c onversely
any rat ional theo ry o f righ ts and d uties i nvo l ves ( what a
t heo ry o f right s den i es o r o mits ) th is c o mm on i nterest
,

1 1

GREEK CO NTRI BUTI O N TO POLITIC S

1 1

thi s c om m on ai m and l i fe thi s c o mm on good whe re l ies

the state

Pe o ple are beginni ng t o rec ognize

says M i c he l
Chevali e r ( quote d by Paul Leroy B eaul ieu M ode rn

State p
that the fu n c tion o f the state i s t o gu id e
s oc i ety towa r d good and p reserv e i t f rom evil to b e
the a c t ive an d i ntelligent p r o moter o f pu b l i c improv e

ment
The same p rin c iple i s re c ogn ize d by P r o fesso r
Wagne r o f Berli n when h e pla c es alongs ide the m i ss ion
o f j usti c e another great
fu n c tion o f state the mi s
s ion o f c iv ilizati o n ( Cu l tu rzw e c k d es S ta a ts)
Says

The t wo
S h ebb a re ( The G reek The o ry o f the S tate )
great ri val the o ries o f the fun c t i o ns o f the stat e a re
the theo ry wh i c h was fo r so man y y ea rs d o m i nant i n
England and wh i c h may fo r co nveni ence be c all ed th e
i ndividuali st the o ry and the theo ry whi ch i s stated m ost
f ully and p o we r fully by the Greek philosophe rs whi c h
w e m ay c all th e so c ial ist theo ry
Th e i nd ivi dual i st
theory regar d s the stat e a s a pu re ly utilita rian i n st i t u
t ion a mere m ean s to an en d
f o r the p rote c t ion
o f p rope rty and personal l ibe rt y an d as h avi n g there f o re
no c on c ern with the p rivate l i f e an d c ha racte r o f th e
c it izen ex c ept i n so fa r as th o se ma y m ake him d an
ge r o u s to the mate rial wel fare o f hi s neigh b o r

The Greek the o r y on the other hand th o ugh it l ike

wi se rega rds the state as a m eans t o c ertai n ends rega rd s
i t a s something mo re
A c co rd ing to th i s theory
no department o f li fe i s outsid e the s c ope o f polit ics
and a healthy stat e i s at once the end at wh ich the
s c i en c e aims an d the engine b y wh i c h i ts d ec rees a re

c ar rie d out
,

I 1

T H E N EW POLITI C S

The u se o f the te rm so c iali st theo ry i s very m is

lead ing be c ause that vast body o f social and ethi c al
doct ri ne wh i c h i s p retty well know n among schola rs as
the Greek theo ry o f the state cannot i n any sense be
i d entied w ith the o rth o dox so c ial i sm o f the p resent day
whose foundations a re lai d i n the e co nom i c materia l
i sm o f Karl M a rx
Th e ind ividual ist theo ry o f the

state howeve r on the Ameri c an c ontinent i s the poli c e

man theo ry o f Jeffers o n and hi s s c h o ol Th i s and the

A meri c an so c iali st th eo ry a re both fu ndamentally d i f
f e re n t f rom anothe r theo ry wh i c h c annot by any twist
ing be c alled b y eithe r name
I t d i d not start as a
politi cal ph ilosoph y I t d i d not start as a t heo ry o f
stat e I t was the c reati on o f ne c ess ity I t c ame int o
bei ng as a theo ry be c ause i t wa s a growth o f the ethi c al
and p o l iti c al w i sdom o f th e best mi nd s o f the ea rly
republ i c t o p rotect th e republi c f r o m d iss o lut ion
It
has been w rought out o f ove r a c entu ry o f ex p e rience
O f a nati o n j ust i fyi ng itsel f and its right t o l ive

Whoever
says Guizot ( H ist o ry o f C iv ilizatio n )

obse rves w ith some d egree o f a ttenti o n t he genius o f

the Engl ish nati o n ( and he co uld have i ncluded the

Ame ri can nation for it is an Angl o Sax o n chara c te ri sti c )

w ill be st ruck w ith a double fact ; on the one hand its

steady g oo d sense and p ractical ability ; on the o the r
its w a nt o f gene ral ideas and o f elevat i o n o f thought
up o n theo retic a l quest i o ns Wh ethe r we open an Engl ish
wo rk o n h i sto ry j u ri s p rudence o r any o ther subj e c t
we ra rely nd the great and fundamental reason o f

th i ngs
It i s n o d i spa ra gern e n t o f the p ower o f nd i ng the
,

GREEK CO NTRI BUTI O N To POLITIC S

1 1

g reat an d fundamental reason o f th i ngs to sa y that

o n the whole th e p ra c ti c a l and empi ri c al method o f the
A nglo Saxon wi th h i s c onse rvative i nsti n c t has ha d bet
te r results than the m ore philos o phi cal method o f for
Fo r without a Reign o f Terro r c on
exampl e F ran c e
serv a t i v e B ritai n has a c h ieved more l iberty unde r freer
i nst ituti ons than have the Fren c h and that wi th o ut the
gu illotine o f R obespi erre which mad e way f o r the swo rd
whi ch i n turn dete rm ined the
o f Napoleon th e Great
day o f w rath fo r Fran c e and Nap o leon the Li ttle at
S edan
One o f the c u rious para d oxes o f p o l iti c a l p rogress i s
that the do c t ri nai res have not been the o nes wh o have
c reated rational an d ethi c al insti tut ions Jacobi n do c
The sensible
t r i n a i r es be co me th e ancesto rs o f a narchy
p ractical co n c rete Washingto n fathers a n a ti o n
That the stat e h a s an eth ical natu re and a m o ral m i s
sion i s an i dea a s fo reign to i nd ividuali sm as that the
indivi d ual i s not the nal real ity But the eth i c al natu re
o f the state rst c ame w ith i n the poi nt o f view o f the
Greeks H o w out o f the l imited a rea o f p ol itical h i sto r y
behi nd them th i s gi fted p e op le we re a ble to plu c k t o r c hes
t o light all su c ceed i ng ages will nev e r cease to p rovoke
the w o nde r o f mankind
B ut even they d id not kn o w the values o f th ei r Con
st i t u t i o n s fo r was not the P o liti c s o f A ri st o tle u nn o ti c ed
b y h i s c ontemporaries and was it n o t h idden i n a cell a r
i n Skepsi s and f o und and publ i shed in the days o f Sylla
by Appe ll i k o n o f Teos ?
I t i s less likely that th e m o dern p ubli sher w o uld buy
t hat manusc ri p t o r c ould sell that b o ok wh i c h i s t o
-

T H E N EW POLITI C S

1 20

m ove f utu re ages th a n that i t i s nailed away s o mewhere

a n Atti c Ph ilos o ph y i n a box labeled M u mm s

Ext ra D ry
The politi c s we have been looking f o rwar d t o as
w o rthy the Western H em i sphere i n futu re t imes m ust
evolve on rational n o t h it o r m i ss l ines ; and it must
reck o n wi th thos e tw o great c ont ributions o f human
spi rit th e Greek fo rm and Ch ri stian c ontent
The peculiar cont ribut i on o f the Greeks without
wh i ch i t i s imp o ssible t o co n c eive o f the futu re o f huma n
t hought o r human p r o gress i s that th i s u nive rse o f o u rs
i s not a l a i ssez fa i r e uni verse that the wo rld has no t
b een abandoned to c ap ri ce but that Reason rules the
Wo rld and Men
The late Pro fesso r D rum mond has desc ribed a book
h e read i n hi s ch ildhood c alled The Chance Wo rld I t
d esc ribed a wo rld i n wh ich eve r ything ha p pened by
c hance Th e su n mi ght ri se o r i t might not o r i t m ight
appea r at any hou r o r th e m oo n m ight co m e u p instead
When ch ild ren we re born they might have one o r a
d ozen heads and th o se head s mi ght n o t b e on thei r
S h oulders there mi ght be n o sh o uldersbut arranged
about thei r l imbs I f o ne j umped u p i n the ai r i t was i m
p o ssible to p red ict wheth er he w o uld eve r c ome down
again I n thi s chance w o rl d cau se and e ff ect we re ab o l
Law was annih ilated A nd the result t o such
i sh e d
a worl d could o nly be that Reason would be impossibl e
I t would be a lunati c w o rld w ith a po p ulat ion o f lunati c s
N o w thi s i s no more than a real pi c tu re o f what the
worl d w o uld be w i thout l a w o r the u niverse without
c onti nuity

GREEK CO NTRI BUTI O N TO P OLITIC S

1 21

Th i s i dea the Greeks the rst o f all men d iscovered

and the r st w o uld i t be too m uch t o sa y the last o f
all men ap p li ed t o P o lit i c s I t was impossible f o r them
t o d issoci a te this i dea f rom that o f j usti ce fo r j usti c e
i s rati o nal
We nd there fo re in the p r o se an d p o et i c
l ite ratu re o f th e Greeks th e reite rated p r oc lamati on t hat
j ust relati o ns m ust be mai ntained between men b e c aus e
j ust relati o ns are rational relations H ere the i nd iv i d
u a li st Sp i rit was f o und t o b e i rrati o nal and he re alt rui s m
rst found rat i o nal and i r r e f r a gi b l e f o u ndations
Gree c e h a s given us the doct ri ne that Log o s o r Reason
ru les the worlda doct ri n e rst p romulgated t o man
ki nd b y Anaxag o ras wh o appeared a s Ari stotle says

F rom him b ega n

a s a sobe r man among the d runken
the rst great system a ti c p rotest agai nst i nd iv iduali sm
When the Greeks rst began to d isti ngui sh betwee n
natu re and cultu re Ba rb a rian and Greek th ey d e v el o pe d
and explained thei r ideas i n the gr o wth o f the min d
f r o m i ndivi dual ism t o th e larger l i fe o f rati onal eth i cs
Thei r c o nt rast between Greek and Barba ri a n was based
o n the disti ncti o n between s o cialized and i nd ivi d ual i st i c
s oc iety Th i s idea began to daw n upo n thei r th inkers
at a v ery ea rly time l o ng be f o re the age o f Anaxago ras
an d has always been cl o sely ass oc iated with j ust ice an d
alt rui sti c Sp i rit Even i n days a s ea rly as th o se at Ch a l
c i s and Eub o ea when Hesi o d i s sai d t o h a ve st ri ven with
H o me r and won thi s f o rme r poet entered the l ists o f
j ustice and go o d f aith agai nst the m i suse o f po wer It
was he wh o w r o t e the rst f able o f it s ki nd i n all

Eu r o pean litera ture and elu c i dated th e hawk s theo ry

that might makes right

A hawk w a s soari ng i n t h e
,

T H E N EW POLITI C S

1 22

Tra n sx e d
clouds w ith a nighti ngale i n i ts tal o ns
by the c ruel c laws the su ffering songste r c ried out i n

pai n
S illy c reatu re
sai d the hawk
why d ost
thou s c ream ? Thou a rt i n the grasp o f the st ronge r
Th o u shalt g o whereve r I take thee songste r as th o u
a rt I will make a meal o f thee i f I p lease o r I will

let thee fall I t i s folly to th i nk o f st riving against one s

bette rs

Thu s ea rly i n the rst d im day s d a wn o f the authenti c

re c ord s o f Eu r o pean m i nd the rs t fable i n Eu ropean

l iteratu re p i ctu res the d iv ine l a w o f the su rvi v a l o f

the tt e st
unrest ri c te d c ompetition l a i ss ez fa i r e
ind ivi duali sm
when the claw i nsti nct fo r a mouth ful
quenched the voi ce o f song
Th o se must have been

human days as we have learned to c onnote human

fo r Hes iod sa w that a round him wh ich c alled f o r thi s
fableas t rue to d ayand he uttered a l a ment whic h

a S i nge r ( i f we had o ne ) might utte r to day

Would
that I h ad d ied earl ie r o r that m y bi rth had fallen on

later days f o r n o w the re is a ra c e o f i r o n

Would i t have fared hi m bette r to h a ve had hi s chance
n ow
nearly th ree th o usan d yea rs late r and have been
b o rn t o a race o f steel ?
The evils o f Athens a re due n o t to the god s but m e n
The leaders o f the p eo p le the n o bles a re p ossessed by
an i nsat iable l o ve o f riches an d do not sh ri nk f r om

inj ustice t o acqu i re wealth quoth Sol o n a statesman

wh o se p o et ry was but a comment a ry o n hi s own em a n c i

p ating ca ree r
I hav e fra med l a w s he says securing
j usti ce f o r the humble a n d the mi se rable d i spensi ng t o

all a j ust equity

I n hi s po em o n Salamis he says
.

GREEK CO NTRI BUTI O N TO POLITIC S

1 23

D i sda i n o f law has lled th e state with evi ls Where

l a w reigns i t p r o duces o rde r and ha rmony and rest rai ns
the w icked I t sm o othes the rough places st i e s p ride
quenches violence and n ips mi s fo rtune i n the bud It
st raightens c ro o ked ways subdues haught iness and r e
presses sed iti o n I t tames the fu ry o f bale ful d is c ord ;

and so men s a ffai rs a re b rough t i nt o h a r m o n y and

.

r ea s o n

th ere not ki nshi p between these i deas and that o f

the S i cilian i n th e eighty fou rth Olympiad named Em
l
s
wh
o
taught
that
Love
i
s
the
c
reative
an
d
bind
e
o
c
e
d
p
i ng p ri nciple i n the u nive rse and that the sepa rating
d is integrat i ng force i s Hate ? who taught that the pe r
fe e t state o f the earthly exi sten c e i s Harmony and the
imper fe c t state i s D isco rd ? that Love i s the fountai n
H a t e the dest ru c t ive prin c ip l e o f t hi ngs ?
Thi s i s the underlying pri nci pl e o f th e t ragedies o f
ZE sc h y l u s wh o began t o inte rp ret the o l d myth o logy
i n the l ight o f a guiding P rovidence wh ich reward s man
accord ing t o hi s w o rks The spi ri tual wo rld a c c o rd ing
t o ZEsc h y l u s as well as the natu ral w o rl d i s ruled by
reas o nwh ere p revails l a w i nstead o f anar c hy
E sc h y l u s and Ari st o p hanes and to a degree S o ph o
we re p reachers o f righteousness t o
c l e S and Eu ripides
a degenerat ing age They f a iled to bri ng Athens t o
repentan c e be c ause thei r message b rill iant as it was
could n o t mu c h che c k the ind ividu a l ism a n d t he tenden c y
t o ana rchy and d i ss o luti o n to which they were swi ftly
hasteni ng
I t was he re that Soc rates c am e f o r th e
G reeks t oo late but f o r us let u s ho p e n o t t oo s oo n
S oc rates t oo k u p the pri nciple o f the c o nt r o l o f P r o vi
IS

T H E N EW POLITI C S

1 24

den c e ( to sa y th e same t hing rel i giously ) and m a d e t h e

rst advan c e toward a c o mp rehensive statement o f th e
Jesus took
u ni on o f th e c o nc ret e w ith the un iversal
the second and nal step and futu re human thought
o n h ist o ri c l i nes at least c an m ake no p rogress outsid e
the G reek f o rm and the Ch ri sti an c ontent
Fo r a s

H egel has sai d We a frm absolutely that nothing great

i n the w o rld has been a cco m p l ished wi th o ut pass i o n
Two elements the re fo re ente r i nto t he obj ect o f an
i nvest igati o n the rst the i dea the se co nd the c omplex
o f human pass ion ; the o ne th e warp the othe r th e
woo f o f the vast a rras web o f un iversal hi sto ry Th e
co n c ret e mean and u ni o n o f t he two i s l ibe rty unde r

the co nd iti ons o f m o ral ity i n a state

We must u nderstand on c e fo r alland thi s the G reek s
have taught u s i n the splendor o f thei r ideals and as
t ruly i n th e t ragedy o f thei r hi st o rythat we d id not
someh o w fall togethe r w ithout reason and with o ut God
A s no ch ild ever grew t o noble manhood f o ll o w ing the
bl i nd path s o f whim and impulse so no great pe o ple eve r
d evel o ped on the h it o r mi ss lack o f plan and reason
and m i ssionnever w ill fulll a noble desti ny by a f o r
o f p oliti cal atomsc annot gro w
t u i t o u s c on c ou rse
towa rd a d ivi ne humanity w ithout reason and wi thou t
G o d Thi s i dea be fore i t came t o its substant ial pe r
f e c t i o n passed th rough th ree m i n d s wh ich f o r powe r
and b readth hav e neve r fo r a given space o f t imei f
i n all th e spa c es o f t ime been equaled i n the r ec o rded
h i sto ry o f the wo rld
So c rates a t ru e so n o f Z eus fo und n ew and rati o na l
m o ral gr o unds fo r th e being o f th e state and for polit i
,

GREE K CO NTRI BUTI O N TO POLITIC S

1 25

associat ion i n the p ri n c iples o f pu re ethics so b roa d

a n d so reasonable that thei r i mm anent rati o nal ity has
lai d itsel f l ovingly o n i ntelligent and unselsh beings to
t hi s day H e parted w it h h i s p rede c esso rs wh en he l e f t
standpoi nt o f i nd ividualism and looke d u pon
t he
hu m ani ty as a wh o le and f ound i n i t t hat wh i c h d is

reason
t i n gu i sh e d i t f r o m all othe r senti ent c reation
Thus he a rri ved at the pu rely Greek i dea i n another and
s ystemati c w a y and p la c ed i t o n a pe rmanent f o undation
H e taught that i n h i s ver y natu re as a rat ional bei ng
m a n wa s i ntended fo r a so c ial and p o li ti c al l i fe to whi ch
the i ndiv idual may n o t place h i s wi ll i n o ppos it ion H i s
i mm o rtal pupil Ar i st o c l es wh o m they n icknamed Plato
b ecause he had b road S houl d ers undert oo k the bu rden
o f systemat izing the t eachi ngs o f h i s master and i f fr om
all th e Sp lend id mass o f h i s i nspi ring wo rk w e c l im i
nate the Utopian and retai n the i deal w e nd hi s tea c h
ing redu c ed t o this that th e adequate li fe w o rthy o f

m an s estate i s the li fe o f reason as opposed to im p ulse

I t i s i n the i deal state the ide a l m an i s f o und the stat e
whe re the i deal o f j ust i c e nds v isible and co n c rete
embodiment
Ari stotle pupi l o f Plato and tuto r o f
Alexande r l ai d the idea o n s c ient i c fou ndat ions and
gave a n e w d i re c tio n and a n e w c ontent to the f utu re
pol iti c al h i story o f th e wo rld
I n A ri stotle reason i s the nal arbite r o f pol iti c a l l i fe
and l a w bec o mes the veh i c le o f the pu b l i c cons c ien c e
not somethi ng ext raneous as a po l iceman w ith h i s club
f o r h i s was n o t th e mode rn poli ceman theo ry o f the
state
H e makes a f undament a l di stincti o n b e t w een
those wh o o bey the fo rce beh i nd the l a w and th o s e wh o
c al

T H E N EW POLITI C S

1 26

o bey the reas o n withi n the law

The ind iv iduali sti c
c ompetit ive c o nict o f h um an p assi o ns was as i rrati o nal
to h im as the wi ll o f an i ron desp o t i sm claiming blin d
and sullen o bedien c e L a w com p elled society by i t s

sweet reas o nableness as Plato beauti fully exp resses i t

i n the Cr i t o where the laws c ame i n person to Socrates
i n p ri s o n c ame t o him not as j ailers but as h i s f riends
c o unsel o rs c o adj uto rs and pa rtners i n all g oo d And
s o A ri stotle says M en should not th i nk i t S lave ry t o
l ive a c co rd i ng t o the rule o f the c onsti tut ion fo r i t i s

thei r salvati o n
I t i s evi d ent he says fu rther that
that government i s best wh i ch i s so establ ished that
e v e ry o n e t h e r e i n m ay have i t i n h i s powe r to a c t v i rtu

Shall we w ith Plato con

o u sl y and to l ive happily
layi ng fo undat ion
c e i v e o f the legislato r as dext r ex r wv
and framewo rk o f a rat ional human so c iety whi c h i s

the j ust m an w ri t large o r w ith A rist o tle that th e

state not only exi sts f o r l i fe but for n o ble l i f e o r
w ith So c rates and Plat o and A ri st o tle i n the ground i d ea
c ommon t o all three that Politi cs i nvolves knowledge o f
the high est good o f man and means o f the attai nm ent
but both human
o f such values as are n o t moneta ry
an d d ivi ne ? The conce p t i o n that th e state exi sts but to
p rotect l i fe and p rope rty never entered the m ind o f a
rati o nal Greek as an adequa te c ontent fo r a polit i c a l
philoso p hy
To the Greek th e law wh i c h was re c ognize d as b i ndi ng
upon all was i n reason not command The law lay deep i n
t he reason and was the exp ression o f that reason because
i t was adapted t o th e h ighe r ne c essiti es o f manki nd
W ithout those laws whi ch th e G reek state th rew a roun d
.

GREEK CO NTRI BUTI O N TO POLITIC S

1 2

her c itizens an d whi ch const ituted t he state i n m o t i o n

as i t we re laws wh ich were the results o f p o lit ical
power l imited o nly by the p o wer o f s ec u ring the g oo d
l i fe for every c itizen i t was c o n c eived that the i nd ividual
had no rights no r had h e th e chance outsi de o f the state
o f leading a rat i o nal l i fe and th e rati o nal l i fe acc o rd i ng
t o Plat o i s th e l i fe governed by reason a s opposed t o th e
o n e gove rned by impulse

A ristotle s P o lit i c s was a c ont i n u at ion o f hi s wo rk

Wi th him Politi c s and Ethi c s a re o n e They
o n Ethi c s
c onstitut e two poi nt s o f v i ew o f the sa m e subj e c t
human associationa t right angles as i t we reea c h w ith
th e o ther The t rue end o f the ind ivi dual and the t rue
en d o f s oc iety are the samethe ult imate c o mm on goo d
H ere he ant icipated Ch ri st iani t y
The o l d Greek had a rm hold o n an i d ea the m odern
worl d h a s f orgotten o r despi sed We must c ome ba c k
to i t be fore we c an attai n t o a rationa l that i s t o say
ethical Pol iti c s
The Greek understoo d that the re are no rights w itho u t
d uties no liberty w ithout l a w ; and that both rights an d
d ut ies i m ply a c ommon i nterest a c o mm on goo d a
c ommon l i fe M o reov e r t hey lai d the foun d atio n o f
pol it i c s when th ey f oun d ed the im p l icat ions o f rights an d
d uties i n a c ommon good An associat ion wh i c h c on f ers
rights imposes duti es ; and a departu re f rom thi s
p ri nci p l e o f re c ip roci ty wh ich i s th e unde rlyi ng pri n
c i pl e o f t ru e p ol iti c s
leads t o anar c h y o r absolutis m
Fo r t o the i ndividual a s t o th e stat e all rights and n o
duti es i s a s danger o u s as all dut ies and no rights
A ri stotle P o l I i i 9 :
,

T H E N EW POLITI C S

1 28

Man i s by natu re a p o l iti c a l anima l A n d he wh o

by natu re and not by accident i s w ithout a state i s eithe r
above hum a n ity o r below i t ; h e i s the
Tri b eless

lawless hearthless o ne whom Home r denoun c es the

out c ast who i s a ch ild o f war ; he m ay be c ompa red t o a

bi rd which ies al o ne
Pol I i i 1 4 :
Th e p roo f that the state i s a c reation o f natu re and
p ri o r t o th e i nd ividu a l i s that the i nd ividual when i so
lated is not sel f su fc i n g ; and the re f o re he is like a pa rt
i n relati o n to the wh o l e But he who i s u nable to l ive i n
soci ety o r who has n o need be c ause he i s su fci ent t o
h imsel f must be eithe r a beast o r a god h e i s no part
A social i nsti nct i s implanted i n all m en by
o f a state
natu re
Man when p er fected i s the best o f ani mals
but wh en separated f r o m l a w and j usti c e he i s the worst
o f all s ince armed i nj usti ce i s the m o st dangerous and
h e i s equi pp ed w ith the a rm s o f i ntelligence and with
m o ral qu a l it ies whi c h he m a y u se f o r the wo rs t end s
There f o re i f h e have n o t vi rtu e he i s the m ost unh o ly
and the m o st savage o f an imals
But j usti c e i s th e
bond o f men i n st a tes and
i s the p ri n c iple o f o rder
i n pol it i cal so c iety
Pol VI I 1 :

H e who w o uld i nqui re about the best f o rm o f a stat e

ought rst to dete rmi ne wh ich i s the most el igibl e l i fe

Pol VI I i 1 4 :

Let u s assume that the best l i fe both f o r i nd i vi duals

a nd states i s the l i fe o f v i rtue havi ng eternal g o ods

en o ugh f o r the per fo rmance o f go o d a ct i o ns

P o l v1 1 i i 5
.

GREEK CO NTRI BUTI O N T O POLITIC S

1 29

No w i t i s evi dent th a t the fo rm o f g o vernment i s best

i n whi ch every man wh o eve r he

a nd li ve ha p pily
,

is

c an act f o r the bes t

These Sp lendi d and rat ional thi nke rs lai d the rat i o na l
f o u nd a t i o ns f o r a m ode rn p o l itical i nst rument but hal f u m
d e r s t o o d and n o t h a l f w o rked ; an i nstrument wh ich d e
nes clearly its ethic a l benev o lent and pu rp o s ive mi ssi o n
a mi ssion behind and d i rect i ng all the a rti cles and all the
amendments all the meaning and all the p u r po se o f th e

a
o
nst
ituti
o
n
o
f
th
e
United
St
tes
To p r o m o te th e
C
,

g e n e r a l w e l fa r e

Wh ile the p o lit ical ph il o s o phy o f the Greeks was f o r

the most part hist o ri cal and an a lyt ic a l i nste a d o f anti ci
pat o ry and c o nst ruct ive th e age o f Peri cles and its p ra e
t i cal p r o test agai nst ind iv i duali sm i n its a rt its cultu re
i ts pat ri o t ism lai d the f o undati o n f o r a nati o n a l s o luti o n
o f p o liti cal p rinc i p les o n a n o ble r scal e th a n the w o rld
had eve r known be f o re Obse rve i f y o u please I a m
Sp eaki ng o f p o litical the o ry n o t p ra c t i ce P o l it ics not
p o l itical science
S o crates i n taking i ssue w it h the
S o phists and thei r elabo rat e system o f util it a ri a n ism f o r
the rst re co rded t ime i n the hi st o ry o f th e wo rld lai d
th e f o undat ion o f an ethi c which would include the
wh o le eld o f Pol iti c s Whateve r may be sai d o f the

d etails O f Plato s Ut op iani sm th e mai n i dea o f th e

Re p ubli c is the ne c essity o f o rgani c un ity i n s o c ial an d

p o l iti cal l i fe
Th e j ust man i s like a well o rde red c i ty

the unj ust m an like ana rchy he declares I t w ill n o t

b e t oo great p rai se to asc ribe t o the p upil o f Plato so
f a r as politics i s c o nce rned the l a u rel o f su p remacy over
,

T H E NE W POLITI C S

0
3

all othe r m embers o f th e human ra c e Yet hi s wo rks a re

hardly taught i n an a dequ a te wa y i n a s ingle s c ho o l o r
c o llege o r unive rsity o f the United S t a tes The gu id

ing p ri nci p le i n A ri st o tle s methods o f th o ught i s the

rati o nal ch o i ce o f the mean between the ext remes o f
c o nduct
I n a discussi o n i nvolving i nd ivi duali sm vs
s o ciali sm fo r exam p le h e w o uld have f o und i n the golden
me a n a soluti o n o f the p roblem
I t i s the commonly a c ce p ted a cco unt o f pol it ical phi
l o so ph e r s that i t i s to A ri st o tle we a re i ndebted f o r the

sep a rat ion o f eth i c s a n d p o l iti c s To my m ind th i s i s

owing t o a m o st ext ra o rdi na ry lack o f ins ight and per
ha p s t o a lack o f com p rehension o f what Ari st o tle was
d rivi ng at o r i t may have ari sen fr o m t hat al l t oo
commo n characterist i c o f the m i nd o f man whi c h has
been reading it s A ri stotl e as those read thei r B ible
whom Ruski n likened t o th e hedgehogs eati ng grapes
by rolli n g o ve r i n them and eati ng those whi c h stu c k
t o thei r qu ills
A ri st o tle i n the open i ng cha p te rs o f the N i comachean
Ethi cs seeks an end l ike the target o f an a rche r w ith
re f eren c e t o wh i ch he may study the quest ion o f ethi cs

No w one w o uld natu rally suppose i t to be the end o f

that wh i ch i s most co mmanding and ex c lusive and t o
thi s descri ption Pol it ics plainly answers
I t must
i nclud e t he G o od o f M an
And grant that thi s i s the
same to the i nd iv i dual and to the c ommun ity yet su rely
that o f th e latte r i s plai nly greater and mo re pe r fe c t to
d is c ove r and p rese rve ; fo r to d o th i s even f o r a si ngl e
i nd ividua l we re a matter f o r content m ent but t o do i t

f o r a whole nat i o n
were more noble and godlike
.

'

GREEK CO NTRI BUTI O N TO P OLITIC S

His

c losing c hapter i n the Eth i c s i s an i nt r o duct ion

to the Poli ti c s as hi s wh o le bo o k i s a p repa rat ion fo r
that study I n the Ni c h o m a c h ea n Ethi c s h e cons iders th e
theo ry an d i n the Pol iti c s th e p ra c t ic e o f vi rtue I n
th i s last c hapter he asks i f h i s o rigi nal pu r po se i s c o m

M
ust
w
e
not
a
c
kn
o
wledge
what
i
s
commonly
l
t
d
e
e
p
said that i n matters o f mo ral action mere speculat i o n
and kn o wledge i s not the real End but rather p ra c t i c e
No w i f talking and w rit ing were to make men go o d
they would j ustly a s Th e o gn i s obse rves have reaped
numerous and great rewards
M en su c h as these
th en what m ere w o rds can t rans f o rm ?
We shall want

laws o n these poi nts

respe c ting one s wh o le l i fe
si n c e the m ass o f m en a re amenable t o c ompulsi o n
an d t o puni shment rathe r than a
r ather t han reason
sense o f hono r
The Laced aem o nian i s nearly the
only state i n whi c h the f ramer o f th e Const ituti o n has
made any p r o vis ion i t would see m res p e c ti ng the f o od
and manne r o f liv in g o f the people ; i n most states these
p o i nts a re ent i rely negle c ted and each m an li ves j ust

a s h e l ikes rul ing hi s w i fe an d ch ild ren Cy c l o ps fash i o n

A ri st o tle s i dea o f ethi c s was that i t was all i n c lusi ve

and he would have i ndo rsed Samuel Johnson s sayi ng

that i t i s one o f the stud ies wh ich o ugh t to begi n with

the rst gl impse o f reason and o nly end wi th l i fe itsel f

Ari stotle not only h a s n o t separated Eth i c s f rom P o l i
t i c s but i t c an fai rly be doubted whether he eve r c learly
d i st ingu i she d between the t wo I f i t i s meant that he
v iewed so c iety f rom t wo point s o f vi ew the eth i cal and
pol iti c al i t can not o f c ourse be denied
B ut that h e
f ound c ommon grou n d i ndeed that he foun d th e groun d
,

T H E N EW POLI TI C S

32

c o mmon no student o f A ri st o tle c a n success fully deny

H e ce rtainly d ist i ngu ished between ethics a n d p o l it ical
S cience
Ethi cs a n d p ra c t ical po liti cs stud ied ret ro
a re ce rt a i nly se p a rated fo r
spec t i v e l y a n d analyt ically
A ri st o tle i n the exami nation o f 1 5 8 ancient c o n s t i t u
t i o ns and fo rms o f G o vernment mu st analyze ex isting
a ffa i rs and these neve r co i ncide w ith ide a ls o f right
Ethi c s and p ractic a l p o l iti c al science must be se p a rated
T hu s A ri st o tle se p a rated them Th i s m isc o nce p ti o n o f
A rist o tle d o wn to thi s day i s that o f th o se w h o m i s
concei ve polit ics and f a i l to d ist i n gu i sh between po lit i c al
s ci ence and p o li tics o r p o l itical p h i l o s o phya failu re
common t o m a ny o f the w o rld authori ties o n the subj ect
i n and o ut o f ou r great u n iversities P o l itical scien c e
has t o do w ith facts and i s undi stu rbed by the i nt rusi o n
o r el imi nat i o n o f eth ical values P o liti cal scien c e c p u
c ern s i tsel f with what i s and what has been P o l iti c al
ph il o sophy o r po l itics i n c lud ing thi s eld also l o oks f o r
wa rd as well as b a ckw a rd and c o ns id ers what ought
to be I t i s because o u r p o lit ics has ce a sed to c o ns ide r
what ought t o be that i t has bec o me s o mething else than
poli tics f o r p o li tics i s a pa rt o f the ph ilos op hy o f
humanity from wh i ch the ethi c al element c ann o t b e
el iminated
Let u s the re fo re d i sti n gui sh between t he science and
th e Phil o s op hy o f P o l iti c s Pu re chemi st ry kn o ws n o
ethi cal v a lue bu t when i ts c omp o u nds a re co ns idere d
from a wide r p o int o f v iew as po isons and foodstu ffs
the ethi cal element enters Science can give n o adequat e
account o f any p hases o f human a ff a i rs be c a us e ethica l
values are f o rei gn t o it
This i s why the s c ient ic
.

GREEK CO NTRI BUTI O N TO POLITIC S

33

account o f l i fe i s i nadequ a te and must call i n ph i l o sophy

I t i s a s helpless w ith o ut phil o s op hy as phil o s o phy w ithout
s c i ence
Human c o ndu c t c ann o t be the subj ect o f human c o n
s i de ra ti on w ith o ut regard t o that S im p le and everlasti n g
m atter o f ri ght a n d w r o ng N o r can i t be c o ns i dered
outsi de o r i ndependent o f po li ti cal ass o ciat i o n
Ari s
t o t l e never w r o te o f human co ndu c t w ithout re feren c e
to b o th o f thes e c o ns iderat i o ns H e neve r divided th e

eld o f speculat ion H e neve r separated them H e

always i nsisted that they were o ne as Plat o and S o c rate s
d i d be fo re him A rist o tle cl o sed hi s v o lume o n th e Ni co
m a c h e a n Eth ics and w r o te p ractically To be c o nti nued

i n o u r next and h i s n ext was h i s P o liti c s And th rough

o u t the wh o le o f th i s m o numental w o rk whi ch has h a d
m o re i nuence o n the P o l itics o f mankind than any o the r
b ook ex c e p t i ng the Bible A ri stotle develops the Ethi c al
i dea in P o l itics H e p o s itively does n o t separ a t e the t wo
i d eas i n any fundamental sens e
What A ri st o tle t ried to p o rt ray i n h i s P o lit ics w a s th e
hi ghest f o rm o f human ass oc iat i o n such as w o uld p ro
d uce th e n o blest f o rm o f human l i fe
The state exi sts n o t o nly fo r the sake o f l i fe bu t

fo r th e n oble li fe etc But even here the p rinc iple i s

re co gn ized that the state exi st s fo r man n o t man f o r th e
state i n a the o ry whi ch inv o lves an immanent G oo d
I t i nv o lves also an adequ a te the o ry o f h u m a n i t v
The fundamental fault o f Ame ri can P o l iti cs and ec o
n o m i c s i s that neithe r i s b a sed u p on an adequ a te est imat e
o f human ity
Thi s S h o ws itsel f n o where m o re i n b o th
theo ry and practice than i n t he d iv o rce o f eth ics f ro m
.

T H E NEW POLITI C S

54

politi c s and e c onomi c s and o f religi o n f ro m l i f e A

st ranger nee d not walk fa r to nd that f rom our s c he m e
o f values c onned largely to monetary standa rds has

a ri sen the busi ness the o ry o f state which was the

the o ry o f B entham the i nd iv idual ists o f th e Revolut i o n
and o f the Jeff ersonian d emoc racy ; the dem oc ra c y o f
all right s and n o duties The puerile i nadequacy o f
anythi ng that might be named a politi cal philosophy i n
thi s count ry w ill be seen in c ompa ri s o n w ith th e i m
m o rtal and yet fo rgotten c on c eption o f the Greeks over
twenty c entu ries ago
Politi c s then i s one aspec t o f human e c onomi c s with
special re feren c e to goo d and evi l Th e p rot ra c ted effo rt
to sepa rate polit i c s and ethi cs c annot be re c onci led w ith
S i ngleness o f pu rpose and sanity o f j ud gm ent
The
res po ns ibility fo r the ini tiat ive must not be b o rne by
Ari st o tle but be sha re d someh o w between Ma c h iavell i
and M e p hi st o pheles
Ma c hiavell i i s the exponent o f the mo d ern poi nt o f
vi ew
H e su c ceeded i n h is e m phasis o f the do c t ri ne
t hat the end j usti es th e means i n establ ish ing f rom the
i nd ividual i st standpoint the do c trine wh ich became the
fo u ndat i o n o f Jesui ti sm m odern polit ics and e c onom i c s
and the mode rn Ame rican p o l itical ma c h ine i ncluding

the engi nee r v i z the b o ss

Ma c hiavell i s poi nt o f
view i s p u re i nd ividualism i n which ethics and p o l it i c s
a re s ep a r a t e d
C o ncei ving o nly an end t o be gai ned and taki ng no
acc o unt o f m o ra lity Machi a vell i i s the f a the r o f m o de rn
po litics Religi o n m o ral ity i ndeed eve ryth ing i s but
a n i nst rument t o se c u re the end
Sel f i nterest i s the only
.

GREE K CO NT RI BUTI O N TO POLITIC S

35

polit i c al i nte rest o f p ri nce o r state I n M a c hiavelli i s

the separation o f po liti cs and eth i cs complete
The i nd ivi dual ist theory i s that pol iti c s an d pol it i c a l

e c onomy a re identi cal Th is i s the Bus i ness theory o f

the State
But it must be remembered that economics
and p o l itical e c ono m y are t wo d i ff erent things E c o
Pol iti c s i ncludes a
n o m i c s i s the the o ry o f wealth
the o ry o f legislati o n a s well as o f the state with re fe r
en c e t o hu m an wel fare P o lit ical e c ono m y i s the politi c a l
aspe c t o f t ra d e and i ndust ry The p o l itics o f a t rue
democ ra c y i ncludes a the o ry o f th e state i n whi ch good
w ill not antagoni sm p red o minatesa theo ry o f gove rn
m ent o f the people by the people an d f o r th e people
u n d er a c onstitu t ion whi c h asse rt s ou r duties w ith ou r

rights to promote the gene ra l wel f are

Thi s phrase
o f o u r c onst itution i s the nearest approa c h i n mo d ern

politics t o the fa m ous di c tu m o f A ri st o tle The stat e

exi sts n o t m erely f o r l i f e b ut f o r the sake o f the nob l e

l i fe that we m ust hold politi c a l so c i ety t ogether f o r

the sake o f hono rable dee d s not f o r th e sake o f a j oi nt
l iveli ho o d as the modern ind ividualist i c theo r y const ru es
i t a s a bread and butte r m utual i nsu ran c e c o m pany
P o l Bk I I I ix 6 :

But a state exi sts f o r the sake o f a g o o d l i fe an d not

fo r the sake o f li fe only ; i f li fe only were th e obj e c t
slave and brute an imal s m ight fo rm a state
No r
d o es a st a te exist fo r the s a ke o f allian c e and secu ri ty
f r o m i nj usti ce no r yet f o r the sake o f exchange and
mutual i ntercou rse
Th o se who c are f o r good
g o ve rnment t a ke into c onsidera t i o n vi rtue and vi ce i n
states When c e i t may be fu rther i n fer red that vi rtu e
.

T H E N EW POLITI C S

6
3

be the serious c a re o f a st a te wh i c h t ruly dese rv e s

the name f o r w ithout th is ethi cal end the community

be c omes a me re alliance
Then A ri stotl e speaks s c orn fully o f Ly c oph ron t he
S oph i st who seems t o have held the modern dem oc rat i c

d o c t rine that th e stat e i s o nly a ma c h ine for t he pr o t ec

t ion o f l i fe and p rope rt y

m u st

C HAPTER I I I
PA T ER N A LIS M

There i s a c ertai n pathos i n that c on fusion o f m ind

p reva il ing among many wh o a re su p p o sed to be thi nk
i ng peo p le regardi ng t hose eth ical a c t i o ns o f the nation
i n rec o gni ti o n o f the o bligati o ns it sustains t o the i ndi
v idual wh o se duti es it claims I f a c e rtain legi sl a tion can

b e called pate rnal ism o r social i sm it i s at o n c e rele

gated t o th e l imbo o f the sh o ckingly imposs ible a s i f
t hese t wo c lassi c ati o ns ( were they t rue o nes wh ich the y
a re not ) woul d a ffect th e value o f fo r ex a m p le
nat ional legi slati on against the m i c robe wh ich kn o ws n o
state bou nda ry lines o r b o ard fen c es ; o r for example

agai n o u r paternal publ i c sch oo l system

I t i s i nterest ing to n o te the di ff eren c e b etween the
th eori st and st a tesman Vo n H umb o ldt wa s a rad i c al
H i s c on c epti on o f the state was i n keepi ng w ith the p re
vai l ing i dea o f h i s age a c knowledging v ery na rrow
l imits t o the functi o ns o f th e state ; i e as ma intai ning

secu rity agai nst b o th external enemies an d i nte rnal d i s

sensi o ns ( Sphere and D uties o f Go vernment )

He
went so far as t o co ndemn state educat i o n but when h e
c ame to close r quarters w ith actual government h e found
t hat the b est way t o advance the i ntellectual equi p ment
Prussian nati o n wa s i n the est a bli shment o f
o f the
state scho o l s whi ch h e had condemned He d i d n o t sto p
here b ut exten d ed f u rther the s c op e and power o f t h e
state
,

S7

T H E NEW POLITIC S

8
3

H erb ert Spen c e r s theo ry o f pol iti c s rea l i z e d wo uld

result i n the d issolution o f t he state H e eve n a rgues
agai nst publi c schools and educat ion at the publ i c ex
p ense
Perhaps h i s views w o uld have been mod ied
had he been c alled to the admi nist rat ion o f a ff ai rs
I t would be very d i fc ult even i n th i s l a i ss ez fa i r e
c ount ry to n d any fo rmidable a rray o f i ntelligen c e su p
po rting th e l imited reasoning o f the E c onomi st the l a te
P ro fesso r Fawcett o f Camb ridge Unive rsity who was
so o p posed to the idea o f state i nte r ference that he fought
the p ri n c iple o f Nat ional ism as expressed i n a publ i c
system and oppose d th e support o f publ i c s c ho o ls by
the state declari ng that he wa s willing that the st igm a o f
pauper ism S hould c li ng to those who all o we d the state to
edu c ate thei r ch ild ren ; be c ause ea rly i n the last c entu ry
t he government poo r l aws had redu c ed t o pau p erism one
i n eve ry fou r o f the populati o n o f Great B ritai n Ou r
Ameri c an c ommon s c hool system i s not pate rnal ism
I t i s not s oc ial i s m I f it i s eithe r then by all means
let u s h ave some mo re o f whi c heve r it i s
I have o ften fan c i ed the C o ngress i o nal Lib ra ry a
publ ic a ff r o nt to the sens ibilities o f eve ry down right i n
d i v i d u a l i st who might w a ve h i s hand i n w rath towa rd
the Capitol f o r unj ustly S pend i ng the m oney o f pe o ple
who c annot even read fo r su c h a build ingsuch a pile
o f books and su c h an in c omp a rable system as M r Put

nam s
Let eve ry man buy hi s o wn b o oks I hea r h i m
say and as h e l o oks fu rthe r d o w n the h ill h e w ill co n

t i n u e : Let every man study h i s o wn b ugs and d o h i s

o wn san itat ion These pate rnal isti c sanitations o f o u rs

a re not c onsistent w ith my eighteenth c entu ry i deas

.

