Particle Tracing Module

Users Guide

Particle Tracing Module Users Guide

19982016 COMSOL
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C o n t e n t s
Chapter 1: Introduction
About the Particle Tracing Module

10

What Can the Particle Tracing Module Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Particle Tracing Plots, Data Sets, Derived Values, and Studies . . . . . . 11
The env and bndenv Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Particle Tracing Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . 13
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes. . . . . . . 14
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 14
Overview of the Users Guide

18

C h a p t e r 2 : Pa r t i c l e Tr a c i n g M o d e l i n g
Particle Tracing
Introduction to Particle Tracing Modeling

20
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Charged Particle Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Mathematical Particle Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Modeling Tools

30

Choosing a Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Special Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Component Couplings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Monte Carlo Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Study Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Auxiliary Dependent Variables and Residence Time . . . . . . . . . . 43
Initialization of Auxiliary Dependent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Overriding Particle Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

CONTENTS

|3

Particle Counters

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Improving Plot Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

C h a p t e r 3 : M a t h e m a t i c a l Pa r t i c l e Tr a c i n g
The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface

54

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Mathematical

Particle Tracing Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Accumulator (Boundary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Particle Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Secondary Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Particle Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Velocity Reinitialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Accumulator (Domain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Particle-Particle Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Axial Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Nonlocal Accumulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Particle Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Auxiliary Dependent Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Release from Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Release from Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Release from Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Override Properties

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Release from Data File. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Theory for the Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface

92

Newtonian Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Hamiltonian Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Lagrangian Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Massless Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

4 | CONTENTS

Initial ConditionsPosition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Initial ConditionsVelocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Particle-Particle Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Auxiliary Dependent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
About the Boundary Conditions for the Particle Tracing Interfaces . . .

100

Accumulator Theory: Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103

Accumulator Theory: Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

104

C h a p t e r 4 : C h a rg e d Pa r t i c l e Tr a c i n g
The Charged Particle Tracing Interface

108

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Charged Particle
Tracing Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111

Collisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

112

Elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

114

Excitation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

115

Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

116

Ionization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

116

Resonant Charge Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

117

Nonresonant Charge Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

118

User Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

119

Friction Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

121

Particle-Matter Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

122

Ionization Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123

Nuclear Stopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123

Particle Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

124

Reference Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

134

Reference Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135

Particle Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135

Electric Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

136

Magnetic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

137

Space Charge Density Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

139

Surface Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

140

Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

141

Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

141

Etch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

141

CONTENTS

|5

Theory for the Charged Particle Tracing Interface

143

Introduction to the Charged Particle Tracing Interface Theory . . . .

143

Particle Properties Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145

Electric Force Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145

Magnetic Force Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145

Collisional Force Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

146

Particle-Matter Interaction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

150

Particle Beam Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

153

Surface Charge Density Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

159

Current Density Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

159

Heat Source Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

160

Etch Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

160

References for the Charged Particle Tracing Interface . . . . . . . .

161

C h a p t e r 5 : Pa r t i c l e Tr a c i n g f o r F l u i d F l ow
The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface

164

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Particle Tracing

6 | CONTENTS

for Fluid Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

168

Particle Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

169

Drag Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

170

Brownian Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

174

Gravity Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

175

Acoustophoretic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

176

Electric Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

178

Magnetic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

178

Dielectrophoretic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

179

Shell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

180

Magnetophoretic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

181

Thermophoretic Force

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

182

Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

184

Mass Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

185

Boundary Load

185

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

186

Volume Force Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

186

Convective Heat Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

188

Radiative Heat Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

188

Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

188

Droplet Breakup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

188

Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

189

Rayleigh-Taylor Breakup Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

190

Nozzle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

190

The Droplet Sprays in Fluid Flow Interface

194

Theory for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface

195

Particle Motion in a Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

195

Particle Motion in a Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

201

Additional Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

205

Erosion Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

213

Droplet Breakup Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

216

Nozzle Theory

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

219

References for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface . . . . . .

221

Chapter 6: Multiphysics Interfaces

The Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface

224

Electric Particle Field Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

226

Space Charge Limited Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

227

Theory for the Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic

Interface
Electrostatics and Charged Particle Tracing Equations . . . . . . . .

229
229

Space Charge Density Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

230

Theory for the Space Charge Limited Emission Node . . . . . . . .

233

The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic Interface

237

Magnetic Particle Field Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

240

Theory for the Magnetic Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic

Interface
Electrostatics and Charged Particle Tracing Equations . . . . . . . .