PATERNALI SM

39

There i s a path o s i n the m u d d l e h ea d n e ss o f m ost

great men o n some o f these elemental questions

o f our
I do not nd i n the spee c hes o r w riti ngs o f m o st o f o u r
A merican p o lit i c ians evi dence o f a clea r idea o f th e
m odicat ion o f th e prin c i p le o f state i nte r fe ren c e and
state control by the S im p l e fa c t o f demo c ra c y the
fa c t that all th i s ki n d o f ethical legislatio n i s voluntary
that i s sel f
I t i s not s o ciali sm because i t u p
i m p o se d
h o ld s the d ignity and f reedom o f the i nd ividual I t is
not pate rnal ism because t rue dem oc ra c y i s f raternal
The rat i o nal imposit i o n o f ethi c al
i sm not paternalism
legi sl a ti o n u p o n o u r s el v esthe su rrende r o f c ertain o f

right
s
t
o
the
general
wel
fare
th i s i s th e soul o f the
r
ou
democ ra c y o f nat i o nal ism
T here i s no pate rnal ism
w ith o ut a p a t er
T o speak o f paternalism unde r sel f gov ern m ent i s
to publi sh a pu z z l eh ea dn e ss qu ite t ruly Ameri c an To
s p eak o f it with feeli ng i s a patheti c admi ssion o f label
and l i ve ry i n the se rv i ce o f s o me p redato ry cave dwellers
o f i ndividual ism wh o se usu rped p re c in c ts a re full o f
p i rated g oo ds i n d a nger o f some impend i ng ethi cal
Nemesi s Paternal ism i s imp o ss ible unde r sel f govern
m ent I t i s only poss ible unde r a g ov e rnment o f ruler
and subj e c t s That thi s d i st i nction has n o t been made
i s because we have f ai led to d isti ngui sh between those
fo rm s o f government wh i c h f o r thousands o f years have
m eant fo rcible co ntro l by powe r fo reign to the will and
i nterests and sentiments o f the peo p le and a f o rm o f
government o f the peopl e b y the people and f o r th e
peo p le
A c o nc rete illust rat i o n o f what I mean wi ll be found
.

T H E N EW POLITI C S

40

i n a c om p a ri son o f stat e i nter fe rence under a m ona r ch y

and a democracy I n Germany paternali sm i n the f o rm
e g o f g o ve rnment o wnershi p o f rail r o ads means that
the rai l r o ad s have been taken away f r o m the p e op l e and
p ractically given t o the Em p e r o r
The rai l ro a d i s a
pa rt o f t he p o l iti cal machine i f you please a p a rt o f th e
m ilita ry ma c h i ne p ra ctically c ont r o lled by o ne man
the Empero r o f Ge rmany Wh ile i n s o me respects th e
peopl e benet a fter all the people are desp o iled o f prop
e r t y an d powe r
I n New Z ealand the exa c t reve rse i s t ru e Th e rail
roads hav e bee n taken f rom the hands o f exploitat ion
and tu rned o ve r t o the people They have bec o me a pa rt
o f the Commonwealth
I n th i s m i llennial i slan d t h e
pe op le are f ri ends n o t enemies wi th o ut mill ionai res and
w ithout paupers The New Z ealande rs have not only
th e la rgest p rivate and i nd i vidual wealth per capita i n
th e w o rld
fo r eve ry man w o man and child i n
th e c ount ry but each i ndividual i s o ver and ab o ve all
th i s a p a rt o wne r i n the s p lend i d p rope rti es o f th e state
o f wh ich each indivi dual i s an o rgani c and re sp o nsible
pa rt
There G o vernment o wnershi p d o es not mili tate
agai nst p ri vate p ro p erty But the fraternal spi ri t o ut o f
whi ch gove rnment owne rshi p has sp rung has begun to
s o lve th e racki ng p r oblem o f o lder and less ha pp y
c ivil izat i ons the pr o blem o f d i st ribution

Pate rn a l i sm u nde r the L o ui s wh o s a id

I am the

state was essent ially and fundamentally d i ff e rent from

what he re under dem o c rat i c i nstitut ions many alleged
i ntell igent i nd ivi dual ists Sp eak o f wi th r a ge and fe a r as
paternal ism
There can be no p aternal ism w ithout a
.

PATERNALI S M
ate
rnal
gove
rnment
p

p o l i ti c a l

p ec t

Go v e r n m e n t

wi t h

c o n tr o l

us

41

i s th e

F r o m the American
f
s tand po int l a w and c o nst ituti o n a re n o t imposed u po n
us by a p o wer ext rane o us t o o u rselves and success ful
because st r o nge r We a re power L a w and c o n st i t u
t ion are those fo rms o f o u r o wn co rp o rate reas o n wh i ch
we have throw n around ou rselves i n the c o m p r o mi se o f
c ivilized g o vernment
And we a re th e g o ve rnment
t h r o ugh ou r re p resentatives
I f we d o n o t like o u r o w n
government we can change it f o r we have n o i r r e spo n

I am th e state
s ible m o n a rch p r o claim ing
Government c o nt r o l i f i t be c o nt r o l o r nat ional sel f
g o vernment means the sel f gua rd ing o f the rights o f
whi c h i s a l l
a ll th e ind iv iduals by all t he i ndividuals
the p e op le o f a nation I t me a ns that i f under c a p i
t a li st i c cent raliz a t i o n the sphere f o r independent acti o n
i s b ei ng na rrowed and the eld o f in d ividual i nit iat iv e
i s b eing rest ri cted i f unde r u nt rammeled com p etit i o n
t he st rong and the cunn i ng tend to oc c u p y the ent i re
el d o f o pp o rtunity th e nati o n ste p s l n that i s t he
people o rganized an d b ri ng thi s inst rument national
Government t o bea r i n the i nterests o f i nd ividua l
l ibe rty whi c h i s th e si n e q u a n o n o f t ru e demo c ra c y
B ut t he inte rests o f i nd i vidual libe rty can be served o nly
un d er c o nstitutional l ibe rty n o t m o na rchy f o r re a l
i nd ivi dual l ibe rty does not mean license to cap ri ci o u s
act i o n
I nd iv idual ism i s de f eat i ng the ve ry aim an d end o f
democ racy I n de feating i nd ivi dual l ibe rtynot that
liberty i s the end o f n o ble l i fe but a necessary means t o
that en d I f we a re i ncapable o f sel f g o ve rnment so
as

s el

c o n tr o l

TH E N EW POLITI C S

42

m uch the wo rs e f o r us Government c ont rol un d er a

g o ver n ment o f an d by and f o r the p eople m ight bette r
be called an ethi cal dem oc racy I f we a re a frai d o f
government co ntr o l w e a re a frai d o f l a w and o rder
even though that law and o rder a re th e rati onal and
ethi cal exp ressi o ns o f ou r best selv es and not the
i rresponsibl e i p se d i x i t o f a milita ry desp o t i sm Thi s
d i st in c ti on has been p resent t o most Ame ri c ans i f at all
i n thei r m oments o f absent mi ndedness
But it i s a
fundamental di sti n c ti o n and i t i s be c ause we are a sel f
g o verni ng peopl e th a t a st rong gove rnment i s bette r
t han a weak one ; a large and c om p l i cated sphere o f
government better t h an a poli c e f o rce A nd thi s will
appea r mo re and mo re t ru e i n p r o po rt i on as we in c rease
i n population an d d i vers ity o f interest
Th e gr o wi ng system wh i c h i s at o nce the bulwark an d
p ri de o f ou r nati on i s set i n the f o undat ion o f a d em o c
ra c y and i s a re c ognition o n th e pa rt o f the enti re peopl e
that the ent i re nati o n has duties t o ward all the people
as well as that all th e pe o pl e have rights
When D i de rot ! uesnay C o nd o rcet Holba c h p ro
tested agai nst state i nte r fe rence with the religious b e
l i e fs and the industri al p u rsuits o f the h umble c itizen s
o f Fran c e there was reason i n the do c trine o f l a i ssez
.

fa i r e

But when it i s appli ed t o th e insti tut i o ns o f a sel f

governi ng f ree p eople the condit i on s are reve rse d and
the re i s new mean ing i n the pu rpo siv e m i ssion o f the
state
,

C HA PT ER I V

SO CI A L I S M
The most eloquent adv o cates o f s o ci a l ism the w o rl d

has eve r seen are c ertain rich men wh o need neve r

I t i s not that they are ri ch men F e w
sa y a w o rd
r a t i o nal pe o ple have any val i d obj ect i o n t o ri ch men o r
t o reas o nable f o rtu nes
M o re o v e r thes e m en are as
high ty p es o f ri c h men as ever g o t large fo rtunes t o
gether and the highest type wh o ever g o t so much f o r
they have a large p o rti on o f the enti re n a t i o nal wealth
Th i s i s why the i nsti tution o f n a n c i a l i sm st a nds i n a d v o
cacy o f so c iali sm i nstead o f anarchy I f they with thei r
nancial powe r were like some o f ou r nanci ers the y
w o uld make anar c hists The sci entically i nclined are
d rawi ng c u rves to see h o w long i t w ill take fo r them o r
o thers t o o wn i t all A nd h o w m u c h will i t take i n ha r d
assets with th e aw ful c red it p o wer that g o es with i t
fo r a f ew men to o wn th e c ont r o llin g i nterest i n th e
United States Do they do i t n o w ?
It was but a f ew months ago ( as t hings go ) that w e

were frightened at Ha rriman s t wo b ill i o ns an d a yea r

or t wo be f ore at Rocke feller s bill i o n Be f o re the Civil

Wa r all the wealththe total capital o f all the m ill ion

ai res i n the U ni ted States amounted to one man s p r o ts

on one deal o r h i s i n c ome fo r a f e w months o r perhaps
weeks
Th i s i s what i s making s o ciali sts I f i t c omes to the
poi nt o f sayi ng wh ethe r all the people o f the Uni te d
.

43

T H E N EW POLI TI C S

44

States S h a ll o wn the c o ntr o lli ng i nte rest o r a few men

S hall o wn the c o nt r o lling i nte rest the ve rd ict o f the
American pe op le w ill be f o r themselves i e f o r
s o cial ism
I t i s quite amusi ng th o ugh s o metimes exasperati ng
t o have s o ciali sts p ick u p here and there a cts o f legi sla
t i o n tend i ng t o ward s o ci a l j ust ice o r i ndust ri a l ame
l i o r a t i o n a n d h o ld them o ut i n th e p alm s o f thei r hand s

a nd sa y Beh o ld ! s o much redeemed t o s o ci a l i sm !

There a re great a reas o f l i fe a n d th o ught c o mm o n to
t he best mi nds and Sp i rits o f men which c annot be fenced
The reli gi o n
o ff by a p a rty o r m o n opo l ized by a sect
i st c ann o t claim a re f o rmed d runka rd as a re c ru it to
M eth o di sm bec a use he h a s swo rn o ff no r can the d is c i p le
o f B ri gh a m Young nd an advance i n Mo rmoni sm i n
eve ry i rt a tion Social i sm d o es n o t mean me rely asso
N o r d o es the ant ithesi s o f i nd ividual ism mea n
c i at i o n
s oc iali sm Nor d o es pol itical social izat ion mea n that i t
i s s o ciali sti c
I t i s a l i fe ph il o sophy and it
S o c i a l i s m i s a sy s t e m
hangs t o gether
I n d i v i du a l i s m i s a sy s t e m
Ch ristianity i s a system
I t t oo i s a l i fe p h il o so p hy and i t t o o hangs together
Th e re a re s o me o f the teach ings o f the o ne to be fo und
i n th e o the r
But th i s does n o t mean that they a re
i dentical
The re i s a ce rt a i n a rea o f s o ci a l iz a ti o n i n s o ciety i f
I may u se th e ex p ression wh i c h c a nnot be called so c ial
i sm a t all
\V e must d i stingu i sh S ha r p ly between the pu rp o s ive
m i ssion o f the state and th e aims o f s oc ial ism f o r i t i s
,

SOCIALI S M

45

n l y i n the further u se I may sa y the hi stori c al l y i n t el l i

gent u se o i the pri n c ipl e o f asso c iation as oppose d t o
i nd ividual i sm o f the c ohes ive as oppose d to the di s
j unctive f o rces o f the nation that w e S hall nd th e c u re
f o r the t remendous so c ialist i c tenden c y o f the d ay

I t i s u n f o rtun a te that such wo rds a s so c iety an d

asso c iati o n a re derived f ro m the same root a s t h e

wo rd so c ial ism
The average un intelli gent i ndivi d uali st h a s a c ertai n
patheti c and hopel ess wa y about h i m o f c on fou ndi n g
s o ciali sm w ith that f o rm o f s oc i a lizat i o n wh i c h i n a

n ati o nal state tends to

p rom o te the gene ral wel fa re
To su rrende r t o social is m the ethi c al purp o se and m i s
s i o n o f a state i s s o one r o r l ate r to sur ren d e r the stat e
to social ism
Th e p ri nciple o f government c ont r o l o r state i nter
ference as the Engl ish call i t o r paternalism as the
u nthi nki ng call i t i s not and neve r can be s o cial ism I t
i s i ndeed d i fcult to dene so c iali sm
S o m any va gu e
a n d Ut o pian d rea m e rs hav e i dent ied i t w ith othe r th ings
that the publi c i s not awa re that social is m as so c ial is m
as d ened by Eu ropean autho ri ties and a cc epted by the
great mass o f those wh o call themselves so c ialists to
day m eans revoluti o nary soci a l i sm And rev ol ut iona ry
sociali sm means the ab o l i ti on o f p ra c tically all p ri vate
p roperty an d fu rther m any bel iev e i n th e ab o l iti o n o f
th e inst itut ion o f the f amily The most revolut i o nary
exp o nents o f thi s do c t ri ne are th e c ont inenta l social ists
whe re radical ism as expressed i n anarchy o r sociali sm
i s rea c tion against ty ranny
S u c h theo ries as th e Ch ris
t ian So c ial ism o f Mau ri c e and Kingsley s c a r c ely exi st
o

T H E N EW POLITI C S

46

t o day
Soci al is m i s sweepi ng o ver the wo rld l ike a
ood an d Canute c annot d ri ve i t ba c k Thi s i s the most
t rem endous social fa c t i n the world to be reckoned with
by the statesman o f to day
So c ial i sm i s not an eth ical demo c ra c y I t i s not fra
te rnal When one speaks o f f raternali sm he mu st be
very c a re ful that h e i s S peaking o f s o meth ing whi c h i n
eludes the spi ri t as well as the fo rm o f f raternal i sm
Just he re appea rs the dange r o f reacti o n
Society
a c h i eves no gai n i n exchanging one ty ranny for anothe r
We d o n o t move f o rward by breaki ng up one desp o t ism
and setting up anothe r despoti sm W e d o not progress
by tu rn ing out o ne set o f ras c als and setting up anothe r
The despot i sm o f th e many i s no k inde r
s et o f ras c als
than that o f th e f e w We come i n the last analysi s t o
two things W e c annot bu ild u p a sound nat ion o f u n
sound men We cannot bi nd men i nto a rati o nal st a t e
with an u neth ical mot ive A change o f method i s not
a c hange o f m o tive and a change o f m ethod i s all
so c iali sm o ff ers u s
The present wo rld m ovement o f
so c ial i sm i s the rea c t ion agai nst the bale ful developments
o f i nd ividual i sm resul ting th rough u ntram m eled com
petiti o n i n th e annihi lati o n o f c o mpet ition by reason o f
the fa c t that competition u n rest rai ned h a s c arried i t s
death i nst rum e nts i n it s o wn b o som
The st rong wi n The weak pe ri sh Eve ry wh ere and
foreverm o re the stron g ex p l o it and prey u p on th e weak
under monar c hy i n o ne way unde r democ racy i n a n
othe r Thi s results i n p r o test rea c tion That rea c tion
i s so c i al i sm
N ine t enths o f the so c ial i sts h ave been
m ad e by the ind i c tments o f i nd ividual ism not by the
-

SOCIALI S M

47

pana c ea o ff e red by so c i a li sm What d o es so c iali sm o ffer

I t i s a fter all the economi c i nterp retati o n o f h i st o ry

and th e p r o mi se o f a shopkee p e rs o r p roleta riat s millen

nium The teaching o f Karl M arx i s a m a te rial ism a s
un reli eved as the i nd ivi duali sm whi c h c rushed the child
li fe o f Man c hester and B i rmingham a hund red years
ago
Be fo re Ma rx Sai nt S imon and Fou rie r had
pou red S c o rn over m oralist i deal ist an d ph il o s o phe r
T o them t hese were the w o rd m o nge rs o f ideali sm
dealers i n some d istillation o r othe r f o rm o f that spi rit
u a l i st theo ry which nds i t s best known shape i n religi o n
All alike attempte d t o rule the w o rld by gm en t s

Duti es says F o u rier a re o nly the c apri c es o f phi

l o so ph e r s they are human and variable ; but the passi ons
a re the v o ices o f natu re and God and th e end o f all
desi res the fullness o f hap p i ness i s that graduated o pu
lence which puts o ne ab o ve want an d th r o ugh and i n it

the satis fa c tion o f all one s pass ions

M a rx i nterp reti ng p o li ti c s religi on , and ethi cs as so
m any phases o f economi cs and e c onomi cs as the s c i en c e
o f th e wel f a r e o f econom i c humanity an d as the su m
c enter and c i rc um ference o f h i story postulat i ng the
relat ion s and rewards o f labo r as the only reality i n all
h isto ry p resent s u s with a d ialect i c o f mate riali sm as nai ve
and b rutal as anyth ing th e human mi n d has eve r
w r o ugh t
What mot ive unde rli es it ? Sel f i nt erest
What end an d aim l u re it ? Materi al c o ncerns Thi s i s
the p h il o sophy o f l i fe i t o ffers And thi s w ill never lay
the foundation o f a great state no r sati s fy a great
pe o ple I t i s st ill H e do n i s m pu re and s im p lestill ego
i sm still i nd ividual ism
I ndiv i dual ism vs Social i s m
.

T H E NEW POLITI C S

48

means exa c tly i n othe r wo rds and te rms : Ego i sm H e d o n

i sm

vs

U n i v e r sa l i s t i c H e d o n i s m

Mo d e r n

soc

i al i s m i s

o rg a n i

c o o e r a t i v e u t i l i ta r i a n i s m

ze d

i n d i vi d u a l i s m

I t is

I t i s the logica l outcome o f ind ivi d u a l an d c ompet i

t ive wa r fare I t i s a pr o test agai nst u no rganized i nd i
v i d u a l i sm and o rganized n a n c i a l i sm o n the same p lane
I t a ff o rds a t rial o f st rengt h w ith the same weap o ns
and i n the same eld Devoid o f th e altrui sti c m o ti ve i t
i s the st ruggle o f s o ulless fo rm w ith cha o ti c v o id So
c i a li sm i s o rganized insti nct an d systemati c a nd c o Or d i
mated selsh material ism and i t fails f undamentally i n
i ts phi l o s op hy o f l i fe I ts mot ive i s eg o isti c n o t a l t ru
i st i c
I f i t d i ff e rs f rom i nd ivi dualism i t d i ff e rs only i n
m etho d n o t i n mot ive I t has b o rrowed the f o rms o f
f raternal ism w ith wh i ch t o deceive the elect but i t has
l o st the s o ul becaus e i t d o es n o t beli eve i n soul I t i s
a huge ec o nomi c machi ne un illumed by a ray o f eth i c s
i nspi red by n o b reath o f that Sp i rit without wh i c h the re
i s n o thing human i n m an
What w e w a nt i s a rational theo ry o f an ethi cal de
And thi s must begi n i n the m o t ive o f go o d
m o c ra c y
will
I t must w o rk fr o m the i nd ividual co nscien c e
f reed and em a nci p a ted t o wa rd a c omm o n c o nsci ence
a c o Ope r a t i v e reas o n H ere modern sociali sm falls sh o rt
M arx p racti cally begi ns wi th h i s c o rporate m ateri a l ism
and wo rks back to t he i ndiv idual conscienc e and will t o
nd them enmeshed enslaved Ind iv iduali sm and social
i sm a re b o th e co n o mi c material isms and o ff e r t wo a s

o
f
th
e
b
read
and butte r theo ry o f th e state M r
t
ec
s
p
Lesl ie Stephen calmly rema rks s p ea ki ng o f the i nd ivi d
.

SOCIALI SM

49

point o f V i ew that p o l it ics i s a m atte r o f b usiness

The funda
a n d resents the i nt rusi on o f rst pri n c iples
mental max im o f Karl Marx i s that all human i n st i t u
t ions and belie fs a re in thei r ultimate sou r c es the outc o m e
o f econ o mi c co ndit ion si n othe r wo rds a matte r o f busi
ness One mate riali sm i s a s b rutal as the other
A generati o n si nce when the ph il o so p hy o f th e w o rld
wa s m o re mate rial i sti c than i t i s t o day and l i fe o f th e
pe o ple wa s less so Du B o i s Reymond cl a imed pra c t i
c ally th a t the h ist o ry o f m an i s the hi st o ry o f t oo ls that
it i s the h i st o ry o f the i nventi o n o f th o se implement s
which enabled man thus far t o c o nquer and cont rol nat u re
Be f o re thi s Ma rx h ad worked o ut hi s c o nceptio n o f hi s
t o ry Be f o re h im st ill the p r op het s o f M anchester w o rked
out thei r s o dden gospel
The indivi dualist i c poli tical
ec o n o my i s sim p ly a statement o f the p rinc i p les o f a n
a rchy d ip p ed i n rosewate r and appl ied t o e co n o mics
I t w ill be admitted at once that ec o nomi c co nd itions
have p r o f o undly m o d ie d human h ist o ry and m ust ever
d o so There a re element s h o weve r between the lines
o f ec o nomi c lat itude
a spi ritual longit ud e as i t we re
whi c h have escaped the h i st o ri c o r scienti c m ate riali st
A m an i s n o t merely th e m o st i ntelligent b rute i n
c reat i o n ; he i s n o t a d i semb o di ed s p i rit and i t must b e
admitted that th e f utu re d o es n o t bel o ng t o the c ultu red
and rened exce p t on condit i o n o f a c ertai n p hys i c a l
basi s o f blood and b o ne and b ra wn
The ec o nomi c aspect o f l i fe o ffe rs but o ne se t o f the
vital p roblems c onne c ted w it h human p r o gress and t o
othe r than b read a n d but te r cons ide rati on we tu rn i n ou r

weari ness and a sk with Savage Land o r Sh o w me h o w

u a l i st

T H E NEW POLITIC S

56

great p roj ec ts we re exe c uted great advantages gai ned

a nd great calamities averted
Show me the gene rals
an d statesmen who stood fo remost that I m ay bend to
the m i n reve rence L et the b o oks o f the T reas u ry l ie

c l o sed as religiously as the S ibyl s Leav e weights an d

measu res i n th e ma rket pl a ce c ommerce i n the harb o r
the A rts in the light they love phil o so p hy i n the S hade
Place H istory on he r right ful th rone and at the s id e o f

he r Eloquen c e and Wa r
The recon c iliation o f th e individual and th e st a te
rests i n good will and m o ral pu r po se
There s o cial
a nd i nd ividual rights meet an d lose thei r antagonisms
i n thi s large r f reedom o f the good w ill
Th e d epa rtu re fr o m i nd ivi dualism o rganized o r ram
p a n t begi ns i n the dawn o f the mot ive o f g o od w ill I
mean that ki ndly and sweet tempere d spi ri t whi ch has
ceased t o rai se an eth i cal standa rd on the point o f vie w
o f the i nd ividual selshness and sta rt s out o n the long
u p w ard p r o cess o f ev o luti o n towa rd human sym p athy
and hel p fulness I me a n th a t g oo d will whi ch i s op p o s ed
to the p rinci p le o f wa r as the rul ing i nsti nct o f humanity
and co nceives the bette r pa rt i n working together f o r
the same thing i nstead o f agai nst each o ther fo r the

same thingthat g oo d will wh ich Kant c a lled the o nly

u nc o nd iti o ned g oo d i n th e universe

The de p a rtu re f r o m th e i nd ividual isti c p oint o f vie w
i s w here the i nd i vidual ce a ses t o be the n a l cou rt o f
when the i ndividu a l begi ns t o c o nside r itsel f
a pp eal
f r o m th e stand po i nt o f th e unive rse and not t he u niverse
f r o m the st a nd po i nt o f the ind ividual
I n po lit ics and econom ics the p roblem be co mes o ne as
,

SO CIALI S M

to whethe r the element o f g o od will S hall n d l ess o r

m o re s cop e ; whether th e a rea o f the co mmon good shal l

be enla rged and rest ricted whethe r i n fact th e b arm o

l ies towa rd the

n i o u s devel op ment o f the human ra c e
m otive o f good wi ll and the i deal o f a un it ed and
f ri endly humanity o r i n the m otive o f the selsh i nstin c t
and the i deal o f atoms at w a r H e re l ies the p r o blem o f
polit i c s and the fate o f democ racy i n wh ich i e i n
the t rue demo c racy not the false i s invo l ve d the f utu re
o f human f reedom Wi ll the harm o nious development

o f the human ra c e and human l i b e rt y i n so f a r as i t

c ont ributes t o that ki nd o f devel o pment res ul t f rom a
governm ent mo re rat i o nal and mo re eth i c al whi c h i s to
o r from o ne when c e the c ohes ive
sa y o f more sol idari ty
powe r and aim o f re a son h a v e been take n awayand
wh ich i n los ing the b o undari es o f rat iona l f o rm an d the
b i ndi ng powe r o f good will has l o st both b o d y a nd soul ?
I f we agree that the stat e l ike the Sab b ath wa s made
fo r m an an d not m an fo r th e state ; i f w e agree t hat the
i nd ividual i s the end o f c ivilizat i o n and o f natu re the n
let us a sk a fu rther question I s thi s end so mu c h to
b e desi red attainable by ea c h i nd ividual seek ing h i s o wn
expansion and per fe c tion i ndependently th rough the
motive o f selsh i nst i n c t each w ithout re fe ren c e to the
i nterests o f the rest acco rd ing to the p l ati tud i nous d ic
tums o f l a i ssez fa i r e i sm i n gene ral that the good i s the
resultant o f i nnume rabl e con icting sel f-i nte rests ; o r d oes
the p e r f e c t ion o f human c hara c te r o r i n d ividual ity l ie
i n d is c ipline i n sel f i de n t i c a t i o n with the u niversal
good and does that per fect ion li e so fa r as pol iti cs
mod ies it towar d ana rc hy o r towa rd an ethi c al and
,

T H E NEW P OLITIC S

rational state
M o ralit y i s the substan c e o f the state
o r i n othe r words the stat e i s the devel o pment and a f

rm a t i o n o f the people s u nited mo ral will ; but religion

i s th e substan c e o f b o t h mo ral and politi c al l i fe
The
stat e i s f o unded o n the moral character o f the pe o ple and
thei r m o rality i s founded on thei r religion
Th e
bas i s o f th e laws to whi c h m en must subm it must exi st
p ri o r to all th e laws that a re f ounded upon i t I t i s the root
f rom whi c h they spri ng o r th e developing substance o f
thei r exi sten c e Apa rt from all metaphysical d i scussi o n
on m o ral ity and rel igion the t ruth remains th a t th ey
m u s t ev er be v i ew e d a s i n sep a r a bl e The re c ann o t be tw o
cons c ien c es i n man one fo r p ra c ti c al an d an o the r f o r
rel igiou s i nte rests A cco rd i ngly as he dee p ly an d si n
Religion must be the basi s
c e r e l y bel ieves so h e w ill act
o f m o rals and mo ral ity must be the f o undati on o f a
state
I t i s the monstrou s er ro r o f o u r t imes to
wi sh to rega rd these i nse p arable ( p o liti cs morals and
reli gi o n ) as i f th ey have been se p a rable one from th e
othe r : yea as i f they were i ndi ff erent t o o ne anothe r

as i f the state s wh o le m o ral system i nclud ing its

c onsti tuti on and i ts laws as f o unded on reas o n could

stand o f itsel f a n d o n i ts o wn gr o und ( Hegel )

,

Th e

r e l i gi o n

p eo pl e

m u s t be i m m a n e n t i n t h e i r
ti o n s

l i k e th e

e th i c s

p ol i ti c a l

and

soc

p eo pl e

i a l i n s t i tu

I f thi s i s not possible i n a demo c ra c y the n

democ ra c y m ust g o and th e p eopl e w ith i t But thi s i s
not possible unde r i nd iv i dual i sm f o r p o l it ical ethics and
eth i c al p o l itics are n o t p o ssible unde r i nd ivi dual ism
Hegel co ntends that th e Ult ramontane the o ry o f r e
l i gi o u s auth o rity c a n neve r be made t o ac c o rd with any
.

SOCIALI S M

53

pol it i c al inst itut i o ns that are not d espot i c No govern

m ent can be sa fe while the people regard i t as exist i ng
outside the sanctions o f a religion found outs ide t h e
state Not a state I take it does he m ean o ve r wh i c h
religious auth o rity i s exer c i sed but th r o ugh whi c h the
autho rity o f the spi ritual reaso n i s supreme
A rational analysi s o f the idea o f the stat e w ill S ho w
n o t only that w e o w e d uti es to the stat e i f we clai m
right s but that t he state itsel f has duties i f we allow tha t
it h a s rights and i f i t ex pects fro m us the d i s c ha rge o f
I n the development o f thi s i d ea o f reci
o u r o bligati ons
p rocity li es a co mplete r i dea o f a state ; and i n thi s l ie s
a more c ongenial envi ronment fo r happiness an d vi rtue
F o r i t i s j ust at the p o int at whi ch we depa rt f r o m th e
rea c ting de m o c ra c y o f th e rev o luti o ns o f the eighteent h
c entu ryi e f r o m the pi ge o n b reasted c atch ph rases o f
all right and n o dut i esi t i s j ust where w e admi t th e
p ri n c ipl e o f m utual obligat ion t hat we lay the psych o
logical f ou ndati o ns o f l a w and order an d o f th e rational
state Fo r the state i s built i n the idea o f a co mm o n l i fe
What i s th e substance o f the wo rd j ustice but th e publ i c
good the co mm o n weal ?
I t i s he re i n th e element o f recip ro c itythat we nd
the j usti c at i o n o f the i d ea th at the stat e i tsel f h a s duties
a s well as ri ght s and i t i s th rough the fun c t ion o f th e
duties o f a state that i t p roceed s o n sound and le g itimat e

l i nes t o p romote the general wel f are

.

'

C HAPTER V

T H E I NDI V IDU A L A ND P OLITI C A L E N V I R O N M E NT

Th e question must a rise somewhere abo u t here as t o
whethe r a system o f ana rchy o r o f law and o rder o ff ers
th e better env i ro nment f o r the d evelop m ent o f sound
i nd ivi dual ity wh ich ( i t must b e admi tted ) i s the onl y
basi s o f sound nat ional ity Thi s b rings u p the poi nt
that w e m ust d i stingu i sh S harply between the c laims
I n other
o f ind ivi dual ity and t hose o f i nd ivi dual is m
wo rds i s i t unde r i ndividual is m o r so c iali s m o r th a t
nameless mi ddl e ground whi c h fo r want o f a better na m e
w e have c alled national ism that the best type o f i ndi
v i d u a l i t y may develop ?
Let i t be sai d at on c e that those
who f ea r social ism as mu c h as they do ind i vi d uali s m
and who fea r both only les s than they do Meph istopheles
h imsel f a re among th e most st renuous advo c ates f o r the
l ibe rti es and d igni ties o f th e i nd ividual
Whe re we
d i ff e r f r o m the social ist i s i n that we beli eve i n keeping
a la rge a rea out o f th e deadeni ng i nuen c es o f a bu reau
c ra c y f o r pr ivate vol it ion and i n iti at iv e ; and whe re we
diff e r f rom th e i nd iv idual ist i s that we bel ieve that

c hara c ter bu ildi ng wh i ch i s un re c ogn ize d b y mo d e rn

legislators as Herbe rt Spen c e r th e phi los o phi c al ana rc h
i st laments may be bette r pu rsue d th rough rationa l
fo rms o f l a w and o rde r i n a highly o rgan ized state than
i n th e quasi anar c hy which m ust exi st u n d e r Herb e rt

Spen c er s wat c h dog the o ry o f th e state

I will a dm i t , f o r a moment w ith a p ro m i nent i ndivi d
,

54

POLITI C AL E N V I RO N M EN T

55

tha t t h e elevat ion an d expans ion o f

the i n d i vidua l i s the goal o f c ivilizat ion t h e t r u e en d o f
t
the
i
tali
c
s
are
m
i
ne
a
nd
the
en
d
t
whi
c
h
r
m
en
o
o
n
v
e
!
!
g

nat u re works
I f I go f u rthe r than C roz ier an d sa y that the re i s
n o pol it i c s possible wh i c h i s n o t based on a phi losoph y
o f l i f e which a fte r all its la b y ri nth i ne wande rings c o m es

b a c k as it were at l ast t o A b raha m s b oso m and rests i n

the i n d ividua l soul I hope it w il l not be i n fer re d that
the i nd ividual re ferred t o i s the deta c he d an d soli ta ry
h um an m onad he rm et i c all y seale d i n 2 00 pound s o f
a c qu i s it ive avoi rdupoi s I a m speaki ng o f an i nd ivi du
a l it y wh i c h c annot be c on c ei ved apa rt f ro m S pi ri tual it y

whic h
o f the elev ati on an d extension o f the i nd ividual

i s the goa l o f c ivi lization t h e tr u e e n d o f g o ver n m e n t

f o r I will n o t al l ow an avowe d i nd ivi dual ist t o outd o me
whethe r i t b e C rozi e r o r He rbe rt Spe n c er i n enlar ging

d igni fyin g an d m oral izing state a c tion m aking the ele

the t rue en d o f
v at i o n and expans io n o f the i nd ividua l

govern m ent o r c ha ra c te r m aking t he m ost impo rtant

en d o f th e legi slato r
I a m speaki ng o f the i n d ivi d ual ity o f t he i n d ivi dua l
c hara c ter wh i c h i s i nsepa rable f rom and whi c h i s the
o ffspring o f so c ial ity ; an i nd ividual ity wh i c h i s i m po s
s ible i n soli tude o r savage rywhose se c ret has not been
found by the w il d m an o f Bo rneo The s im p le p ropo
S it io u i s that the m ost per fe c t cha ra c te r i s not d evel o ped
by S hutti ng itsel f up b ut by opening itsel f up
I a m rea d y t o repeat my content ion that a rational
theo ry o f l i fe w ithout wh i c h the re i s no rati o nal p o l i
ti c s must b ri ng u s to the bed r o ck o f a sane theo ry o f
u a l i st

C
rozier
)
(

TH E NEW POLITI C S

56

personal c ha ra c ter Hen c e the di st in c t ion that a stu dy

i n i nd ivi duality i s f a r f ro m a study i n i ndi v i duali s m
The l atte r i s a theo ry o f l i f e I t i s pr e m i n e n t ly the
sel f cente red theory I ts politi c s and eth i c s i f i n d ee d
p o liti c s and eth i c s a re p o ssible u nder i nd ivi dual ism a r e
those o f ph i l OS Oph i c n ih il i sm f o r thi s i s e q u iva l ent t o
ph ilosophical i ndividuali sm
.

Th e B rit ish Const itut ional Asso c iat i on ( I n t ro duc

t ion t o Do c to r S a l eeby s recent Le c tu res in Ed inbu rgh

states that The

o n I nd iv idualism and C o lle c t ivi sm )
Ass o ciation contend s that th e followi ng quotat ion fro m

He rbert Spence r s Fi rst Pri n c i ples p roves clear l y that

th e path o f p rogress i s f rom freedom to greater f reedo m
and that c olle c tiv i st measu res fo r cu rbi ng th e individual
i n the supposed i nte rests o f the many a re as ret rogress iv e
as they are uns c ienti c an d non polit i c al
O u r p o l iti c a l p r a c ti c e a n d o u r p o l iti c a l the o r y a l ike u tter l y r e
j c et th o se re g a l p rer o g a tives w hi c h o n c e p a sse d u n q u esti o ne d
T h o ug ht o u r f o r m s o f Sp ee c h a n d o u r st a te d oc um ents
sti ll a ssert th e s ub j e c ti o n o f the c itizen s t o th e r ul e r o u r a c t u a l
b e l ie f s a n d o u r d a i ly p r o c ee d in g s i mp l i c it ly a ssert the c o ntr a r y
No r h a s the rej e c ti o n o f p ri m itive p o l iti c a l b e l ie f s res u l te d
o n ly in tr a ns f errin g the a u th o rit y o f a n a u t o c r a t t o a re p resent a tiv e
,

b o dy

entire ly w e h a ve est a b l ishe d the p ers o n a l l i b erties o f the

s ub j e c t a g a inst the inv a si o n s o f st a te p o w er wo uld b e q u i c k l y
d e m o nstr a te d w ere it p r o p o se d by Ac t o f P a r l i a m ent f o r c i b l y t o
t a ke p o ssessi o n o f the n a ti o n o r o f a n y c l a ss a n d t u rn its servi c e s
en d s ; a s the servi c es o f the p e o pl e w ere t u rne d by
t o publ i c
p ri m itive r ul ers A n d S h o uld a n y st a tes m a n s ugg est a r e d i st r i bu
ti o n o f p r o p e r t y s u c h a s w a s s o m eti m es m a d e in a n c ient d e m o c r a ti c
he wo uld b e m et by a th o u s a n d t o n gu e d d eni a l
c o mmu nities
No t o n ly in o u r
o f i mp eri a l p o w er o ver in d ivi du a l p o ssessi o ns
d a y h a ve these fu n d a m ent a l c l a i m s O f the c itizen b een th u s m a d e
g o o d a g a inst the st a te bu t s u n d ry m in o r c l a i m s l i k e w ise
A g es a go l a w s re gul a tin g d ress a n d m o d e o f l ivin g f e ll int o
How

POLITICAL E N V I RO N M ENT
d is u se ;

57

tte mp t t o revive the m wo uld p r o ve the c u rrent

th a t s u c h m a tters l ie b e y o n d the s p here o f l e g a l
o p ini o n t o b e
F o r s o m e c ent u ries w e h a ve b een a ssertin g in p r a c ti c e
c o ntr o l
the ri g ht o f ever y m a n t o
a n d h a ve n o w est a bl ishe d i n the o r y
inste a d o f re c eivin g s u c h b e l ie f s
c h o o se his o wn re l i g i o u s b e l ie f s
W ithin the l a st f e w g en er a ti o ns we h a ve i n
o n st a te a u th o rit y
s p ee c h in Sp ite o f a l l l e g is l a tive
a u g u r a t e d c o mp l ete l i b ert y o f
A n d sti l l m o re re c ent l y w e h a ve
a tt e mp ts t o s u p p ress o r l i m it it
u n d er a f e w e c e p ti o n a l restri c ti o n s
c l a i m e d a n d n a lly o b t a ine d
f ree d o m t o tr a d e w ith wh o m s o eve r we pl e a se T h u s o u r p o l iti c a l
b e l ie f s a r e wi d e ly d i ff erent f r o m a n c ient o nes n o t o n l y a s t o the
p r o p er d e p o sit o r y p o w er t o b e e x er c ise d o ver a n a ti o n bu t a l s o
a s t o the e tent o f th a t p o w er
B esi d es the a ver a g e
No t even here h a s the c h a n g e en d e d
o p in i o ns w hi c h we h a ve j u st d es c ri b e d a s c u rrent a m o n g o u rse l ves
there e ists a l ess w i d e ly d i ff u se d Op ini o n g o in g sti ll fu rther in the
T here a re t o b e f o u n d m en wh o c o nten d th a t
sa m e d ire c ti o n
the s p here o f g o vern m ent S h o ul d b e n a rro w e d even m o re th a n
T he y h o l d th a t the f ree d o m o f the in d ivi du a l
i t is in E n gl a n d
l i m ite d o n ly by l ike f ree d o m o f o ther in d ivi du a l s i s s a c re d ; a n d
th a t the l e g is l a t u re c a nn o t e q u it a bly pu t fu rther restri c ti o ns up o n
it eithe r by f o r b i dd in g a n y a c ti o ns whi c h the l a w o f e q u a l f ree d o m
p er m its o r t a kin g a wa y a n y p r o p ert y s a ve th a t re q u ire d t o pay
the c o st o f en fo r c in g this l a w itse l f
an d a n y

S i r A rthu r C lay Bart says o f Do c to r S a l eeby s le c

t u res We must all feel grate f ul t o o u r lectu re r fo r h i s

v igo ro u s reassertions o f th e value and t ruth o f He rbert

Spence r s tea c hing and w e m us t all feel that w e h ave a r

rived a t a point i n so c ial quest ions at wh i ch the r o ad
d ivi des and that o n e o f i ts b ranches i s the pathway to

t he sta rs while th e othe r lea d s u s we believe to social

d isi ntegration and a slow but su re revers i on to l o wer
stages o f human cond it ion than that to wh ich we have
attained w ith S O mu c h e ff o rt and th rough such bitte r
experience
The B rit ish Consti tuti o na l Asso c iat ion
stands at t he parti ng o f th e ways an d u rges o u r c iti z ens

t o c hoose th e no bl er path
,

T H E NEW POLITI C S

8
5

lose no time i n c ongratulating the B ri tish Co n

st i t u t i o n a l A sso c iati o n upon thi s c lean c ut d i sti n c tion
and thi s noble advi c e Let us hasten t o say that wh ile
we m ight make some rest rict ions as regard s the beari ng

we
o f Herbe rt Spen c e r s tea c hi ngs upon th i s subj e c t
agree wholly that we a re at the f o rk i n the road and
that as between the two paths ahead we unhesitati ngly
warn the weary pilgrim t o av o i d that whi c h leads to

social di si ntegrat ion and th o se lowe r stages O f h uman

c ond iti o n wh i c h l i e i n th e chaos o f ind iv i dual is m i n

that re m ote past where everywhe re th e egoi sti c i nsti n c t
p revailed and out o f wh i ch c iv ilizat ion whi c h i s nothing
mo re no r les s than socialization has been c alli ng l a w

and o rde r i n i ts slow but steady p rogress i n i ts pathway

to th e sta rs

Says H erbe rt Spen c e r

says Do c t o r Saleeb y
in
w o rd s wh i c h I m ake n o a p ology fo r quoting at
len gth :
Let it be seen that the futu re o f a nat i o n d epends
o n the natu re o f its units ; that thei r natu res are inevi
ta b ly m o d ied i n adaptat i on to the c ond itions i n wh i c h
they a re pla c ed ; that the feeli ngs c alled i nto play by these
condi ti o ns w ill st ren gt hen wh ile those wh i c h h ave
dimin ished demands o n the m w ill dwi ndle
O f the end s to be kept i n vi ew by the Legi slato r all
a re u nimportant co m p ared with the end o f c ha ra c te r
making ; and yet c hara c te r making i s an end wh o lly n u

re co gni zed
Do c to r Saleeby closes h i s lectu re with thi s signi c an t
remark Ei the r th e state i s very fa r w rong o r the great

i nd iv i d uali st I le ave you t o c hoose between the m

L et

us

POLITICAL E NVI RO NM E NT

59

Let u s admit c on d entiall y that i t i s the state t hi s

t ime I t i s ra re and i ndeed o n e o f the most u nusual
o f pleasu res t o be able t o agree wi th H e rbert S p encer

S o much o f H erbert Spencer s w o rk has been dev o ted to

the philos o phy o f i ndividual ism t hat i t i s rathe r startling

t o n d Saul among the p ro p hets

O f the ends to be

kept in view by the legislat o r says M r Spencerbut

then the re a re only tw o o r three ends to be kept i n v i ew
by the legislat o r acc o rdi ng t o Herbert S p ence r and
what these a re we might ask be f o re g o ing fu rthe r
Th ere a re plenty o f passages wh ich o utline the i ntens ity
o f h i s i nd ividualism and h i s hat red o f state a c t ion
but
none whi c h outline a better i dea o f hi s views than tha t
whi ch the B ritish Constitut ion a l As s o ciat i o n p resents as

p rovi ng c learly that the path o f p r o gress i s f rom f ree

dom t o greater freedom and that colle c t ivi st measures fo r
cu rbing th e i nd iv idual i n th e su p posed i nterest o f the
many are as retrogress iv e as they a re unscient i c an d

non pol it i c al
Here he co ntend s that the S phere o f
government should b e narrowed even m o re than i t i s
i n Englan d
that the legislatu re c annot equ itably put
fu rthe r rest ricti o n s up o n i t eithe r b y forbidd ing any
a c ti o ns whi c h the l a w o f equal f reedom pe rm i ts o r tak
i ng away any p roperty save that requi red t o pay th e

c ost o f en fo rcing thi s l a w itsel f

Just wh ere the c a p ital i s c oming f ro m to set u p th e

legi slato r i n the busi ness o f c hara c te r making u nde r

these rest ri cti ons i s a quest ion that Herbe rt Spencer being
d ead i s le ft f o r Do c to r Saleeby o r S i r A rthu r Clay t o
explai n and j ust where th e p ri n c ipl e o f c ol l ect ivi sm c an
be mad e t o appea r i n a state s o h ighly o rgan ized as to
,

60

T H E N EW POLITIC S

ssume th e eth i c al and so c ial f un c t io n o f c ha ra c te r

m aki ng ( and i t i s a gree d that th is i s a n e n d whol ly

u n re c ogn ized ) wi ll hardl y be found i n So c ia l S tat i c s

Fi rst Pri n c iples o r M an v e rsu s the S tate

By
the
(
way why Man v e rs u s th e State ? Have we not He rb e rt

S pencer s whole philosophy i n thi s ti tle express ing a n

t a go n i sm between co rp o rate and ind iv idual man ?)
I re p eat that i t i s a ra re pleasu re to nd the do c t ri n e
stated i n n o u n c e rtai n terms that we need mo re state
i nte r f e rence rather than less ; that th e mode rn legislato r
i s remi ss i n h i s duty ; th a t h e i s sh i rki ng h i s respons i
b i l i t i e s and that h e i s to c ompete w ith pa rs o n and peda
g o gu e i n legi slat ing f o r a state whi c h a f te r all then
G o t t s e i d a n k h as a rat ional c onst ru c t ive eth i c al
S pi ritual and pu rpos ive m i ssion
Whi le we are agreein g w ith H erbe rt Spen c e r let u s

express ou r fu rthe r p leasu re i n h i s do c t ri ne that the

f utu re o f a nati o n depend s up o n the natu re o f its un its ;
that thei r natu res a re i nevi tably mod ied i n adaptation
t o th e cond iti ons i n wh i c h they a re placed ; that the f eel
i ngs called i nt o p lay by these cond iti o ns w ill st ren gthen
w h il e th o se whi ch have d imi nished demand s o n them

w ill dwi ndle

The re are t wo i m po rtant c onside rat ions suggeste d
here The rst i s as t o whethe r a state o f anarchy o r a
state o f law and o rde r i s th e bette r envi r o nment for these
h uman unit s o r o ffers th e bette r o ppo rtun iti es f o r c ha r

acter mak ing

The se c ond i s to paraph rase Herbe rt

Spence r s st a te m ent let i t be seen that the f utu re o f

a house d epends upon the natu re o f the b ri c k b ats

T he question wh ich Herbert Spen c er d oes not raise i s

POLITICAL E NVI RO N M E NT

61

one o f a rch ite c tu re

I t i s ap p arent that i f the
m aterials a re g oo d the h o us e will be b o th a beauti fu l
a nd c om fo rtable home The b ricks planks and p laste r
which
must
all
be
o
f
per
fect
mate
rials
i
n
pe
r
fect
uni
ts
(
o f thei r ki nd ) w ill by s o me g oo d l a i ss ez fa i r e chance o r
other fall togethe r without architectural f o reth o ught i nto
a whimsical f o rm and well beh o ld ! The Temple o f
I ndivi duali sm
T o retu rn t o S p encer : The feeli ngs c alled i nt o play
by these c o nditi o ns wi ll st ren gt hen while th o s e whi ch

have d imi ni shed demands o n them will dwi ndle

We a re t o ld by the unctu o us p r op hets o f l a i ss ez fa i r e
t hat co mpet it i o n i s th e l a w o f li fe and th a t we devel o p
st rength i n c om p eti ti o n
Thi s i s qu ite t rue
Th e
feelings called i nto play by these c o nd itions w ill

strengthen
What are these co nd iti o n s o f m o dern co m
petiti o n ? What kind O f st rength a re we devel op ing ?
And what k i nd o f we a kness a re we elimi nati ng fr o m
We are devel o ping
o u r twentieth c entu ry c ivilizat i o n ?
t he ki nd o f st rengt h wh i ch p revails i n ou r p o l iti c al an d
e c on o m ic envi r o nment
Th a t env i r o nment i s one i n
whi c h the str o ng su rv ive and the weak a re elim i nated
And we a re devel op i ng the kind o f st rength whi ch i s
exe rc i sed i n the st ruggle f o rced by an envi r o nment i n
whi c h we have been u n f o rtunate en o ugh t o have been
bo rn i f we a re u n n a n c i a l men Th e st rength th i s age
o f f ree co m p et i ti o n i s develo p i ng i s that o f n a n c i a l i sm
and alm o st noth ing else The nanciers are maste rs o f
the w o rl dth e rest o f u s a re mostly h i red men Fi nan
c i a l i sm i s n o t only eliminat ing the weak that i s the u m
n a n c i a l but i t i s als o fra m ing and st rengtheni ng the
the

T H E N EW POLITIC S

62

so c ial st ru c tu re so that it rea c t s for the benet an d fo r

the perpetuat i o n o f the st rong ; that i s when you sum i t
all up the nanc ial i nsti nct
I f th ere i s any t ruth i n the c ontention that c ompeti tion
devel o ps st rengt h the kind o f st ren gt h developed i s that
which c ompetes and t hat on th e plane o f c ompetiti o n
Does the theo ry o f i nd ivi dual ism wh ich i s that sel f
i nte rest i s the motive and sel f aggrandizement the aim ,
and a f ree fo r -all eld fo r wol f and lamb alike w ithout
re c ogniti o n o f the pri nciple o f hand i c ap o ff e r a fai r and
even chan c e fo r making those per fect un its whi c h a re
n ecessary t o a per f e c t state ? Does this envi ronment

o ffe r th e legi slato r h i s best eld f o r cha racter m aki ng ?

I s not sel f aggrand izement the over po weri ng aim o f
c ivil ization ? I s not thi s what m ost o f the wo rld i s wo rk
ing fo r c ompeti ng f o r ? Does th i s pro c ess exe rc i se the
alt ru isti c m uscles and i s i t l ikely that great souls will
be the frui t o f a l a i ss ez f a i r e c ompet ition o f i nnume rable
a c qu isitive i nstin c ts ? I s i t not likely rathe r that it w ill
result i n a f ew mo re acqu isitive monste rs and the a po t h e
osi s o f the multibilli o nai re ?
We a re told that th e race improves but we a re n o t
i n fo rm ed what t y pe o f weakness i s to be elimi nated
P ro fessor Hen ry Jones o f Glasg o w i n a re c ent work
( Th e Wo rking Faith o f the So c ial Re f o rme r ) makes a
H e says that b o th s o cial
v e ry impo rtant d ist in c tion
i st s and individual ist s see m t o take i t fo r granted that
th e la rger area o f state c ont rol o r publ i c ownershi p
rest ri c ts th e el d o f i nd ivi d ual i ni tia t ive

I t w ill be well to a sk the question he says which

both have p ract ically overlooked
Th e re i s n o doubt
,

POLITI CAL ENVI RO NM ENT

63

that state and c iv i c enterp ri se have i n c reased bu t has

p rivate ente rpri se cont ra c ted ? c an the fo rm e r i n c rease
only at the expense o f the latter ? Are the t wo sph eres
m utually exclusive o r i s it p o ss ible that the general l a w
o f the growth o f spi ri tual subj e c ts whethe r i nd ividual
h o ld s here t o o an d th at e a c h i n developi ng
o r social

may st rengthen i t s opp osite ?

H e asks fu rthe r whethe r w ith the mode rn i n c rease o f
state act ion private greed i s d i sappea ri ng u nde r the n ew
regime H e then asks a most pe rt i nent i ndeed v ital

questi on What d o es the mo ral ist fea r m o re o r w ith

b ette r reasons to day than that the n ew indust ri al c o n
d i t i o n s wi ll abso rb the m ind o f the nat ion t o a degree

that imperi ls the d eepe r f o u ndations o f it s wel fa re ?

Agai n The c o ntent ion that S o c ial ism i s al ready u pon

u s i s t rue i f by that i s meant that the meth o d o f organ

i z e d communal enterp ri se i s m o re i n u se ; but i t i s not

t ru e i f it means that t he i nd ividual s sphere o f a c tion o r

h i s p o wer to ext ra c t ut ilit ies that i s wealth o u t o f h i s
material envi r o nment h a s been limited I t i s bei ng over
lo o ked that the di splacement o f the i nd ividual i s but th e
rst step i n h i s reinstatement ; and that what i s r e pr e

sented a s the Coming o f Sociali sm may wi th equal t ruth

be c alled the Com ing o f Ind ivi duali sm

Th e fu n c ti o n s
,

th e

s ta t e a n d

i n di vi du a l

on

th e

i ty

on

o t h er

th e

o n e si d e a n d

th o se

h a ve g r o wn t o ge t h e r

th e

I need o ff e r no apology t o the rea d er i n qu o ti ng fu r

ther at some length and i n ll ing perhaps anoth er page
w ith th e vi tal and p ro found words o f P ro fesso r J o nes
when that page w o uld otherw ise b e lle d with words o f
m y o wn
,

T H E NEW POLITIC S

64

I t i s qu ite t ru e he conti nues that c o m m on o wner

s hi p and c o mmon enterpri ses tu rn u s i nto l imited p ro
pr i e t o r s ; but t hey make us limited p r o p ri eto rs o f i n d e

n i t e ly large util it ies

Just he re I c o uld h a ve wi shed to see P ro fesso r J o n e s
enl a rge up o n the p o i nt that there is almost an i nnite

number o f the i ndeni tely large utilities wh ich we can

enj o y as much o f u nder l imited p r op riet o rsh i p a s u nde r
exclusive o wnershi p Why shut the w o rld out when o u r
cu p i s al ready full ?
Th r o ugh the c o mmon use o f publ ic me a ns t o meet
ind ividu a l wants th e real possessi o ns and po we r o f eve ry
o ne a re enla rged B reak u p the comm o n use and t h e u se
fo r each by himsel f wi ll be less Take the i nd ividual out
o f the o rgani zed state d isentangle h i s li fe from that o f

h i s neighb o r s gi ve him the freed o m o f th e wild ass

make him k ing o f an em p i re o f savages and he wi ll
b e as n a ked and poo r and p o werless as the l o west o f h i s
subj ect s exce p t p e rh a ps f o r s o me ext ra plumes and
,

sh e Hs

St a t e and ci tizen l ive and d evel o p o nly i n and th rough

each o the r I t i s the unm o ral ized c o mmunity and the uns o
c i a l i z e d ind ividual wh i c h f o ll o ws methods o f resi stance
and mutual exclusion As they gr o w i n st rengththat
i s i n the p owe r t o co n c e ive wi de r ends and t o c arry them
o ut st a te a n d c itizen ente r more dee p ly the o n e i nt o the
o ther I f th e state o wns t he ci tizen the c itizen als o o wns
th e state
S o th a t the i nd ividual ist might well

desi re m o re state inter ference an d th e s o ciali st m o re

p ri vate right s f o r the best m eans o f p ro duci ng st rong

men i s a h i ghly o rganized state and the o nly way o f
.

POLI TI CAL ENVI RO NM ENT

65

p r o du c ing a st rong state i s t o make the ci tizens o wn s o

much care fo r so much b e resp o nsible f o r so much
that ea c h c an sa y without i nj u ry to h i s neighb o r The

st a te i s m i ne
Notw ithstand i ng the f a c t that H erbert Spence r stand s
w ith the nat i o nal i sts i n hi s assertion that the re i s n o mo re

impo rtant duty o f th e legi slato r than that o f cha ra c te r

maki ng ( and I con fess that I agree with h im wh o lly

and that the p roposition i s fundamental unde r whateve r

i sm i t may be classi ed ) politics may be c ons idered a s

a quest ion o f envi ronment
I t i s n o t c laimed by t he Ne w P o l iti c s that legi slati on
w i ll recreate human c ha ra c te r o r re f o rm the wo rld o r
that the state cent rali zed o r decent ralize d can eve r b e

c o me what B entham cha racteri zed as a mill t o gri nd

r o gues h o nest ( Theod o re Ro o sevelt Dynami c Geog

r a ph e r Hen ry F r o wd e by the p resent w rite r )
The vai n
regret i s as o ld as the mem o ry o f Ant isthenes wh o i m
pl o r e d t he Senate o f hi s t ime t o m a ke h o rses o f asses
by o i c i a l vot e The n e w dem o c ra c y o f n a ti o nali sm claims
fo r itsel f that i t o ffers the f o rms o f a rat i o n a l ass oc iati on
i n a Sp he re o f the state enla rged and m o ra lized whi ch
w i ll c onstitute a p o l iti cal envi r o nment where eve rything
i n the i nd ividual that i s best and w o rth p rese rving will
be encou raged i nstead o f thwa rted and where the ki nd
lie r im p ulses o f the human heart the m o st o f which a re
being ch o ked i n the maelst r o m o f i nd ivi dualism shall have
at least even chances f o r existence I f th e stat e w ill
o ffer a p ol iti c al envi r o nment wh ich w ill make the p ubli c
well bein g po ssible the p ubli c will l o ok o ut f o r itsel f
The p atheti c message o f h ist o ry i s th a t the people hav e
,

66

T H E N EW POLITIC S

neve r ha d a c han c e What the y want i s a c han c e An

eth i c a l d emo c ra c y would o ff e r the m a c han c e
Plato h as sai d somewhe re that you will neve r have
a per f e c t race o f men u nt il y o u have a per f e c t envi ron
ment a nd what Spen c e r says i s equally t ru e that yo u
c annot have a p e r fe c t state w ithout pe r fe c t u nits
The cont ribution o f the Scien c e o f B iolo gy to the stu d y
o f envi ronment will th r o w a wh ite l ight on the subj e c t i f
f oll o wed out b ut I c annot do that he re Fo r it i s certai n
an d I may sa y i t has passed i nto the c om m on and esta b
l i sh e d knowledge o f the w o rld that a gi ven o rganis m
w ill th rive better i n o ne envi ronment and the f a c t o f the
bette r o r the worse type w ill be dete rm ined by the bette r
o r the wo rse envi ro n ment
The mode rn c ity fo r example whi c h ki lls its enti re
population i n eve ry fou r generat ions i s c onstantly being
re c uperated f rom the c ount ry Howeve r i t i s produ c i ng
several n e w types o f human being n e w to the wo rld
w ithout doing c red it to i t The i nst itution o f n a n c i a l
ism i s p rodu c i ng its types an d d eveloping the m o n logi
c al l ines st raight towa rd thei r p rototypes the d og th e
cat and j acka l f ami lies w ith the element o f i ntel l e c t
ad d ed to th e p ri m o rdial i nst in c ts o f thei r possi b l e f a r
away an c est o rs
No w and then a dusty ways i d e th rows out a owe r
escaped f r o m th e t rampling o f many hoo fs o r f eet but

o rdi na rily o wers grow i n the ga rdens o f those who

love them and who u nde rstand them an d wh o unde r

stand the envi r o n m ent i n whi c h a owe r th rives
O nce fo r all l et i t be admitted that n o sane theo ry w ill
allow the wo rld to lose the f ree d o m o f the indivi du al
.

POLI TI C A L E NVI RO NM ENT

67

p rovi d e d by f reedo m we do not m ean law l essness The

c h ie f a r gum ent against all so c iali s m from the so c ial
i s m s o f the m u c k rake to th e sociali sms o f d reamland i s

that they i ndee d poi nt to a comi ng S lavery

slave ry
The health o f nation s lies i n a sou nd an d
t o the m o b
f ree i n d ivi d u al ity
We a re c om i ng to question the pla c e hithert o given

to l iberty a s li fe s c hie f go o d i n and o f itsel f and to

su spe c t that l ibe rty i nstead o f bein g an end i s a means
But mo re t han th i s whethe r it i s an en d o r
t o an en d
m ean s t o the end i t i s to be f o u n d by i nd i re c t ion It i s
t o be f ou nd by seeking someth ing else I n di v i du a l l i be r ty
Th e grow i ng re c og
d o es n o t l i e t o wa r d i n di v i du a l i sm
n i t i o n o f the p ri n c iple o f the enlarge m ent o f l ibert y
th rough the prin c i ple o f asso c iat ion m ay b e u sed to b r ing
even though but for a glance b e fore we pas s
u p agai n

f
f
th i s m atter o l ibe rty I mean po l iti
o n the quest ion o
c a l l iberty
By f a r the ablest p resentation o f the opp o site vie w

Liberty p ubli shed i n

o f thi s s u bj e c t i s that o f M il l on
th e m i d dle o f the n i neteenth century b as ing h i s a rg u

m ent not o n abst ra c t natu ral right b ut o n expe d ien c y

B ut John Stua rt M ill b e fo re he d ie d re c ogn ized very
c learl y t h at even the appea l t o utility requi red c on
e l usion s wh ich swept the support f ro m i n d iv idual ism
an d o n e o f the most c ha rm i ng c hapters i n t he h isto ry

o f human though t i s that o f thi s

Saint o f Rat i o nal

i sm
as Glad stone c alle d h im at last admitti ng the
f utili ty o f ind i vi dual ism as a phi l osophy o f l i fe
H ad n o t Bentham h is m aster b uilt h i s syste m on the

Epi cu rean d oc t rine that pleasure i s the c hi e f good an d

.

'

T H E N EW POLITIC S

68

had n o t Benth a m ex p ressly said Epi cu r us was the only

o ne a m o ng the an c ients wh o had the merit o f having

known the t ru e s o u rce o f m o rali ty ?

I n h i s ch a rm i ng aut o biogra p hy M ill desc ribes a c ri si s
i n h i s li fe H e had been read ing o f a her o i c a c t ion i n

They led m e t o ad op t a
Ma r m o n t e l s Me m o i r e s

n e w the o ry o f li fe
he s a ys
Th o se only a re h a pp y
I
thought
wh
o
have
thei
r
m
inds
xed
on
s
o
me
o
the
r
)
(
o bj ect th a n thei r o w n ha p pi ness ; o n the h a pp i ness o f
o the rs o r th e im p r o vement o f mank ind even o n some
art o r pu rsuit foll o wed n o t as a means but itsel f an i deal
end A iming thus at s o mething else they nd happi nes s
by th e way Th e only c hance i s t o t reat n o t happi nes s
but some end extern a l to i t as the pu rp o se o f l i fe
Thi s theory n o w becam e the basi s o f my ph ilosoph y o f

l i fe
I t i s easy t o se e whe re th i s enti re a b a ndonment o f
i nd ividuali sm must necessarily lead h im H e states that
h i s rst idea o f th e solida ri ty o f the race and the unity
o f hi st o ry was given h im by read ing the p o liti cal w rit

ings o f the St S im o n ian Sch o ol o f France

I wa s
greatly st ruck w ith the connected vi ew wh ich they for t h e
rst t ime p resented t o me o f the natu ral o rder o f human

p r o gress
S p e a ki ng o f the thi rd p e ri o d o f hi s l i fe
h e w rites o f h i s wi fe and himsel f t o gether and o f h i s

Op ini o ns havi ng gai ned i n b readth

While we re p udiated w ith th e greatest energy that
tyran ny o f soci ety o ve r th e i nd ividual wh i ch most s o cial
i st systems a re su p posed t o i nv o lve w e yet lo o ked f o r
ward to a time when s o ciety will no longer be d ivided
i nt o the idle and i ndust rious ; wh en the ru l e th at th ey
,

POLITI CAL E NVI RO NM ENT

69

who d o not w o rk shall not c a t w ill be appli ed n o t t o

pau p ers o nly but im p a rt ially t o all ; when the p rovi s i o n
o f the p r o duce o f l a b o r i nstead o f dependi ng in so
great a degree as i t n o w d o es o n the a cci dent o f bi rth
will be m a de by c o ncert on an ackn o wledged p rin c i p le o f
j ustice ; and when i t wi ll no l o nge r eithe r be o r be
thought to be imp o ss ible f o r human bei ngs to exe rt them
selves st renu o usly i n p rocu ring benet s w hich are n o t
to be exclusively thei r o w n but t o be shared with th e
society they belong to The s o ci a l p r ob lem o f the futu re
we c o nside red to be h o w to u nite the greatest i nd ividual
l ibe rty o f acti o n with a c ommon ownershi p i n the raw
material o f th e gl o be and an equal partici p at i o n o f all i n
the c ombined benets o f lab o r
We were n o w m uch less
democ rat s t han I had been
an i deal o f ultimate
imp rovement went far beyond D emo c racy and would
class u s de c idedly und er the genera l desi gnat i on o f

Social ists
Wh a t h a p pened i n th e l i fe o f J o h n S tuart M ill i s t o o
S lowly happen i ng to thi s a ge We began where he began
and w e are ex p eri encing a devel o pment si m ila r t o hi s
W e are lea rning that l iberty i s someth in g o the r than
l i c ense and that it i s to be gai ned by a utilizat i o n o f the
p rinciple o f ass o ciation and n o t o f the p ri nciple o f st ri fe
We a re beginning to questi on the dogmas o f an earli e r
age that pleasu re i s the ch ie f en d o f m an and that u n
rest ri c te d l iberty i s th e chie f means O f i t s attai nment
We a re howeve r m o re than eve r c onv i nced that the
p ri nciple o f liberty i s somethi ng to be held at all haza rd s
and that i n all o u r theo reti cal wanderings w e m ust n ever
lose S i ght o f i nd ivi dual l ibe rty as the begi nnin g o f prog
,

T H E NEW P OLITIC S

70

ress ; but that i nd ividua l l ibe rty i s th e p rodu c t o f l a w and

orde r
To obey God i s f reedom ( S en ec a )
I t i s p ro fou ndly t ru e that the re i s no f reedom possible
to the man who has not be c ome maste r o f h imsel f h i s
whims and i nst i n c ts and the re i s but one road to
thi s th rough d i s c i pline There i s a d isci p l ine o f free
dom and the re i s a d i sc ipli ne o f law
None can love

f reedom hea rt ily says M ilton but go o d men : the rest

love not f reedom but l i c ense whi c h never hath m o re

s c ope o r mo re i ndulgen c e than under ty rants

Mo ral liberat ion and pol iti c al f reed om m ust advan c e

togethe r says Hegel the p ro c ess must demand some

vast space o f t ime fo r its full real ization ; but it i s the

l a w o f the world s progress and the Teut o n i c nat ions a re

d estined to c a r ry i t i nto e ffect The Re fo rm at ion was
an i nd ispensable p repa ration fo r thi s great w o rk
T he failu re o f the Fren c h Rev o lution to realize libe rty
was be c ause i t aimed at exte rnal l iberat ion w ithout th e
i ndi spensable c ond itio n o f m o ral f reed o m
The
p rogress o f freed o m c an neve r be aided by a revolut ion

that has not been p re c eded by a rel i gi ous re f o rmati o n

Libe ral ism a s an abst ra c t ion emanating f rom France

t raversed the Roman wo rld ; but reli gious slave ry held
that wo rld i n th e fetters o f pol iti c al servitud e Fo r i t
i s a false p ri nci p le that th e fetter whi c h binds Right and
Freedom can be b r o ken w ithout the eman c ipation o f
c ons c iencethat the re c an b e a Revolut ion wit h o ut a
Ma t e r i a l s u p e r i o r i ty i n p o we r c a n
Re fo rmat ion
a c h i ev e n o e n d u r i n g r es u l ts ; Na p oleon coul d not c oe r c e
Spai n i nt o freedom any mo re than Phil ip I I could fo rc e

Holland i nto S lavery

.

POLITI CAL ENVIRO NM ENT

1
7

Wordswo rth w r o te on the margi n o f an arti c le wh i c h

den o un c ed h im a s a democrat : I am a lover o f liberty

but am aware that l ibe rty cann o t exist apart f r o m order

Even the lat e Lo rd Acton p r o foundly i nd ivi duali sti c
as he was sai d o nce i n Sp ite o f h i s polem i c agai nst
national ity that neithe r l iberty no r aut hori ty i s co n
c e i v a b l e except i n a well ordered society and i s remote

from eithe r anarchy o r ty ranny

Constitut ional

Government says a bi o graphe r was f o r h im the s o le

eternal t ruth i n p o litics the rare but the only genu i ne

guard ian o f f reed o m

Everythi ng i n natu re says Kant a c ts acco rd i ng

t o laws : the d isti n c t ion o f a rati o nal being i s the facult y

o f a c ting a c cord ing to the c onsciousness o f laws

The f ree man there f o re i s the man wh o d o es not what
i nstin c t demand s but what reason requ i res S i nce reason
i s as mu c h o r more o f the real natu re o f man than
i nsti nct
Whereve r human libe rty has appeared i n th i s wo rl d
i t has quickly d isappea red agai n u nless it has been guar
anteed by l a w and o rder Human rights are o rdai ned
by c iv il ized s oc i ety an d human beings have neve r any
whe re enj oyed those ri ghts ex c ept th r o ugh law and o rde r
as c onstit uted by civilized so c i ety Emers o n s p eaks o f

what he c alls thi s l a w o f laws by which the u niverse

i s made sa fe and h a b itable

My c ontent i o n i s that hum a n liberty ( and human w e l
fare as well ) i s p romoted and sa fegua rded by neithe r
anarchy n o r sociali sm but i n a rational so c ial o rder
s w ung i n a p r op e r equil ib rium between lo c al sel f g o ve rn
ment and nati o nal sel f government
,

T H E N EW POLITI C S

2
7

and o rder a re not the d est ruction but the sa f e

gu ard o f i ndivi dual l ibe rty and a rat ional state i s the
o nly envi ronment i n whi ch t he ower may grow But
th e state i s f o unded i n the i dea o f reci pr oc ity So i s
the golden rule
S o cial eth ics and i nd ividual ethi cs
have the sam e foundat i o n ; the re f o re the re i s n o d iv ersity
o f real i nt erest and n o real d ivi di ng l ine between th e
i ndividual and th e social sel f L ibe rty i s n o t the f ru it
o f the s o l itary l i fe F o r he who i solates h i s m in d and
hea rt a s natu re has i s o lated h i s b o dy i s a f reak o r a

c rim i nal f o r a s A ri stotl e sai d lon g ago h e m ust be a

beast o r a god wh o would l ive alone

Law

CH APTER VI
F OU ND A TIO N S

N A TIO N A LIS M

OF

The c lue t o the maki ng o f n i neteenth centu ry

t h o ught has been clea rly given by the late P r o fess o r

Edwa rd C a i rd : The i d ea o f o r ga n i c u n i ty and a s

im p li ed i n that the i d e a o f d ev el o p m en t
G o ethe and
H egel i n Ge rmany : C o mte in F rance Da rwin and S pe n
ce r in England
and a m u lt itude o f o the rs i n eve ry
depa rtment o f study have been i ns p i red by the i deas
o f o r ga n i s m a n d d ev e l o p m e n t
These ideas have
bee n th e marked ide a s o f the c entu ry the c o nscious o r

u nc o ns c i o us st imulus o f its best th o ught ; a n d they a re

w o rki ng i n the d i rect i o n o f a dee p er and m o re c o mp re

than h a s been a ttained i n any
h en si v e i ren i co n
p revi ou s stage o f the h i story o f p hilos o phy

The pecul ia r ni neteenth century mo vement begi ns

w ith a reasse rt ion o f the u nive rs a l as agai nst the i nd i

v i dual
Phil o sophy was no l o nge r c ontent to rega rd
the whole as the s u m o f the pa rts but c o ul d look up o n
t he d istinct i o n o f t he p a rt s only as a d i ff erent iati o n o f

the wh o le ( P r o gress o f the Centu ry Harpe r

P ro fess o r Cai rd fu rther develo p s th e thesi s that the best
a n d latest th ing i n ph il o s op hi c evolut io n i s th e Sp i ri t
w h ich does not o ppose the u nive rsal t o the i nd ividual but
synthes izes bot h I t i s S 0 w ith us We want a ll the
t ruth the re i s i n i n d ividualism We w a nt all the t ruth
the re i s i n social i sm I t m ust be a synthesi s which i s
n eithe r ind ividual ism
no r soci a l ism
P o litically what
,

73

T H E N EW POLITI C S
'

74

S hall w e c all it ? Nat ional ism ? I t matters less what w e

call i t than what we make it

Cai rd und e rtook a c riti c ism o f Comte s So c ial Phi

l o so ph y ( whi ch might be sai d t o be i n a sense based on
the p ropositi o n that there i s no ph ilosophy o f the i ndi
vi dual apart fr o m a phi l o s o phy o f humanity ) from the
poi nt o f v i ew o f th e p r o pos ition that the re c a n be no
reli gion o f humanity whi c h i s n o t also a rel igion o f

God
An d this means
conti nues Cai rd that i t i s
logi c ally im p ossible to go beyond th e me rely i nd ivi dual
i st i c poi nt o f view with which C o mte started ex c e p t on
the assumpt ion that t he i n tell i gen c e o f m a n i s o r i n v o l ves
.

a u n i v e rsa l

p r i n c i pl e of

k n o wl e dge

Until ou r appeal to reason g o es back o f th e i ndivi dual

opi nion and nds reality i n the co r po rate i ntelligen c e o f
m an a n intelligence whi ch i s o r i nvolves a un iversal

pri nci p le o f knowledge we a re l o st i n th e c on f u si ons o f

i llimitable and i r redeemable w a stes The re i s no possi
b i l i t y o f a c oncept ion o f a n eth ical state o n the basi s o f
atomi sm f o r the dem o c racy o f i nd i viduali sm i s dest itute
o f a n a rchi tectoni c idea as well as o f that co hes ive p ri n
th e nexus
c i pl e which al o ne makes a state possible ; vi z
o f good will i n a f ramewo rk o f the comm o n g o od
There i s n o co m m o n g oo d p o ssible where the nexus i s
enmity and n o t g o od will A n aggregat ion o f s c ram
bling graspi ng sel sh n esse s does n o t m a ke a rati o nal
state We have seen i t i llust rated only too well i f we
have gi ven heed t o t h e testimony o f h i sto ry

I f hi st o ry can tell u s l ittle o f th e past and nothi ng

o f the futu re says Froud e wh y waste o u r time o v er

H i st o ry i s a voi c e fo rever sound ing
so barren a study ?

OF

FOUNDATI O N S

NATI ONALI S M

75

a c ross the c entu ri es the laws o f right and w rong R i gh t

the sa c ri c e o f sel f t o goo d ; W rong the sa c ri c e o f
good t o sel f
Justice an d t ruth alone en d u re and
l ive Inj usti ce and falseh o od may be long lived but
D oo msday co mes at last to them i n F rench Revolutions

and o the r te rrible ways

I f we study c are full y those movement s o f thought
underneath the growth o f nat ional ism i n the United
States w e shall nd although i t h a s been f or th e most
part un recognized that i t h a s been fostered by a sense
o f t he inadequa c y o f anarchy a s a theo ry o f government
and by t he conv i c tion that the c ent ripetal fo rc e o f society
that whi ch holds i t togethe r that whi c h gi ves i t unity
Go o d w ill must be the basi s
i s g o od will n o t hat red
Th e basi s o f th e demo c ra c y o f ind i
o f true de m oc ra c y
st ri fe
I f thi s then be
v i d u a l i sm i s the p ri n c iple o f
demo c racy ; i f democ ra c y i s essentially st ri f e and i f its
d i rect ion i s t o ward and n o t away from i n d ivi d ual i sm by
all means let u s have something othe r than de m o c ra c y
for t here i s n o ethi c al meani ng i n any theory o f i no r
i
j uxtapos ition o f un related c ompeti ng politi c al
n
a
c
g
units I f the re i s to be a reali gn ment o f parties o n a
ph ilos o ph ical wh i c h i s t o sa y a rat ional bas is i t w ill be
somewhe re along thi s l i ne T o the de m ocra c y o f i ndi
v i d u a l i sm which i s the pa rty o f the past wil l gravitate
eve ry veste d p riv ilege eve ry sacred gra f t eve ry holy
veh i cle o f plunde r eve ry sai nted bossthe enti re system
revolvi ng around the c ent ral S phere o f selsh c lamo ring
f o r l iberty and rights ; i e i m mun ity To th e pa rty o f
the f utu re t o whi c h o u r young men are al ready c om i ng
those also w ill c ome wh o beli eve i n the state a s some
,

T H E NEW POLITIC S

76

th ing b etter than an i nst rument t o serve the st ronger i n

d i v i d u a l i st i c i nterest ; wh o co n c eive o f th e nat i o n as an
enti ty towa rd whi c h we must d i scha rge o u r duti es i f
we claim ou r rights ; who will t ry t o substitute f o r that
ugly greedy cash gou rmandi sm which forms the nexus o f
o u r p resent predato ry s oc iety the kindlie r sane r element
o f g o od will We have p rogressed far en o ugh in th is d i
re c tion so that f e w o f us like the Sh a h o f Persi a at the

P ri nce o f Wales s d inne r w o uld b e s o enam o red o f

c u c umbe rs that we w o uld em p ty the wh o le d ish i n ou r
sh i rt bosom and yet we w ill d o it w i th d o llars i n the
o f c e and o n the st reet The p rinci p l e has been estab
l i sh e d i n po l ite soci ety that we need neither hu r ry n o r
go rge at the table o f a friend for th e p ant ry i s

full but busi ness i s busi ness t hough i t be neithe r

mo ral n o r h o n o rable no r de c ent n o r civ ilized
S i n c e Epi c u rus the ethi c a l system o f i nd i viduali sm has
been p retty clea rly stated by p hil o so p he rs and pretty
c learly w o rked o ut i n m o dern h ist o ry ; and the ethics o f
i nd ivi dual i sm o ffe rs an i n a dequate f o undati o n f o r a
rat ional and social state By th i s t ime we know both its
mot ive a n d its p rogram We know i ts results
Stated with b revity and co mpleteness its mot ive i s
sel f i nte rest
Its pr o gram i s sel f aggrand izement
I ts result i s anar c hy
I f c e rt ai n o f th o se wh o hav e c alle d themse l ves i nd i
v i d u a l i st s have lab o red f o r the wel fa re o f manki nd
( an d
there h ave been la rge numbe rs ) i t has been o nly when
they have f o rs a ken the m o tives o f thei r c reed an d
have t ransgressed the c o nnes o f alt ruism ; f o r i ndivid
,

FOUND ATI O N S O F NATI O NALI S M

77

the syste m whi c h m akes se l f gra t i c a t i o n o r

pleasu re the s o le obj ect o f c hoice and denes mo ral ity

the intelligent pu rsui t o f that wh i c h i nstin c t c o m pel s

as

u s to pu rsue
The un ive rsal c ry o f i ndiv idua l is m i s fo r the l i b e rt y
s o fa r a s i t d oes not en c roa c h upon the
o f th e ind ividual

like l iberty o f h i s fellows

That s o un d s fai r B ut I
f o r one have not the least ide a o f j ust exa c tly what i t
m eans I t i s o n e o f th o se dange r o u s ph rases whi c h have
se rv ed lo ng apprent i ceshi p as o nomatop oeian catch
wo rd s I t s eems to have some o f the magi c co ns o lat i o n
o f the wo rd Meso p otamia ; but as t o thi s co n c rete matte r

o f actually enc roaching u po n a like liberty o f o ne s fel

lows ! He re i s the c rux We a re assuming ( i f we a re
i ndivi dual ists ) that i f we have o u r l iberty w e will not
en c r o a c h u pon the libe rty o f o u r fell o ws
I n the
multipli c ity o f human relat ions thi s op ens up i n n i t i e s
i n the un ive rs e i nnumerable A ve ry desi rable status
t ruly i f eve ry i nd ividu a li st enj o ys hi s l iberty ex c ept ing
i n so fa r as i t m ay enc roach o n the l ike liberty o f h is
fellows But I a m n o t qui te su re that I have eve r read
in h i sto ry any such status a c tual ized i n human so c i ety
A pretty m illenni al d ream t ruly ! But I am not qu ite
su re a s I look out u p on th e welte ri ng th ro a t c utt ing ra c e
o f men that that millennial daw n i s likely t o b e rea l ized
u nt il a f ter I have b een an angel f o r a m illion years Have
we besotte d ou rselves i n th e f an c y that the wo rld i s
Ch ristian an d that th e i nhabi tant s thereo f w ill act u p
to the golden rul e an d that no one will voluntarily e n

l ike l ibert y o f h i s fellow even though

c ro a c h upon a
he has the powe r ? Even though he h a s th e power !
is

u a li sm

T H E NEW POLITIC S

8
7

The more c unn ing have the p owe r Those wh o have

the t oo ls have the power Those who have the kni f e
by the handle have the powe r Those who know th e
game have the p o we r What about the others ? Th e
w eak th e i nno c en t the i gno rant ! What o f those wh o
hold the kni fe by the blade ? A re we t o assume equal ity ?
Then we assume a li e I t i s the plai nest k ind o f a sham
and humbug t hi s p retensi o n o f equality f o r the re i s
no equal ity Unt il we a re all equal we cannot compet e
on equal te rms Free com p et ition i s the compet ition o f
equals i f i t i s f ai r competition There fo re there i s n o
fai r free c ompetition n o fai r f ree t rade There f o re
There fo re the state m ust d raw i ts li ne s
we need a stat e

and say Thus fa r and no fu rthe r

The state m ust
i nter fere and it i s the stat e wh i c h must sa y Thou shalt

n o t enc roach u p on a l ike libe rty o f th ei r f ell o ws

Thi s
i s the i nd iv i duali st state at its best
Th e d emoc r a cy O f nati o nal ism means m o re I t d i ff e rs
f rom the d emoc racy o f i nd ivi dual ism i n that it in c ludes
duties as well as right s I t i n c ludes m o rethe p o we r
and d ignity and ethical m issi o n o f the state as somethi ng
mo re th a n a business p r o pos ition The demo c ra c y o f
i nd iv iduali sm a hund red years ago as well as t o d ay

c onside red enlightened sel f i nte rest a su fc ient p re

c i pi t a n t o f economi c order and a su f c i ent ac co unt o f
po lit ical g oo d It s p o int o f vi ew can be summed u p i n

the words o f W o rdsw o rth wh o hi t i t o ff i n R ob R oy s

G rave
.

T he g o o d o l d r ul e the si mpl e pl a n
T h a t the y sh o ul d t a ke wh o h a ve the p o w er
A n d the y sh o uld kee p wh o c a n
,

FOUNDATI O N S
An d the p o int

NATI O NALI SM

OF

79

v iew was clearly S h o wn i n the

a stoni shed remark o f the f o u rth Duke o f Ne w castle i n
t he H o use o f Lo rds De c embe r 3 1 8 3 0 May I n o t d o

what I like w ith m y o wn ?

The spi ri t wh ich i nspi res t he dem o c racy o f n a t i o nal
i sm S h o uld be mo re l ike that o f the gi fted sage o f the
G reeks
When S o c rates was im p l o red by friend s t o

esc a p e f r o m p ri son he replied I h a ve n o rights c o n

and then he d ra nk the

t ra r y t o Athens an d her laws
heml oc k
While nati o nal ity has at all t imes h a d a p ro f o und i n u
en c e upo n the pol iti c al a ffai rs o f men the i dea may be
said t o be i n a renewed sense a r e c reati o n o f the n ine
The centu ry o f rev o luti o n p receded
t ee n t h centu ry
that o f nati o n making because the e ra o f i nd ivi dual i sm
p receded that o f o rgan ization and social izat ion Th e
fear ful less o ns o f revolution have taught the world that
l iberty i s not freed o m that there i s no f reed o m withou t
l a w and o rde r t hat there i s n o l a w and o rde r with o ut
s o vereignty n o sove reignt y w ith o ut c o hesivenesso r
s
o
cial
izat
ion
n
o
s
o
cializat
i
o
n
withou
t
com
n
i
zati o n
a
;
g
mon inst ituti o ns comm o n i nte rests a c o mm o n l i fe the
bi ndi ng i dea o f wh i ch i s g oo d will n o t enm ity the result
o f wh i ch i s ha rm ony n o t st ri fe I n thi s c o mm o n l i fe
l ies nati o nal ity
We hav e t oo o ften l o st sight o f the real l o gical bear
i ng o f the t wo old Roman c o n c epti o ns r es p u bl i c a and
s a l u s p u bl i c a
Th e f o rme r connotes the c o mm o n inte rest
and the c o mm o n l i fe The latte r which i s based o n t h e
othe r re fers to the c ommon g oo d The two in c ove rin g
the c o m mon relati o ns and c ondi ti o ns o f th e com m on li f e
o

80

T H E N EW POLITIC S

fo r the end o f the c ommon g o o d co ver pretty well t h e

ground o f national ity
A c onst i tut ion i s
S a l us p o p u l i s u p r e m a l ex es t o !
1
o rdai ned t o p rom o t e the gene ral wel fa re
P ro fess o r Guyot has o ff e red a suggest ive o bse rvat ion
Ea
rt
h
and
M
an
p
H
e
states
that
i
n
eve
ry
o
rde
r
(
o f exi stence he nds th ree su cc essive stat es i denti cally
repeated ; a cha o s when all is c o n f o unded togethe r ; a
development where all i s separati ng ; a unity whe re all

i s bi nd i ng itsel f t o gethe r and o rganizi ng

The modern e ra o f re f o rmation and revolution i s one
i n whi ch a d i si nt egrati ng ph ilosophy i s b reak ing up the
chaos o f Feud a l and Cath o li c Eu rope Al ready now th e
fo rces o f o rganizati o n a re at wo rk toward a n e w unity
Th i s un ity will be that o f a rat ional and o rderly system
i nstead o f that o f a d i si ntegrat ing and cha o t i c mass Out
o f the o ld chaos th e outli nes o f the great i deas underlying
the u ni ty o f the futu re a re begi nning t o a p pea r The
better elem ents o f hum a n i ntelligence are al ready tu rn
i ng aw a y fr o m the gospel o f h elte r skelte r and are wo rk
.

n a ti o ns o f a m a n l y s p i rit s a y s B lu nts c h l i
there a r e th o u s a n d s o f m en wh o when
( T he o r y o f S t a te p
the st a te i s in d a n g e r o r nee d w i ll u n d ert a ke he a v y bu r d en s a n d
w i l l en d a n g e r b o th the p e a c e o f thei r f a m i l ies a n d thei r o wn l ives
T hi s s p irit o f se l f sa c r i c e c a n o n ly b e e p l a ine d o n the s upp o si
ti o n th a t these m en p re f er the s a f et y a n d w e l f a re o f thei r st a te
T he d ee d s o f a n c ient her oe s wo u l d b e
a n d n a ti o n t o thei r o w n
the f o lly o f i dl e f a n a ti c is m i f the st a te w ere o n ly a m e a n s o f
servin g in d ivi du a l interests i f the c o l l e c tive l i f e o f the n a ti o n
I n the
h a d n o t a hi g her v a l u e th a n the l i f e o f m a n y in d ivi du a l s
g re a t d a n g ers a n d c rises o f the n a ti o n al l i f e it b e c o m es c l e a r t o
m en th a t the st a te is s o m ethin g better a n d hi ghe r th a n a mu t u a l

a ss u r a n c e s o c iet y
1

NOTE

al l

FOUNDATI O N S OF NATI ONALI SM

81

i ng out the i dea o f o rganizat i on an d s c ient i c govern m ent

t o ward the socializat ion o f human ity and the bette rment

As P r o gress
o f the conditi o ns o f human ity
says

Mazz in i i s the great intellectual d i s co ve ry o f the m o d

e rn w o rld S O ass o ciati o n i s i ts n ew f o u nd inst rument

L o u l s Blan c says alm o st the same thi ng i n anoth e r
way i n the openi n g o f the Design a n d Plans o f h i s H i s

tor y o f the French Revoluti o n : Th ree great p rinci p les

d ivi de the w o rld and hi st o ry am o ng themselves : Autho r
i ty I nd ivi dualism F raternity
Th e p ri n c iple o f
ind ivi dualism i s t hat which taking ma n o ut o f so c iety
rende rs hi m the s o le j udge o f th a t whi c h su rrounds h im
and o f himsel f gives him an exalted sent iment o f h i s
right s w ith o ut poi nti ng o ut to him h i s d ut ies abandon s
h im t o h i s own st rength and f o r government p ro c laim s
the let al o ne S ystem The p rinciple o f f raternity i s that
which rega rd ing the members o f th e great fam ily as
h o m o gene o us tends o n e day t o o rgan ize s o c ieti es th e
w o rk o f man up o n the m o del o f the human body th e
w o rk o f G o d
O f those th ree p ri nc i p les the rst
engen d ers oppression b y sti ing persona l ity ; the sec o nd
leads t o o p p ression th rough anarchy ; the thi rd al o ne

b y m e a ns o f harmony gives bi rth t o l ibe rty

Libe rty ! sai d Luthe r ; libe rty ! repeated i n cho ru s

the phil o s op he rs o f t he ei ghteenth c entu ry ; and it i s a
wo rd libe rty which i n ou r day i s w ritten on the banners
o f civi lizati o n I t has been mi sunderstoo d and falsi ed
and S i nce Luthe r th i s m isunderstand ing th i s falsehood
have lled hi story ; i t wa s i n di v i d u a l i s m wh i c h h a pp e n e d

not

l i ber ty

It w o uld see m that world polit i c s i s fo ll o win g the

di

T H E N EW POLITIC S

82

re c ti on su ggested by Guyot f rom o ne unit y th ro ugh di s

i ntegrat ion to another un ityo r perhaps rather f ro m
u ni f o rm ity to u nity Perhaps it c ould be stated mo re
co rre c tly by s a yi ng t hat th rough the d isi ntegrat ion
p o l itical s o ciety i s being p re p ared fo r
o f i nd ivi dual i sm
t rans f o rmati o n f rom a mechani c a l uni formity to a
rat i o nal and o rgani c un ity
The th i ng to be remembe red i s this so f a r as th i s
study i s c o n c e rned that the ideas o f d is integrati o n are
not and cann o t be th e b a s is o f a pe rmanent and c o n
st ructi ve p o l it i cs ; that the veh icl e o f t rans iti o n fr o m
one age t o a n o ther an d a d ifferent age cannot o ff e r the
pe rm a nent f o und a ti o ns o f a rati o nal state
I n lo o king f o rwa rd t o wa rd u nity i n s o ciety o r t o ward

that m o re p e r fect uni o n i n o u r national p o liti c s we

must n o t c o n fuse u nity with un i f o rmity no r t rust t oo
mu c h i n u nity pe r s e We must bew a re o f p h rases as
o f shibb o leths Fo r exam p le a recent writer ( W E
Smyth C o nst ructi ve Democ racy ) qu o tes app r o vi ng th e

w o rd s o f M r B F ay M ills : Whateve r tend s t o wa rd

u ni ty i s t rue ; whateve r tend s t o wa rd d i vers ity i s false
Whateve r tends t o w a rd h a rm o ny i s right ; whateve r

tends t o w a rd d i sc o rd i s w rong
These w o rd s o ffe r an ex c ellent exam p le o f an ex qu i
s i t el y m i sleading un crit i c al st a tement o f a hal f t ruth
Th e hal f t ruth i gn o res th e o nly t ruth the i nd ivi dual i st
adm its Th e statement i gno res the exi stence O f a u nity
wh ich i s fal se a d iversity whi ch i s t rue It i s he re the
s oc ial i st mi sses h i s t rail H e d o es not re c ognize a proper
s p here o f i nd ividual l ibe rty initiat ive e ff ort The i n
d i v i d u a l i st on the o ther hand denies th e co ns c ious and
,