242
242

CONTENTS

|7

Current Density Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

244

The Fluid-Particle Interaction Interface

247

Fluid-Particle Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

249

Theory for the Fluid-Particle Interaction Interface

251

Laminar Flow and Particle Tracing Equations . . . . . . . . . . .

251

Volume Force Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

252

Chapter 7: Glossary
Glossary of Terms

8 | CONTENTS

258

Introduction
This guide describes the Particle Tracing Module, an optional add-on package for
COMSOL Multiphysics designed to compute particle trajectories. The particles
can interact with boundaries and their motion can be affected by external fields,
which may be user-defined or solved for by other physics interfaces.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.
In this chapter:
About the Particle Tracing Module
Overview of the Users Guide

About the Particle Tracing Module

These topics are included in this section:
What Can the Particle Tracing Module Do?
Particle Tracing Plots, Data Sets, Derived Values, and Studies
The env and bndenv Operators
The Particle Tracing Module Physics Interface Guide
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

What Can the Particle Tracing Module Do?

The Particle Tracing Module is a general purpose, flexible tool that allows you to trace
the trajectories of particles. The particles can be affected by various forces,
particle-boundary interactions, and particle-domain interactions. One-way and
two-way coupling between particles and external fields are also supported.
A custom physics interface is available for modeling the motion of electrons and ions
in electromagnetic fields. This makes it possible to model devices such as magnetic
lenses, electron guns, and mass spectrometers. There are a number of tools available to
extract typical quantities of interest and to make plots of the particle trajectories,
including phase portraits and Poincar maps. Built-in multiphysics interfaces are
available to model the interaction of particles with electric and magnetic fields.
There is also a dedicated physics interface for computing particle trajectories in a fluid
system. There is a wide variety of predefined forces, such as drag, gravity, electric, and
Brownian forces, which can be conveniently be added to your model. Fluid-based
particle tracing allows for detailed investigation of mixing, separation, and filtering
devices. Furthermore, you can study complicated physical processes such as
thermophoresis, dielectrophoresis, magnetophoresis, and acoustophoresis by adding
these predefined forces to your model. You can also model fluid-particle interaction.
A mathematical particle tracing interface gives you complete freedom and flexibility to
define the equations of motion governing particle trajectories. In addition to built-in

10 |

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

models to describe Newtons law of motion, there are dedicated formulations available
to specify the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian that dictates the motion of the particles.
All of the physics interfaces provide many different ways of releasing particles. Particles
can be released from geometric entities of any level, including domains, boundaries,
edges, and points. They can also be released by specifying the initial coordinates
directly or by importing sets of initial coordinates from a file. Particles can also be
released at multiple different times. There are many options available for describing
how the particles interact with boundaries, including diffuse and specular reflection,
sticking probabilities, and secondary particle emission.
The physics interfaces can all be used with COMSOL Multiphysics, but when tracing
charged particles the AC/DC Module is often beneficial because it can be used to
model complex alternating or direct current systems and includes more options for
computing magnetic fields. If the particles move through a rarefied gas, as is the case
for ion and electron beams in vacuum systems, the Molecular Flow Module is useful
because it provides built-in tools to compute the density of extremely rarefied gases.
Similarly, when tracing particles in a fluid system the CFD Module or Microfluidics
Module is often useful due to the multitude of advanced fluid flow features available
in those modules.

Particle Tracing Plots, Data Sets, Derived Values, and Studies

The Particle Tracing Module has some features that are only available with this
module. The descriptions for these features are, however, described with the generic
plot, data set, and study types. Go to the links below for more information.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
Particle Trajectories (study)
Bidirectionally Coupled Particle Tracing (study)
Particle (Data Set) (data set)
Particle Trajectories (plot) and Filter for Particle Trajectories
Phase Portrait (plot)
Poincar Map (plot)
Particle Evaluation

A B O U T T H E P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D U L E

11

The links to the nodes described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual do not work in the PDF, only from the on line help in COMSOL
Multiphysics.

For an example of:

Particle Trajectories see Ion Cyclotron Motion: Application Library
path: Particle_Tracing_Module/Charge_Particle_Tracing/
ion_cyclotron_motion.
Poincar Map see Rssler Attractor: Application Library path
Particle_Tracing_Module/Tutorials/rossler_attractor.
Phase Portrait see Ideal Cloak: Application Library path
Particle_Tracing_Module/Ray_Tracing/ideal_cloak.