FOUNDATI O N S OF NATI O NALI S M

83

rderly m ove m ent o f the hu m an m onad from t he stand

po i nt o f t h e social c enterthe so c ial reason an d will
There i s t ruth i n b o th One cann o t ex c lude o r vi tiate
the other F o r i nstance I must rec o gnize the vali dity o f

t h e earth s m o vement o n its axi s a s well a s its movement

ar o und the su n
There i s a S phere i n wh i ch as it were the i ndi vi dua l
The re i s an o the r i n whi c h
m ust tu rn o n hi s o wn axis
h e swi ngs with re ference t o a un iversal o uts id e scheme
as he Sp i ns through s p ace S o cialis m w o uld seem to h o l d
f o r a harmony o f de p endence the i nd ivi dual ist f o r i n
de p endence B ut the re i s a harm o nyth e t rue o ne
i nterde p endence w hi ch gives stability to the s o la r system

sa fety to the sta rs ab o ve u s a s well as t o u s m idgets

Th is i s what ou r dual system means
b el o w

T o sa y that whateve r tend s t o ward unity i s t rue

etc i s t o sa y I bel i ev e i n peace at an y p rice

But
the re i s a ha rmony whi c h i s the type o f de a th The re i s
Some one
a d ivers ity wh ich i s the very c ond ition o f li fe
o nce rec o gnized th e c o re o f what I am co ntendin g fo r
when he said I am fo r peace at an y p rice eve n at the

c o st o f war
T he hal f t ruth i s what the i nd ivi duali st f o und i n the
eighteenth c entu ry and i t made him a rev o luti o n i st H e
f o rg o t that war i s not the no rmal state o f manki nd
I ndeed he declared th a t a state o f wa r i s the normal
state o f manki nd Free t rade l a i ss ez fa i r eun rest ri cted
of
c ompet iti o n these were so m e o f the watchwo r d s
the gos p el o f st ri fe Later on he t oo k o n a n ew con
w it h n ew watchwo rd s wh ich he c alled th e
c e pt i o n

st ruggle fo r existence and the su rvival o f the ttest

o

T H E N EW POLITIC S

84

H e m ight have said Whateve r tends towa rd d i sco rd i s

right Whatever tends toward harmony i s w rong

The other hal f t ruth i s what the so c ial ist i n h i s r ea c
t ion f r o m the o the r c reed i s p ro c laimi ng t o wa rd a
h um an state u n d i v e r si e d and ha rm on i o us pe rhaps but
deadas th e Dead Sea But the ev o luti o ni st w ill tell

u s that humanity s he a lthiest and best l ies s o mewhere

between unity and d ive rsity o r rathermuch rathe r
i ncludes b o th someth ing neithe r eternal st ru ggle n o r
eternal peace ; nei ther neve r end i ng st o rm n o r c alm The
d iu rnal a n d annual m o t i o n o f the ea rth a re b o th necess a ry
i n the economy o f the u niverse
An d so th e pe r fect state i s ma d e u p o f th o se ind ivi d
n a l s wh o s e right i s gu a ranteed to both i nd i vidual i n i
The p er fe c t state will
t i a t i v e and social well bei ng
p rovi de fo r the m o re pe r fect development o f the i nd i
o f man th rough and i n ha rmony wi th the
vi dua l i ty
growth o f h i s s o cial sel f
,

There i s a very ne p ass a ge in o ne o f the m o st i nter

esting b o o ks p ubl ish ed i n th i s gene rati o n namely th e
Posthum o us Lectu res and Essays o n Natu ral Theology
an d Ethics b y the late P ro fesso r William Walla c e o f
Ox f o rd :
,

Ma n

b e c o m e m o re a n d m o re c o nvin c e d th a t the D ivine mu st

d w e ll a m o n g u s th a t it mu st b e re a l ize d o n e a rth a s in H e a ven
bu t in t a n g i bl e a n d visi bl e
a n d re a l ize d n o t in the he a rt m ere ly
fo r m s O r t o p u t it m o re d e nite ly the enth u si a st w h o se gl a n c e
p a sses thr o ug h the d ivi d in g S h a m s t o the u n d er ly in g u nit y i s
i n the
n o t c o ntent t o bu i l d th a t l o n g l o st herit a g e o f h um a nity
s p irit o n ly ; he w i ll n o t t a m e ly s ubm i t t o the a c t u a l f ra gm ent a riness
c o ntent
i f so b e he c a n sti ll enj o y the c o m fo rtin g sense
o f l i fe
H e p r o tests a g a inst the b re ak in g up int o
o f its i d e a l w h o l eness
has

FOUNDATI O N S OF NAT I ON A LI S M

85

f r a c ti o n s o f c a s u a l u ns y ste m a ti c inh a r m o ni o u s c h a r a c ter o f the

m in o r g r o up in g s w hi c h a c t u a lly p rev a i l ; h e sh o w s h o w the y a r e
n o t duly d o vet a i l e d int o e a c h o ther
a n d th a t the y d o n o t ten d t o
c o nver g e a n d f o r m a c o ll e c tive u niverse o f l i f e ; he c o n d e m n s the
in eq u a l ities whi c h by s l o w a c c umul a ti o ns h a ve sh u t m a n y m en
o u t o f the c o mm o n s u n l i g ht o f h um a nit y a n d f o r c e d the m ei t her
t o c o w er d es p a i rin gly u n d er f a ll in g h o ve l s o r t o entren c h the m
se l ves d ea nt ly i n p a l a ti al p ris o ns H e d e m a n d s th a t the s o c i a l
b a sis o f h um a n l i f e a n d a c ti o n sh a ll b e re a l ize d n o t a s a m ere
g e n er a l s up ervisi o n a n d p o l i c e o f o c c a si o n a l inter f eren c e n o t a s
w hen d e nite a c ts a g a inst the c o mm o n
a s y ste m o f l a w s whi c h
w e a l h a ve b een tr a c e d t o their a u th o r sh a l l rest o re the b a l a n c e
a n d s ta tu s q u o a n t e bu t re a l ize d a s a re a s o n a bl e o r g a niz a ti o n w hi c h
wa t c hes so c a re ful ly so c l o se ly so w ise ly th a t ever y p a rt o f the
s o c i a l m ac hine sh a ll never f a i l t o kee p in m in d its s o c i a l du t y
t h a t n o p a rt sh a ll b e o the r th a n a n in d ivi du a l ize d o r g a n o r m is
si o n a r y o f the w h o l e th a t n o st a g n a ti o n n o bl o c k n o pu re ly s p e c i a l
o r l o c a l m o ve m ent sh a ll a rise t o m a r the u ni f o r m it y o f a c ti o n
,

B ut t o have a stat e like thi s it must be based on s o me

thi ng wholly di ssimila r and antagoni st i c to ind ivi duali sm
There c an be n o eth ical pol iti c s w ithout a state fra m ed
i n th e i nterest o f the publ ic good
The re c an b e n o
polit i cal rec o gnition o f the publ i c good without a theo ry

publi c as
o f l i fe wh i ch o ffe rs als o a theory o f the
so m ethin g othe r than a m ass o f un related atoms
What one wants i s that co nse rvati ve m iddle ground
whi c h will insure the full and f ree devel o pment o f both
so c ial a n d i nd ividual sel f i f the re i s a d i st i n c ti o n between

them
Sac red to u s i s the ind ividual says Mazzi ni

Sac re d i s so c iety We do not mean t o dest roy t he fo rmer

fo r the latte r and found a co lle c t ive tyra nny no r do we
mean to admi t the rights o f th e ind iv i dual i n d e pe n d
ently o f soci et y an d consign ou rselves to pe r p etual
anar c h y We want t o b a lance th e ope rati ons o f libe rty

and asso c iation i n a noble harm o ny

What we want
what th e people want what th e age i s c ryi ng fo r that i t
.

86

T H E N EW POLITIC S

may n d an i ssue from th i s slough o f selshness an d

d o ubt and negat i o n i s a faith a faith i n whi c h ou r souls
may ceas e to e rr i n search o f indivi dual ends may mar c h
together i n the knowledge o f one o rigi n o ne l a w, one

g o al
The Demo c racy o f National i s m i nv o lves elements u n
recogn ized by the Dem o c racy o f I nd ividual ism I t i n
v o lves certain fundamental relationships which are eth i
c al framed i n the f o rms o f i ts i nstitut i o ns f o r the com
mon g oo d Thi s co nstitutes Nat ionalism I f power and
admi nist ratio n a re ke p t close t o the pe op le they a re
d emoc rati c
Co rporate sel f gove rnment f o r the c o r
po ra t e good as o pp o sed t o p o litic a l l a i ss ez fa i r e i s some
thi ng like the Democ racy o i Nati o nal ism Thi s fo rm
o f a state i s s o meth ing new i n the w o rld Democ racy
has always been the p o lit i c al as p ect o f i nd ividual ism It
h as been ana rch ic The spi ri t o f i t i s what D ider o t c alled
the spi ri t o f th e ei ghteenth centu ry l ibe r ty But then
that was only o ne c o nce p tion o f liberty l i c ense
and thi s

was what Lou i s B l a n e said it was : I t w a s i ndi vidual i sm

wh ich happened not liberty

But the state must n o t st o p here I t i s qui te i mp o ss ible

for o ne t o say o ff hand what a re the duties o f a state

but that the st a te i s f ounde d on p rinciples whi c h make
d ut ies ne c essary i s u nquest i o ned f o r the stat e has o bli
i
o n s as well as ri ghts
The
state
i
s
the
i
n s t i tu ti o n a l
a
t
g
z a t i o n o f th e c o m m o n r e a so n and l i f e f o r th e c o m m o n
,

go o d

Thus p rayed Cleanthes the St o ic : Lea d thou me

Z eus a nd th o u w o rld s L a w whithersoeve r I a m a p

po i nted t o go ; f o r I will f o llow u nrelu c tant

,

FOUNDATI O N S O F N ATI O NALI S M

87

This i s a standp o i nt l o fty eno u gh for w o rld po l iti c s

r wo rld reli gion
One tu rns to the i nsi g ni c ant i nd iv i d ualist w ith sorrow
.

T h o u a rt si c k o f se l f l o ve Mal v o l i o
A n d t a ste w ith a d iste mp ere d a pp etite
-

There i s a bette r stan d po int f o r o n e who i s n o t a f rai d

t o l ook l i fe and destiny i n t he fa c e wh o wants to know
the d ign ity o f m an and that i s the standpoint wh i c h
P ro f esso r Cai r d use d so o ften i n h i s Ox fo rd le c tu res :
,

S ub

p ec i e

wte r n i ta ti s

BOOK I I I

T H E D EM O C R A CY O F NATI O NAL I S M

89

C HAPTER I

T H E OLD I SSU E
the rst time si n c e the Civi l War and f o r the thi rd
t ime i n the h i sto ry o f the Republic a funda m ental i de a
h a s raised itsel f t o the sur face o f o u r palt ry p o l it i c al
l i fe t o remi nd u s that a fte r all there i s somethi ng besides
i nd ivi dual i nte rests i n Ameri c an Polit i c s
I t i s the same p ri n c ipl e i n all th ree i nstan c esi n v o l v

i ng the same st ruggle the p ri nciple o f nat i o nali sm p ro

testi ng against that o f parti culari sm law and o rde r o p
posi ng th e abuses o f ana r c h y an d i ne fc iency in o u r
national a ff ai rs Onc e mo re we are ba c k o n f u n da m e n
tal grou nd Once mo re the i ssue i s raised between state
and nat i o n whether the part i s greate r than the whole
Two recent m o vements th e ant i T rust and Conserva
t ion m ovements have d isclosed the fact that there a re
c e rtai n la rge and im p o rtan t a reas f o r wh i c h there i s n o
The sel f c on
l a w ; ove r whi c h there i s no s o vereignty
st ituted and sel f perpetuat i ng i nsti tut ion o f nan c ial
p rivilege enth r o n e d i n Wall St reet w ith an u npa rdonable
rapa c ity and w ith unp re c edented i nsolence has bulwarked
it s p retensions i n the old c laims o f state soverei gnty
The ri se o f i nterstate c o rpo rat ions i n c o rporated with i n
and respons ibl e to a si ngle state ; the im po ss ibil ity o f o ne
state to c atch punish o r co nt r o l th e nancial l a w b reaker
w it h another state b o undary so nea r ; the absorption by
these c o rp o rations o f so vast an a rea o f th e n at i o nal
resou r c es and the nati o nal domai n w ithout re c ou rse o r
F or

91

T H E N EW POLITIC S

2
9

possi b i l it y o f p un i shm ent has raised a pro bl em o f i m

medi a t e vi tal m oment to th e Am e ri c an people
To u se a legal pa radox we have d i s co ve red a vast
a rea o f c rime over which there i s no law the i nte rst i c es
a s i t were between th e states
The rst question as to thi s a rea o f ana rchy i s under
whose sove rei gnty does i t l i e that o f state o r nat ion ?
It i s on exactly th is gr o und that we must ght out
the whole p rogressive m o vement
I f i t i s t o be le ft to the stat e i t will be found that i n
a sense i t does n o t fall with i n the states but between the
states ; there fo re b y th e states the quest ion will ne v e r
be s o lved at all
S hall th e nati o n then o r sh a ll it n o t under the C o nsti
t u t i o n annex th o s e a reas o f ana r c hy between state and
state and between state and nat i o n over wh i c h there i s
Whe re shall we look f or
n o w no sove rei gnty at all ?
sovereignty whe re now n o s o vereignty exi st s ?
T he questi o n i s n o t o ne as t o where l ies abs o lute sov
Th i s d o es n ot exi st i n Ame ri ca The i ndi
e r e i gn t y
vidual q ua i nd ividual has hi s i nvi o lable rights an d
res p onsibili ties As a membe r o f a mun icipal ity he h as
others A s a c itizen o f a state he has o the rs sti ll I n
those relations i n whi c h h e i s bound to a l i f e large r than
town co unty o r state h e i s and m ust be held amenable
t o a national fundamental and sove reign l a w on the s impl e
theo ry that we a re a nation and n o t a bunch o f states
The re i s a pa rty o f reacti o n wh i ch has d e c reed that
there shall be no fu rth e r developm ent o f the Consti tution
o f the Uni ted States It i s th e pa r ty wh ich almost p re
vente d th e f oundi ng o f th e nation and failing sought to
,

T H E OLD I S SUE

93

d es t ro y it ; wh o st ill want to return t o the p ri n c ip l es o f

Under
the
pleasi
n
g
o f 87
an
d
deny
t
he
pri
n
c
i
p
les
6
7

ct ion o f st ri c t c onstru c tion o f delegated powers they

w o uld dest roy th e fun d a m ental p rin c iples o f dem oc rat i c
gove rnment viz d i r e c t r e p r es en ta ti o n by th e p e o p l e r e
establi sh the p ri n c iple o f the Con federat ion v iz r epre
s c utat ion th rough fo rty eigh t d isti n c t and se p arate
s overei gn t ies called states They would have u s beli eve
that o u r fundament a l l a w i s an imper fect and in a dequate
nati o nal i nstrument cl o sed and sealed when the f o untains
o f i nspi rat i o n were d ri ed up o ver a hund re d yea rs ago
Was i t not Comte who declared i f G od wa s neare r
the w o rld i n ages past than H e i s to day He i s not th e
G o d o f the Futu re ? And can we n o t sa y i f the peopl e
we re sov ereign a hu nd red years ag o and are not so v
day w e shall be slaves t o mo rr o w ?
e r e i gn t o
The State Right idea i s that the C o nst itution i s a n
i n st r u m e n t po sse ss i n g only su c h powers as have been
su rrende red by th i rteen o r by forty eight states t o meet the
requ i rements o f the eighteenth centu ry i deals ; an d that
these powe rs a re only such as a re enumerated speci c ally
an d const rued l iterally even th o ugh they b e i nadequate
t o meet th e necess it ies o f ou r p resent nat ional o rganiza
t ion t o sa y nothing o f those unkn o wn i ssues which l i e
hi dden away i n a desti ny un revealed Thei r c ontenti o n
i s that all o u r n e w p roblems must b e met pie c eme a l an d
solve d i n f ra c tions
I t lay b eyond the range o f any hu m an f o resi gh t l ess
than omn iscient fo r th e f rame rs o f the Constituti on to
make p rovis i o n fo r such n e w p roblems as have p resente d
themselves to this mo re complex age to sa y noth ing o f
.

T H E N EW POLITIC S

94

those whi c h st ill l i e undeveloped an d even ungu es se d

i n futu re t imes I t was qui te impossible f o r them to see
fo r example the growth o f mode rn c o rpo rat i o ns and
t ru sts and to mak e c o nsti tuti o nal p rovi si o n f o r thei r
c ont r o l They make no allowance for futu re annexatio n
o f te rrito ry o r f o r any k ind o f p ubli c im p r o vement No
spe c i c p o we rs were gi ven to Congress t o de a l w ith these
o r any such questi o ns H o w could the framers o f the
Consti tuti o n wh o neve r sa w a rail r o ad a steamb o at a
t elegraph a tele p hone an ai r ship a steel wa rsh ip o r a
ma c hi ne gu n frame an unalte rable i nexible and a d a
m a n t i n e i nst rumen t as e fci ent fo r the expans i o ns an d
c om p lexit ies o f comi ng c entu ries as fo r thei r o w n s impl e
?
bu co li c wo rld
I t i s begi nning t o seem ne c essa ry t o
some o f u s that in build ing fo r a fa r away f utu re i f
o u r fore fathers have n o t made p r o vi sion fo r the devel
0 pm e n t o f su c h an organi sm as may su rv ive the tests o f
ex p eri ence that i t i s qui te time we we re d o ing the th ing
ou rselves I t has been b o rne in u po n u s p retty clearly
n o t o nly th a t th ere a re c o ncerns whi ch a ff ect all Am eri
cans and whi ch a re nati o n a l c o nce rns but that they a re
o utsid e the reach o f the states ; and even i f they a re not
they c ann o t be su c cess fully t reated p i e c emeal as f o r
ex a m p l e f ro m f o rty eight po i nt s o f vi ew and ea c h point
o f view neces sarily d i ff e rent f r o m all th e o th ers
The imp o ssibility o f eve r gett ing f orty eigh t d i ff erent
l egi slatu res to d eal unanimously and simultaneously wit h
comm o n vital nati o nal con c e rn s has b rought th e Ameri
can peopl e to face the necessity o f enla rging the sph ere
o f n a ti onal i ty as a measu re o f sel f de fense
H o w a re we and how a re futu re generati o ns t o deal
,

T H E OLD I S SUE

95

nati onal p ro b lem s needs neces sit ies not spe c i c al ly

p rovided f o r i n the Const i tuti o n o f the United States ?
I am n o t raising the questi o n o f l o cal p r oblems but o f
those which are national o r li e outs ide the boundaries
o f the i nterests o f a si ngle state
Th e whole quest ion was rai sed denitely at the Wh ite
House Con fe ren c e o f Gove rnors i n 1 908 M r W J

B ryan i s re p o rt ed t o have sai d There i s n o twiligh t

z o ne between the state and nat i o n i n which expl o iting

i nte rests c an take re f uge f rom b o th

Instead he lls

thi s twiligh t zone with t o o r o sy co rus c at i o ns o f h i s

o w n am iable an d o p timi sti c tem p erament
As t o thi s neut ral z o n e ( whi c h i s a t erm by th e wa y
I l ike better than twilight z o ne ) w ith wh i ch ea rnest
admi n ist rat o rs have had so mu c h t r o uble o f late an d
whe re th ei r sea rch part ies have d isc o ve red s o many f o ul
smelling lai rs o f pillage and immun ity there a re many
wh o decla re wi th M r B ryan that here we need no c o n
s t i t u t i o n ; because some day i t wi ll be governed i n f o rty
eight secti ons by a f ragmentary altru ism and fra c ti o nal

pat ri o ti sm
Ea rn est men c ont i nues M r B ryan w it h
an u nselsh pu rpose and c ont rolled o nly f o r t he publ i c
g o od will b e able to agree u pon legi slat i o n whi c h w ill
n o t only preserve f o r the futu re the i nheritan c e wh i c h
we have recei ved f rom a b o unti ful P rovidence but p re
serve i t i n such a way as t o av o i d the dangers o f c ent ral

i z a t i o n j ust as we h ave been d o ing perhaps i n the

d is p ersi o n o f n i nety per cent o f th e enti re wealth o f the
United States a m ong a hund re d m en known as Wall
S t reet

I a m j ealou s o f any enc roa c hment upon the right s o f

w ith

T H E NEW POLITIC S

96

the state b e l iev in g that the states a re i ndest ru c tible as

the Un ion i s i ndi ssoluble

Fo r my pa rt I beli eve i t to be sounde r democracy t o
be j ealous o f any enc ro a chment upon the right s o f man
be fo re the ri ghts o f the stat e and that i t i s not a ques
t ion a s to the states being indest ructible o r the Uni o n
i ndi ss o luble ; i t i s a questi o n o f nding a s o ve reign f o r
ana rchy I t i s a questi o n o f b ri nging j ustice t o nati o nal
and colossal o ff enders whom th e states d o n o t and can

n ot reach
M r B ryan s vague and s o n o r o us phrases
mean n o th ing u nder analysi s but a r e a frm a t i o n o f
l a i ssez fa i r e and c hance and d ri ft a den ial o f reason and
f o resight that what a f ew o f the best m ind s have been
t ryi ng to acc o mpli sh f o r a c entu ry and a quarte r will
s o me day happen by i tsel f and all o f a hea pwhen f o rt y

ei gh t c o ord i nated state legi slatu res o f earnest men wi th

an u nselsh p u rpo se and c ont rolled only f o r t he publ i c

g oo d will contem p o raneously a n d s imultaneously get

t o gethe r and agree u po n legisl a t i o n whi ch wi ll p re

s e rve fo r the futu re th e i nhe rit a nce we have received

f rom a b o unti ful P rov i den c e

When f o rty eigh t
pop ula r maj orities agree upon one method o f prese rv ing
t he i nheritance we have re c eived fr o m a bounti ful P r o vi
d en c e we m a y bel ieve that th e sky will fall and that we
shall all cat c h larks
When an i nd ivi dual i st like M r B ryan p r o tests against
c ent ralizat ion i n this sense h e i s p rotesti ng against o r
i
a
z
a
i
o
n
n
t
Su
c
h
a
p
rotest
ta
c
itly
ad
m
its
that
som
e
one
g
has neglected t o sh o w h im the d i fferen c e between c en
t ra l i z a t i o n and o rgan ization ; and fu rther m ore that he
i s o bl ivious to the one and only dange r o f c ent ral ization
,

T H E OLD I S SUE

97

i n thi s c ountry at this time and that i s th e c ent ra l izat ion

whi c h i s t he di re c t and net resul t o f the
o f capital
dem oc ra c y o f i nd ivi duali sm ; the out c o m e o f a co mpe
t ition so free and u ntrammeled by nat ional ove rsi g ht
an d rest rai nt as to have resulted i n less t han 000 6 o f
o u r p opulation own ing 2 5 per cent o f o u r national domai n
a n d one citizen owni ng o ne eleventh o f th e nation
,

The re a re m any views a s to h o w and when we be c a m e

The Const itutional Convent ion d i d not c ould
a nation
n o t declare fo r nati onal ity
The view o f su c h a man a s
P resident Walke r i s not c onvi n c i ng that i t all cam e about
w ithi n the rst th ree o r fou r decades o f ou r hi sto ry ; n o r
i s t he pu rely legal o n e o f St o ry an d Webste r and Curti s ;
no r i s that later view which dates nat ionality f ro m t h e
C i v il Wa r
The nat ion i s st ill i n th e m akin g The f u ndamental
questi on o f nati ona l it y seems to be still an i ssue We
hav e not a c hi eved o u r nati onal ity so long as there a re
n ational i nj ust i c es and out rages and i ndecen c i es u n pu n
i sh a b l e ; so l o n g as there are usu rpations and exploita
t ions immune ; so long as the re a re o ff enses wh i c h a r e
no so v
n o t named as c rimes o nly be c ause there i s
e r e i gn t y to rai se ove r them the aegi s o f th e l a w
We
have not wo rked o ut ou r nat ional ity so lon g as there i s
any nat ional i nterest o v er whi c h the n a tional funda
m ental l a w i s not supreme The re f ore I mai ntai n that
the adopt i on o f a c on stituti o n can be co nsi dered as n o
m o re than the begi nn ing o f a nation
It d id not c reate
a c ompleted nation
The literal t ext o f th e Constitution wh ich one o f the
.

T H E NEW POLITIC S

8
9

f rame rs sai d at the t ime o f i ts a d opt ion no one e x pe c ted

w o uld be held fo r a hund red yea rs was a c ompromise
wi th the advo c ates o f i nd ividualism state ri g hts and the
A rti cles o f Con fede ration Thi s i s not the Consti tuti o n
o f the Un ited States to day No o n e will p retend that
anythi ng connected with an i nstitut ion is the same to day
as i t was a hund red an d twenty v e yea rs ago The
ad o pt i o n o f the Const ituti o n was the beginn i n g W e
hav e been ad op t ing and a d a p t i n g ever s in c e
Who has the hardih oo d t o clai m th e Consti tutio n o f
1 9 1 1 i s the same as the Constitut ion o f 1 7 8 7 ?
I f it i s
not th e same why has i t been changed ? And h o w
has it been c hanged ? Why i ndeed i f not t o meet
the i ntelligent demands o f a n intell igen t peop l e ex
p and ing t o a la rge r l i fe meet i ng n ew p roblems and
c ri ses a rising f r o m new c o nd iti o ns ? I s n o t the i n c o n
i
o
f
th
e
p
o
sition
apparent
even
to
a
st
ri
c
t
c
o
n
r
t
u
g
y
st r u c t i o n i st wh o adheres t o the lette r o f the dead i nstead
o f the s p i ri t o f the l ivi ng wh ile hi s master Je ff e rs o n the
chie f o f all st ri ct c o nst ru c ti o n ists advo c ated a b ran d
Not the loosest
n e w co n st ituti o n every n i neteen yea rs ?
co nst ruct ioni st would t o day da re adv ocate so rad i c al

a pol icy as Je ff e rs o n s ( unless he we re a st rict c onst rue

t i o n i s t and i nd ivi dual i st that i s t o say on e who h a s n o
po l iti cal p ri nci p l e regulatin g what he thinks and says
and d oes )
Ou r fundament a l l a w i s i n ev o lut ion I ndeed eve ry
l ivi ng thing i s i n ev o lution The re f o re national ity i s
still in c omplete I t i s not a questi on o f what th e te x t o f
th e Constitut ion expl i c itly de c la res I t i s not a questi o n
a s t o w hether the states were sove reign o r not
The
,

T H E OLD I S SU E

99

ti m e h a s c o m e when we must take a la r g er view o f o u r

selves and a b r o ader i nterp ret a t ion o f o u r nati o nal ity
E ithe r the Constituti o n i s a xed an d l i m i ted i n st ru
m ent i nca p ab l e o f e x pans ion o r growth o r i t i s a l iving
gr o wing inst rument o f a l ivi ng grow ing nat ion I f i t
i s th e f o rme r an o ther ha l f c entu ry w ill nd u s wi th the
most i nadequate c onst itut ion i n th e c ivilized w o rld I f
i t i s o therwi se A m eri c a m ay ach ieve it s m an i fest desti ny
and futu re c ent u ri es wil l remai n unshackled t o a n a ge
wh i c h d id not dare p r oc laim nationality i n the n e w c o n
st i t u t i o n ; an age wh i c h nea rly l o st i ts co nstituti o n o v er
s u c h t rivia l p retext s as c on i ct o f i nterests between the
o yste rmen o f Ma ryland and Vi rgi nia The o nly ade
quate theory o f o u r nati o nal go vernment i s that i t began
i n the adoption o f the C o n st ituti o n which it wa s i m po s
s ible t o f rame at o n e t ime f o r all t ime ; to meet the n ew
r
o
blems
o
f
the
ages
wh
ich
lay
o
ut
be
f
o
re
a
nation
n
e
w
p
j ust begin ni ng to b e and al ready desti ned t o be great
The popu l ati o n o f the wh o le nati o n then was n o t as large
N o ne o f th e rev o
a s that n o w o f Greate r New Y o rk
lutions h ad been w r o ught whi c h we re ab o ut t o t rans f o rm
t he wo rld i n that s c i entic centu ry wh i c h i n the material
wel fare o f man was t o accom p lish far m o re than had all

the ages s in c e L o t s wi fe g o t o ut o f Sodom

I f the f athers had a right to quest ion thei r institut ions
we have a righ t to questi o n o u rs I f they had a righ t t o
p rotest again st the anarchy o f Stat e Rights and r e pu di
ate the Art i c les o f Con federati on we h a v e a right to p r o
t est agai nst the ana rchy o f modern t imes and c o nst ru e
a const itut iono r make one wh i c h i s large en o ugh f o r
the needs o f a hund red milli o n people We have th e
.

T H E N EW POLITIC S

2 00

right t o c onst ru e o u r fundamental law o n establi sh ed and

a cc epted p ri n c iples o f c onst ru c t ion to suit the pe rem p
to ry necessities o f a growi ng nation The Constituti o n
o f the United States i s a do c ument n o m o re sa c re d to da y
than we re the A rti cles o f Con fede rat ion be f o re it ; ex c ept
as th e fo rmer i nst rument better se rves the wel fa re o f t he
Ameri c an people Th e Constituti o n was n o t made a s a n
id o l I t i s not s o met h ing to be wo rship p ed in and o f

i tsel f I t i s an inst rument to p romote the general wel

fare
Some o f u s have fo rgotten t his We have rested

ou r cas e wi th the fathers what they taughtwhat

they w rought Thei r child ren wh o have gr o wn gray
and thei rs who are gr o wi ng graythese d o not c ount
Those wh o have taken this view co n c eive a nat ion as a
me c han ism not an o rgani sm o f wh i c h no p rovi sion c an
b e made f or growth
By t he way o f pa renthesis i t m ay b e said he re that
o n e o f the most u ndemo c rat i c o f mode rn t enden c i es i s
the di sposi ti o n o f ou r pe o ple t o assail those who have
dared to c rit icize the Su p reme C o u rt o f the Un ited States
The re seems t o be an u nw ritten l a w o f l ese m ajes te I t
has been sup p osed h itherto that o u r G o ve r nment like a l l
Gaul and some othe r t ri nit ies i s d ivided i nto three pa rts
the Legi slat ive Exe c ut ive and Jud iciary but some w o uld

add th e greatest o f these i s the Jud icia ry We m ight

admi t that But when the peo p le assail the P resident and
Congress even the S p eake r the way they d o without
re c ou rse ; n o w and then when some one da res to ques

t i o n th e j ud i c ia ry h e i s belab o red t o the l a nd s ends i t

i s quite th e m oment f o r asking a seri o u s questi o n o r tw o
N othi ng that I know unde rneath th e th rone o f God i s
,

T H E OLD I S SU E

201

i mm un e f ro m honest c riti c i sm Some hav e ev en d ared

that They hav e c riticize d the B ible o u t o f o u r e d u c a

system
they have c riti c ized th e Chu r c h to the
i
n
a
l
t o
ba c kgrounde v eryth i ng h a s had its wh i rl i n the c ru c ible
but the th rone o f heaven and the Sup reme Cou rta
f ru it ful thought when y o u know one m ay b e occupied
by Almighty God and the other by a c o rpo rat ion lawye r
Nevertheless o u r Sup reme C ou rt i s t he best thing i n
A m eri ca Even then when any hu m an i nst itut ion b e
c omes too holy to be c rit icized i t i s time fo r that i nsti
t u t i o n t o be aboli shed a s dange rou s t o the libe rti es o f
the people
We are onl y a c entu ry o l d H o w t rite b ut h o w t ru e
that t hi s i s but a moment i n the aeons th e No rth Ameri
c an Continent i s t o play i n the h i sto ry o f the hu m an race
F ro m Wash ington t o Ta ft th e span o f t wo ngers o ut
innite reaches o f t ime !
of
Wh o would m o ld
gyv es fo r th e exp o un d i ng futu re ? We a re n o t what we
were wh en Columbus di scove re d Ameri cawhen the
Engl ish f o ught the F renchwhen th e Colonial s f o ught
the Engl i shwh en Ameri cans f o ught ea c h othe r We
are what w e a re thi s and no other day We c annot
sha c kl e the w ri sts o f p o ste rity no r shall o u r an c est o rs
shackle ou rs
Ou r nation i s n o t a machi ne I t i s a
growi ng o rgani sm Thi s gr o wing o rganis m i s the ult i
mate facto r n o t the i nst rument o f its wel fa re Thi s

i nst rument must b e an elasti c i nst ru m ent o r l ike Goethe s

vase i t will be b roken by the a c o rn plante d i n i t
.

C HAPTER I I

N A TIO N A LIT Y A ND T H E P U B LI C DO M A I N
One o f the m o st imp o rtan t de p artu res f ro m the pa r
t i c u l a r i sm o f the fathe rs was that when the questi o n was
raised by Ma ryland o f a national d o mai n o utside the
j u ri sd icti o n o f the state and u nde r that o f Congress
The i m po rtance o f thi s was n o t realized at the time but
i t was a rev o lut iona ry p ri nciple M aryland asked C o n
gress t o dete rm i ne the western bou nda ri es o f su c h states
as claimed t o extend t o the M i ssissip p i o r the S o uth Sea
S o me o f the states like V i rgi nia claimed en o rmous a reas
lyi ng west o f them and mo re o r less i ndete rm i nate
M a ryland had no such a rea
G radually there grew t o be a d i stri ct wh i ch had been
ceded by the states t o th e N a ti o n a l Gove rnment Th i s
became a n a t i o nal d o m a i n N o t o nly th a t but i t bec a me
a n a ti o nal d o main o ut o f wh ich states might be mad e
I t was actually p r op osed t o c reate new st a tes out o f
th i s nat ional d o mai n N o t o nly th is but i t was p roposed
t hat the Nati onal Government c re a te these states N o t
o nly th is but th e Nati o nal G ove rnment which o wned a
nati o nal domai n actually c re a ted st a tes out o f thi s
d o main
The acqu i si ti on o f Louis i a n a was a rev o lut iona ry p ro
cedu t e unde rtaken by men fresh f rom the th roes o f
rev o lut i o n The United States had a Constitut ion and
was g o verned by men wh o n eve r ceased thei r protesta
t ions o f adhesion t o the p rinci ple o f a st rict c onstr uc t ion
.

202

TH E PUBLIC DOMAI N

2 03

thereo f Let h o weve r the exigency be o f su f c ient i m

p o rt a nce let the need b e su fciently great let t he d o mi
nant pa rty s ufciently des i re i t and th e C onsti tut i o n
m u st be const rued t o be equa l t o th e exi gency a n d need
S o it wa s
A fte r t he pu rchase o f Lou isiana there was an era o f
commercial and p o l itica l go o d feeli ng during whi ch t he
c oo nski n cap b ri gade w a s pou ri ng over the A l l e gh a n i es
and settling the Fa r West between th e m o untai ns and

the M iss i ss i p p i
This great u nc o nstituti o n a l act o f

Je ff erson s wa s a b rilliant st roke o f c o nst ru c t ive state

c ra ft but wh ich by the wa y wa s n o t hi s at all but the
a c t o f Li vingst o ne and M o n roe
I t may b e d o ubted i f Je ffers o n eve r h a d a p u rpose
o r a h op e t o wa rd th e acqu isi ti o n o f Lou is iana u nti l the
act wa s d o ne H i s thre atening letter t o Na po le o n wh ich
c ertai nly had s o me i n uence was fo r the pu rp o se o f
keeping L o u i siana i n the hands o f th e weake r p ower
The e p is o d e i s i nte resti ng As H o sme r remarks When
Bon a parte wa s the o ne to b e f rightened and Talley rand
the one t o be h oo dwinked th e
o f the pr oc eed

i ng bec o mes rather lud icrous

Whe n all th e nat i o n but Ne w England had acqu iesced
i n the a c t o f the Re p ubli can non Democ rati c Admin i st ra
t ion i n acqu i ring L o u i siana h e r re p resentat ives argued
against i t and th rew themselves ac ross th e p ath o f
national p rogress i n mu c h the same way that the State
Rights pa rty h a s d o ne t o this day I f the st ri ct c o n st r uc
t ion party i n powe r which wa s de fendi n g an act under
thei r theo ry as un co nstituti o nal h a d f o ll o wed the le a d
o f the l iberal const ruction ists wh o were c o mbating thei r
,

T H E N EW POLI TIC S

2 04

own theo ri es simply because they had become the poli c i e s

o f the opposi ng party ; and i f th e c o ntention o f F e d e ra l
N ew England h a d p revailed that the t re a ty making p o we r
d o es n o t extend to i nc o r po rating a f o reign pe o ple o r a
f o rei gn s o i l ; and that the w o rds new st a tes may be a d

m i t t e d by C ongress i nto th e Union

m eant o nly su c h
states a s were c a rved out o f the territ o ry o f th e United
States at the time the Un ion wa s f o unded i t w o uld h ave
me a nt that w e had a Constituti o n whi ch had f o reve r
xed ou r ter rit o ri al bounda ri es and that w e c o uld never
have had anothe r foot o f territo ry u nde r the exi st in g
Const itution
I t was a c ase o f const r u c ti on by th e Exe c utive and

rati c at ion by th e people s representatives and by the m

s e l veswi th t he ex c ept ion o f New England
The case o f the State Righ t su rvivals who would keep
th e Const i tution withi n the i ron b a nds o f the lette r and
n o t th e spi ri t o f the fundamental l a w t o
day i s ve ry much
th e sam e old i ssue the same o ld s p i rit the same o ld sto ry
B ut as then the expand i ng nati o n i s answe ring i ts o wn
quest i o ns by c o nti nui ng to grow When t hese questi o ns
a re n o l o nge r met by the s p i ri t o f n a ti o nal ity i t w ill b e
when and be c ause we have ceased t o grow
I f th e
Jeffe rsonians c o uld j usti fy thei r act i o n i n 1 8 03 on the

ground o f s o vereign right an d fo r the p romoti o n o f

th e genera l wel f a re why c annot we to day ?
All the feebl e ech o es o f t e a ring th e Constitut i o n t o
tatte rs all the animadve rsi o ns on Je ff ers o n who wa s
d eclared by New England t o be admi ni ste ring a desp o t
i sm i n the sh oes o f Ca rlos IV with a p assi o n to o that
got New England ready fo r se c essioni s a famil ia r c lap
-

TH E P UBLIC DOM AI N

2 05

t ra p t o -d ay whi c h i m poses o n n o h istorian an d n o

s c ho l a r bu t i s st il l e f c i ent with the m asses possessed o f
the Ja c obin m ind
Ha d the New En gl an d State Right F ederali sts ha d

thei r way i n Je ff erson s admi ni st rat ion with the a rm ies

o f Fran c e i n Hayt i and M exi c o thi s m ight have been a
Fren c h Cont i nent e re th is I f the st ri c te r theo ry must
be m ai ntai ne d and i f we have a Constituti o n whi c h leaves
t h e nati onal gove rn ment powerless i n national problems
and i f those n ew an d
u n d reamed o f by the f o u nders
u nexpe c te d nati o nal p roblems mu st be solve d i n f ra c
t ions b y states and pie c e m eal b y forty-eight legi slat u res
then i n d eed we hav e n o t th e c onsti tuti onal l iberty o f

w hi c h we boaste d but a re saddle d w ith an o ld man o f

t he se a an d fa c e an i ntole rabl e s ituat ion c reated by a

m onst ro u s blu nde r whi c h n o g row i ng nat io n c an su r
v ive
Eve ry pa rt y an d o n e m ight a lm ost sa y ever y Am eri
c a n po l it i c ian h a s been b oth nat iona l ist and b road c o n
st r u c t i o n i st when i t has suite d h i s pol i c ies o r pu rposes
N o P res i d ent has b een m o re rev o l utiona r y than was
Je ff ers o n i n deliberately pe r fo rm ing an u nconst itutiona l
ac t ; i e
f ro m t he poi nt o f vi ew h e had always hel d an d
t hen he ld an d a dm itte d that he held But the country
wanted Lou is ianac onsti tution o r no c onsti tution an d
Je ff erson b o u ght i tc onstit u t ion o r no c onsti tut ion
As a m atter o f f act th e A d mi nist rative the Legisla
t i ve an d th e Ju d i c iary o f th i s g ove rn m ent have all ha d
a han d i n the expansion o f the meaning o f the C o nsti
t u t i o n an d th e powe rs o f nati o nal ity and the i r a c ts have
b een a cq uies c ed i n by the whole Ameri c an people wh o
,

'

T H E N EW POLITIC S

2 06

c an make and unmak e governments and c onst ru e c on

s t i t u t i o n sand no o ne c an questi o n thei r ri ght to d o
so with o ut th r o w i ng d o ubt u p on the valid ity o f much o f
the m o st substantial and vital p rogress w e have ever
mad e i n nat i o nality
T here has neve r been any usu rpation o f auth o rity o r

abuse o f po we r exerci sed by any Execut ive o r i nde ed

by any b ranc h o f g ove rnment i n the h ist o ry o f the
United States wh ich wa s legally s o u nwa rranted rec k
less i rres po nsible gratuitou s and rev o lutiona ry as that
o f Je ff ers o n i n mo re than doubl ing th e a rea o f the
nat ion at one st r o ke o f the p en and taki ng it and i ts i n
hab itants w ith o ut th e consent o f the governed i nto the
Un ited S tates fo reve r
G o d bless h im f o r it
Why th i s re c kless d ictato r h as not been held u p to th e
exe c ration o f the p arti c ulari st di sci p les o f the Je ff e r so
nian democ ra c y o f i ndividuali sm may be a cc ounted fo r i n
th e fa c t that he was he re at l east a statesman be fo re
h e was a lawyer a pat ri o t be f o re a p edant
What he was so may o thers be a fte r h im without
blame
.

The Lou isiana pu rchase was revolut iona ry i n m ore

senses than one Not only d i d i t O pen a n e w futu re f o r
the nat i o n but i t b rought up th e whole question o f the
publi c d o mai n i n such a way as to change foreve r the
question o f state sove rei gnty by c hangi ng rad i c ally th e
cond it i o ns u p on wh i ch states m igh t be adm itted i nto
the Un ion and by c han gi ng f undamentally the powe rs
o f states so admitted
.

TH E PUBLIC DOM AI N

2 07

B y a n a c t o f sel f a c kn o wledged imperiali s m Jeff erso n

had bought an empi re m o re than
squa re miles
larger th a n th e wh o le ter ritory o f the Un i ted States Thi s
w a s added t o that Western territ o ry which had been ceded
by the states and had become a pa rt o f the publ i c domain
H ere wa s o ve r one hal f o f the nationa l a rea wh ich neve r
had belonged to the thi rteen o riginal states There was n o
questi o n here o f p ri o r stat e s o ve reignty for o ve r hal f th e
nati o n n o w had been neithe r state no r sovereign I t wa s
p lain raw wild land
square mi les o f i t I t
had been a st ruggli ng de p endency o f S pain and Fran c e
France s o ld it I t n o w belonged t o the Ame rican nation
wa s a pa rt o f th e nati o nal d o mai n as the territo ry
c eded by the states wa s a pa rt o f th e publ ic d o mai no u t
Later
o f whi c h n e w states mi ght be and we re c reated
othe r t errit o ry was added t o t hi s Out o f thi s great
Weste rn a rea th i rty v e st a tes have been f o rmed crea
tu res o f a nati o nal gove rnmen t wh i c h wa s ma d e by the
peo p le o f thi rteen o the r states
When i t i s s o lemnly p roclaimed that the p o wers o f th e
nati o nal g o vernment exerci si ng j u ri sdi ct i o n over fo rty
eight states were delegated by the states I ask by wh a t
states ? Th e vaguest d reame r ha rdly da re a ffi rm that
c onst itutional p owe rs have been delegat ed t o th e national
gove rnment by the thi rty v e creat ions o f that sam e
H o w d o es the relati o n o f the
national government
th i rty v e states f o rmed since th e ad o ption o f th e
n a ti o n a l C o nst ituti o n d i ff er fr o m th a t o f the th i rteen
states which existed be f o re that nat i o nal g o vernment wa s
fo rmed ? Ce rtai nly th e thi rty v e states are c reatu res
o f the national gove rnment Certai nly th e th i rteen state s
-

T H E N EW POLITIC S

2 08

a re not Wh e re fore thi s gu l f xed w ithi n ou r bo dy

politi cthi s i rre co n c ilable and monst r o us th eoreti c a l
anomaly ?
We see that Congress co uld and actually d id ca rv e n ew
states o ut o f thi s d o mai n and se t them up to arroga te
to themselves all th e p retensions o f s o ve rei gn statehood
c laiming equal po we r and j u ri sdicti o n with th e thi rtee n
ori gi nal states o ut ing the sovereignty o f the parent
nat i o n which c reated them and made them states
T he fact that the Nat i o nal Government c reated n e w
states o ut o f a domai n o f its own pa rt o f whi c h neve r had
been unde r the j u ri sd ict ion o f t he thi rteen statesthe
f a c t that the Nat ional Government co uld and di d bestow
all th e p o we rs and d ignities o f stateh o od upon them i s
c on c lusive p ro o f that the Nati o nal G o ve rnm ent i s th e
soverei gn gove rnment and the state gove rnments a re not
o n the s imple gr o und that one state c ann o t c reate a n o the r
state and c on fer upon i t greate r powers than i tsel f
possesses
He re emerges a ve ry i nteresti ng qu estion What i s
the d i ff e rence between the p o wers o f th o s e states whi c h
the Nati onal G o ve rnment c reated and those which a re
alleged to have c reated the Nati o nal G o ve rnment ? No
o n e w o uld dare assume but that each state o f the Uni on
i s on th e same footi ng as that o f eve ry o the r state
Let u s se e j ust exa c tly what th i s State Right theo ry
means
I t means that th i rteen states d iv ide d thi rteen so v
e r e i gn t i e s
w ith a nati o n whi ch they c reated with
wh ich the futu re thi rty v e states h ad nothing to do
ex c ept th at the th i rteen sove rei gnt ies p assed over a fra c
.

TH E PUBLIC DOM AI N

20

tion o f t hei r multiple sovereignty to a natio na l govern

ment wh i c h they c reated wh ich i n i ts t u rn passe d over t o
thi rty v e states whi c h i t c reated the s o ver ei gn ty i t n ever
p ossess e d Thi s hal f soverei gn o f delegated and limite d
powe rs de l egates u nlim ite d powers to i ts o wn c reatures
I n othe r wo rds w e have thi rteen f ra c ti ons o f origina l
sove reignties which t he o rigina l states possessed an d
th i rty v e thi r d hand sove reignties wh i c h nothi n g a n d
nob o dy ever possesse d
Th is theo ry m a y pass m uste r u n d er that theor y o f
d em oc ra c y holding whi c h some o n e said wa s i t Talley
rand ? ( i t sounds like him ) that he had vast respe c t
fo r the d igni t y o f the people b ut ver y l ittl e f o r thei r
i ntelligence
I t s o metimes s i m pl ies m atte rs f o r u s to nd o u t j us t
wh a t w e want to nd out Certainly one o f the things we
must settle i s whethe r the C o nstitut io n has any powe rs
which th e thi rteen states d i d n o t give i t and whethe r th e
t hi rty v e states have any powe rs th e Constitution d id
not giv e them I f so wh o gave thes e powers ? Perhaps
another question equally vital to any c lea r t hinki ng on
th is subj e c t i s to decide w h e th er t h e p e o pl e o f t h e n a ti o n
,

h av e
t h em

a ny

p owers

wh i c h th e Co n s ti tu ti o n d o es

not

gi v e

Fo r th e assertion o f the prin c i pl e that su c h powe rs

as b elong to the Const itut ion are delegated to the natio n
by the states I a m a b le to n d no authority I t c an b e
fou nd neither i n the Constitut ion no r i n the re c o r d s o f
th e thi rteen popular c onventions whi c h o rd ained the Co n
st i t u t i o n
no r i n the sup re m e j ud i c ial i nterp retat ions o f
the Const itut ion f o r over on e hun d red y ears
.

T H E N EW POLITIC S

2 1 0

Th i s state right and st ri c t const ru c tion theo ry la y s

i tsel f ac ross th e pathway o f Amer i can p r o gress I t may
be used and i s gene rally u sed by the v ested i nterests and
by i nvested p rivi lege a s a bulwark o f immunity
It
m eans tha t i f i n the p r o gress o f c i vil ization th e i n c reas e
o f wealth and populat ion new c ri ses situati ons o r pr o b
lems have a ri sen whi ch have not been f o resee n by o u r
fore fathers and a re n o t enumerated i n the Co n st i t u
t i o n i t may and must be u sed t o retard the p r o gress
o f th e nati o n Let no p rogress be made whi ch has not
been fo reseen and p rovi ded fo r i n t he C o nst ituti o n ma d e
In
the eighteenth c entu ry
Th e twentieth c entu ry i s
shackled to the eighteenth
Th e wh o le th ing res o lves itsel f i nto a poi nt o f vi ew
The c h o ice i s between th e att itude o f nat i o nali st and i nd i
.

v i d u a l i st

The nati o nal i st con c eives the Constituti on as

p ri nci p les i nstead o f a set o f rules
.

s et o

CHAPT ER I I I

N A TION A LIT Y A N D I NT ER N A L I M PR O V EM E NT S
I t i s a fa r c ry f rom th e p resent c onservat ion m ove
m ent back t o ou r c rass eighteenth centu ry at o m is m
when Madi son M on r o e and Jacks o n we re vetoi ng bills

to p romote the gener a l wel fare and were s p li tting ha i rs

o ve r th e p ropos it i o n that it wa s c o nstituti o nal t o m ake
p ost roads but not wago n roads What us e had the early
p art icula ri sts for example f o r such a p o l itical i n st i t u
t i o n as the Smithson ian I nstitut i o n the C o ngressi o nal
Libra ry the Geologi c al Su rvey the De p a rtment o f Agri
c ultu re ?
Wash i n gton i n h i s eight h annual m essage had asked
what i nstitutions c ould the publ i c p u rs e be dev o ted t o
w ith greate r p rop riety than those f o r the p romoti o n o f

agri cultu re
Experi en c e has al ready shown that they

a re very c heap i nst ruments o f immense nat ional b enet s

H o w different was Je fferson s attitude

Je ff ers o n i n a lette r to Stua rt i n 1 7 9 1 w rote clearly
o f the need o f local sel f government
that states we re

ne c essa ry that each m ight d o f o r itsel f what c o nce rn s

i tsel f d i rectly
H e sp o ke o f subd ivi s ions into c o unt ies

t ownships wards and fa rms and added

We re we
d i re c ted f rom Wash i n gton when to so w and when to

reap we shoul d so o n want b read

A s a matter o f fa c t th at wh ich Je ff erson had s c o rne d
has hap p ened and the fa rme r i s n o t only d i rected f r o m
Wash in gt on a s t o when t o so w and when to reap but
,

2I I

T H E N EW POLITIC S

2 1 2

what and h o w and as to a thousand othe r th in g s a s

well whi c h c ent ral ized national state i nter fe ren c e with
the f a rm e r an d h is m ethods and c rops and p ro d u c ts
has m a d e s c i enti sts out o f haysee d s who co nstitute n o w
a d igni ed p ro f ession i nstead o f o cc upyi ng a posit i o n o f
e c onomi c d e r n i e r r ess o r t
Could th e t i m i d spi rits o f a hund re d yea rs ag o have
d reamed o f su c h a c ent ral ization o f th e powers o f th e
nat ion and o f such an enla rgement o f the a reas o f i ts
j u ri sd i c tion they woul d have been f ri ghtened out o f thei r
senses and one c an even i magi ne thei r bones tu rn i ng
ove r i n thei r graves to d ay A n d yet the Gove rnment
s till l ives an d i s l ikely to last some time longe r B ut the
c u riou s pa rt o f i t i s that the State Right pa rty i s stil l

al ive an d the I nd ivi duali sts a re c ryi ng N o to eve ry

affi rm at ive p ro g ra m p roposed by the Constitut ional part y
o f th e United States
When we remember h o w feeble was the nationa l senti
ment c onned almost wholly to a f e w like Washin gt on
Hamilton , Wilson and M adi son i n the days be fo re the
C o nventi o n ; and h o w to get a Co nstitutio n at all c o m
p romises must be made with the Ja c obi n spi ri t o f the age
whi ch was so i ntensely the spi rit o f eighteenth c entu ry
i ndiv idual ism ; an d h o w eve ry p rinci p le o f nationalism
was w rested as i t we re f ro m th e ve r y large pa rti c ular
i st maj ority i t dawns upon u s why w e a re a peopl e st il l
satu rated w it h i deals o f anarchy I ndeed the won d er i s
that so mu c h has been gaine d
Th rough the i ni tiat ive give n th e c ause o f a suprem e
and sove reign nationa l gove rnment by the Washin gt on
a dm inistrati on the d is integrat i n g an d d em o ra l izing f o r c e s
,

I NTE R N AL I M PRO V EM ENT S

21

parti cu larism were held b a c k long enough f o r nationa l

i nstitutions to b e p re c ipitate d c ry stallized and ha rdened

Je ff erson s admini st ration and those o f h i s d emo c rati c

f ollowers f o r a quarter c ent u r y c ould n o t u ndo the wo rk
o f Washin gton and Hamilton
I have o ften i magined a rev ersal o f the work o f the
t wo pa rt i es
I hav e t rie d t o think o f Je ffe rson as th e
rst P resident o f the Un ited States Eight years o f thi s
S pi ri t following th e adopt ion o f th e Constitution woul d
have made uni on and d emo c ra c y f o reve r imposs ible o n
th i s cont i nent The Const itut ion woul d not have su r
v i v ed as long a s the A rt i c les o f Con fede ration an d thes e
two Charters o f the Ameri can Expe riment wou ld have
f oun d thei r wa y t o som e hi sto ri c l i b r ary i n E u rope be
longing t o a nation su f c iently c onsolidated and su f
c i e n t l y st rong t o have p reyed upo n the st ruggl i n g an d
j ealous and n o t t o o noble peoples o f th i rteen states Th e
predi c tion s o f Eu rope woul d h ave come t rue
Some o f o u r ea rly h i story i s i nst ru c t ive and w il l bea r
restudy I n the l ight o f what the G o vernmen t i s doi ng
f o r th e people t o day w e seem to be looking i nt o
the dark ages when we t ra c e the h i sto ry o f th e st ru g
gle f o r internal imp r o vements fo r ove r a hal f c ent u ry
The re i s im m eas u rabl e
o f the reign o f p articula ri sm
pathos i n the l ittleness o f th e d em o c ra cy o f i n d iv i d ua l
i sm whi ch obst ru c ted and thwarte d the n ational senti
ment fostered the sullen and selsh pa rt i c u l ari sm whi c h

br o ke all b ounds i n Ja c kson s slogan

To the vi c to r

bel o ng the spoils ; p la c ed Ameri c an political l i f e frankly

o n the i ndividual isti c f oundation s o f selsh ag g ran d iz e
m ent f rom whi c h i t i s l ikely neve r to re c ov er
of

21

T H E N EW POLITIC S

The su cc esso rs o f the Federal ists mad e an atte m pt to

rem e d y th e de fe c ts laid ba re by the Wa r o f 1 8 1 2 whi c h
revealed the c riminal and i nsensate inadequa c y o f m eans
Bette r
o f i nte rnal c o mmu nicati o n and t rans po rtati o n
roads and wate rways were seen to be desi rable i n p eace
and necessary i n wa r Calh o un j o i ned Clay i n a d v o
cati ng a nati o nal i sti c i nte rp retati o n o f the C o nsti
But the ugly spi rit o f
t u t i o n rival ing that o f Hamilt o n
secti o nalism was nowhere S hown mo re clea rly than i n the

de feat o f Gall a ti n s s c heme ( 1 8 08 ) fo r a system o f roads

and canals f rom M aine t o Loui siana involvi ng a nati o nal
ex p end itu re o f
a year f o r ten years Thi s
would facilitate c o mmer c e and imm igrat ion and c on

t ribute towa rd cement ing t he b o nds o f u nion

et c
But a maj o ri ty d id not want the b o nd s o f union cemented
and th i s and another a pp eal i n 1 8 1 6 were d e feated
notwithstanding the less o ns le a rned i n the war Wh at

c an be m o re ed i fying than the legi slati o n f o r the Cum

be rland Road ? Witness Mad is o n M o n r o e Jacks o n
Tyler P o lk Pie rce and Buchan a n v et o ing the S im p lest
measu res o f C o ngress l o oki ng t o wa rd i nternal im p rove

ment seeing as M ad i s o n put i t th a t such a p o we r i s

not given by the C o nst itut i o n

M o n roe enume rates the
s p ecic th ings a nat i o n may do be c ause pe rm itted by a
C o nstituti o n that nati o n c reated i n a message i n whi c h
f o resi ght i s c o ndemned and h i ndsigh t i s p r o hibited
Thi s l iteral i sm o f st ri c t c o nst ructi o n i s t o o feeble f o r
men o f thought and a c tion Th e Constitution says y o u
may build pos t r o ads B ut it d oes not sa y you may build
wag o n roads There f o re the pres ident s o f the d em o c
racy o f i ndi vidual ism fo r a hal f centu ry blo c ked the p rog
,

I NTERNAL I M PROVEM ENT S

2 1

ess o f the nat ion Do we not know di d not M adison

Mon roe Jackson know that a wagon roa d i s as mu c h
w ithi n the pu rp o se o f the C o nstitut ion as a pos t road
t hat to have enumerated eve ry i tem eve ryth ing a grow
i ng nation m ight d o w o uld be to ll up a national library
t o the exclus ion o f b ette r m aterial ? Thi s puerile and u n
states m anlike const ruct ion o f the Const itut i o n utterly
b li nd to all Ma rshall was d o i ng t o make t hat Co n st i t u
t ion the elast i c i nst rument o f a l ivi ng people f o und its
l ogi c al result i n t he steril ity o f democ ratic legislat ion
and i n the nal e ffort o f part iculari sm i n the s ixties t o
m ake a real nati o n f o reve r imp o ssible
As early as 1 7 75 Washingt o n had pr o j ected a s c heme
fo r i nland navigati o n t o D et roit whi ch had n o t been a b
sent f r o m hi s mind s i nce as a b o y surveyo r h e ha d
t raversed the wilds o f Pennsylvania I t was not t ill he
had reti red to Mount Ve rnon a fter the wa r that with
Je fferson he took up the matte r wh ich th e wa r h a d
d ri ven f ro m hi s a c t i ve attent ion H e fo resaw the future
o f the co unt ry as n o o the r Ame rican sa w i t an d h e sa w
t oo that such a p lan would give secu ri ty to the citizens
i n c rease inte rnal c o mmer c e and cement the b onds o f
u ni o n between th e Eastern states and Weste rn te rrito ry
which some o ther powe r mi ght gai n p o ssessi o n o f by

peace ful o r warl ike means Washi ngton s u ner ri ng j u dg

m ent showed i tsel f i n hi s v olumi nous c o rrespondence on
thi s subj ect as when he declar ed that he wa s l oo king
so fa r ahea d as to fa c il itate t ranspo rtat i on so that a large
Ame ri c an population might be al ready settled i n the M is

s i ssi ppi v alley be fo re the re wa s

an y sti r ab out the navi

i
t
a
g o n o f th e M iss issippi
r

2I

T H E NEW P OLITI C S

B ut there a re a f ew i nte resting oases i n these ari d

a reas The y m a y be found in th e glari ng i n c onsi sten c ies
We soon nd th i s
o f the pa rt y o f st ri c t c onst r uc ti on
pa rt y outdoing H amiltonian Federali sm tax ing whi sky
and stills c reat ing a nat ional d ebt f rami ng a p rote c tive
tari ff cha rt e ri ng a nat ional bank nearly fou r t imes as
large as that o f Ham ilton whi c h had met with thei r
violent opposi tion
Wh i le th e Exe c utive and Legi slat ive b ran c hes o f a
st ri c t c onstru c t ioni st gove rnm ent had been st retchi ng
th e Const itution t o sui t pa rty and publ i c pu rposes the

Jud i c ia ry was doi ng th e same thing to M r Je ff erson s

d i smay Th e Exe c ut ive ( du ring Je ff e rson s admini st ra

t ion ) was easi ly f ri ghtened by th i s pol i c y when not
i naugu rate d by the Exe c utiv e itsel f But i t c ame h i s
tu rn to frighten th e othe r two c o Or d i n a t ed b ran c hes o f
government a fterward M r Madi son a rose i n h i s w rath
and vetoed the p resumpt ion s o f t he nat ional legi slati ve
when i t essayed t o bu ild a f ew new bridges ll a f e w
mud holes and build a wagon road i nto t he n ew e m pi re
being o pened west o f th e Al l e gh a n i es
Mad i son i n h i s fam o u s veto message o f Ma r c h 3
1 8 1 7 i s su fc i ently expl ici t as to h i s views on the powe rs
o f Congress being s p e c i ed and enumerate d i n th e

eighth se c t ion o f the rst a rt i cle o f the Consti tution

Failing to nd the re the powe r p roposed to be exe r c i sed by

th e bill fo r c o nst ru c t ing roads and c anals

to give

an d t o ren d er m ore eas y
sec u r i t v t o i nternal c omme r c e
and less expensive th e means and prov i sion s f o r th e c o m

m on de f ense h e vetoed the bill

M on roe s pape rs a re mu c h m ore interesti ng b e c ause

.

I NTE R NA L I M PROVEM ENT S

21

g oes i nto th e subj ec t i n a way ( and fo r a way ) that

wo u l d hav e d one j ust i c e t o a Federal ist i n h i s theo ry o f
so v erei g nt y

On May 4 1 82 2 M on roe vetoe d A n a c t f o r t h e

prese rvation and repai r o f the C umberlan d road
with

deep regret
H i s c ontention i s be y on d d i spute t hat

a power t o establish tu rnpikes w ith gates and tolls an d

t o en for c e th e c olle c t ion o f tolls by penalties impl ies a
f
owe
r
t
o
adopt
and
exe
c
ut
e
a
c
omplete
syste
m
o
i
nternal
p

imp rov e m ent and would appl y as fa r a s t o o ff er at

least c onstitut ional ground f o r M r B ry an s s c hem e fo r

the nationalization o f rail roa d s

A right t o legi slate
for o n e o f these pu rposes i s a right t o legi slat e fo r

othe rs
I t i s a c o m plete right o f j u ri sdi ction and so v

e r ei gn t y fo r all th e purposes o f i nternal improvement

I t i s u nquesti onabl y t rue as M on roe maintai ns that
i f even the right o f the national govern m ent to bui ld a
c ulve rt o r d ig a post hol e c an be maintai ned the ju r i sd i c
t i on and sovereignty o f th e go v ernm ent i s establi shed fo r
all pu rposes a ff e c ti ng the general wel fare S o f a r th e
n at ional i st agrees w ith Mon r o e
Perhaps o n e o f o u r great d i fc ulties has been th e o n e
wh i c h so con f used M onroe and most o f th e earli e r pa r
t i c ul a r i st s
I n th e pape r whi c h a cc o m panied hi s vet o
m essage o f May 4 1 8 2 2 he tells Congress that a fte r

resist in g the en c roa c h m ents o f the parent c ount ry the

powe r the y to re from the c rown rested ex c lus ively i n

th e peopl e
H e speaks fu rthe r o f the n ew ( thi rteen )

states possessin g an d exe r c i sing c o m plet e so v erei gnty

Speaki ng o f th e p rin c iple o f representati on he d e c lare s

that I t retain s the sovereignty i n th e peop l e

A gai n
he

2 1

T H E N EW POLITIC S

he speaks o f the powers o f state legislatu res an d the

Th ey r es t e d o n t h e sa m e ba si s t h e
powers o f C o ngress

p eopl e
Then the C o n fede rati o n be c ame obv iously

necessa ry and i t was in operati o n eight years as a c o m

all o f whose p o we rs were adopted i n t he Con
pa c t

with important add itions

st i t u t i o n
( he neglects to
menti o n the m o re impo rtant subt ractions ) and argu es
t hat whe re c e rtai n te rms are t r a n s e f e r r e d f rom one i n
st rument t o the other and i n the same te rms o r te rms
desc ri p t ive o f the same powers that i t was i ntended that
they should be const rued i n the same sense i n the latte r

that they were i n the f o rme r

H e i s t rying to d rag
the content o f the Co n federation ove r i nto the Co n st i t u
tion A fte r quot ing th e th i rteen art icles and admi tt ing
the i r utte r i ncompeten c y ( although they l ike the Consti
t u t i o n were t o be p erpetual ) h e states that the Consti
t u t i o n was fo rmed by delegates and adopted by con
v e n t i o n s o f each state the c redit o f whi c h ( the enlarge
ment o f the General Government at the expense o f th e

p o wers o f the states ) i s due t o t h e p e o p l e o f e a c h s ta te

h e bette r might have sai d t o th e p e o p l e o f a l l th e s ta tes
i n obed ien c e t o wh o se will and unde r whose contr o l the

state g o vernments acted

But as a matter o f fa c t n o t o n e o f th e state govern

ments acted
I n each one o f th i rteen c ases a po p ula r
co nventi o n a c ted Had the stat e governments acted the re
w ould neve r have been a C o nstituti o n l ike the one w e
h ave Ha d they acted the re would neve r hav e been a
su rrende r o f sovereignty
State gove r nm ents wou ld
never have consented to th e lessen ing o f thei r o wn
powe rs and Monroe i s right i n asc ribing th e c redit o f

I NTERNAL I M PROVEM ENT S

2 1

enli ghtened patri o t ism to the pe o ple o f the states

wh o c ame togethe r p r o fessedly n o t as the people o f
states but as pe op le wh o wanted a nat i o n not t o con
s ider matters o f l o cal imp o rtance but o f nation a l co n
c ern Th e state c o nvent i o ns wh ich ad o pted the Co n st i t u
t ion we re the l o cal u p ri sings o f a people des i ri ng a nat io n
and a nat i o nal gove rnment m eeti ng i n state c o nvent ions
b e c aus e one great p op ula r co nvention w o uld have
i nvolved hardships o f trans p o rtati o n greate r than thos e
endu red by the S ultan o f Sul u o n h is re c ent vis it t o t h e
Cap ital o f h is c o unt ry

Mon roe i s sound i n h i s c ontention that the pe o ple

the hi ghest authority known t o o u r system fr o m whom

all o u r i nstitutions spri ng and on whom they depend

formed the C onstitut i o n

Had the pe o pl e o f the sev
e ral states th o ught p rope r to i n co rpo rate th emselves i nto
one commun ity unde r o ne g o vernment they might have

done it
H ere he agai n co n fuses Con federation and
Constitution H e claims that powe rs t rans ferred f ro m

one inst rument to the other should b e c onst rued i n t he

sa m e sense i n the one as i n the othe r Th i s c annot be

mai ntained
Eve ry a rticl e o f the C o n fede rat ion m ust
be m o died by t he statement i n A rt i cl e I that i t i s a

Con federacy and i n Arti cle I I t hat ea c h state retai ns

and every p o we r j u ri sdi c t ion a n d

i t s sovereignty et c
right wh i c h i s n o t by thi s C o n federation exp ressly d ele

gated t o the United States i n Congres s assembled ; and

A rticle I I I
The sai d states ente r i nt o a league o f

f ri endsh ip et c
N o th ing pe rtain ing t o p oliti c al s o vereignty o r san c
t ion c an mean th e same u nde r the l imitat ions o f su c h a n
t hi s

TH E N EW POLITIC S

220

i ll c on c eive d and loosely c onst ituted su b stitute f o r a

funda m ental law a s i t must mean unde r an i nst ru m ent
f ra m ed by a peopl e d isgusted and a frai d o f anar c h y
and i nspi red by the pat ri otism o f nation a lity who have
met to abol i sh th e l o ose j o i nted and i n co mpetent c om
pa c t wh i c h i s not even adequate fo r a league o f f riend
shi p ; and to f ram e the soverei gn i nst rument o f a sov
e r e i gn people and a c c o u c h a sovereign nation

Thu s : We th e p e op l e o f t h e Un i t ed S ta t es
do

o rdain and establi sh thi s Consti tut i on

Noth ing modied by the P reambl e o f the Co n st i t u
t i on o f the Un ited States c an m ean the same as i t woul d
rest ri c ted by th e rst th ree a rt i c les o f the Con f ederation
M on roe held to the Rousseau theo ry o f a so c ial con
t ra c t whi c h was ha rdly quest ioned i n de m o c rat i c c o m
m u n i t i e s i n those daysth e t heo ry that so c iety was the
resul t o f a c ont ra c t m ade by a people wh o neve r
exi sted
I t was easy there fore fo r h im t o c onside r
the C o n stitution as th e same as the C o n fede ration a
c ompa c t On thi s rock futu re generat ions were to S pli t
I t had not yet dawned upon th e age o f revolutiona ry
i ndividual i sm no r pe rhaps yet h as th e con c eption d awned
u p on the world that the bi rth o f a nat ion was no gu r e
o f spee c h but that i n a real deep sense somethi ng organi c
had come into being
H ere l ies the impassable gul f
between eighteenth and twentieth c entu ry thought
The polit ical anomaly o f to day i s the su rvival o f th e
ol d i d eal s an d i deas and the failu re o f thei r belated
devotees t o j usti fy the m to m odern thought ; wh o c on
st ru e the p roblems o f an or gan i s m i n th e te rm s o f
m e c hani c s
-

I NTERNA L I M PROVEM ENT S

22 1

Speaking o f the pa rties to the co mpa c t M on roe says

a re the sole pa rt ies and may amend i t at

t h e people

pleasu re
Wh y c an they no t const rue it at pleasu re

i f i t i s done by Marshall s rule not u n c o n st i t u t i o n

ally ? I f i t i s a compact o r a c o nt ra c t o r what n o t
and i f the people a re s o ve reign why c an they not sa y

We c an amend thi s Const itution as we please and we

c an c onst rue it as we li ke and we c an d i c tate the methods

o f construct io n and amendment ? We the peOpl e ! Wh o

a re we the pe o ple ? We the l ivi ng people o r the d ead
?
eople
A re w e fo reve r c hained to t he c o rpse o f the
p
past o r must we th ink and a c t for ou rselves an d f o r the
u nbo rn ?

That i s a p ro found obse rvation o f Mon roe : There

we re two separate and i ndependent gove rnments estab
l i sh e d o ve r o u r Union o n e f o r l o c a l p u r p o se s o v e r e a c h
s ta t e b y the people o f the state t h e o t h e r f o r n a ti o n a l

M on roe
pu r p oses by the people o f the United States
re co gnizes no a reas o f anarchy su c h as have been devel
o ped by the c omple x c onditions o f mode rn nat i o nal l i fe
ove r whi c h neithe r state no r nation exe r c ises supreme

autho ri ty
The nat ional government begins where the

state govern m ent t ermi nates h e says

H e d oes not
say th e state governments begi n where the nat ional
gove rnm ent te rmi nates
The state g o ve rn m ent was

establ ished by the people o f th e state f o r lo c al pu rposes

and th e nat ional gove rnment wa s establi she d by the

people o f the Un ited States f o r n a ti o n a l p u r p oses

The great ofc e o f the C onstitution b y in c o rpo rating

the peopl e o f the seve ra l states to the extent o f its powe rs
( ove r nationa l p u rposes i nto o n e c o mmu ni ty an d ena
,

T H E N EW POLITIC S

222

bl i ng it t o a c t d i rectly on the peo p l e was to annul th e

p o wers o f th e state governments to that extent viz

i t kee p s the powe rs o f the state gove rnment enti rely

with i n th e s c ope o f l o cal p u r po ses whi c h c o n c ern th e

pe o ple o f that stat e and that st a te alone

It i s owing t o the n a tu re o f it s ( the C o n stitut ion s )

powe rs and the high sou rce from whence they a re derived
the peoplethat i t pe r f orms that o f c e better than
th e Con fede rati o n o r any leagu e which ever exi sted being
a c ompact which th e state g o ve rnments d i d not fo rm t o
w hich they were not part ies and wh ich exe c utes its o wn

powe rs i nde p endently o f them

M o n roe then reveal s an i rre co n c ilable b rea c h i n h i s
argument
H e makes much o f th e fact that s o ve rei gn ty wa s
d ivi ded i nto thi rteen equal pa rts by th e revolut ion and
d i st ributed among th i rteen c o mmonwealths a rguing that
they retained all that was not expli citly and co n c retely

given u p by these states to th e c ompa c t o f Union

H i s sove rei gnty o f th e state cann o t be harmonized w ith
t he sove reignty o f th e peo p l e with t hei r own dual fo rm o f

g o vernme n t th e on e by the state fo r l o cal pu rposes

and the othe r by the nation f o r nat ional purposes

I f th e nat i o n was f o rmed by th e sovereign p e o ple o f the
nation which was formed t o p rovi de a national funda

m ental l a w fo r nat ional pu rposes ; on the ground

that the pe o ple i s the ultimate sove reign thei r own
f undamental law i s sovereign o ver every national c on
c e rn and f o r eve ry national pu rpose and Mon roe
c ut the ground from unde r hi s own feet i n hi s vet o o f
the bill fo r th e Cumberland road I t f ol l ows that the so v
,

I NTERNAL I M PROVEM ENT S

223

people o f a nat ion soverei g n f or al l nationa l

pu rp o ses must p o ssess a fundamental l a w adequate to

all national pu rpo ses ; that it has the right t o est a bli sh
t u rnpi kes w ith gates and t o lls
and that i f it has

these rights it has th e right o f j u ri sdicti o n and so v

e r e i gn t y f o r all the pu rp o ses o f internal imp r o vement

I f thi s i s granted the s o verei gn nation has the right

o f j u ri sdi ction ove r all national c o nce rns

I t b egi ns

whe re the state gove rnments terminate

That i s i t

begi ns where l o cal pu rposes end and where nat i o nal

p u r p oses begin and it does not en d t ill nati onal pu r

p o ses en d
The nationa l i st o f th e type o f Justi c e Wilson clings
stead fastly to the essential p rinci p le o f home rule fo r
local purposes The pri nciple i s one o f the foundati o n
stones o f th e t wo great nations o f the No rth America n
C o ntinent that o f l o cal sel f government NO nati o nal
i st will deny th is What h e den ies i s that l o cal p o wer i s
s o ve reign over nat ional c on c e rns The p o i nt i s c learly
b r o ught out by the B rit ish w ri te r Oli ve r i n h i s work 01 1
H amilt o n perha p s the most i ntelligent pi ece o f w rit i n g
on Ameri c an pol it ics publ i shed i n thi s generati o n H e
says ( p
Between the fanati c s fo r State Rights
wh o m w e c ondemn an d the uph o lders o f th e digni ty
and uti li ty o f local autho rities wh o m we have b een taugh t
to admi re there i s i n fact only a d i ff eren c e i n degree
A c o mmonwealth i n wh i c h thi s S pi ri t had ceased t o ex ist
m ight be sa fely ma rked as a dyi ng race ; but i n the vie w
o f th e statesman i t c an neve r be all o wed the u p per han d
Li ke the stea m i n the boiler i t se rv es i t s pu rpose by i t s
e ff o rt to es c ape f rom i m p risonment an d c ont rol ; but i f
e r e i gn

T H E N EW POLITIC S

224

these e ff o rt s a re s ucc ess f ul there i s an en d o f the

u tility
We s ee i n Mon roe u p to the poi nt o f app l i c at ion o f the
p ri n c iple to a pol icy unpopular with hi s part y a total
a g reement w ith that w isest o f national ists Justi c e Wil
son b ut who was enough o f a demo c rat to advo c ate the
elect ion o f b oth houses o f Con g ress b y the p eople ; who
i ndee d as has been said wa s the rst m an i n Am e ri c an
h ist o ry who bel ieved both i n demo c ra c y an d nationa l i sm
He ke p t the d ist i n c t ion c lear between a nat ional gov
givin g
e rn m e n t which was sup reme i n national a ff ai rs
t he states home rul e ove r home a ff ai rs and a nat iona l
government whi c h would swallow th e state gove rnment
and ann ihilate the rights o f states As Mon roe d id a f te r
h i m h e i nsist ed that both nationa l and state gove rnm ents

we re de rived from the people

Th e gene ral govern
ment i s not a n assemblage o f states but o f i nd ividuals
fo r c ertai n pol i ti c al pu rposesi t i s not meant fo r the
states but f o r the i ndividuals c ompos i ng them : the i n d i
v i d u a l s the re fo re not the s t a tes ought to be represented

i n it H e d ist ingui shed sha r p ly between the state and

government Sovereign power i s not lo d ged in the Con
st i t u t i o n
but i n so c ietyth e people I n a nut shell th e
stat e gove rn m ent i s sup reme f o r l o c al pu rposes and
de rives i ts sovereign power f ro m the people
The
national gove rnment i s sup reme f o r national pu rposes

pu rposes to the d i rection o f wh i c h no pa rt i c ula r state

i s c ompetent an d it derives its powe r f ro m the sov

e r e i gn people
The A rt i c les o f C on f e d e rat ion we re u n d e m o c rati c i n
n o t r ec o g nizing th i s pri n c ipl e
that the sou r c e o f all
,

I NT ERNAL I M PROVEM ENT S

225

power l ies i n the peoplean d i t i s f rom the A rt i cl es o f

C on fede rat ion we d e ri ve that f o rm o f State Right sent i
ment to this d ay
S o f a r Monroe hol d s w ith Wilson H o w then he c oul d
v eto the Cumbe rland Road B ill i s not easy to un d e rstand

Wh en ev e r a n o bje c t o c c u rs sai d Justi ce W ilson

.

t o th e di r e c ti o n

wh i c h

t en t, t h e m a n a ge m en t
th e

no

f it

p a r ti c u l a r

m u st

Un i te d S ta t es i n Co n gr ess

sta t e

n e c essi ty

a ss e m bl e d

is

c om

pe

b el o n g t o

( Wo rks I

5 58 )

Thi s i s a c lear state m ent

of

th e logi c

of

nat iona l ity

CHAPT ER IV
B

A C K TO T H E PE O P L E

There i s no mo re st riking devel o pment o f modern

p o liti cal h i st o ry than i n the pa rad o x that Je ffersonian
dem o c racy has been the fes te b u rg o f th e instinct o f

des p oti sm while the ari stoc rat ic and m o nar c h i c

i deas o f Wash i ngt o n and o f Hamilt o n have sa fegua rded

the p ri n c ipl e o f t ru e dem oc racy g o vernment by and o f

the pe o ple
The p atheti c fulllment o f the p romi ses o f eighteenth
centu ry i nd ividualism whi ch shrieked i ts palt ry l ies

l iberty equal ity f ra tern ity

c ulmi nated ea rly i n
Fran c e i n the Red Te rro r and the Rule o f N a p o le o n
while i n the Uni ted States i t found exp ression i n the
i nstitut i o n o f human sl a very the a ri st o c racy o f the
South ; the d o ct ri nes o f n u l l i c a t i o n and th e d n o uement
o f Civil Wa r a n d j ust n o w i n th e multibillionai re
A t ragi c dawn o f m illennium t ruly f o r s o b rill iant
a p r o mi se !
But there c o uld have been no other out c ome o f p o liti
cal at o mi sm f o r at bott o m t he ec o nomics o f i nd ividual
i sm me a ns f ree com p etit ion whe re t he big eat th e l ittle
and t o day w e h a ve o n e man owni ng o r c o nt r o ll i ng
one eleventh o f the enti re nati o nal assets ; while i n po l i
t ics i t mean s that might makes right and has c rystallized
i n bos s rule
When the To ries le f t f o r Canada wh ich m igration
wa s an i rret rievable loss t o the n ew nati o n th e p e op l e

2 26

BACK TO TH E PEOPLE

227

pli t i nto t w o parti es o ve r the Constitution The l ittle

states wanted to co unt f o r as much a s the big states and
were fo r State Rights state rep resentati o n state elect io n
o f nat ional of c e rs whi c h sh o uld rep resent st a tes not
peo p le and they declared fo r state sovereignty and weak
nati o nal g o vernment
The nati o n a l p a rty whi ch w o uld have been l a rgely
rec ruited by th o se wh o became the United Em p i re
Loyali sts o f Canada and wh o h a d they st a yed w o ul d
have bec o me l o yal Americans ( f o r i t was thei r natu re
t o be l o yal ) st oo d f o r pop ul a r electi o ns p r opo rti o nal rep
r e se n t a t i o n a su fcient nati o n a l g o vernment and th e su b
o rdi nati o n o f th e p a rts t o the wh o le Thi s was the p arty
o f re a l dem oc racy N o t that p arty hi di ng beh ind rev o
l u t i o n a ry ph rases whil e gatheri ng t o itsel f th e f o rces
wh ich made f o r n u l l i c a t i o n se c ess i o n and human
sl a ve ry thi s party o f R o usseau and R o bes p ier re
Th o m a s Je ffers o n and Je ffe rs o n D a vi s
One o f th e v ital quest i o ns o f the early days was that o f
sou rces o f po liti c al po wer Whence shall we derive i t ?
The Je ff ers o ni a n p arti culari st Jac o bi n p a rty said f r om

th e st a te thu s s a ith thi s p a rty o f l ibe rt y equal ity

f rate rnity thi s party o f p o pular soverei gnty

th i s

dem o c ra c y o wni ng slaves

F r o m the p e op le s a i d the party o f Washingt o n ;

said the friends o f M o n a rchy : these ari st o c ra ts wh o

w o uld not j o i n France i n a war aga i nst England out o f

gra titude t o the ass a ssi ns o f thei r allies

From the

p e o ple said the n a ti o nal ists

Wh o shall elect th e

?
nati ona l o fcers
Th e stat es said th e democ rats

Th e p e op l e sai d the a ri st o crats

On what basi s ?

'

3,

T H E N EW POLITIC S

2 28

Thi rteen to one quoth the demo c rats

Upon the
people o f the states i n p ropo rt io n to thei r numbe r and

not the numbe r o f the states said the nat ional pa rt y

en fran c hising slaves
Down here i n thi s twentieth c entu ry we a re w ipi ng
away one o f the last o f the c ompromises with the a ri sto
c rati c pri n c i p le and we a re g o ing to let the people ele c t
the Senate I t i s bad enough that the smallest state
I t i s a su rv i val
s hould fu rnish as many as the largest
o f the State Right i de a
These l ittle st a tes then f o rmed a n anti pa rty who o p
posed the nat i o nal i sts de c la ri ng p re feren c e t o submit to
f o rei gn po we r rathe r th a n ac c ede to t he p ri n c iple o f p ro
port ional rep resentati o n S tate j ealousy became th e stum
bling blo c k and was the c ause o f the su rv ival o f th e
d o c trine o f state soverei gnty The st atesmen o f the c o n
ve n t i o n wh o w a nted a C o nstituti o n under which govern
m ent would be really democ ratic i e kept next t o the
peo p le i e de ri vin g p o wer d i rectly f rom them and e x e r
c is ing autho rity d i re c tly ove r them were c r o wded b y the
l ittl e state j ealousi es i nt o a c o m p romise wi th the dem o

c rati c p ri n c i p le H en c e the mo dern M ill i o nai res Club o n

C apit o l H ill
Th e e a rlie r statesmen o f the nation fo resaw the d im
outli nes o f h o w a pe op le devoted to the ph ilosophy o f

egoi sm o r enli ghtened sel f inte rest w o uld wo rk out

thei r desti ny o n ana rchi sti c li nes and wi thout the p rin c iple
They sa w that a people to
o f n a t i o n a l s el f c o n t r o l
who m thei r the o ry o f l i fe w a s j usti c at ion o f thei r own
selshness would s o on evolve a despoti sm along what
eve r l ine thei r daily l i fe p roceeded si m ply b e c ause l a i ssez
.

BA CK TO TH E PEOPLE

f a i r e o ff ers no c ont rol

of

229

th e strong and c unni ng an d

th e weak pe ri sh and the st rong wi n
The rst phas e o f th i s st ruggle i n th i s count ry wa s
ove r thi s quest ion o f rep resentation On thi s the l ittle
statesmen g o t t ogether Thei r p o si tion was p rompte d
b y unequal p roport i ons o f lo c al j ealousy an d univ ersal
Ja c obini s m The statesmen sa w that any really demo
c rat i c i nstitut ions must p rov i de f o r the d i rect operat ion
o f the fundamental l a w upon th e people instead o f the
state and that thi s l a w m ust re c eive its sovereign
authority f rom the people and not fr o m the state
I ndeed had not th e o l d govern m ent o f the Con federat i on
failed because i t operated o n states ; be c ause i t co ul d
not pu ni sh states ; be c ause i t derived i ts scant autho rity
f rom them ? To be su re the demand that the n ew co n
go v e rnm ent should act up o n and pr o cee d
st i t u t i o n al
d i re c t f rom th e people was revoluti o nary But then th e
late w a r wa s none the wors e be c ause it had been r ev o l u
t i o n a ry
I t m ust be t ried
Delegated powers m eant also delegated rep resentat ion
and thi s at least must not be handed ove r agai n t o
states
I n othe r w o rd s the re could be n o adequat e
d em oc rati c government u nti l the barrie rs were b a tte red
down between government and pe o ple and peopl e and
government The clumsy and a rti cial inst rument whi c h
represented nothing but thi rteen units an d rep resented
t hem to no e fci ent pur p ose and w ith i t the a ri stocrati c
p rinci ple i nvolved m ust give way t o a gove rnment o n
d emo c rat i c f oundat ions di re c tly i n t o u c h w ith every
person i n the nat ion I t i s a c u ri o us fact i n the i r o ny o f
l o g i c as well as t h e i rony o f hi sto ry that the a ri st oc rat i c
.

T H E N EW POLITIC S

230

p rinciple represented i n the a rist oc rat i c party o f t h e

Uni ted States S enate whi c h represents the states and
not t he people should have been a c omp romise i n p ro
i
i
t
i
t
a
o n o f the party o f the demo c ra c y o f i nd ividual ism
p
Th i s u ndem o c rati c p ri n c iple o f state rep resentat i o n i n
place o f po p ula r re p resentatio n was a fatal de fe c t I t
was fatal not only because i t denied the fundamental
p ri nc iple o f democracy but be c ause it d i d n o t c o ntain
the p ri nci p les which were adequate t o a national li fe
Fo r i nstance th e C o ngress c ould make t reat ies and nego
t i a t e l o ans w ith foreign Powe rs but al w ays w ith a f eel
i n g that th i rteen quarreling sove reign ties bo u nd to

gethe r i n a leagu e o f f ri endship might nd th e m se l ves

null i fyin g thei r acti o n and repudiating thei r fo rei gn obl i
ga t i o n s s imply be c ause they had c ome to pull ing ea c h

o thers ears i n thei r equal w i sdo m and superio r autho ri ty

The states were unde r no c om p ulsion whateve r to raise
money voted by C ongress to p e r f o rm the pa rt stipulated
by C o ngress o r to abi de b y the promises o f the national
legislatu re
Congress re p resented the states but the
st a tes agrantly fl o uted its pl ighted faith
C o ngress
might p romise to p ay but the states mi ght re f use i f i t
we re the sweet will o f th i rteen j eal o us sove rei gn ties
The A rti cles o f Con fede ration were a playthi ng f o r
child ren T hey e m bod ied the p ri nci p les o f the De c la ra
t i o n o f I nde p enden c e The i nst rument was the quin
t e s se n c e o f Je ffers o n ian t rans c endental ism and the vehi cl e
o f ana r c hy
The convention was not p ropos ing amendments to c on
fede rati o n but ab o li ti o n o f the con federati o n I t offered
a n enti rely new i nst rument f o r an enti rely n ew govern
,

BAC K TO TH E P EOPLE

23 1

ment wh i c h m ust g o and d i d go t o that sou rce o f

politi c al powe r which c reated every state ; the powe r
whi ch had given them the right t o ente r the co mpa c t o f
c o n federation whi c h c ould abol ish that c o n federat i o n
a n d wh ich c ould and d i d se t u p a re v olutionary gove rn
ment
Th u s the se c on d Am e ri c an revo l ution wa s achi eved
I t was o r d ai ned that the Consti tution sh o uld be th e
fundamental l a w o f t he p eople o f such states as th o s e
wh o s e pe o ple m ight adopt it Thi s wa s rec o gniti o n o f
state sove reignty only so l o ng as su c h a state migh t
re fuse to assent to th e Const itution A s a matte r o f f act
each state was u nti l such a ti m e p ra c t i cally a s o ve reign
state but when t he peop l e o f that state voted fo r the
fundam ental l a w that status wa s c hanged o n the gr o und
that i n thi s a c t the Consti t u tion ha d t he full and di re c t
authority o f the people
I t wa s ne c essa ry to esta b l ish th e pri n c iple that na l
authority rests w ith the people I f i t ever be c ame n ec e s
sa ry fo r the nat ion t o restrai n or harmon ize the states
u nder p owe rs wh i c h the ver y theo ry o f nationali ty
demanded i t m ust be done o n the establi she d p ropos i
t ion that the a u tho ri ty o f all the people excee d s that o f
a th i rteenth pa rt thereo f Th ere wa s no r o o m fo r th i s
p ropos iti o n unde r a the o ry o f a mere uni o n o f sovereig n
s tates That u ni o n h a d been t ried
I t had fai led t o
i nt e rp ret the fu ndamental idea o f democra c y establi shed
b y th e Rev o lut ion because i ts remote and feeble powe rs
depended wholly up o n thi rteen se p a r a te p leasu res There
w ere no adequ a t e s a ncti o ns N o measu re c o ul d be exe
c u t e d but with the sepa rate a p pr o val o f each o f the
,

T H E N EW POLITIC S

232

S uc h a situat ion was m onstro u s an d to c on

t i n u e i t was f olly
Then i t was that the Washingtonian Federali sts c a m e
f o rward with the real democ rat i c theory o f the state
and it i s a matter o f su rpassing i nte rest to note h o w
t he Hami lt o nian philosophy saved the Je ffersonian i n
s t i n c t to keep people and government close together
The C o nstitution o f the Un ited States was a nat ional
protest against the ana rchy i nto wh ich the co unt ry wa s
d ri fting I t was ena c ted to make one nation wi th a
common good out o f thi rteen nations w ith unco m mon

gri evan c es ; t o ha rm on iz e c lash ing i nterests and pro

Party l ines d i verge d her e

mote th e general wel fa re
and the i ssues were clean c ut
On e a fter anothe r o f the w i se men saw the insuper
abl e d i f c ulti es i n the immed iate futu re and began to
pave th e way fo r a c onst itut i o nal c o nvention Webste r

w rote i n 1 7 8 5 ( Sketches o f Ameri can Polit i c s ) The re

must be a su p reme power at the head o f the Un io n
so long as any i nd ividual
vested w ith authori ty
state has powe r to d e feat the measu res o f th e othe r twelve
ou r p retended Union i s but a name and ou r c o n federa

ti o n a c obweb

M adi s o n w rote ( W ritings Hunt s Edition vol

An i nd ivi dual i ndependen c e o f th e states i s utterly

i rrec o n c ilabl e with the i dea o f an aggregate so v e r
states

e i gn t y

He proposed a middle gr o u nd without the i n t e r v en

t i on o f th e states supp o rting the sup rema c y o f nati o nal

authority an d leavi ng i n force t he l oc al authorities a s

far as they c an be subo rd i nately u se ful

,

BACK TO T H E PEOPLE

233

There was no thought in hi s m ind at that t ime o f

thei r being c o Ord i n a t e l y u se ful
That n o t ion came when he wanted o f c e
Hamilton called fo r a federal gove rnment adequat e
to the ex igencies o f the Union and Washington de c lared
there must be an i ndi ssoluble uni o n o f all the states unde r
a si ngl e fede ral gove rnment whi c h must possess the
powe r o f en fo rcing i t s dec rees
The idea whi ch arose steadily out o f the su rroundi ng
chaos o f i nd ivi dual i sm and wh i ch began t o gu i de th e
del iberati o ns o f the people and later o f the Co n st i t u
t i o n a l Convention was that the i nd ividuals o f the nat i o n
and not thi rteen c ent ral ized g o vernments should and
must be the const ituent elements o f any lasting un ity
I t was felt from th e failu re o f the Con fede rat ion f r om
the im po tency o f Congress f rom the j ealousy o f the
states f rom the want o f a cent ral g ove rnment w ith more
power o f taxati on f r o m the la c k o f p o wer in C o ngres s
to legislate fo r th e n ew states to b e formed from th e
No rthw estern lands that the un d erlyi ng f aults o f the
Con fede ration we re f undamental and that such govern
ment as there was was one f o r st a tes i n t he capa c ity o f
sovereign states and wh o lly w ithout auth o ri ty to reach
d i rectly the i nd ivi duals o f the nat ion
To be su re Je ffers o n and a f ew rad i cal parti culari sts
held that th e Arti cles o f C o n federation co uld be patch ed
t o serve all needs because he wanted no nati o nal govern
ment o ther than a department fo r foreign a ffai rs and
that a cheap one
But the large maj o rity felt that the C o n fede rat i o n had
f ailed and that thei r ex p eri ence had taught them thi s mu c h
,

,.

T H E NE W POLITIC S

234

that s o fa r a s nati o nal legislat i ve p o w e rs were c on c e rned

s
e
d
they must be sup reme i n tw o
where the states
a re i nc o mpetent and where state legislati o n w o uld i nte r
ru p t the h a rmony o f the Union They went fu rther
a nd un a nim o usly agreed that the Supreme C o u rt under
its po w e rs c o uld m a ke voi d such legislati o n as was c o n
t ra ry t o nat i o n a l need o r th e gener a l po we rs o f the funda
mental law I t was clearly seen that thi s meant nation
a l ity ; and that the l o gi c o f national ity w o uld play hav oc
w ith th e the o ry o f State Ri ghts ; and that when i ts p r i n
c i pl e was est a blished and acce p ted th a t the supremacy
o f the Constitut i o n o f the United States was t hat against
whi ch no se p a rate state p o wer can be exe rted the do c
t ri ne o f state s o ve reignty was nally annih ilated
Yet a fte r th i s p ri nc ipl e was establ ished and a fte r i t
was admitted that should i t be establ i shed the State
Rights d oc t ri ne w o uld be demoli shed the su p po rters o f
State Rights revived the o ld issu e and have contended
f o r i t f r o m that d ay t o this and queerly en o ugh o n
a theory o f st ri ct c o nst ru c tion they have been t ryi ng to
read i nto th e C o nstitut i o n that wh ich the l oo sest i nte r
i
t
t
co
uld
not
extra
c
t
f
r
o
m
it
That
the
maj
o
ri
ty
r
a
e
o
n
p
o f th e f rame rs we re righ t is c lea r f r o m the c ons ideratio n
that s uch i nde p endence as a stat e m ay have i s not i nde
n
o
f
the
Const
itution
but
i
n
and
th
rough
it
As
n
e
c
e
e
d
p
i ndeed th e f ree d o m o f the i nd ivi d ual i s not freedom to
d is o bey the l a w but t o walk i n avenues o pened up by the
l a w and respe c t th e fen c es bu ilt by the l a w
O n th is
p rin c iple the state even i n lo c al con c erns c annot be
s o ve reign over the will o f the wh o le peopl e els e Bu
chanan wa s right when he clai m ed the states could not
,

BACK TO TH E P EO PLE

235

b e c oe rced by Congress and Madi s o n was w rong when

he claimed that re p ubl ican l iberty co uld n o t exi st u nde r
s om e o f the abuses o f certai n states and even some m a t
t ers o f i ntern a l loc a l state legi slat ion must be rest rained
by the nati o nal government
O ne o f the rst questi o ns ar ising i n the C o nstituti o nal
C o nvent i o n was t hi s questi o n o f the pe op le o r the states
wa s the new i nst rument t o be o rdained by the peo p le
o r by the st a tes f o r the pe op le o r f o r the states ? The
way these questions we re answe red w a s t o de c i de whethe r
i t was a nati o n to be c reated o r the patchw o rk o f a
c o n fede racy t o be c o nti nued I t must be remembered
that u p t o thi s time politically speaking there was no
Ame ri c an n a t i o n and never h a d been
There were
thi rteen Ame rican nat i o ns All o f the pe o ple belonged
t o o ne o f thes e th i rteen Ame ri can nati o ns exce p t th e
f e w st raggli ng pi o neers wh o had wande red i nt o the
f o rest bey o nd the All e gh a n i e s Up to thi s t ime thes e d id
not c o unt Th e o nly way the vast m a j o rity o f the p eople
could c o nceive o f anyth ing imp o rtant being done was
by o r th r o ugh states si nce there was n o n a tion unless
there we re th i rteen The only p o ss ible way there f o re
by whi ch anythi ng c o uld be d one was thr o ugh the
ma c hinery o f st a tes Thi s fact i s the mo re em p hasized
as w e remembe r the di fculties o f co mmunicati o n and
that i t t oo k l o nge r i n those d a ys to g o fr o m B o ston t o
Ne w York than i t does n o w t o c r o ss the C o ntinent
M u c h o f the signicance o f state acti o n rega rd ing thi s
wh o le c o nstituti o n a l m o vement may be att ributed t o c o n
v e n i e n c e and ge o gra p hy
The ext ra o rd inary di fculty
and ex p ense o f getti ng the whole people t o gethe r i n any
,

TH E NEw POLI TI C S

236

adequat e rep resentation i n on e place and o n e c onve m

t i o n were p rohibit ive o f that method
I fear too m any o f ou r assum p t i o n s h ave been f ounded

on Mad i son s famou s a rgu ment i n th e Fede ral i st on

Th e Co n s t i t u t i o n S t r i c tl y R ep u bl i c a n i n wh ich h e c on
c l u d e s that th e a c t establ i shing the Const i tuti o n w ill not
be a nat ional but a fede ral act because the Constitut ion
i s t o be f o u nded up o n the assent and raticat ion o f th e
seve ral states derived f rom the su p reme power o f ea c h

state the a u th o r i ty o f th e p e o p l e th e m sel v es

The vital d i st in c t io n between the states and th e

suprem e autho rity o f ea c h state ( whi ch by the way

m akes o r u nmakes states ) the d i sti nct ion between c rea
t u re and c reat o r seems t o have es c aped the attenti on o f
M r M adi son
Th e argument was doubtless put f orwa rd i n o rde r
t o w in v o tes fo r th e C onstitution fr om those who we re
a f rai d o f the v ery idea o f nati onali ty and j eal o u s o f
ev ery enc r o achment upon that ram p ant ind ivi duali sm o f
th e day wh i ch so nearly mad e a C o nstitut ion o f the natio n
im po ssible I t i s worthy o f n o te that whil e Hamilton
who d ra fted th e Annapoli s rep o rt recommended a Con
s t i t u t i o n which should be agreed t o by C o ngress and
a fte rward c o n rmed by the l eg i s l a tu r es o f e ver y s ta t e

Mad ison ( Wri tings Hunt s

( Elli o t s Debates I
Ed it ion 3 6 1 69 ) a rgued that it was one o f th e v i ces o f
the po l iti c a l system s o f the United States that the rat i
c a t i o n o f the art icles sh o uld be made by the legi slatu re s
I t i s i nteresting to see Mad i son
a n d not by the peo p le
going f u rthe r than Hamilt o n in th i s d i re c tion
A s a matter o f fact had the a rti cles been assente d t o
,

BACK TO TH E P EOPLE

23

rat ied b y the states i t would have been thro ugh

thei r sovereign government namely the legi slatures o f
t he states As a matter o f f u rthe r fact they were n o t
thus assented t o and rat ied Th ey went ba c k to the
h
eo
p
le
o
m
ake
legi
slatu
res
g
o
vernments
and
w
so v
p
an d these the people n o t in legi s
e r e i gn i nstru m ents
l a t u r e s but i n c o nvent io n asse m bled o r d ai ned the Co n
st i t u t i o n and made i t a nationa l and n o t a fede ral a c t
H o w else could a nati onal act have been pe r fo r m ed ?

I t i s s ingular that a man o f Mad i son s acu men shoul d

h ave so failed to grasp the meani ng o f h i s o wn wo rds

Derived f rom t he supreme authority i n ea c h state the

a utho rity o f the peo p le themselves

H o w c ould he admi t that the re was a supre m e autho r
i ty i n each state behind the state wh ich c reated the
s tate
namely the authority o f th e pe o ple ; and sa y that
the Const itution i s to be f o unde d on th e assent and rat i

c a t i o n o f that sup reme auth o rity i n ea c h state behi n d

the state and whi c h c reated the state ; and that i t c o u l d

fede ral and not a national a c t ?

r emai n a
B ut th i s i s n o t altogethe r to the poi nt H av e w e f o r

a r gument w a s w ri tten be fo re the

otten
that
M
adison
s
g
C onsti tut ion was adopte d that h is fa m ous essay i s theo ry
and that as a m atte r o f col d histo ri c
a n d not history
f a c t the Constitution d i d not go to th e states at all b u t
t o the sup reme authority i n ea c h c ase the people them
s elves ?
I t m ust be remembe re d then that the Constitut io n
w a s propose d to the people o f the states ( not to th e
states ) f o r the re we re no peopl e out si de the states ; an d
n o t to the people o f the nation b e c a u se t h e r e was a s y e t n o
a nd

T H E NEW POLITIC S

238

There was s imply a co mp a ct o r lea gue o f friend

shi p d i ssoluble by consent o f all the states as parties
Th e c o nventi o n suggested that the new plan sh o uld rst
recei ve the assent o f the exi sti ng C o ngress a n d then th e
assent o f Assemblies c o m po sed o f representati ves ex
p ressly ch o sen by the p e op le t o a c t fo r them q u a th e
people i n c o nstituti o nal conventi o n t o approve o r rej e c t
Each o ne o f t he thi rteen state conv ent i o ns which rati
e d th e fede r a l C o nst ituti o n was a p o pula r c o nventi o n
a nd n o t a legi sl a tu re and the re f o re t he peopl e i n con
v e n t i o n a ssembled a n d n o t the state q u a state r a t ied
the C o nstituti o n
The in st rument was o ffe red t o th e
pe op l e and each act o f r a t i c ati on o n the part o f th e
p o pul a r c o nventi o n o f eve ry state ad o pting the Consti
t u t i o n set f o rth p l a i nly that such raticati o n p ro c eeded
f rom a co nvent i o n o f th e p e op le o f that state
To have submitted the C o nst itut i o n t o the states w o uld
have dest r o yed the f o undati o ns o f dem o c racy d i re c t
re p resentat i o n by th e p e op le
Thi s was th e fatal de fect o f th e c o n federati o n I t
was se p a rated f r o m the pe o ple by the g o vernments o f the
states When Edmund Rand o l p h Govern o r o f Vi rgin i a
presented a p l a n for a fede ral C o nsti tuti o n w ritten p r o b
ably by Mad i s o n he p r opo sed that a national go vern
ment o ught t o be e stabl i shed c onsist ing o f a legi slative

executi ve and j ud iciary and t oo k the rst rev o lut iona ry

step t o wa rd th e annih ilat i o n o f th e o ld c on fede rati o n
Th e im p o rtant d i stin c t i o n between a c on f ede rat e an d a
nati on a l gove rnm ent began t o take fo rm Th e c o n c ep
t i on o f a n ati on was d imly seen to i nvo l ve th e c o m mon
l i fe and the c ommon good o f a united people wit h
n a t on

BACK T 0 TH E PEOPLE

239

nat iona l d ut ies as well as national rights The i n c o m pe

t e n c y o f the old g o ve rnm ent wa s felt i n that under i t
was neithe r d i rect su ff rage nor di re c t rep resentat i o n no r
d i rect legi slation I t was seen that all state right federa
ti o ns must be a ri stoc rati c and not democ rati c fo rms o f
government at all The whole a rgument o f the Const i

t u t i o n and as well i ts r a i s o n d t r e deny the theo ry o f

state rights
Th i s C o nstitution n o whe re asse rts n o r
implies that each state acts i n its s o ve rei gn independent
cha racter as i n the A rt i cles o f Con federation and i n
th e C o nst ituti o n o f the c o n fede racy N o r as i n these
i nst ruments d o es i t anywhe re state that i t s powe rs a re
delegated by the states t o the C o nstitution
Th e t enth amendmen t says :
.

T he
ti o n

ers n o t d e l e g a te d t o th e Un i te d S ta tes by
p r o hi b ite d by it t o the st a tes a r e reserve d

po w

nor

res p e c tive ly

or

pe o pl e

to th e

th e

to

C o n s ti t u

th e st a tes

I f the im p li cati o n i n th e w o rds no r p r oh ibited by

i t t o the states was a co m p r o mi se with th e react i o nary

parti c ulari st s o f the t ime the same amendment st ill
leaves the g a teway o f powe r open i n that these powers

are reserved t o the people

Any rati o nal co nstructi o n o f these w o rd s would seem
t o i nd i cate th a t th o se po wers wh ich concerned sect i o na l
and l o c a l matters a re le ft to the states whe re they bel o ng
And th o se po we rs wh ich c on c ern t he nat i o nal i nte rest

o
r
and th e public go o d
the general wel fa re
a re

rese rved to the pe o ple

The st rictest c onst ru c t i o n i st
might a cc ept th i s
Any other v iew amounts to the state right theo ry o f
S outh Ca r o l ina the t heo ry whi ch b r o ught o n the C ivi l
,

T H E N EW POLITIC S

2 40

Wa r cl aiming th e stat e to be a sove rei gn me mb e r o f

a sove rei gn un ion The theo ry i s the the o r y o f secession
whi c h i s the theory o f sta t e rights a theo ry w hi c h de rives
n o autho rity f rom the C o nstitution i tsel f
The fai lu re o f the Consti tutio n t o enumerate p owers
the nec essity fo r wh i c h the f rame rs co uld not fo resee
d o es not i nvalidate those powers o the rw ise ou r natio n
c oul d not have su rv ived to thi s day and co uld not n o w
face the emergenci es o f futu re time But the Const i
t u t i o n i tsel f has p rovi ded fo r th is ve ry th ing i n spite o f
the theo ries
A rt i c le I X reads :
Th e e m e a t i o i
t h e Co s t i t t i o
o f c e r t a i n r i g h t s s h a l l no t
,

nu

be

c o n s tr u e d

t o d e n y o r d is c o u r a g e o t h e r s

r e ta i n e d

by th e pe o pl e

Note that i t does not read othe rs retai ned by the

s tates
Now as to these othe r powers o r rights not e n u m e r
ated i n th e Constitution and retai ned by the people a
vast body o f them have been o rdai ned by the p eople
th rough supreme j ud i c ial c onst ru c t ion th rou gh supre m e
national ena c tment through exe c utive ad m i nist ration
a pp roved by the people and not p rohibited by the Consti
and nally by th e a rbit rament o f a rms these
t utio n
all have been i ndemnied by the peop l e as f un d amenta l
law
Even Je ff erson said i n the De c la rat ion o f Ind e
The United States o f Ameri c a
hav e
pe n d e n c e
full po w e r
t o do all othe r a c ts an d th i ngs i n d epe n d

ent states m ay o f right do

How an yth ing as plai n as Art icle I X o f th e Co n st i t u
tion could have b een overlooked so pe rversely and so long
,

BA C K TO T H E PEO PLE

2 41

a cu rio u s f a c t i n an i ntelligent hi sto ry I t i s a c lea r

s tatement that all the rights o f the peop l e a r e not e n um e r
ated and that those om itted are not d isparaged thereby
To th o se wh o believe that u ltimate sove rei gnt y i s one o f
t he rights o f the people th i s p resents a c lear c ase

William Bla c kstone w ill tell you that i n B ritai n

su
p
reme
absolute
and
un
c
ont
rollable
po
wer
i
s
lodged
)
(
The t ruth is that i n ou r
i n the British Pa rl iament
gove rnment the sup reme absolute and u n c ontro l lab l e
ower
remains
w
ith
the
peo
p
le
A
s
ou
r
Constituti
o
ns
p
a re su p eri o r to ou r legislatu res so the people a re superio r
t o o ur C o nst itutions
the c onsequen c e i s that the
people m ay change the Constitut ions whenever and
whe reve r they please T hi s i s a right o f which no p o s i

t ive instituti o ns c an eve r dep rive the m ( James Wilson

Phi ladelphia C o nvention

The basi s o f Pat rick Henry s passionate O ppos it ion t o

the Const itut ion i n the V i rgin ia Convent i o n was that
the C o nst itution p resente d a c onsolidated gove rnment
a c ent ral ized govern m ent instead o f a c o n fede racy
He
obj e c ted to the language o f the P r ea m ble
We th e

P e opl e
i nstead o f We th e S ta tes on the ve ry groun d
that i t meant that the states were not to b e pa rt ies to a
c o m pa c t but that the people were t o b e the pa rt ies to
o n e great synthes izi ng c onsoli dating nat i o nal gove rn
m ent An d so i t was Patrick Henr y c laimed th i s t o
be revolutionaryas i f that we re a rgu m ent agai nst i t
s in c e to be re vo l utionary wa s no c rime to h im so sh o rt
a t ime b e f o re Pat ri c k Hen ry c o rrect l y i nte rpreted the
P reamble The Prea mbl e to the Consti tution dest roye d
the d oc t ri ne o f stat e rights sa c red to the A rt i cl es o f
is

'

TH E N EW POLI TI C S

2 42

Con federat ion whi c h so i nglori o usly failed to c onsol i

dat e a p e o ple o r cre a te a nat ion when ou r p olitical l i fe
w a s s o p re c a ri o us as t o cause Wash in gt on t o sa y i t wa s

suspended by a th read
Pat rick Hen ry sa w what Hamilton had al ready seen
that the dominat ing w o rd s o f the Const itut ion were i t s

rst w o rds : We th e Pe op le Hen ry sa w wh at Hamil

t o n also saw that thi s beginni ng st ru c k the note wh i c h
was t o be the death knell o f state ri ght s One sa w an d
fe a red the othe r sa w and was glad that anothe r revo
l u t i o n had co me t o pass that th e c on f ederat ion ha d
passed away and a sove reign nation had begun to be
And then when the ght i n Vi rgi ni a wa s won the
Convention v o ted that the powers granted under the
p ro po sed Federal Const itution are the gi ft o f the people
and that every p o we r not grante d thereby r em a i n s wi th
,

and at

th em

th e i r w i ll

I f any American c ould d i spute that nal autho ri t y

resides i n the sove reign will o f th e peo p le su rely i t ought
n o t t o be th e demo c rats o f i nd ividual i sm who hav e m ade
so many F o u rth o f July orations on the s o vereign will
o f the p e o ple Here aga i n c r o ps up that i nconsisten c y
i n whi ch they d o n o t seem t o understand the beari ng o f
thei r own claims i n wh ich thei r i ndivi duali sm su rren
ders rati o n a lity and c ohe rence Howeve r no on e i n thi s
c o unt ry will di s p ut e the statement that nal autho rity
resides i n the will o f th e p eo p le Nat i o nalist and Ind i
nay p roclaim i t The prin c i p le o f
v i d u a l i st admi t it
the sove reignty o f the p eo p le i s the ground o f all sel f
g o ve rnmentnat i o nal state or ind ividual sel f govern
ment
But the i ssue between Nat ional ist an d Ind i
,

BACK TO TH E PEOPLE

2 43

on c e whethe r they were to t ra c e the

auth o rity o f the Constituti o n back t o thi rteen se p arat e
cent ralized ent ities called sovereign states o r ba c k t o the
wh o le p e op le o f the nation
Marshall held that the gove rnment p r o ceed s di rectly

f rom the p e op le and that its p o wers a re granted by

them and a re t o be exerci sed d i rectly o n them f o r thei r

benet o therwi se the Const itut i on co uld n o t have been

what James Wi ls o n o f Pennsylvan ia characterized i t

the charte r o f the People s nationality

o r what

Ma rshall himsel f c alled i t o u r o rd i nan c e o f nat ional

l i fe
Howeve r wrong Je ffers o n may have been on the mai n
i ssue h e had one sublime i nsti nct H e had n o ph il o so p hy
n o consi stency But few men ever test ied as he test i
e d t o the sentiment o f the t rustw o rthi ness o f the c om
m on p e op le ; and the Ameri can nat ion never w o uld have
been the same had Je fferson never l ived o r had he like
Hamilton been assass i nated in h i s youth The nation
needed h im It can hardly be held su c cess fully that i t

needed so much o f h im but Je fferson s i nsti nct to keep

His
the government close to the people wa s sou nd
i nstin c ts we re better than h i s logi c
The c u rious thing i s that such theo ry as he had was
f alse false to h i s inst inct and ready t o thwa rt hi s aims
I t was the theory o f Hamilton and W a sh ington o f a
government mo re o r less sel f cent ral ized whi ch was to
hold the nat i o n together and p revent the re a l central iza
ti o n o f a rbit rary po wer i n t h e un co nt rolled p reyi ng o f

the st rong upo n the weak It was H a milton s p h il o s op hy

whi ch sa fe guarded the i nstin c t o f Je ffers o n Wash ing
wa s

v i d u a li st

TH E NEW POLITI C S

2 44

ton knew that in fl uen c e i s not govern m ent

Je ff erso n

neve r knew that sentiment i s not gove rn m ent

that
sentiment without govern m ent i s anar c hy and that und er
anar c hy the bi g eat the l itt l e and that un d e r anar c hy
there can be n o free people As it was the H a m ilto nian
ph ilosophy wh ich annih ilate d state sove reignt y and estab
l i sh e d a government d i re c tl y f rom the peop l e an d not
t h rough the states so it was the Ham iltonian ph ilosophy
lat er whi c h aboli shed human slave ry and v indi c ate d real
democ racy and the right o f all t o l i f e an d l ibe rty and
the pu rsui t o f happi ness It i s to d ay the Hamiltonian
phil o sophy wh i c h i s the champion o f th e people and a ll
the pe o ple agai nst the rapine o f ana rc hy an d against the
u ncont rolled explo itat ion o f the un c ont rollable c entra l
i z a t i o n o f p redato ry wealth
.

C H A PT E R V
A WO RD A B OUT

O V E R E I GNT Y

I t wa s o n e o f the great da y s i n the nat ion s h isto ry

w hen John Ma rshall ascended th e Sup reme B en c h c alle d
the re j ust a f ew hou rs be fo re Je fferson b e c a m e P resi
d ent o f the United StatesJe ff e rson who had A d a m s
not appo inte d M arshall j ust at th i s t ime would hav e
appoi nted an enti rely d i ff e ren t ki nd o f man ; and i t i s
p robable that the whole futu re d evelopment o f the
United States woul d have b een c han g e d i n i ts d i rect i o n
and c ou rse f o rever One o f the rst things Ma rshall
d i d wa s t o settle by hi s adamantine reasoning the status
o f the Sup reme Jud i c ia ry itsel f He a frme d that th i s
j u d i c ia ry h a s th e right to c onst r u e an i ssue an d t o de c ide
what i s the l a w whi c h gove rns i n any given c ase I f
th e te rms o f the Consti tution an d those o f any legi s
lat ive ena c tment c on i ct the Cou rt m ust de c ide wheth er
i t w ill f ollow the Const itution o r the legi slative a c t

But i t i s essential says Marshall to all w ri tten C o n

st i t u t i o n s that a l a w repugnant to the Const ituti o n i s
voi d an d t hat the Cou rt s as well as th e othe r depa rt

m ents a re bound by that i nst rument

Then h o w
else c oul d h e c onst rue but a cc o rd ing t o the f undamental
,

l aw ?

A s t o th e state ri ghts c ontent ion th e p ri n c iple i s d i s

t i n c t l y announ c ed and establ ished and i s no longe r ques
t i o n ed that an y ena c t m ent o f any state o r ev en o f th e
is
n ationa l l e g i sl at u re i n c on i c t w ith the C onst i t u tion
,

245

2 46

TH E N EW POLITI C S

void and t hat it i s withi n the powe r o f the j udi c ia ry

to determ ine thi s
These two pri n c iples have been ac c epted as the e x pres
s ion o f the wi ll o f the Ameri c an people as d isti n c t i ve
Ameri c an fundamental l a w M a rshall establi shed this
p rin c iple i n S pite o f the ang ry and violent o pposit i o n o f
Jeff e rson Th e p ri nci p le has st o od t o thi s day be c ause

Ma rshall s reas o ns fo r suppo rt ing i t we re nal I n the

summing up o f the argument i n the celebrated c ase o f
Mc Cu l l o c h v e r su s Maryland in 1 8 1 9 Ma rshall outl ined
the s ituat i o n i n an u nanswerable wa y He held that a
C o nst itut ion as p r o l ix as a legal code co ntain i ng an

a ccu rate detai l o f all the subd ivi sions o f which its great

p o wers will admit c ould hardly be e m b ra c ed by the

human m ind and neve r be unde rstood by the publ i c

Its natu re the re fo re requ i res that only i ts great out

l ines should be marked i ts impo rtant o bj ects des ignated
and the mi no r i ngred ients whi c h compose th o se obj ects

be deduced f r o m the natu re o f the o bj ects themselves

Let the end be legitimat e let i t be withi n the s co pe o f
the Const itution and all means wh ich are a p p ropriate
wh ich are p lainly adapted t o that end which are not p ro
h i b i t e d but consi st wi th the lette r and spi rit o f that Con

st i t u t i o n a re constitut ional
The st ruggle f o r Ameri can nati o nal ity i s one o f the
c rowning st ruggles o f the human ra c e That the in i

t i a t i v e o f Washi n gt on s admi ni strati o n was i n the d i r c e

t i o n o f s o und n a t i o nal ity was n o mo re f o rtunate than
that when th e Je ffers o ni a n reaction began Marshall o n
the Sup reme Bench gras p ed with such clearness and ex
p ounded wi th su c h i rre futable logi c the fundamental
,

A WORD ABOUT S OVEREI GNTY

2 47

p ri n c ip l es ( an d i t i s the li teral minded st ri c t c onst r u e

t i o n i st wh o fails t o grasp t hem ) that i f sovereignty w a s
delegated i t wa s su rrende red an d by the pe o ple n o t the
states and to a sovereign i nstrument ; that th e peop l e
not the states made the Const ituti o n and the Co n st i t u
tion mad e the nati o nal gove rnment ; that this i nst rument
h o l d s powe rs su fcient f o r all the needs and pu rp o ses
o f a national government ; and that an yt hing less w o ul d
d e feat the aims o f the f rame rs o f th e C o nstitution and
the foun d ers o f th e nation an d would p r o ve i nadequate
to the multiplyi ng needs o f a sove reign people
The Arti c les o f Con fede rat i o n fo rm ed a un ion o f
states The Consti tution o f the Southe rn C o n federa c y
m ade a union o f states
But th e Nat i o nal Const i
t u t i o n i s a bon d o f un ion o f the People o f the Unite d
States
To m y mi nd the re i s nothi ng Marshall eve r said m ore
fundamental mo re vi tal o r mo re t rue than th is :
,

Th e

p e opl e

c an u n m a ke

it

m a d e th e Co n s ti t u t i o n

I t i s th e

c r e a tu r e o

an d

th ei r

th e

o wn

p e o pl e

wi ll

and

l i v es by t h e i r o wn wi l l
B u t t h i s s u p r e m e a n d i r r es i s t i bl e
p o wer t o m a k e o r u n m a k e r es i d es o n l y i n th e b o dy o f
.

th e
o

p e opl e
a ny o

to be
th e

re

n ot

th e

p ell e d

p o w er o f

in

a n y s u bd i v i s i o n o

p a r ts

to

ex e c u t e

Th e

a ttem

pt

p a ti o n a n d o u gh t
t h e p e o p l e h ave d e l ega t e d

i t is

by t h o se t o wh o m

r e p e ll i n
g it

th em

u su r

What a d i ffe rent note f r o m that o f Bu c hanan w ith

the nati on on the verge o f c ivil wa r who i n h i s message
o f December 1 860 wh ile d enying the right o f se c ession
declared that Congress had no right t o coerce a state
P res ident F ra nci s A Walker ( The M a ki ng o f the
,

T H E NEW P O L ITI C S

2 48

Nation p

) i nte rprets Ma rshal l s theo ry o f the C on

st i t u t i o n as an in strument under wh i c h t he national
g overnment i s not limited in it s agen c ies or m ethods and
has f ree c hoi c e among all means not exp ressly fo rbid
d en i n the Const itution wh i c h are reasonabl e exped i ent

and pol iti c me a ns to those ends

M arshall expan de d

the frame o f th e governm ent to its p roper p ropor

t ions

Hamilton s d o c t ri ne o f impl ied powe rs i s more

f amilia r ; that i f the power i s necessa ry to t he pu rpose
f ro m powe rs
o f the Const i tution i t m a y b e implied

exp ressed
The na l establ ishment o f th is prin c iple th rough c on
st ru c tion one o f the most impo rtant ach ievement s o f
Ameri c an j u ri sp ruden c e settles the questi o n as to lati
t ude o f c onst ru c t ion and as to the elasticity and not ri
i
i
t
d
g
y o f that ultimate i nst rument the Constitut ion o f the
Un ited States It establi shed fo reve r o r at least so lon g
as the Constitut ion shall endu re the p ri n c i p le o f develop
ment and the possibility o f develop m en t i n spi te o f that
c lass o f mi nds wh i c h would fette r a growin g vital vi ril e
present t o the co rpse o f an age a hund red yea rs d ead
M o reove r i t establ i shed not only the f act that powers
enough have been delegated to the Constitut ion whethe r
by th e states or by the people to c on fer on th e Un ion
all the powers o f nati onal s o verei gnty but that th i s
sove rei gn ty lies in th e will o f th e p eople the whol e
people not i n thi rteen o r f o rty eight peo p les ; an d
that o f the whol e people the ultimat e o ra cl e i s th e Consti
t u t i o n o f th e Unite d States ; that th i s Constitution i s th e
i nst rum ent o f o n e S tate an d not fo rt y eight states
,

253

A WOR D AB OUT S O V EREIG NTY

'

2 49

M arshall ha d said that t he peo ple c an m ake C onst i

The st ri ct c onst ru c ti onist wh o
t u t i o n s o r unmake th em
m ay obj e c t t o d oct ri ne so revolutionary i s re ferred to t h e
f a c t that w ith an i n c onsi sten c y c haracteri st i c o f a party
whi c h shouted that all men we re c reated f ree an d eq u al
and f ought the Civi l Wa r to uphol d human s l ave ry and
state sove reignty M r Je ff erson and h i s f ol l owers a dvo
c a t e d a Consti tution elasti c enough to be c hanged eve r y
n i neteen yea rs ; that the maj ority should m ake th e C on

what the y th i nk w ill b e best f o r the m selves

st i t u t i o n
and a s i t we re i n the same b reath , pleaded f o r a stri ct
ness i n c onst ru c t i on fo r a rigid ity o f Const itut ion wh i c h
would m ake re fo rm exceedingly d i f c ult and progres s
all but im p ossible
I t will be u rged by the st ri c t c onst ru c tionist that pro
v i sion has been ma d e f o r c hanges i n the Constitut io n
th rough a m endment ! uit e t rue But an am endment
to th e Constitution i s n o w almost an i m poss ibilit y P r o
v i s ion has been ma d e also f o r c hange th rough c o n st ruc
tiono f legi slatu re exe c ut ive and j udi c iary
I fan c y there i s no one to d a y t o questi o n the c onst i

to
t u t i o n a l i t y o f a vast number o f legi slative p roj ect s

p romote the general wel fa re and wh i c h have no c onst i

t u t i o n a l ground outside the fa c t that the enti re nati o n
has a c qu iesced in what w e may call l egi sl a ti v e o r ju d i
c i a l o r ex e c u ti v e amendments t o the Constitut ion wh ich
be f o re the Civil War would have been p assionately and
alm o st unanimously opposed I t i s impossib le to re c on
cile th e attitud e o f the st rict c o n st ru c t i o n a l i st s wi th th e
i nc reasing body o f laws ena c ted fo r the p ubl i c better
m ent H o w are we t o c onsi de r thi s in c reasing b ody o f
.

TH E NEW POLITI C S

259

law

ndi ng its exp ress ion i f we take a c lassi c al exa m ple

i n the whole re c ent c onse rvation m ovement o f the Unite d
States passed by the sove reign p o wer o f a sove rei gn
nation rat ied by the exe c utive a c quies c ed in by the
Sup reme Cou rt applauded by the whole people with
no spe c ic wa rrant i n the C o nsti tuti o n o f the Unite d
States unless these a c ts are t o be considered i n l ieu o f
amendments to th e Constitution as an expansion o f that
Constitut ion ? Does not the state right theo ry t rip on
thi s snag ?

Su pp ose eve ry legi slat ive a c t to p romote the genera l

wel fare f o r which there a re not spe c ic powers men

t i o n e d i n the Const itut ion were wipe d out by the Supreme
Cou rt ? What would we have le ft ? Not a nation
su rely
I fea r these state right d e l ega t i o n i st s have m ixe d t hei r
authorities
I d o not nd a body o f do c t ri ne i n th e
Constituti o n j usti fying thei r cl a im
I do nd thei r
theo ri es ce rt ied i n the A rt i c les o f Con federati o n and i n
the Const i tut ion o f the l a te Con fede rate States
I
quote fr o m the A rt icles o f Con fed erati o n o f 1 7 8 1 agai nst
wh ich the C o nstitut ion o f the United States wa s the
pr o test o f the peo p le o f the nat ion :
A rti cl e I I :
E ac h st a te ret a ins its s o verei g nt y f ree d o m a n d in d e p en d en c e
a n d eve ry p o w e r j u ris d i c ti o n
a d ri g ht w hi c h is n o t by this c o n
f e d er a ti o n e p ress ly d e l e g a te d t o the U nite d S t a tes in Co n g res s
a sse mbl e d
,

I read the P reamble o f th e Con federat e States o f

Ameri ca 1 8 6 1
W e the p e o pl e o f the Co n f e d er a te S t a tes e a c h st a te a c tin g in
its s o verei g n a n d in d e p en d ent c h a r a c ter in o r d er t o f o r m e t c
,

A WORD ABOUT S OVEREI GNTY

But I read i n the P rea m ble
t ut i o n

to

25 1

the Federal Const i

W E TH E PE O P LE o f the U nite d S t a tes ( th a t is the way the

Co nstit u ti o n b e g ins a n d s p e ll s W E TH E PE O P L E in en o r m o u s
in o r d er t o f o r m a m o re p er f e c t u ni o n ;
o l d Ger m a n l etters )
( th a t is the rst pu r p o se m enti o ne d b e f o re the est a bl ish m ent o f
j u sti c e o r sec u rin g the bl essin g s o f l i b ert y ) W E THE PE O P L E
d o o r d a in a n d est a bl ish this Co nstit u ti o n o f the U nite d

S t a tes o f A m eri c a

The M o ntgomer y C o nvention wa s found expli citly

ackn o wledgi ng the p rin c iple o f state rights and dele
gated powers The Con federa c y was f o rmed be c ause
the Federal C o nstitution di d not so o rdai n The South
ern l eaders claimed t o have been sat ised wi th the

Fe d e ral C o nst itut i o n but fo r t o o loose an i nterp reta

ti o n though n o k ind o f co nst ruct i o n can nd t he p ri n

c i pl e o f state ri ghts ( whi c h o f course means state s o v
i n the Constitution o f th e Un ited States
e re i gn t y )
I t i s not altogethe r pa rentheti c al to state here that the
C o nstitut ion o f the C on federa c y i s a co ns istent ex po si
t i o n o f the philosop h y o f individuali sm F o r example

p ra c tically eve rythi ng i n the wa y o f state act ion to

pr o m ot e th e general wel f a re was p r o hib i ted I t ex

p ressed clearly the d em oc rati c the o ry o f th e stat e The
state had no moral m ission The sphe re o f national sel f
g o ve rnment w a s ve ry much rest ricted all but annihi lated
The p rinci p le o f nation a li ty was annihilated
I t wa s becau se the South wanted to annihil a te th i s
p rinci p le that it t ried t o dest roy the Union P rotect ive
tari ffs were p rohibi ted as were all i nte rnal imp rove
ments at the publi c expense Grant the soun d ness o f
thei r polit i cal p hilosophy and you must j usti f y se c ess ion
.

T H E N EW P OLITI C S

252

I ndeed it i s an i nte rest ing f a c t that de m o c rats thos e

who are c onsi stent i ndivi duali st s have always arrayed
them selves a ga inst the eth i cal enlargement o f the spher e

t o p romote th e general wel fare The vast

o f the state
mass o f con st ru c tive state building t o th e c redi t o f the
c on stitut ional p a rty i n the extensi o n o f th e publi c c on
t rol o ver th e common good has been pronoun c ed u n c o n
st i t u t i o n a l by eve ry st ri c t c onst ru c tion i st and held a s
pe rni c i ous theo retically by eve ry demo c rat o f individ
alth o ugh advocated and voted f o r wh en it wa s
u a l i sm
good policy to d o so
Je fferson stated th e i ssue clearly :
Ou r tenet eve r was and indeed i t i s the only lan d
ma rk which now d ivi d es the Fede rali sts f rom the Repub
l i c a n s that Congress had n ot unlimited powers to p rovid e
f o r the general wel fare but were rest rained to those

speci cally enume rated

H ence f o rth s a y s Schoule r a fte r quoti ng the above

ou r nat ional p a rt ies we re t o ght o ne an o the r upon th e

i ssue n o t o f c o nstitut ion a l change but o f c o nst itutional
c onst ructi o n p ubl ic opi ni on bein g the only recognized
a rbite r Fr o m 1 8 04 to 1 8 6 5 a peri od o f much contro
v e r sy
culm inating in C ivi l Wa r not a single c onst i
t u t i o n a l amendment was p ro p osed by th e Ameri c an
Congress to the states for ad o pti o n ; an d th e th i rteenth
amendment o f thi s latter date regi stered and c on rm ed
a dec ree wh ich th e swo rd had al ready exe c uted withou t

positi ve san c t i on
I s it not time to re examine ou r opi ni ons o f the C on
st i t u t i o n and thi s questi o n o f soverei gn t y f ro m some

other than a law y er s standpoint ?

,

A WORD ABOUT S OVEREI GNTY

253

Ea c h generation must have i ts o wn po i nt o f vie w

I s it not t ime fo r the generation wh i c h wa s bo rn s i n c e
t h e C ivil Wa r to state i ts c ase ?
The re i s a growi ng pa rty wh o b el ieve i n national sel f
gove rnment an d i n state c ount y o r i n d ividual sel f
overn
m
ent
as
supp
l
ementa
ry
an
d
not
O
pposed
thereto
g
We c onceiv e o f o u r f undamenta l l a w as havi ng

p ro c eede d f rom the people

These peop l e a re not

These people a re not m e rely

t hi rteen o ri ginal states
They a re the
t h e p eo p l e o f the th i rteen o rigi nal states
p eople wh o enacted the Const itut ion b e fore they d ied
a n d wh o c onst rue the Const itution while we a re l iving
.

w e th e

p e opl e

P ro f esso r H a rt has stated th e c ase f o r th e mod e rn

Ameri c an wh o bel ieves i n Ameri c an Nat ionality

The
c o rre c t view o f Ameri can G o vernment i s that every fo rm
o f gove rnment nati o nal state o r l oc al emanates f rom
t h e same autho rity na m ely the p eople o f the Un ited
States The fundamental bas i s o f Ame ri ca n Gove rn
m ent i s the right o f a people t o o rganize and fo rm

g overnments fo r themselves
( A c tual Gove rnment p
H e m igh t have added that the fundamental bas is
o f Ameri c an Government h o lds the ri ght to const rue
a c co rd ing to the needs o f the l i ving rather t han i n d e fer
e n c e t o the d ea d
A re the states nations ? I s the Nationa l Gove rnm ent
t hei r agent ?
I t has taken ove r a h u nd re d years to answe r thi s ques
t ion an d th e quest ion i s not yet answe re d i f the present
state right c ontentions be well grounde d and i f there i s
an a rea ove r whi c h neither state no r nat ion e x e r c is es
.

TH E NEW POLITI C S

25 4

sovereign c ont rol The nationali st mai ntai ns that the

American nation i s a s o verei gn nat ion
Soverei gn ty means su p remacy It i nvolves a do m inion
subj ect to n o other d o mi ni o n I t has auth o rity and for c e
subsid ia ry to n o o ther authority o r force The nation
i nvolves p owe rs a c tually bel o nging sepa rately to none o f
the fo rty eight ind ivi dual states
Li ncoln once dened s o ve reignty adequately f o r all
p ractical pu rp o ses H e says W o uld i t not d o to say
t hat i t i s a politi c al c ommu nity wi thout a pol i ti c al supe
ri o r
H e sai d fu rther Tested by th i s n o o n e state

ex c e p t Texas eve r was a soverei gnty

Assume sovereignty o f the nat ion Has i t a polit i c al

superio r i n the sove rei gn state ? Assu redly not H as

i t even a n equal i n the sovereign state ? No

Assume sov ereignty o f the state H as i t a superio r ?
Assu redly i t has I s i t even the equal o f th e nat ion i n
auth o rity and po we r to en f o rce that auth o rity ? In

deed no No state s o ve reignty measu res up t o that

test
No state p ossesses th i s supreme power A state c an
not even ca rry th e mails I t cann o t coi n m on ey impose
ta ri ff dues I t c ann o t grant patents o r c opyright s I t
cann o t maintain a navy no r c a n i t de c la re wa r o r pea c e
n o r enter into a t reaty w ith a fo rei gn power ; i t c annot
secede Why ? S im p ly and s o lely be c ause i t i s not o f
i tsel f a sove reign power
The legi slatu re o f a state c annot be sai d t o exer c i se
supreme l egi slat ion wh en the very c iti zens o f that state
owe rst o bed ien c e t o th e laws ma d e by anothe r p o we r
and when th e c o d es o f thei r lawmakers a re nu l l and voi d
.

WORD AB OUT S OVEREI GNTY

255

i f i n c on i c t with the laws made by anothe r power than

that o f thei r state o r the p eo ple o f thei r state
The cou rts o f a state cann o t be sai d t o exerci se sup re m e
j ud icial p ower when thei r very magi strates are sw o rn t o
d i srega rd the laws o f th ei r o w n state when they are i n
c on ict with an o ther l a w passed by an o the r and highe r
legi slatu re and are subj ect to c onst ruction by anot her
an d highe r t ribunal
The very C o nst itut ion o f a state i s n o t soverei gn f o r
i t i s only operat ive when i n co nsonance w i th another
1
Constitut ion o f an o ther and highe r autho rity
Th ese a re some o f th e powe rs with o ut whi c h the c lai m
o f s o vereignty i s a ri di culous i f not an impudent asse r
tion ; po wers wh i c h the p eople long ago st ripped f rom the
states w ith the c on fede rati o n an d wove as o n e garment
i nto the C o nsti tution t o c ove r o n e pe o pl e o f o ne nation
Sovereign powe r i nv o lves su p reme authori ty and
fo r c e The sup reme l a w i nvolves the supreme sancti o n
There are no so v e r ei gn st a t e s be c ause no state possesses
a sovereign l a w w it h a sup reme sanction Thi s question
was thought to have been le ft o p en by th e co m promises
o f the Constitution and certain states on c e alleged o f the m
selves sove reignty and seceded I t was a questi o n then
at last no l o nger o f sovereign l a w o r sove reign const rue
t ion o f l a w but o f sovereign san c tion Thi s questi o n wa s
passed up to the next h ighest o f all t ribunals the arb i
t rament o f a rms Th e C ivi l Wa r settled the question o f
state s o vereignty
Th e C ivi l Wa r wa s the ult imat e
amendment t o the Const it u tion I t sett l e d the quest ion
o f sove rei gnty
.

'

An d w
re

Ja c k so n

T H E NEW POLITI C S

256

The Constit u tion o f the United S tates i s n o t m ere ly

the document so called It i s t hat i nst ru m ent plus the
c onst ru c t ion i n many volumes o f the de c i s ions o f the
Supreme Cou rt o f the United S tates plus the c onst ru c t io n
o f the peopl e o f the United States on the elds o f batt l e
where they d e c i ded that the nat ion i s one nation not a
c on fede rat ion o f states an d that the whole i s grea te r
than any o f its pa rts
Back o f thi s whol e quest ion o f Nationalism i s the
question o f autho rity Where l ies sove reignty ove r the
a reas un f o reseen and unprov ided fo r i n state o r national
?

i nstitutions as to the i nterstat e

Whe re lies sove reignty ove r those a reas o f an arc hy
between the states ? Th e extra state as i t we re ?
Th e q uest ion o f sovereignty i s not one o f rights I t
may be one o f right but ultimately i t i s a question o f
nal autho rity
Final autho rity rest s with the whole
people o f the nati o n whose ultimate i nst rument i s th e
Const ituti o n Thi s Const itutio n was the begi nnin g not
merely o f union That had been establ ished by the C o n
fede ration The Constitut ion went f u rthe r I t be c ame
the supreme l a w o f a sove rei gn people
.

C H A PTER V I

T HE N A TIO N A L P A RT Y
S ide by s ide with the revolutiona ry i d eas i nto whi c h
this nati o n wa s b o rn anothe r i dea has been growi ng f r o m
th e ve ry begi nning o f ou r national existen c e I t i s th e
.

n a ti o n a l

i d ea

The h isto ry o f politi c al pa rt i es i n the Unite d S tates

d ates from the m o ment w hen men began to d raw the

l ine between Strong Gove rnment m e an d the Pa r

th o s e wh o advo c ated and th o se who o pp o sed

t i c u l a r i st s
th e ado p ti o n o f the Const itution o f the United S tates
The C o nstitut ion on c e adopted th e pa rty lines dened
th e pos it ion o f those bel iev ing i n a liberal const ru c t i o n
w hi c h gave the Nat iona l G o vern m ent greater powe r

and th o se wh o opposed it The Pa rticulari sts o f 1 7 8 1

became the Anti Fede ral ists o f 1 7 8 7 The Anti -Fede ral
i st s o f 1 7 8 7 be c ame the Con f e d eracy o f 1 8 60
The
Wash in gtonians and Hamiltonians o f 1 7 8 7 became a
Nat ional ist p a rty
Every day f o r ove r a hun d red yea rs the Ame ri c a n
p eople have been m oving away f ro m the c rass ind ividua l
i sm o f the t wo revolutions f ro m pa rt icularism t o Nation
a l i sm an d i n the d i rection o f the demo c ra c y o f alt ru ism
Even the p ract ical statec ra ft o f ou r fathe rs sa w that
ana r c hy was no tting foundation fo r a rat ional state
when i nd iv iduali sm su rrendered i ts pu rity relu c tantly
t o government as a ne c essa ry evi l The re i s mu c h said
o f rights in the D e cl a rat ion o f In d epen d en c e
nothi ng o f

25

T H E NEW P OLITI C S

258

A c entu ry and a q uarte r hav e shown its i n a de

a
as
a
politi
c
al
phi
l
osoph
y
We
c
o
m
pro
m
ised
o
u
r
u
c
q
y
righ ts and re c o gnized ou r duties when we ad o pted the
Constitution o f the Uni ted States
I f there i s any on e thing whi ch w ill c ha racterize the
last hal f o f the eighteenth and the rst hal f o f the ni ne
t e e n t h centu ries i n history i t i s pe rhaps th e i rresi st ible
p rogress o f the demo c racy o f i nd ivi dualism The next
fty y ears fu rn ishes notably the eld s where solidari ty
ghts out its battles o n nat ional isti c l ines i n Uni ted
Ge rmany Un ited I taly an d Great B ri tai n ; an d i n t h e
United States when i n the sixt i es we were kept f ro m
b eing b roken i n twoperhaps more I n En glan d an d
Ame ri c a howeve r the n ineteenth c entu ry has been par
t i c u l a r l y the scene o f c on i c t between the d emo c ra cy o f
i nd ividuali sm an d the demo c ra c y o f national is m
It
was not unti l a fte r the Civi l Wa r i n the Uni ted State s
that the i dea became i n any l a rge and real sense the
f undamental Am erican idea and even then i t wa s not
re c ognized even n o w i t i s not su fciently recogn ize d
Neve rtheless the national idea has b een t rans f o rm i n g
th e A m e ri c an stat e I t has been i n fo rm ing and mold
i ng ou r legi slati on and admi ni st rat ion
It h as be en
m oldi ng ou r h isto ry
I t has b een shapin g the v e ry
c ond ition s o f Am eri c an l i f e
I n spite o f all the theories o f state rights an d thei r
c orollaries whi c h we re held by the vast m aj ority o f t h e
people ( and a re indeed to thi s day ) as we l l as by the
ve ry i nherent logical ne c essities o f the c ase the f a c t o f
nat ional sovereignty has been growing f rom th e day the
Consti tution was ado p ted u nt il the present t i m e In one
duties

TH E NATI ONAL P A RTY

259

way o r anothe r whenever Ameri c an pol iti c s sees t to

reve rt t o a p ri n c iple wh i ch i s n o t o ften i t comes back
somehow t o th i s l ine o f cleavage wh i ch du ri ng the wh o le
h i st ory o f the republi c h a s d ivi ded c learly the Pa rti c ula r
i st s fro m the Nati onalists
The re i s perhaps no bette r i llustrati on o f what I mean
than that found i n the gradual en c r o a c hment I may sa y
eth i c al en c roa c hment o f the sphere o f state a c t i o n over
th e a rea o f personal l ibe rt y ; or i n o the r words o v e r t h e
area o f ana rchy I f the beginni ngs o f the g o vernment
were fou nded o n p ri nci ples as near ana r c hy as those
upon wh i c h probably those o f any other government h a s
ev er been founded we m ust re m embe r that the ve ry age
itsel f was one o f revolution
The d ivid ing li ne between the t wo real pa rties o f th e
United States i s that whi c h sepa rates nat ionali s m f r o m
r pa rty plat f o rms will not d i s c lose
arti
c
ula
rism
I
f
u
o
p
t hi s bounda ry let the re be a n ew national pa r t y whi c h
will Let u s hav e a party bu ilt o n prin c i ples not i nter
ests Whenever i t has appeared that su c h an i ssue m ight
be made there have been thos e ready t o obs c u re the real
i ssue and start the claque fo r e c on o my o r the t ari ff
l ike
o r some other poli c y wh i c h i s not f undamental
A l c ibi ades when h e bought a beauti ful dog and c ut o ff

i t s tail
to give th e A then ians someth ing to talk about

he sai d so that they won t talk about the oth er things

I want t o do
S o mod ern pol iti c ian s and bosses
d ivert th e peo p le to d ay by con f usi ng th e i ssue The re
c an neve r be a f ree t rade party i n thi s c ount ry aga in
whi c h w ill be m o re than a negligible quantity ; yet the

day o f l egi slati ng f o r the in fant i ndust ry i s d o ne

,

'

T H E N EW POLITI C S

2 60

When we no longe r have t o p rotect ou rselves f ro m

Eu rope we must p rotect ou rselves f rom Asi a Al ready
a hund red m illi o ns mo re than hal f the human race w ho
c an l ive on nothi ng a day and board themselves have
ente red the l i sts as p r o duce rs as well as c onsume rs and
ou r much vaunted t rade w ith the O rient i s not only
al ready do o med but we have the most omi nous p roble m
o f the twentieth centu ry to solve i f we save white labo r

and Weste rn civil izat ion and th e Ch ri stian wh ite man s

stand a rd o f l ivi ng f r o m utter ann ih ilat i o n
The tari ff p roblem i s on its way out o f politi c s Some
day i t w ill be i n the hand s o f s c ient ists and there w ill
be stability i n busi ness and the re neve r w ill be stabil ity
i n busi ness unti l the ta ri ff i s out o f p o litics a nd i s i n the
hand s o f sci enti sts and its mai n o utl ines at least a re set
t l e d as nati o nal not as pa rty measu res
The real i ssue to day i s and always has been the one
between state rights and no dut ies on the o ne hand and
nation a l ri ghts and dut ies on the o the r I mean state
rights i nter p reted a s state soverei gnty No one o f an y
i ntellectual weight has eve r assailed the p ri n c iple o f state
right s inter p reted a s a matte r o f lo c al rights
The
national ist denies state sove reignty H e deni es the pri n
c i pl e that we h a rb o r an a rea o f anarchy between the
states o r between the nation and th e states where the re
i s n o C o nstitut i o n and n o l a wa n a rea o f immun ity
f r o m c rime whe re wi th im p uni ty the big can eat the
l ittle and cannot be c aught and punished The pri n c iple
o f l oc al sel f gove rnment i s m o re sa c red to the national
i st than t o the parti cularist because he and not the par
t i c u l a r i st demands that the re shall be n o ne o f the a ff ai rs
.

TH E NATI O NAL PARTY

26I

men i n o u r Republi c where there shall be n o sel f

ove
rnment
g
The re a re th o se wh o bel ieve that th i s nati o n i s simply
the agent o f fo rty ei ght sepa rat e sove reignties called
states The nati onali st beli eves that th ere i s o ne nati o nal
sovereign ty fo r all national and i nterstate o r ext rastat e
co n c erns But he demands t hat the a ffai rs o f the state
shall be ru n by the state ; that muni cipal a ff ai rs shall be
admin i stered by the mun i cipality ; that the a ffai rs o f the
i nd ivi dual are the conce rn o f the i ndividual and that
i n thi s sphere ea c h man c a n attend t o h i s o wn busi ness
Th e nationali st holds to the dual p rinci p le q u a p rin c iple
as well as q u a ex p ed i ency
He i nsi sts on lo c al sel f
But h e denies the val idity o f lo c al sel f
g overnment
government i n those mult i p lying a ffai rs wh i c h pe rtai n
to ou r la rge r relati o ns between sect i o ns fa r a p art and i n
thos e wh ich pertain to o u rselves as units o f a great n e w
bo rn organ i c w o rld p o we r H e denies the p ri n c i ple o f
nati onal g o ve rnment pie c emeal I n sh o rt he claims tha t
all rights and all dut ies all a ffai rswhich pr o perly may
be c lassied as nati o nal a ffai rs must fall unde r the aegi s
It s ign ies n o th ing
o f the nat ional fundamental l a w
that powers a re n o t specically ment i o ned i n t he C o nsti
t u t i o n t o cover i ssues a n d events wh i ch c o uld not have been
fo reseen by the c he rubim and seraphim a hundred yea rs
ago The twent i eth c entu ry must meet its o wn i ssues
and state i ts own c reed Just i c e Wils o n on c e said Th e
o

g e n er a l

g ove r n m e n t

i n di v i d u a l s

is

not an

a ss e m bl a ge

s ta t es ,

bu t

p o l i ti c a l p u r p o s es ( vide D oc

f
f
H i st Const I I I 2 0 8 9
What a r e th o se ce r
tai n pol iti c al pu r p oses ? Let Wils o n answer
Wh e n
o

o r c e r ta i n
-

2 62

T H E N EW POLITI C S

e ver

o b ec

ou

p a r ti c u l a r
o

o c c u rs,

S ta t e i s

c om

di r e c t i o n

th e

to

p e te n t

wh i c h

t h e m a n a gem en t o f

no

i t m u st

bel o n g t o t h e U n i t ed S t a tes i n Co n gr ess

n e c essi ty

quoted
by
Elliott
)
(
Th is i s a reve rsa l o f that c ontention that the states
have j u ri s d i c tion over all obj e c ts not enumerated i n the

Const ituti on
Wh a t ever says Elliott ( Story o f C on

o f Wilson s views i n i ts n a tu r e a n d
st i t u t i o n p

a sse m bl e d

p e ra ti o n

t o be

ex te n d ed

c om

p r eh en ded

b ey o n d th e i n di vi du al S ta te

w i t h i n th e F e d e r a l

u r i sd i c

o u gh t

ti o n

The national pa rt y has ena c te d m o re rat ion a l an d

eth i c al legislation than any other pol i ti c a l part y i n the
histo ry o f the wo rl d ex c epti n g poss i bl y the re f o rm
part y i n Ne w Z ealan d
Eve ry eth i c a l l a w eve ry a c t
a d van c ing human wel fa re whi c h thi s pa rt y h a s w ritte n
o n th e statute books o f state o r nat ion w ithout a s i ng l e
ex c eption has been away f rom in d ivi d ualis m and to war d
the enla rgement o f the sphe re o f the state
to wa r d t h e
c ent ral izat ion and mo ral ization o f i t s powe rs
I t has
c a rried o ut the p ri n c ip l e o f sol ida rit y an d nationalis m
c on c e ived by Geo rge Wash ington and A le x ande r H a m
i lton as a n o ff set to the ana r c h i c al t enden c y o f Je ff erson

ten d en c i es much neede d i n thei r d ay but wh i c h i n thei r

day fullled thei r m ission an d i n the s ixties more than
f ullled thei r mission Th e u ntimel y assass ination o f
Hamilton gave the f o rc es o f in d ivi d ual is m an i m petus
which resulte d i n the Civil Wa r an d whi c h twenty yea rs
mo re o f h i s const ru c t ive and o rgan izi ng e ff o rt might have
c he c ke d When the st ruggle came and the d isi ntegrating
f o rc es o f o u r pol iti c al i nst itut ions had gath ered them
,

T H E NATI O N A L P A RTY

2 63

se l v es s uc h a n appeal wa s m a d e t o a l t ru is m as has sel

d o m i f ever, been equaled i n the politi c al hi sto ry o f
m anki nd The nat i o nal p a rty wa s the emb o diment o f
the eth i c a l f o r c e an d sent imen t wh i ch o rganized i tse l f
to respon d ; t o ha mm e r the sha c kles o ff th ree m illi o n
s l av es an d t o p revent i ndivi d ual is m f ro m b reaki n g t h e
nation i n t wo
T he Constitut ion o f the Un ited States wa s rst a p ro
test agai nst the pol i c ies o f c han c e and the politi c s o f
d ri f t o n whi c h the i ll f ormed nation wa s swi ftly hasten
i ng towar d d i ssoluti on The re wa s nowhere a c o m m o n
en d o r ai m nowhere the re c o gn ition o f a c ommon l i f e
an d a c o mm on goo d nowhe re a c onst r uc tive an d fu n d a
m ental idea
T he Const itutio n wa s ena c te d t o out l ine n o t f ulll the
fu nda m enta l i dea ; t o m ake o n e nat ion o ut o f thi rteen ;
t o re c ogn ize the p ri n c iple o f th e c o mm on goo d an d t o

I t i s a set o f p rin c ip l es
p ro m ote the genera l wel f are
n o t a se t o f r ule s
T hese a re the t rad itions u pon whi c h the pa rt y o f
Nati onal i s m was f o u nded ; t hese t he pri n c iples th e part y
has b een slowly an d s u re l y wo rki ng o u t f ro m the d a y
the Constitution was rat ie d u nti l the p resent time
T hese a re the i d eas i t h a s stoo d f o r an d these c onstitut e
,

i ts

r a i so n

d etr e

I f it has departe d n o w an d then f ro m th i s p ri n c iple it

i s be c ause the plun d erers o f in d ividual ism have sought t o
tu rn thi s great i nst ru m ent o f alt ru i sti c power to serve
thei r i n d ivi d ual gree d
Thi s is the p ri n c ip l e i t opposes t o th e part icularist

theory o f gove rn m ent which i s th e p o l i c eman s theo ry

.

T H E NEW P OLITI C S

2 64

no more
Th e national party stand s f or an eth i c al
demo c ra c y whi ch means the extension o f the government
ethi c ally f o r th e go o d o f a l l the pe o ple I t believes by
i nsti tuti ng ration a l and ethi cal forms that th rough thes e
and by mea ns o f these th e whole pe op le a c ti ng t o gethe r
wi th i ntelligent aim can bette r achieve the obj e c t s o f thei r
exi stence ( unless i t be co n c eded that the aggrand izem en t
o f the c l a wm a n i s th e o bj ect o f exi stence ) than c an t h e
i nd ivi du a l u nits o f the multitude i n a mad and u n t ra m
m el e d sc rambl e not w o rki ng togethe r and working w ith
out a im o r reason exce p t as each on e i s p r o pelled t o t h e
acqu i si ti o n o f mate rial i st ic possession d riven by th e
bli nd i nstinct o f sel f i nte rest
Th e party o f Nat i o nali sm has re c ognize d the p rin c ipl e
that what ever might have been th e o utlo o k and purposes

and indeed the l imitations o f the f a the rs i n f rami ng

the Con stitution the peopl e o f each gene rati o n have had
thei r own l i fe and thei r own p roblems si n c e that i n st r u
ment was d rawn up and that i t must be c onst rued t o
meet th e p resent need s o f an ex p and ing nation Such h a s
been the change in o u r w o rld o utl o ok that eve ry step i n
the p r o gress o f n a tionality has been acc o mpan ied by co r
res p onding c hange i n th e fundamental law The gen
e ral necessity f o r such an ada p tat ion and growth h a s

been nely stated by Mazzin i : The supreme p o we r i n

a state must not d rag beh ind th e stage o f c ivilization
that i n f o rm s i t ; i t must rathe r take th e lead i n c a rrying
i t h ighe r and by ant i c ipat ing the so c ial th ought b ri ng

the count ry u p t o i ts o wn level

Ameri c an nat ionality h as been d ene d not only by t h e
C o nstituti on but by th e c onsti tuti onal pra c ti c e o f nea rl y
.

TH E NATI ONAL PARTY

2 65

'

a century and a qua rte r And c onsti tut i o na l p ra c ti c e as

a c cepted by all the p e op le o f th e nation in whom all s o v
e r e i gn powe r l ies i ncludes n o t o nly j ud icial but legi sla
tive and exe c ut ive constructi o nalso c onst ru c ti on by
t he sword
So fa r nothi ng i s clea re r i n th e devel o pment o f Ameri
can nationality than th i s that a centu ry o f st ruggleo f
a c ommon nati o nal l i fehas clad the skeleton o f 1 7 8 9
wi th th e esh and bloo d o f a l iving thing and that the
common l i fe o f th ose who were b o rn t o it rathe r than
o f those to wh o m i t was b o rn has breathed upon i t the
livi ng b reath o f o rgan i c nat i o nali ty
The quest ion n o w i s whether futu re Am erican h i sto ry
shall be w ritten o f Nati o n a l ism o r s o ciali sm Pa rti cula r
i sm i s p layed o ut Its last word i s that the gove rnment o f
the Un ited States has been moved f r o m Capitol H ill t o
Wall St reet We hav e rea c hed the climax o f a p o lit i c al
system b a sed on inte rests instead o f p ri n c iplesth e a po t h e
o si s o f the boss and the worshi p o f the machi newhere
o n e man co nt r o ls an eleventh o f the nat i o nal asset s and
the masses o f th e empl o yed middle c lasses c annot a ffo rd
th e decencies o f l i fe
We a re ready f o r a c hange
A nd the one th ing which can save the count ry fr o m
s oc iali sm i s Nati o nalisma government o f a ll the peo p le
by a ll th e people fo r a l l the p e op le
A n ew e ra i s up o n u s o utli ned i n its own n ew p r o blems
They are many and they a re se ri o us S o me o f them a re
ominous The nati o nali st i s the only man who i n t e ll i
gently can c ope w ith them I n every great c ri si s i n ou r
nati onal hi sto ry the i ssue has been between the nati onal
.

TH E NEW POLITIC S

2 66

i st an d the parti c u l a ri st an d the national ist has a l wa y s

wo n and he wa s always right H e i s right to da y H e
wi ll wi n t o-d a y
Wh ateve r m ay b e the t ru e an d ulti m ate politi c a l ph i
l OS Oph y u pon whi c h a f utu re m illennium m ay b e based
the right m inde d Am eri c an states m an w ill wo rk o n l i nes
pa rallel with th e Am eri c an idea ; and that i dea he w i l l
i nte rpret roughl y an d he c annot get awa y f ro m i t
i n th e general t e rms o f the i nterpretation given it b y
ei the r George Washin gt on o r Thomas Je ff e rson Th ese
two m en head th e t wo g reat Am erican po l iti c al pa rties ;
th e two Ame ri c an systems o f poli ti c al thou ght an d eve ry
thi ng funda m ental whi c h has been done o r tho u ght o r
said s in c e thei r day has f ollowed c ons c ious ly o r u n c o n
sc i o u sl y the l ines laid out mo re than b y an y one e l se b y
the atti tude o f these t wo m en Je ff e rson as d oes n o
one else rep resents i n phi l osophy p ra c t i c e spi ri t an d
p o i nt o f vi ew th e d emo c ra c y o f i n d ividuali s m Geo rge
Washin gt onthe manh is whole m o ra l and i n t e ll ec
tual c hara c te r i s the i n c a rnation o f the de m o c ra cy o f
Nat ionali s m
The l i ne o f c lea va g e b etween the nationa l an d pa r
t i c u l a r i st pa rties bise c ts that separati ng Repu bl i c ans an d
Demo c rat s at right angles There a re nat ional ists No rth
and South East and West R epubl i c an and D emo c rati c
and I ndependent and the re a re Repub l i c ans eve ryw here
who c annot think nationally
Fo r exam p le i n the ranks o f the R epu b l i c ans a re
the w retched sel f seekers who represent the i nterests
ent ren c hed i n a slough o f p a rti c ularis m and ba rrica d e d
w ith state rights Among the De m o c rats a re m any men
,

2 67

T H E N A TIO N A L PARTY
wh o

nationalists i n the h i ghest sense though the y a re

in d ividual ists also in the highest sense
The re c ent
M arshall r e d ev i vus with all the l iteratu re o f m o re than
wh i c h c alls nat ional attentio n agai n t o the
a de c ade
f o rm i ng an d f raming o f t he n ew nation by the const ru e
t ion o f a statesman j u ris t rathe r tha n t h e obst ru c ti on
o f the lega l Pha risee
grew o u t o f what has p rov ed
al m ost an epo c h -m aking add ress del ive re d by Gene ral
John C Black Pres i d ent o f the Unite d S tates C ivil
Se rv i c e Co mm i ss ion ( then Un ite d S tates Atto rney ) b e
f ore the I ll inoi s State Ba r Asso c iat ion i n the n i neties o n

Joh n M a rshall
Gene ral Black whose f unera l se rmo n
had been p rea c he d at ho m e tw i c e d u ring th e C iv i l Wa r
when h e had b een shot as was tho u ght t o d eath i s o n e
o f those wh o have c emented w ith thei r o wn blood what
M a rshall tau ght the so v e rei gn ty o f th e nat ion , and not
the state and wh o has a l wa y s been a pat riot an d states
m a n be fo re a pol i ti c ian

The adoption o f the Const itut ion

sa y s Gen e ral

Bl a c k wa s i tsel f onl y a s in gl e step towa r d the hab ilita

t ion o f th e Repu b l i c Tha t Const itution ha d to b e m a d e
e ff ec tive I t had to b e so i nte rp rete d an d d e c lare d it s
p ri n c iples had to be so expou nded that m en would k no w
that they were d eali ng not with that Con fede rat ion
wh i c h gasped and d ied o n the th reshol d o f the Co n v en
t ion but w ith a Nat ion
T hen f ollows i n a numbe r o f c a re f ull y se l ected qu o
t a t i o n s f rom Ma rshall wh o sat i n eleven hun d red c ases
th rough o ve r a thi rd o f a centu rythe outl ines o f a bo d y
o f do c t ri ne fo r Nat ional ism wh i c h could not i n e q ual
space be ex c ee d ed i n Ameri c an pol itical l ite ratu re
a re

T H E N EW POLITI C S

2 68

Anothe r i s Gove rn o r W o od row Wi lson I n hi s c hap

te r on State Right s ( Camb ridge Mode rn H i st o ry vol 7
United St a tes p 4 1 4 ) he says I t w a s the West that w a s
making a nati o n o ut o f the o l d t im e fede rati o n o f seaboar d
states Webste r w a s i nsi st ing upon the new uses an d
s ignicance o f th e Con sti tut i on ; Hayne was harkin g
back t o the o ld
The nati o nal l i fe had i n these late r
days gr o wn st r o ng w ithi n i t
N o C o n st itution c an
eve r be t reated as a me re l a w o r document ; i t must
always be also a veh icl e o f l i fe It s o wn p h ra ses m ust
bec o me as i t were livi ng t i ssue I t must grow and
st ren gt hen and subtly change w it h the growth and
st rength and change o f t h e politi c al b o dy w hose l i f e
i t d enes an d mu st i n all but i t s expl ici t and manda
t o ry p r o vi si o ns with rega rd t o p owe rs and fo rms o f
act i o n take i ts read ing from the ci r c um stances o f th e

t ime
Th i s broad sa fe c o nse rvative N a tional i sm i s that
whi ch the nation h a s been w o rki ng o ut f o r itsel f and
we nd its ex po n ent s i n all se c ti o ns and i n all p a rties
Si nce th i s i s a fte r a ll the fundamental questi o n and po i nt
o f v iew he re o ught th e o ld pa rt ies t o be reo rganized
The nat i o nal pa rty i s uno rganized and u nnamed Per
h a p s it i s t ime f o r i t t o be named and o rga nized
There i s a fundamental l in e o f cleavage he re h i st o r i
cally and ph i l OS Oph i c a l l y
I n o u r p o l icies the re may be a hund red I n ou r poli
t ics th ere may be o nly thi s one It i s that which sepa
rates by unb ridge a ble abysses th e ground i deas o f the
tw o systems o f thought that o f atom i sm and that o f
o rgan i c un ity
.

2 69

TH E NATIO NAL PARTY

The De c la rati o n o f I ndependence leaves o u t the ele

m e n t o f reciprocity o utli nes the phil o s o phy o f i ndiv i dual
i sm and i s the found ati o n st o ne o f the demo c racy o f
i nd ividual ism
The C o nsti tution on the othe r hand o ffe rs the f o u n d a
t i o n f o r a c reed o f the democ racy o f altru ism Enacted
a s i t were fo r th e express pu r p ose o f declaring ou rselves
o n e i nstead o f th i rteen nati o ns i t uttered a n ew and S i g
n i c a n t n o te i n the p revai l i ng d i sc o rds o f ana r c hy when
i t declared i ts pu rp o s ive m iss i o n t o p r o mote the gene ral

I f Gladstone s estimate i s co rrect that th is

w el fare
w a s the noblest document eve r st ru c k o ff at o n e t ime
f r o m the m i nd o f man i t i s also t rue that the P reamble
c o ntai ns o ne o f the m o st benign and fa r rea c hing ethi cal
motives eve r ascribed t o a p ol iti cal d o cument Every
o n e kn o ws the o nslaughts o f th e p o lit ical ancesto rs o f
t h e American dem o c racy o n th is p re c i o us i nst rument ;
h o w Je ffe rs o n said a fter opposing i t i t sh o uld be mad e
o ve r eve ry ni neteen yea rs and h o w Alexande r Hamilt o n
i n o ne o f the most d ramati c and b rilliant st ruggles i n the
p olit ical annals o f m a nkind saved th e C o nstituti o n at
P o ughkee p si e blasted the l a st hope o f ind ividual ism and

t he
pa rticulari sts and m a de ana r c hy fo rever i m po s
s ible so long as the Const ituti o n l a sts ; and saved thi s
n ati o n to th e futu re i n se c u ri ng that i nst rument which
was not only t o be the p erpetual gua rantee o f ou r l iber
t ies but the asse rt ion o f ou r d uties
Then and the re wa s th e fundamental i ssue dened
b etween the t wo great pol iti cal pa rti es o f the Un ited
States and then and the re we re the b r o ad l i nes o f future
c o n ict laid out
,

2 79

TH E NEW POLITI C S

The st ruggle o f the twentieth centu ry will be between

th e parties o f State Right s and o f One Nati on o f Indi
v i d u a l i sm and Nat ional i sm ; between the p arty o f sel f
i nterest an d th e party o f the general wel fare ; between the
ph il o sophy o f the De c la rati on o f Independen c e and th e
phil o so p hy o f that Declarat i o n o f I nt e rdependen c e the
Constituti on o f the Un ite d States

C HAPTER VI I

TO

SU

IT

UP

B ehi nd every the o ry o f g o ve rnment i s a t heo ry o f l i fe

The theori es o f l i fe whi ch stand opp osed to each o ther
at the beginning o f th i s omi nous centu ry are the p ri n
c i pl e o f i ndivi dual ism and th e p ri nci p le o f ass o ciati o n
I nd ividual is m o ff ers a th eor y o f so c iety but it i s a
wo l sh o ne
Sociali sm o ff e rs a theo ry o f so c iet y b ut i t i s an i m
p ra c ti c al one
O p p o rt unism has n o t he o ry o f society n o theo ry o f
l i fe It i s s o met imes good i t i s so m et imes bad I t i s
always u ncertain
What we want i s an i dea I t must b e f u nda m ental
s oc ial hi sto ri c al eth i c al Su c h an i dea must be the foun
dati o n o f the t rue demo c racy an d it w ill be founded on
the theory o f the br o therh o o d n o t the step b rotherhood
o f mankin d I t must be an exp ression o f the c o rpo rate
reason and ethi c ; not the cha o s o f c o mpet in g and u n re
lated units I t must be an i ntegral pa rt o f a wh o le t heory

o f sound l i fe and must n Ot be spl i t i n two with a

hat c het
The atom ist view o f l i fe whi ch co nceives
e co n o m i cs p o l it ics eth ics rel igion i n i solated and uu re
lated p o s itions bears about the same rel a ti o n t o m o de rn
i ntelligence as th e olde r f o rm s o f p h renol o gy bea r to
m o dern psy c h o l o gy wh i ch represents the human m ind
a s a u ni t and not s o many faculties marked by c ranial
p rotub e ran c es like so many h ills o f potatoes
.

71

TH E NEW POLITIC S

2 72

Wh ile we look fo rward ultimately to so m ethi n g w i d e r

than Nati o nal ism ra c ial fede ration can only c ome
th rough and be based o n sound eth ica l Nat i o nal ism as
t he latte r i s based on sound and mo ral personal c ha ra c ter
Anyth i ng l ike cosmopol itani sm i s t o o remote f o r d is
B ut what we o ught t o have and what we
c u ssi o n here
mi ght have i s an ethi c al dem o c racy i n wh ich the tendere r
sent iments o f th e human hea rt may n o t w ithe r and die
where a man may be h o nest and fai r and sti ll d o business
and whe re men wi ll n o t mangl e and c rush thei r b reth ren
t o acqui re thei r p rope rty w ith o ut fa i r return and where
the a cqu isit ive i nst i nct has not g o ne stark mad To the
t rue statesma n the ve ry i dea o f the sepa rati o n o f pol i
t i c s and ethics must be a n i nsanity The fact that the
brute i nst i nct o f sel f i nte rest i s st ill the mainspri ng o f
hum a n soc iety shall o ccu r t o h im as a c olossal s i n against
G o d and man Eve rm o re i f we a re human b eings we
must retu rn t o the ethical p roblem f o r human values a re
ethical and one human bei ng will not da re face anothe r
hum a n being i n the u niverse w ithout rega rd to the eth ical
m o tive Th e un iverse i s c onstituted t hi s way
T he fate o f the Western H emisphe re indeed o f th e
w o rld ex p eriment o f demo c racyhangs here The f aults
o f such dem oc racy as we h a ve known a r e the faults
o f the phil o s o phy o f l i fe behi nd i t v i z i nd ivi dual ism
The s iniste r elements domi nati ng ou r insti tuti o ns an d
wh ich give a fo reb o d ing as p ect t o ou r sky a re the hell
brood o f i nd ividuali sm reduced i n eve ry case to th e
mot ives o f pi ra c y p revail ing everywhere i n ou r bus i ness
world Anar c hy st ill prevails i n ou r m i d st outsid e the
reach o f l a w ; b e c ause we have separated ethics fr o m
,

TO S U M I T U P

73

pol iti c s an d e c ono m icsb e c aus e we hav e separated

moral s from b us i ness and religi o n f r o m l i fe
There i s n o ap p eal fr o m the verd i c t o f h i sto ry
I n so fa r as m o t ives o f soc ial ity have d isplaced thos e
o f selsh i nsti nct we h ave seen the result i n c ivil ized
s o ciety I f we a re able t o learn anyth ing f r o m the hi s
tory o f ou r nation i t i s that ou rs o f all human e x pe r i
ments has shown by thi s t ime th a t human p r o gress l ies
t o wa rd ra t i o n a l ass oc iati o n and n o t t owa rd th a t u n t r a m
m e l e d st ri fe called free c o m p et it i o n ; a way f r o m a n a rchy
and i n the d i recti o n o f n a t i o nally c o nce ived and nati o nally
The chance p h rase o f Pl a n
c o Or d i n a t e d l a w and o rde r

t us h o m o h o m i n i l u p u s desc ribes such pu re i nd ividual

i sm as still exists i n the worl d and it i s n o t t ime wasted
f o r us t o stop mo ney getting n o w and then l o ng en o ugh
t o ask ou rselves whethe r i t i s m o re o r less o f i t we
want
S o f a r we h ave su rvived and outgr o w n atomi sm but
w e have n o t stated ou r nati o nal thes is n o r fo rmulated
o u r n a ti o nal the o ries We are h o weve r c o ming t o the
po i nt that Je ffersonian at o mism o ffers no rati onal basi s f o r
po liti cal ass o ciati o nfo r a theory o f legislat ion a the o ry
o f gove rnment a the o ry o f the state o r a the o ry o f l i fe
I n p r op o rti o n as w e are aband o ni ng i nd ividu a l ism a
nat ional idea i s dawni ng u p on us S o me o ne w ill c o n fe r
u po n the Ameri c a n p e op le a l a sting benet when he d is
cl o ses a t thi s li ne o f cleav a ge the c lue o f Ame ric a n
p ol itical h i sto ry an d at the same t ime th e key o f Ameri
can po liti cal desti ny
We are even b eginning t o get used t o t he idea o f
nat ional sel f government Th is generation wa s bo rn to
.

TH E N EW P OLI TI C S

74

i t National it y i s its bi rth ri ght It i s be c oming as easy

for some o f us t o imagine a nation gov erni ng itsel f as a
state g o verni ng i tsel f o r a muni cipality gove rning i tsel f
The i dea i s easy because we we re b o rn seeing th e thing
d o ne Once i t was not so Ar o und thi s i dea have been
f o ught o u r ercest po l it i cal st ruggles and one o f the
bl oo di est wa rs o f the w o rld Out o f these st ruggles h a s
slowly gr o w n the c o nvict i o n that the ve ry li fe o f a n y
t ru e dem o cracy and i t s tness to su rvive i s b o und u p
i n the p ro po si ti o n t hat the w h o le people i s t to govern
c an gove rn and d o es g o ve rn i tsel f On c e g o ve rnment wa s
the b i t e n o i r e o f the Ameri can populace We a re begi n
ning to nd ou r nat ion a l peri l i n lawlessness On c e t h e
p e o ple sh o uted fo r i ndiv idual liberty But havi ng na r
r o wl y escaped the dange r o f be co ming enslaved th rough
ana r c hy w e a re seeking mo re and mo re constitutional
l ibe rty
We have found out that certai n things concern th e
wh o l e American pe op le ; i ndeed that everythi ng Ameri
can conce rns the wh o le Ameri c a n pe o ple
F o r these
Ame rican c o nce rns we a re want ing st r o ng government
nat i o n a l g ov ernment We w a nt st r o ng g o vernment b e
c ause th a t i s the op po si te o f weak go vernment And
weak g o vernment means a weak nat ion And a weak
nat ion means a weak p e o pl e And a weak pe o ple means
weak pe op le
We c o ntend f o r st rength adequacy
nati o nal s o verei gnty ove r nati o n a l relat ions and i nte rests
We demand a government o f a l l the p e op le by a l l th e
p e o ple and f o r a l l the p eople Thi s we opp ose t o atom
i sm ana rchy c o n fusi on and secti o nal st ri fe

The D i vin e Right o f Ki ngs sai d Di s raeli may have

.

To S U M I T U P
fo r

b een

a plea
g ove rnment

is

2 75

f eeble ty rant s but the d ivi ne right

th e keyston e o f human p r o gress

,

of

I have contrasted i n ba rest suggesti o n the basic i d eas

o f the demo c racy o f I nd iv idual i sm and o f the de m o c ra cy
o f Nati o nalism
I have indi cated by a f ew con c rete i nstan c es o f ethi c a l
l egi slat i o n whe rei n the Ameri can state f o r a hundred
and twenty yea rs h a s been enc roa c hing u p on the anarchy
and to o sl o wly enl a rging th e are a o f
o f i nd ivi duali sm
the c o mm o n g oo d by establ i sh ing the sphere o f rati o nal
p o litics ove r b rute i nst i nct st ill p red o m inant i n ou r preda
t o ry regime Othe r f o rces have made f o r anarchy per
haps as fast as we have ga ined headway th e u n a ssi m i
lated f o reign element and pa rt i cula rly the i n c reasin g
p o we r o f lawless n a n c i a l i sm th e ene rvat i o n s and degen
wh o have noth
e ra c i es o f o u r young men and w o men
i ng to do but grat i fy thei r a p pet ites and p assi o ns and
study n e w means o f wasti ng t reasu re c reated by ex p loited
and un requ ited toil I have t ried to S h o w that under
lyi ng su c h po licies as have been a c red i t t o the Co n st i t u
t i o n a l p a rty t o th e nati o n and to m o de rn civil izati o n
t here a re ce rtai n p ri nci p les we have been wo rki ng ou t
mo stly i n th e d a rk with o ut i ntelligent plan o r f o resigh t
la rgelyp rinci p les unrec o gnized unstated an d unn a med
but which should be clearly stated candidly d i scussed
and i n good faith acce p ted o r rej ected as they h a ve been
seen to be valuable i n p r a c ti c e Fugi tive acts sp o radi c
and o p portun i st legi slat ion a re t o o a p t t o result fr o m
demagogi c ap p eal t o t h e citizen wh o will sell h i s v o te
fo r h i s nan c ial advantage which alm o st all Ame ri c ans
,

2 76

T H E N EW POLITIC S

hold in g th e b usi ness t heo ry o f the state a ffi rm o f thei r

m o ti ves and a frm wi th o ut p ri vat e shame o r publ i c r e
buke F o r the most p a rt we a re Republi c ans o r Demo
c r a t s because o f o u r c o n c eption o f o u r business i nte res t s ;
o r o ne ste p fu rthe r f o r the h op e o f o fce ; o r fu rthe r
still i n the d i rect i o n o f pu re Hed o ni sm i n po l i tics w e
sell o u r v o tes f o r m o ney I f there i s one thi n g w o rse
h o weve r than selling ou rselves i t i s buyi ng o the rs ; fo r
th e s a ke o f ou r l a wless aggrand izement t o acqu i re fo r
a c o nsidera t i o n v o tes legi slatu res c o mm o n c o uncil s
j udges and c o ngressmen H o w w ill the y o ung American
c omi ng o f age ap p r o ach the f ranchi se ? Wi ll he co me

w ith the s o dden questi o n i n his heart

Will my v o te

?
hel p my busi ness
Shall I get o fce ?
H o w mu c h

can I get f o r my vote ?

I can imagine an o the r kind o f

pol itic ian who w ill say I bel ieve i n reas o n i nstead o f
b rute i nsti nct ; i n l a w and o rde r not anar c hy I bel ieve
th e Ameri can nati o n t o be s o methi ng far greate r and

mo re w o rthy th a n a business p r opo sit i o n

I a c k n o wl
edge an o bliga ti o n f o r every p riv ilege a duty fo r eve ry
right and bind mysel f t o p ay th e futu re what I o we the
past I sh a ll nd a p lace f o r hum a ne sentiment i n busi
ness a n d f o r c o nscience i n p olit ics on the the o ry that th e
categ o ric a l im p er a t ive rules the hum a n c o nstellat ions

as c o m p letely as gravitat ion rules the sta rs

,

He re again emerges the fundamental questi on o f the

Pol it ics o f the Re p ubli c Shall we govern m o re o r shall
we g o ve rn less ? The i nd ividual i st s d o n o t see m to have
grasped the di ff e rence between these quest i o ns ; whether
w e shall be go v e r n e d more o r g o ve r n o u r s el v es mo re
,

To S U M I T U P

77

M any seem als o t o thi nk there i s some d i fferen c e in p ri n

But
c i pl e between local and nati o nal sel f g o vernment
thi s i s c o m p a ratively harmless i n c o m p ari s o n w ith those
phases o f the eighteenth centu ry c reed co nst ru ing all
g o vernment as an evi l an d ve ry little o f i t a ne c essa ry

ev il The Reds o f Pate rson th e Bla c k Han d o f th e East

S i de and o the r gangs an d o rgani zation s to wh o m we
have extended o u r un i ntelligent h o s p itality all over th i s
c ount ry the N ight Ride rs o f th e S o uth the b o mb th row
ers o f the West th e h o b o es a n d cutth r o ats and rebaters
and st o ck gamble rs ; i n sh o rt a ll a n a r c h i s ts above o r
below o r o utsi de the l a w all the law b re a king law de fyi ng
b rood o f i ndividual i sm h o ld fast t o its ami a ble theo ries
that we must govern less and not m o re ; that we must
limit the Sp here o f law and o rd e r and n o t enlarge i t unt i l
the ve ry quaki ng f o u ndati ons o f the Re p ubli c soun d
ala rm s for the i n c reasi ng lawlessness o f th e n a t ion We
have lost ou r respect fo r law and o rder a s su c h as a
nat i o n and we a re d ri ft ing back t o ward th e i nsti n c t s and
p rinciples o f Con fede rat i o n and state rights We are
losi ng the constitut i onal l ibert ies we have won i n th e
l i c ense we a re willi ng t o acc o rd the lawless
The
nat i o nal problem i smo re nat ional sel f gove rnment o r
l ess nat i onal sel f gove rnment !
Wh i c h do we want mo re o f ?
Th i s rai ses a c o nc rete question Shall we c ont ract o r
enla rge the sphere o f th e state ? Shall we g o backwa rd
o r forwa rd ?
Shall we govern less o r g o ve rn m o re ?
Shall w e move i n the d i rect i o n o f eg o i sm o r alt ru i sm ?
S ati s fy ou r i nd ivi dual rights o r d i scha rge o u r duties t o
t h e human race ? Shall we re p eal such ethi cal legi sl a t i o n
-

T H E N EW POLITIC S

8
7

we have won o r shall we enact mo re similar legi sla

Any c o ns istent eg o i st i c
t i o n fo r the general wel fa re ?
i ndiv iduali sm must say that t o fulll o u r desti ny we must

a
retu rn t o the p u re r busi ness theo ry o f the state
policeman theo ry o f the stat e the state o f p rimeval
an a rchy modied by a grudged p r o tect i o n o f l i fe and
p r o pe rtya stat e wi th o ut reas o n o r ethic c onsequently
w ith o ut s o ul and an envi ro nment W here the huma n
s pi ri t will go rge o n husks f o r s w i ne
Thi s i s a v it a l questi o n The exi sten c e o f th i s g o vern
m ent and t he pe rmanence o f ou r i nstituti o ns depend o n
h o w o u r p eo p l e ans w er thi s question
Shall we reduce ou rselves t o fu rthe r i nd ividual ism ?
S h a ll we p r o vide n o de fense against exte rnal aggressi o n
n o r c o ndu c t f o reign t reaties
n o r p reserve i nternal pea c e
and o rde r ? Shall w e subl et the m ilita ry and naval
d epa rtments t o th e c o nt ract o rs wh o may also bu ild the
Pan a m a Canal ? Shall we take away the co rn er stone
o f family ties duties a ff ecti o ns by f a ili ng to regulat e
th e ma rri a ge cont ra ct ? S hall we neglect ou r h igh w ays
and extend n o contr o l ove r th o se wh o use th em o r ou r
b ridges p o rts o r h a rb o rs c o ast lights and su rveys ? Shall
we d r op the po st a l system and p r o vide no uni form sy s
tem o f w eights and measu res abol ish patent and c opy
right laws ? Sh a ll we abol ish quaranti ne p rohibit no
nu i san c es neglect p ublic cleanliness supe rvi se n o foo d s
an d medici nes a bol ish no adulte rations all o w t he imp o r
t a t i o n o f c o ntagi o us d iseases p rovide n o mai ntenan c e f o r
the poo r the i di o ti c the i nsane the hel p less ? Shall ou r
laws n o l o nge r shield i n f a nts by avoi di ng thei r co nt racts
o r p rote c t thei r pe rs o ns o r p r op e rtyo r married women
as

TO S U M I T U P

79

?1

Shall we allow no regu

pe rsons o f unsound m i nd
lati o n o f the empl o yment o f w o men o r child ren ? Shal l
we retu rn to l a i ss ez fa i r e l a i ssez a ll er l a i ssez p a sse r
S i n other w o rds
let he r
and
G
o
d
hel
p
u
shall we
o
g
?
ove
rn
les
s
o
r
g
o
ve
rn
m
o
re
That
i
s
the
questi
o
n
g
I ventu re t o sa y that n o p o l it i cal pa rty will ever se e
the l igh t o f day agai n in this c o unt ry which c o nsi stently
s uppo rts i nd ividualism i t s child ren o r its grand c h ild ren
The salvat i o n o f o u r nat ion i s b o und u p i n the Con

st i t u t i o n a l pa rty s bei ng t rue t o its ph ilos o ph ical f o u n d a

ti o ns and its hi st o ri c ach i evements and i n the complet i o n
o f the progr a m o f Nat ional ism f o r the hills a round u s
a re an encam p ment o f the h o sts o f ana rc h y and th e
ho rsemen the re o f The American people must c hoose
between g o ve rnment o wne rsh i p th e c o n fus i o ns o f i nd i
and g o ve rnment cont r o li n othe r wor d s
v i d u a l i sm
between s oc iali sm ana rchy and Nati o nali sm
The o l d enemy i s sti ll i n the saddle i nd ivi duali s m
n o thi ng m o re n o thi ng less
But i ndividualism takes no acc o u nt and entertai ns n o
estimate o f h uman ity The democ ra c y o f i nd ividual is m
c o nceives a mult itude o f human un its ea c h w ith a multi
t ude o f mi litan t rights w ith no c o mmon aim n o s o li
d ari ty devoid o f the idea o f f rate rn ity un related c o m
pet ing polit i c al and e co nomi c u nits
Such a d em o c ra c y had been the lot w hich had fallen t o
the United States ex c ept f o r the gradual int rodu c tion o f
th e methods and spi rit o f Nati o nal i sm
Let i t be conceded that we c an wo rk bette r togethe r
f o r the same thing than agai nst ea c h othe r fo r the sa m e
or

yl

es

TH E N EW POLITI C S

2 80

I n t he absen c e o f
sepa rate millen
in
ind ividual hea rt s Nati onalis m
n i um s
assumes pol iti c al f o rm an d functi on and on its negat ive
side sets up the p rinci ple o f G o vernm ent C o nt rol wh ile
i n its p o sitiv e aspe c ts i t appears i n th e social rati o nal
ethical theo ry o f th e state i nclud ing a Ch ri stian th eo ry
o f legislati on
The late P ro fesso r G o ldwi n Smith on c e sai d that we

ought n eve r t o gl o ri fy revoluti o ns that statesmanshi p

i s the a rt o f p reventi ng them

Th i s i s the nega tive side
o f ou r p roblem
When S i r Wi ll iam Ha rc o u rt i n the H o use o f C o m

mons said We a re all so c ial ist s now h e meant that

all i ntelligent co unt ries a re ere c t i ng ethi c al and alt ru i st i c
ba rri ers to human greed ; have d i ff e rentiated between the
c reati on and acqu isition o f wealth ; have re c ognized that
human evolut i on c o ntain s a prin c ipl e higher than th e
reckless b rut e su p remacy o f the cunning and the st rong ;
a n d that th e u nmi stakable w o rld movement i s away f rom
i rresp o nsibl e con i ct and t o ward rat ional ass o ciation
I f the re i s a questi o n as t o wheth er f ree i nst i tuti o ns
shall su rv ive i n th i s count ry i t has n o t a ri sen f rom th e
rest raints legi slati o n h a s lai d u po n the rebelli o us and
greedy i nst inct s o f th e l o rd o f h imsel f i n undi stu rbe d

del ight but i n the s o dde n phil o so p hy o f th e Rev o luti o n

wh o se t ragedy has resulted at last i n the Ame ri can multi
b illionai re I have said we want a new Declarati o n o f
I ndependence o f man a s well as men ; o f duti es a s well as
rights ; a n d i t mu st declare th e right o f Nat i o nal i sm t o
i nvad e and rest o re and p rote c t eve ry sanctuary i nd ivi d
u a l i sm has viol a ted
thi ng

281

TO SUM IT U P

States m anship j ust now i s the a rt o f p revent ing

ana r c hy o r s oc ial i sm S i m i l i a s i m i l i bu s c u r a n tu r The
extensi o n o f ethical legislat i o n i s th e o nly p o we r tha t
c an put the anarch i sts o ut o f bus i ness ; but i f the c o unt ry
i s t o be saved f rom the d i sease o f rad i c al and r ev o l u
t i o n a ry so c iali sm i t must be vacci nated
The h op e o f
the su rvival o f demo c rati c i nstitut i o ns and civi l liberty
i n t he count ry i s i n the extensio n o f the p rinci p le o f
ass oc iati o no f Nati onali sm i n the enactment o f such

ethi cal legi slat i o n as shall smash th e divi ne ri ghts o f

ba r o ns and all c o rners on ne c ess iti es and make i t

little w o rth the while o f any o ne man t o a c qui re ten
billion d o lla rs o r pe rhaps late r o wn all the ea rth and m o st
o f heaven
One o f th e m o st S plend id ethi cal general izat ions o f th e
human mi nd i s that o f the S c otsman wh o se f o re fathers
went fr o m S c otland t o K On i gsbe r g ostensi b ly f o r a j o b
but really d o ubtless that thei r so n m ight bec o me the
c reator o f m o dern philos o phy and Germ a n Ideali sm
Emmanuel Kant said
That c ondu c t i s ri ght whi ch

would w o rk fo r good i f i t became un i ve rs a l

P o l it i
c ally i t i s th e task o f Nationali sm t o uph o ld thi s pri nciple
Can we imagi ne the h o g ph il o s o phy o f modern c om
m e r c i a l i sm alongsi de such a generaliz a t ion ?
Can w e
imagine Na p ole o n that i nsat i a ble maelst r o m o f In d i
v i d u a l i sm
o per a ting o n the ethical p l a ne lai d d o wn by
Kant o r th e ch ild mu rde rers o f B i rm ingham a n d Man
cheste r ; o r m o dern Ameri c an b i lli o n a i r e i sm ?
Ind ividuali sm will c ree p bare foot i n the sn o w o r on
i ts knees l ike the pious ki ngs o f o ld to hea r the gos p el
fo r
o f M an c heste r prea c he d at the alta r o f Juggernaut
.

T H E N EW POLITI C S

2 82

i t i s the last re f u g e o f despai ring pluto c ra cy

Wh o
wants a s t a tu s q u o ? He wh o m Eme rso n des c ribed as
h a vi ng no a rgum ent but p o ssess ion Who calls loudes t
f o r f ree co mpet iti o n ? H e wh o c a n c i rcumvent o r ex c eed
f ree c o m p etition the rebate r and th r o at c utter
Who
wants t o keep p r o duct ive i ndust ry i n a state o f war ?
The man with the st r o ngest a rm and the heavi est a rt i l
le ry Wh o wants to b o lster the c ivil ization whi ch asks

no questi o ns but who a rrives rst at the goal ? He

who has the la rgest h a ndi c a p and the l o ngest legs The re
i s not a man i n eithe r p a rty w h o eve r o ffered a b ribe o r
took one wh o eve r bought o r s o ld h i s vote who ever
w o n an elect ion by i ntimi dat i o n wh o i s not a cons istent

i nd ividualist and wh o i s not a logical beli eve r i n the

bus iness theo ry o f the state

N o o ne but a consisten t
i nd ividu a li st eve r desert ed h i s po st o n the p icket l ine o r
tu rned hi s b a ck i n battle ; eve r bet r a yed h is c ount ry fo r
g o ld o r hi s Master f o r s ilve r
Fi nally t o state thi s questi o n answe rs i t
I f it i s a question o f motive with o ut c o nside ration o f
which the eth ical el ement i s in co n c ei v a ble i s human wel
fare best se rv ed by th e egoisti c o r alt rui sti c mot ive ?
I f it i s a question o f p oint o f vie w shall that be i nsti n c t
?
o r reas o n
I f the anti thes i s i s bet w een two tendencies does the

ha rm o ni o us devel o pment o f the human race l ie i n the

d i rection o f l icense o r l ibe rty chaos o r o rde r ana r c hy o r
l a w ? i n f o rty eight se p a rate soverei g nt ies o r i n one
s t rong nat ional sel f governm ent ?
.

EPI LOGUE
Twenty yea rs ago the late P ro fesso r Sumne r wa s
w riti ng i n the No rth Ameri can Rev iew o n The Absu rd

Attempt t o Make the Wo rld Ove r

P ro fesso r Sumner
enj o yed a place with the ve ry large maj o rity o f t he
Angl o Sax o n race whe re h e co uld c ongratulate hi s fell o w
b e ings i f not that the atoms o f the u ni v erse we re f o rt u
nat e i n that th ey happened to stumble acr o ss those t wo
great a cc i dents the world and man ; at le a st havin g
stumbled up o n them th e path o f p r o gress was u p that
To
b l i nd alley i n wh ich they c ould stumble s o me mo re
s e t u p a theory o f navigat ion upon th e aboliti o n o f
rudde rs and the ab rogati on o f ast ron o my wa s what
th o se s o ns o f Chaos not Cosmos ( as Ca rlyle might have
w o uld set o ut t o do i n ca rrying ou r eight
c alled them )
It
e e n t h centu ry a p r i o r i the o ri es to logi cal c onclus ions
i s a commentary upon ou r i ntelligen c eand it i s t ragi c
e nough too
that we have so persi stently re f used to
a pply human i ntelligenc e to ou r ow n pol iti c al a ff a i rs ;
that we have t rusted to a pol i c y o f d ri ft and have bel ieved
i n th e p ri n c i ple that we can m ake mo re p rogress blind
f old than with ou r eyes o pen
No w thi s i s a c u rious I may sa y an ext rao rd inary
d evelopment o f i rrat ionalis m developed almost to a ra c e
c haracteri sti c
That we have b een sat ised fo r example 99 99 1 00
pe r c ent o f the human race t o apply mo re sci ence t o the
p ro d uction o f a l itter o f pigs than t o th e matte r o f o u r
the
o wn poste rity ; that we st ill allow the degene rate

283

TH E NEW POLITI C S

2 84

habitually crimi nal the i d ioti c i nsane an d i n c u rab l e

to ru n at la rge and propa g at e thei r kin d ; that w e i n
A m eri c a allow Wall St reet to c ont rol an d manipu l at e
o u r nan c e to the extent that at any moment we may
be plunged i rresponsibly and wi thout re c ou rse i nto a
state o f nancial pani ct o be fo reve r w ith ou r vast
bu si ness i nterests at th e mercy o f a few nan cial pi rates ;
to have n o busi ness stabil ity and no possibility o f bu si
ness stabili ty ; these an d a thousand and one Angl o Saxon
pe c ulia ri ties a re emphasizi ng ou r c ha ra c teri sti c ally demo
c rati c respe c t fo r establi shed fa c ts rst a s an absu rd ity
and then as a c rime The re are all a round u s patheti c
illustrat ions o f the i nvi n c ible pe rversi t y o f o u r uni n
,

'

t e ll i ge n c e

S o f a r a s natu ral wealth i s c on c e rne d I m ean the

k ind i t has taken geologi c ages fo r the good God to
prepa reno people eve r ente red i nto su c h an i nheri tan c e
as ou rs And no people has eve r behaved so badl y
w ith it
What have we don e wi th it ? We hav e been c rim i nal
wast rels We have been compla c ent and unj u st stewards
We have not only re fu sed to take what belongs t o u s ;
we re fused t o keep what we had and we have wasted
what we had le ft Result : The Ameri c an nan c ie rs a r e
ri c h and the Ameri c an peopl e a re p o o r
W e have been b o asti ng that we are the ri c hest nati on
o n earth What i t means i s that we have the ri c hes t
multibill i onai res o n earth We have been boast i ng o f
ou r i nexhaustibl e resou r c es u ntil there i s only o ne i n ex
h a u st ib l e resou r c e le ft the c o m pla c en cy o f the Am e ri
c an peopl e
.

EPILO GUE

285

Th i s i s wh at lies at the b o tom o f ou r l a i ssez fa i r e

l a i ss ez p a ss e r pol iti c s th i s t ragi c o ptim ism th is uni n
I t i s based o n a the o ry o f
t e ll i ge n t com p lacency o f o u rs
l i fe wh ich has given u s o u r p o liti cs and wh ich i s d is
t i n c t l y eighteenth cent u ry in o rigin s co pe and sp i ri t
I t spra ng f rom the movement o f an age wh i c h gave us
o u r pers o nal liberty and failed t o tea c h us what t o d o
w ith i t That i s why we d o not know what to do w ith
ou r nati o nal p at rimony
Th e g oo d Lo rd h a s made us j o i nt t rustees o f the ri c h
e st c o nt i nent o u earth and in ou r fat w itted op timi sm
we have tu rned i t ove r t o th e multibillionai re We have
a l res o u rces o f o u r o wn nati o nal
iven
h
im
the
element
g
p r o spe ri ty and n o w we must pay and we have little to p ay
w ith We have not only been c rimi nal w e have been
uni ntelligen t Wh ile we have been st rippi ng o u r child ren
to c lothe the billi o nai re idol we have been chanti ng o u r
o pt imi sti c l ies at hi s feet unt i l o u r O ptimis m i s the m o st
pessimi sti c th ing I know
It w o uld seem that a race o f bei ngs as o ld as o u rs
a nd as ripe i n ex p eri ence be f o re thi s m ight have found
out that the i ntelligent f rami ng o f o u r po litic a l i n st i t u
t i o ns and the rat ional admi ni st ra tion o f ou r a ff a i rs a re
b etter than that fantasti c and whimsical method called
,

l a i ss ez

fa i r e

No one wh o has ever gi ven serious thought to human

a ff ai rs can have failed i n some measure t o blanch be fo re
the aw ful p reventable waste o f human resou rces and o f
human aspi rati o n and li fe N o thi ng in a l l the wea rying
annals o f the ra c e i s s add er than th i s w o rld
wastethi s
p reventable waste thi s waste o f resou rcewaste o f
.

T H E N EW POLITI C S

286

The late P ro fes so r R it c hi e on c e said : The hi sto ry

o f progress i s the re co rd o f the gradual d iminut ion o f

waste
Th e h i sto ry o f p ro g ress has been all o f th is
But it has been mo re It has been the i ntelligent use
and not abuse o f res o u rce and l i fe I t has been the c on
se rvati on o f res o u rce and li fe
Thi s idea has f o und the beginn ing o f a realizat ion i n
o n e o f the best c onsummat ion s o f the New Pol iti c s : i n
that most u se ful and m ost s igni c ant movement o f mo d
e rn t imes known sometimes as the Conservation move
m ent I t i s th e best illust ration i n the wo rld o f s c ienti c

government
e ffi c i ency i n management
const ruct ive
state c ra ft : thi s phase o f the New Poli ti c s known as Co n
se rvation
There a re t wo o r th ree o r f o u r men whose na m es
have become closely connected w ith the m ovement ( and
to them su c h hono r i s due as i s be c oming to fai rness and
a cc u ra c y ) wh o have ve ry mu ch more c red it than they
dese rv e I am i n c l ined t o the view o f A c hilles that

there were ki ngs be f o re Agamemnon

I t i s time f o r some o ne to re co gn ize the thousands o f
t rained sci ent i sts especially i n th e government servi c e
at Washi n gt o n each man pu rsui ng some und iscovered
t ruth along the unt raveled p athway o f superhuman labor
fo r the ete rnal g oo d o f mank i nd Fo r o n e man t o ou r
i sh these t r o ph ies and pose as the f a th e r o f c onse rva
ti on i s quite rid icul o us I t i s su fci ent honor to have
been th e mega p hone o f a great movement The othe r
day Secretary Wil s o n was i nt rodu c i ng m e to some o f
th e s c i ent i sts o f the Department o f Agri c ultu re When
I ventu red to speak appreci at ively o f hi s wo rk he wave d
li fe

28 7

EPILO GUE

his

han d toward them and sai d : These are the m en wh o

m ust have the hono r f o r the work o f thi s Depart m ent

I a m he re to take the responsibility f o r i t s m i stakes

I t wa s a handso m e tribute by one w h o c ould a ff o rd to
m ake i t
Nearly a hal f c ent u ry a go Maj or J W Powell taking
h is l i fe i n hi s hand ( h e had only o n e hand ) made th e
fam ou s passage o f the Colo rado River w ith h i s daunt
less c ompanions H e spent yea rs on the great American
desert and h i s la b o rs b rought o u t rst i n hi s book o n
Th e A ri d Lands be c ame the o rigi nal impulse o f the
great Ame ri can Conservation movement M aj or Powel l
was the father o f Conservation on th i s c ont inent
C o nse rvati o n i s the c on c e rted m ovement o f seve ral
thou sand sci entist s i n the gov ernment servi ce i n Wash
i n gt o n whose work was se t fo r them nearly a hal f
centu ry a go m ore than by any othe r o ne man by M aj o r
W
Powell
Thi
s
work
has
been
cumulative
The
J
p resent Conservation p ropaganda would h ave been i m
possibl e w ithout th e i mmense quanti ty o f scientic data
they have gathe red by means o f a vast am o unt o f t o il
o f wh i ch the Ameri c an peopl e little d ream With thi s
great mass o f materi a l gradually cl o sing into someth i ng
l ike a u nied a n d syntheti c sh a p e i t w o uld be a poo r
and unintelli gent legi slator o r admi ni st rato r who would
not make use o f i t not but that we have had poo r an d
unintelligent legislato rs and admi n ist rat o rs
Thus ou r s c i enti sts a re givi ng the world a new lesson
i n government M o re th an thi s they are givi ng u s a
new lesson i n Pol iti cs I kn o w o f n o th ing l ike i t i n th e
h i sto ry o f manki nd l ike thi s unex p e c ted substi tute fo r
.

TH E NEW P O L ITI C S

2 88

the boss an d the m a c hi ne l ike th is bo d y o f d o c t ri ne

wh i c h shall t ak e the pla c e o f Ja c obi n egoti sms sh rieked
o n o u r Fou rt h o f July plat fo rms and by ou r quad rennial
spellbinders mouth ing the ta ri ff
H e re i s the wo rk he re a re the investi gat ions here
a re th e s c i entic and i rre f ragable c on c lusions o f some
thousands o f th e most use f ul men i n th e wo rld to d a y
maki ng a c ontribut ion to hu m an c ivilizatio n and to
human progress whi c h h as never had i t s equal They
h ave essayed the co lossal task o f the habi litation o f a

co ntinent Thei r absu rd attempt to make th i s hal f o f

the wo rld over wh i c h i s still unmade and whi c h we i n
ou r f o lly have been maki ng worse i s no less than the
begi nning o f the saving o f the c o nti nenta l do m ai n whi c h
i s ou r nat ional home on t e rm s t hat will keep it fo r pos
t e r i t y fo r thousands o f yea rs to c ome
Without th i s wo rk one h und red yea rs would have
seen thi s cont i nent a wilderness i n res p ect to several o f
the element a l resou r c es upon whi c h nati onal p rosperity
de p ends
Conservat ion i s S c i entic Government It i s the basi s
o f a new P o li tical Economy It i s the foundatio n o f
I t i s th e logi c al development o f the
a New P o l i ti c s
o ld Nati onal i sm I t has al ready taugh t us s o m e ve ry
sound lessons as t o whethe r the pol it i c al do c t rin e o f
ha phazard i s bette r than that o f s c i ent i c p revis ion

and preci sio n ; as to whethe r th e absu rd attempt to m ake

th e wo rld ove r i s as a b su rd as its abandonm ent to

The fact i s we have been making
a na r c hy and rapi ne
the w o rld ove r What has b een d o ne by the at o m i st i n
the sc ram ble o f h el te r skelte r the bli nd unrea soni ng an d
h

2 89

EPI LO GUE
I

m ay sa y i rrat i o nal stri fe ungui d e d and un c he c ked by

rational c onstitut i o ns a nd institut i o ns i s not generally
B ut there
v e ry m u c h to th e c redi t o f th e human r a ce
have bee n those wh o have d reamed o f making the w o rld
ove r and m aki ng i t bet ter I t i s a d ream a s old as the
asp i rations o f m en ; that t his o ld ea rth o f ou rs hardly
a sp o t o f wh i c h h as not been wet some t ime by blood o r
tea rs shall some day be co me the h o me o f a rational and
happy race when men will no longe r slay to steal Little
by l ittle t he w o rld i tsel f f o r what man has done to it
i s be co mi ng a b ette r place to l ive i n ; and be c ause o f th is
ve ry fo resight and reason and d i scipli ne o f man peopl e
have be c ome k i nde r ; that i s t o say go o d wi ll has taken
the pla c e o f enmity and c o Ope ra t i v e e ffo rt has su p planted
the p rinc i p le o f st ri fe and civ ilized and intelligent an d
s c ient i c government has t o a degree sup p l a nted that
wei rd and fantasti c o ld
wo rld g o spel o f wh ims i c al ity
and d ri ft and we a re only begi nning to da re to d ream
h o w mu c h we can do f o r o u rselves and po ste rity th rough
reason and eth i cs emb o died i n ou r politi c a l i nsti tut ions
th rough a C o nstituti o n f ramed and const rued to p ro

m ote the general wel fa re

St range pa radox ! Th e scienti st has become d reame r
The s c ientist has dared t o d ream o f the rat ional o rde r
i ng o f a hemisphere a hal f wo rld m ad e o ver Some
t i m e si n c e P ro fesso r Tynd a ll gave an ep oc h making

le c tu re o n The Scienti c Use o f the Imagi n a ti o n

Some one doubtless i s about to write o n the imagin a t ive
u se o f sciencelet u s sa y a ppl i e d s c i e n c e f o r s c ience
l ike all othe r go o d angels must c ome down out o f the
clouds to bless the ea rth
,

T H E N EW PO L ITI C S

2 90

Thi s matte r o f m a ki ng the w o rld o ve r i s a case i n th e

d i re c tion at least o f th e dese rti on o f l a i ss ez fa i r e and
the application o f i ntelligence t o human g o ve rnment I t
i s the resurrection o f a pat rioti sm whi ch unde rstand s
that there i s a spi ri t i n p o li ti cs higher than a p arti san
spi rit The fu rthe r we c an get away from that con
t em pt ib l e motive which rul es Ameri can p o l itics wi t h

m y pa rt y right o r w rong
sc a rcely shad o w o f tu rning
and the fu rth e r we can advance the pri nci p le that
hum a n a ff a i rs can and o ught and must be o rdered wit h
scientic foresight a n d with naked j ust ice f o r the c om
m o n g oo d the better basi s we shall devel o p for a j ust
and rat i o nal g o ve rnment I t i nv o lves re exami nation o f
o u r pol itics and i ts p oli ci es o f o u r wh o le theory o f l i fe
I s thi s rev o luti ona ry ? Perha p s i t i s The i nt r o du c t io n
o f rat i o n a l p at ri o ti sm into Ameri c an po l iti c s would tu rn
ou r world upside d o w n at o nce
But p erha p s i t w o uld be right sid e up at last
I t cann o t be denied that we need s o me fundamental
change
We l ive i n a so rd id and Sp i ritless age Frankly i t
i s a d i sap p oi ntment We are n o t j usti fyi ng ou r i nhe ri t
an c e o u r o pportuni ties o r ou rselves We are p rodu c
i ng n o great l ite ratu re n o r art no r ph il o sophy Ou r
reli gion has l o st i ts hold upon u s We a re n o t p r o ducing
great and n oble men l ike the c reato rs and demigod s o f
old We late r Am eri cans have su r p assed the w o rld i n
n o th i ng but i n ou r speculat o rs We have found ou r as p i ra
ti o ns i n the skys c ra p ers The regi ster o f ou r ideal i s
the cash regi ster Thi s i s ou r d isti n c tio n And we see m
to be sati sed w ith i t Th i s shall be ou r i nd i st inct ion
.

EPILOGUE

291

So fa r the Weste rn H emisphere has produ c ed no r st

I f it i s
r ate c reative i ntellectual o r spi ri tual gen ius
desti ned some day to achieve s o meth ing whi ch can be
p laced al o ngsi de the great c reat i o ns o f the human m i nd
su c h as l o ng ag o di d t h o se architects o f c a thedrals not

m a de with hands those s c ul p t o rs o f the ve ry substance

o f the s o ul
th o se mel o di sts wh o im p r o vised th e themes
u po n which subsequent centu ries hav e w ritten va ri

ati o ns why sh o uld we not pr o duce th e a rchite c t wh o

shall f rame su c h plan s and specicat i o ns o f human asso
c i a t i o n s as shall clea r away eve ry p oss ible h i nd rance and
raise every po ssible help to n o ble l iving and rat ional rela
ti o ns among mankind ?
That eth i cal d emoc racy wh ich ( let u s ho p e ) i s destined
some day t o c reate a c o ngenial ab o de f o r manki nd on
thi s Western H emi sphere c ann o t be c o nceived apart f r o m
the l i fe o f that etern a l and eve r blessed co rne r i n the
easte rn M ed i ter ranean whe re Greece a n d Palestin e
East a n d West o nce found meet ingand whe re mi nd
and spi ri t h a ve s o f a r reached thei r m o st p er fect owe r
Fa r t o th e North the Ge rmans a pp roached it a hund red

yea rs ag o then bec o mi ng Ameri c a nized la p sed into

material ism and commerc iali sm again
Wh y h a s th e
w o rld failed o f what S o c rates a n d Jesus m igh t have
expe c ted o f it ? Has i t not been bec a use the w a n
ghosts o f inspi rati o n have striven vainly i n the wh i rl
ing maelst rom o f sel f i nte rest ? The immo rtal legacies
o f Gree c e and Palest i ne ( wh ich th o se w o uld bani sh
f rom the c u r r i c u l a o f o u r y o uth w h o w o uld l ive by
greed al o ne ) have been locked u p i n Chance r y and
a re not availabl e assets o f th e wo rld t o wh o m they
.

TH E NEW P O L ITI C S

2 92

we re be q ueathed these o u r c hoi c est be q uests o f m i n d

and heart
We Ameri c ans ha v e been c ontent to i m po rt ou r l ite ra
t u re buy ou r a rt and do without philosophy We have
shot o ff on the perve rse and i rrational tangent o f the

Ou r dolla r heapin g i nsti nct has g one

m ise r s i nsti n c t
No hono rable and worthy futu re lies i n th e land
m ad
t owa rd whi c h we have turned ou r f a c es an d a re app roa c h
i ng w ith a n auto m obile spee d
Ex c ept i n c rass an d
boast ful egoi sm we c an ha rdly c laim t o be the owe r
o f all ages i f we have no g re at ove rwhelmi ng all absorb
i ng national aim and passion i f we a re c ontent l ike a
ock o f spa rr o ws t o it aimlessly and twitte r glibly re c k
ing nothi ng o f the futu re ea c h pi c ki ng h is o wn see d
adding l ittle to the i nst in c t but that o f the m agp i e
The re was o n c e a time when th e wo rld wa s young
As long be fo re Jesu s as Columbus l ived be fo re ou r day

a r a c e o f athletes dwelt by the blue ZEgea n i n th e wo rld s

S pi n gt i m e !
D a w n t i m e o f th e human mi n d b i rthday o f
t he huma n spi ri t ! We still l inge r lovi ngly a m on g th e
b r o ken ru i ns o f P h e i d i a s We still li sten t o the i nte rrupt ed
a cc ents o f Demosthenes and Pe ri c les Still ZEsc h y l us
S op ho c les Eu ripides ageless voi c es sou nd in ou r ea rs
Sti ll rea son s p eaks t o the modern mi nd as i f a P ro m e
theus which So c rates Plato A ri stotle rst un c hai ned
St ill Home r the unsu rpa ssed leads u s w ith hi s hosts i n
the banquet ro o ms and pathways o f the gods And we
a re s itting he re a c ross thi rty c entu ries old an d g ray and
w i th shaking knees shive ri ng by the bu rnt embers on a
hea rth where the re i s no re
Th e c ontempora ry o f
Peri c les could ha v e m et on the st reets o f Athens ( not
.

EPILO GU E

2 93

a s l a r g e as o u r Omaha ) ZEsc h y l u s Sopho c les Eu ri pides

Thu c ydi des H er o d o tus H ipp o c rates and Dem o cri tu s
Anaxag o ras and A ri stophanes P h e i d i a s and Socrates
and Pe ri c les

Gladstone has somewhere sai d

To pas s f r o m the
study o f Ho m er to the busi n e ss o f the world i s to step
o u t o f a pala c e o f en c hantment i nto the co ld gray light o f

a polar day
Step o ut o f the street o f Athen s a n d acr o ss
the cou rtya rd o f New Yo rk Whom d o y o u meet ? You
would meet captains o f indust ry u nder the red ag
and c aptai ns o f nan c e yi ng a bla c k one These are
o u r j ewels
I t i s gett ing co ld down here There i s no re on o u r

hea rth I S thi s H esi o d s I ron Age o r h i s Golden Age

o r i s i t the Wo rld s Old Age ?

The Yankee spi ri t may have evolved the owe r o f
i ndivi dual ism but i t h a s not exhausted th e fertilit ie s
The m o dern city and
o f thi s Western Hemi sphe re
Gehenna o f Ind ivi duali sm m ay not be the last resou r c e
o f humanity
No the desti ny o f the Western Hemi sphe re l ies i n th e
d i rec tion o f the extensi on and establ i shment o f eth ical
Demo c ra c yo f the pe o ple and fo r the peoplea ll t h e
p e op l e ; an d away f rom the despoti sm o f a nancial
syndi c at e o f o ne p e r cent by one pe r c ent and fo r one
per c ent Just cau se for hope lies i n the fact that ni nety
nine pe r cent o f a great nat ion a re st ronge r than o ne
per c ent i n for c e and morale and n i nety ni ne per cent
a nd God must w i n
The Demo c ra c y o f th e futu re w ill not be th e d e m o c
ra c y o f Indivi d ual ism I t will synthesize the Greek fo rm
,

'

TH E NEW P OLITIC S

2 94

and Ch ri stian c ontent A t rue an d sati s fyi n g th eo ry o f

the state m ust be expanded ext ensively towa rd something
l ike the Greek ideal and intens ively to wa rd the Ch ri stian
m o t i ve
and m o t ive p o we r To state th i s synthesi s o f
G reek stati cs and Ch ri stian dynamics will be the su p reme
task o f the futu re Ameri can Th i nke r This man will
c ome to u s as Soc rates came to Athens He may leave
too as S o c rates le ft Athens He wi ll nd among us
the descendants o f the S o ph i ststhat oppo rtun i st prod
u c t o f dem o c racy a n d demag o gyl ite rary and i n t e ll e c
tual t radesmen o r p r o stitutes in the pay o f the inte rests
o r th e pa rt ies they represent fo r hi re men who whethe r
they be legal gentlemen o r not a re still hi red atto rneys
i n fa c t ret a i ned to strangle t he rights o f the p resent

with the c t ions o f th e p ast

He will nd them cleve r
to a degree sh rewd super c ial plaus ible uent and
unp ri n c i pled p r o claim ing fo r a cons ideration subve rs i ve
doctri nes and begu iling plat itudes shunt ing eve ry fo r
wa rd movement to the side track o f a c ounte r i rritant
To su c h he will c ome but to thei r dupes as to a eld
wai ting fo r the husbandman
A c ool sane th inker a ri pe hi sto rian and a m an o f
fai th he will glean f rom the past th o se pri n c iples the
world h as t ri ed and its best have l ived by and its worst
have failed not hav ing lived by and t o the m he will
wel d anothe r cont ribut ion the wo rld well knows i s i ts
best and has n o t t ri ed Then th e Ameri c as will make
a new begi nn ing i n the h i st o ry o f mankind
Th e Ameri cas sh o uld be the a rena o f s o methi ng
new a n d i n c ompa rable and sh ould p roduce from he r
unexhausted soil a n ew t y pe o f m en and o f man Per
.

EPILO GUE

2 95

here w ill b e w o rked out t he n ew Universalis m

th e t rue Cosmopolitani smf o r i t i s he re the East meets
the West That wa s a beauti ful and p r o pheti c fancy o f

Alexande r s whi c h led him to marry a hund red Greek

outh
t
o
a
hund
red
O
riental
maidens
but
the
t
ru
e
uni
o
n
y
o f East and West w ill be at t he nu p t ials o f Greek mind
and O ri ental spi ritthe A ryan fo rm with the Semitic
c ontent and will result i n a n e w o f fspri ng o f Helleni c
I deal and Ch ri stian motive May these t wo st reams meet
i n one on thi s Weste rn H emisphe re o f ou rs Then may
t h e futu re bu ild by i ts banks
The attempt to make the wo rld what it ought t o be
i s not t o a f e w u n fash ionable p e o pl e at least as absu rd
as is the c o mplacency o f those o pt i m a n i a c s wh o believe

t hat whateve r i s i s right and who there f o re w o rshi p

A f e w d reamy f o lk a re begi nning t o feel
t h e s ta tu s q u o
that perhaps i f th e attempt to m ake the world ove r i s
absu rd i t i s wi c ked n o t at least t o t ry and make it
bette r tha n i t i s I f i t i s eve r to be made o ve r or even
imp roved i t wi ll neve r b e d o ne by i tsel f but by the attempt
o f actual men and w o men th rough thei r rati onal fo re
s ight and wi ll
As a m a tte r o f fact man has been maki ng the w o rld
ove r from th e begi nning o f i ntelligence i n men We
a re what we a re to day bette r than what w e we r e s o me
thousands o f years ag o because i ntelligent beings h a ve
m ade u s and ou r cond itions so We a re what we a re
wo rse than what we we re f o r lack o f i ntelligen c e applied
to ou r o wn a ff ai rs The r Ol e o f intelligence has n o t been
thought o ut has not been giv en a chance i n ou r i n st i t u
t i o ns Th ere see m s to b e a desti n y f o r human i n t e ll i
h aps

NE W POLITIC S

TH E

2 96

gen c e in Am eri c an Pol itics It i s begi nning th e attem p t

to make the w o rld ove r and the absu rdity o f not mak
ing the attempt i s dawning upon u s
.

Si r Phili p S idney w r o te to h i s b roth er When y o u

hea r o f a good wa r go t o i t
Whoeve r t o day endowed
with that same na i v e and sweet militancy nds h imsel f
be re ft o f o the r occu p a tion might do well to remembe r
that we still l ive i n an age o f wa rs and rumo rs o f wars
I f the re mu st be wa r and i f man must st ruggl e and test
h is limbs let i t be i n the c ause wh ich when i t win s shall

reco rd th at wa r shall be n o more T he re i s good gh t

ing a head and on a higher plane t han on most fo rme r
elds o f stri fe ; ghting o f su c h dignity as shall ne rve
eve ry a rm that would d raw the swo rd gh t i n g that
shall wax e r c e r with eve ry de c ade o f t hi s centu ry and
f o r h o w mu c h l onge r does not matte r to you and me so
fa r as ghti ng pu rp o ses a re c o ncerned a fte r we have lai d
down o u r a rms N o t i n ou r l i fetime su rely has such a
bugle bl o w n ; n o r has so sh rill a n o te and s o perempto ry
awakened men f r o m sleep as now sound s th e c all i n
thi s m o m o f new battl e for th e h o sts o f reason t o lin e
u p against the ho rdes o f p lunder and cap rice
A c ross
the battleeld and i n the m i st we may hea r th ei r j angled
v o i ces as the rst fu ry spake to the en c hained P ro
,

m et h e u s

1
.

We a r e the m ini sters o f p a in a n d f e a r

A n d d is a pp o int m ent a n d m istr u st a n d h ate
A n d c l in g in g c ries ; a n d a s l e a n d o g s p u rs u e
T hr o w o o d a n d l a ke s o m e str u c k a n d s o bb in g f a wn
we tr a c k a l l th in g s th a t wee p a n d bl ee d a n d l ive
W hen the G re a t K in g b etr a y s the m t o o u r wi ll
Sh l l y P o m t h U bo d Ac t S

eu s

un

c en e 1

EPILO GUE

2 97

Do

we n o t re c ognize the c hallenge ? D o we n o t kno w

the ce rtai n n ote o f th o se voices o f the p r o geny o f I ndi
And d o we not hea r i n the ba c kgrou nd o f
v i d u a l i sm ?
a c ho rus o f t ragedy older than t he t ragedy o f the
G reeks the plai nt o f those masses w ithout footi ng on
an u n f riendly ea rt h doomed to st rive vainly as S i syphu s
to keep t hos e they love f rom f a m i ne an d shame ? Shall
we pass by w ithout c hampioning th i s o n e unchanging
caus e age long and neve r wo n but always wi nn i ng
wh i c h th rusts it sel f ane w u pon every generation ; while
ch i val ry arises ea c h time like th e f abled bi rd from i ts ow n
ashes t o st rive agai n f or th e weak against the st rong ?
Let the nameless an d sel f seeking her d heap togeth er

thei r d olla rs and othe r p e opl e s Let them glut and be

d runken Let them rot and be fo rgot B ut i n th e world
sti ll wanders th e spi rit ol d e r than Pi ndar : F o r a s
,

m uc h

as

m a n m u s t d i e, wh er ef o r e

t h e d a r k th r o u gh

lot in

n o bl e

d e e ds ?

du l l

sh o u l d

we

a n d n a m e l ess a g e

si t va i n l y
and

in

wi t h o u t

There i s a c ause which may yet enli st men o f bel ie f

and creat e a n ew ch ival ry and a n ew c rusad e I t i s th e
cause o f the t i red t he th r o ttled the thwarted the e n
chai ned Name i t what y o u l ike i n whateve r fo rm o r
di sgu ise i t may appear to any age the i rres p onsible powe r
o f one man ove r an o ther man i s the anted iluv ian d ra g o n
dese c rati ng ou r sacred l ibe rties
That i rresp o nsible
powe r i s enslaving the world to day He re i t i s i n o u r
mi dst i n t hi s ou r boasted and alleged Ameri can d em o c
ra c y whi ch i s not a d emo c racy as l o ng as i t i s run o n
th e princi p le o f free and unl imited c o m petition b etween
hawks and tu rt le doves
,

T H E NEW P OLITIC S

2 98

i s the twent ieth c entu ry aspect o f the i mm em orial

i nsti n c t o f p rehensile man
The melan c holy sh o re o f the vast age behi nd us i s
s t re w n w i th the w recks o f nati o ns that hav e gone to
piece s o n the prom o ntori es o f I ndi vi dual ism and othe rs
a re o ating l ike huge derel icts among the pe o ples o f the
p resent day G reece c ould n o t su rvive Individual ism
Rome could not su rvive I nd ividuali sm We cannot su r
v ive I nd i vi dual ism
T o re fuse to ac c ept th e lessons o f hi sto ry i s to pr o
n o unce j udgment against ou r o wn sani ty H i sto ry i s a
stern sch o olmaste r but a go o d one and to m ake ove r and
o ver the same mi stakes i s to grind out ou r chance i n a
t readmill I t i s with sorr o w I take it that the Ge m i an

philosophe r said
Rulers statesmen and nations a re
w o nt to be emphati cally co mmended to the teachi ng
whi c h ex p e rience o ffers i n hi sto ry But what expe ri en c e

and h isto ry teach i s th i s that pe o ple and the g o vern

ments neve r have lea rned anything fr o m hi sto ry o r
acted o n p ri nci ples deduced f rom i t The p a llid shad es
o f mem o ry struggle i n vai n w ith the li fe and f reedo m

o f the present ( Hegel )

G reece and Rome have played thei r p arts i n the great
human d rama and we have read the pages whi c h re c ord
thei r down fall Ou r o wn hi st o ry i s not yet w ri tten fo r
i t i s not yet made but th e s o be r man can se e familia r
and si nister f o rces at work i n ou r midst the same sel f
i ndulgence i n luxu ri es n o t the f rui t o f h o nest t o i l the
i nsane and i nevitable degeneracies and c o r ru p ti o ns as
when Jugu rtha gained the Senat e by b ribery
Even
C i ce ro att ributed the p revail ing corru p ti o n o f the repub
It

EPILO GUE
he

2 99

to the pass ions o f I ndivi dualism He tells us how all

p ri vate a ffai rs we re deci ded by the p rivate autho rity o f
th o se cit izens made emi nent and po werful by thei r p ri vate
wealth
L o ng be f o re C icer o Ari st o tle bitterly c o m
p lained that i f the Greeks could o nly w o rk t o gether
Gree c e c o uld rule the wo rld But the re c a me a day when
the Greek h ist o rians were t o be he r t ragedians f o r i n the
Greek st ruggle between State Rights a n d Nat i o nal ism
I nd i vi dual ism p revailed Re a d the melancholy re c o rd o f
Thucydides H e w r o te that in Sp a rta and Athens the
pa rt ies n o t i n po we r each conn ived with the enemy i n
the o the r state when the tie o f p arty was st ronge r than

the t i e o f blo o d and The seal o f faith bec a me not

the di vine law but pa rtnership i n c rime

They c onn ived
w ith the enemy f o r party pu r po ses as s o me came fea r
fully nea r d o ing i n o u r lat e wa rsp rung with t re a chery

upon us i n the Philip p i nes

An att itude o f pe rd i o u s

ant a goni sm everywhere p revailed c o nt i nued Th u c y d i

des e a ch man l o oked t o h i s o wn sa fety and revoluti o n

gave bi rth t o every fo rm o f w ickedness

It was the des
t iny o f Greece s o lely because o f Indiv i dualism g o ne mad
t o lo o k up o n a p r o mi sed land it was dest ined never to
i nhe rit And th is was sim p ly because publi c spi ri t and

p at ri o t ism were reduced to C i nde rs by the G reek re

o f eg o ism f r o m wh ich nei the r the i nsight n o r the o ut
l o ok o f he r i ndividual classicism co uld save i t
We have no right t o ex p ect mo re o f a t o mism than that
we t oo shall g o t o pieces s o on o r l a te i f we do n o t
ab a nd o n the fundamental e rro rs whi c h und erlie o u r li fe
the o ries I t is not an absurd m i ssi o nthi s m issi o n o f
th e n ew Ch ival ry and the n e w C rusad e ; I t i s not an
.

T H E NEW POLITIC S

399

absu rd fai ththi s faith that w e ca n and will m ake t h e

wo rld a better pla c e to l ive i n The young men o f
Am eri c a to day a re seeking a new C ree d I t w ill be on e
wh ich was pa rti ally ph rased i n a happy senten c e o f D r
Augu st Fo rel : Let us not abandon the ra c e to th e fatal

i sm o f Allah ; let u s c reat e i t ou rselves

.