The env and bndenv Operators

The Particle Tracing Module has these operators that are only available
with this module. See Built-In Operators in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for additional information.
Evaluating env(expr) on a particle, evaluates the expression expr at the point in the
domain where the particle is. When evaluating a variable var on a particle, if the
variable is not defined on the particle it is automatically replaced by env(var).
Therefore the env operator can often be omitted. If env(var) is evaluated when a
particle is on a boundary, and var is defined on two domains adjacent to the
boundary, the operator returns the arithmetic mean of var on both sides of the
boundary.
Evaluating bndenv(expr) on a particle, evaluates expr at the point on the boundary
where the particle is. If the particle is not on a boundary, the evaluation fails. Use
this operator instead of env when evaluating expressions that are only defined on
boundaries.

12 |

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The Particle Tracing Module Physics Interface Guide

The Particle Tracing Module extends the functionality of the physics interfaces of the
base package for COMSOL Multiphysics. The details of the physics interfaces and
study types for the Particle Tracing Module are listed in the table. The functionality of
the COMSOL Multiphysics base package is given in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

Introduction to Solvers and Studies
The Physics Interfaces
For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE

ICON

TAG

SPACE
DIMENSION

AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY

TYPE

Particle Field Interaction,

Non-Relativistic

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

bidirectionally coupled
particle tracing; time
dependent

Particle Field Interaction,

Relativistic (requires the
AC/DC Module and
Particle Tracing Module)

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

bidirectionally coupled
particle tracing; time
dependent

Charged Particle Tracing

cpt

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

bidirectionally coupled
particle tracing; time
dependent

AC/DC
Particle Tracing

Fluid Flow
Particle Tracing

A B O U T T H E P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D U L E

13

PHYSICS INTERFACE

ICON

TAG

SPACE
DIMENSION

AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY

TYPE

Particle Tracing for Fluid

Flow

fpt

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

bidirectionally coupled
particle tracing; time
dependent

Fluid-Particle Interaction

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

bidirectionally coupled
particle tracing; time
dependent

Droplet Sprays in Fluid

Flow

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

bidirectionally coupled
particle tracing; time
dependent

pt

3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric

bidirectionally coupled
particle tracing; time
dependent

Mathematics
Mathematical Particle
Tracing

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.
In each modules documentation, only unique or extra information is included;
standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for
links to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of internet resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or

14 |

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

context-based) help, and the application libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.
If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,
the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules (as long as you have a license), application examples, and
documentation sets.
THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions about how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the
electronic Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to many of the features on the GUI. To
learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click to
highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
). This is called topic-based (or context) help.
by the Help button (
To open the Help window:
In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder click a node or
window and then press F1.
On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
From the File menu, click Help (

).

In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help (

button.

A B O U T T H E P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D U L E

15

To open the Help window:

In the Model Builder or Physics Builder click a node or window and then
press F1.
On the main toolbar, click the Help (

) button.

From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:
Press Ctrl+F1.
From the File menu select Help>Documentation (

).

To open the Documentation window:

Press Ctrl+F1.
On the main toolbar, click the Documentation (

) button.

From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each application includes documentation with the theoretical background and

step-by-step instructions to create a model application. The applications are available
in COMSOL as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the
step-by-step instructions and the actual applications as a template for your own
modeling and applications. In most models, SI units are used to describe the relevant
properties, parameters, and dimensions in most examples, but other unit systems are
available.
Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the application and its
properties, including options to open it or a PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

16 |

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window (

):

From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click (

Libraries.

) Applications

From the File menu select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help
menu, select (
) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select (
) Update COMSOL Application Library.

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A B O U T T H E P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D U L E

17

Overview of the Users Guide

The Particle Tracing Module Users Guide gets you started with modeling using
COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.
As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and
Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S , G L O S S A R Y, A N D I N D E X

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary of Terms, and
Index.
P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D E L I N G

In Particle Tracing Modeling, the different particle tracing interfaces are discussed
(Charged Particle Tracing, Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow, and Mathematical Particle
Tracing). In the Modeling Tools section, special variables, Monte Carlo modeling,
filters, and auxiliary dependent variables and residence time are discussed.
M A T H E M A T I C A L PA R T I C L E TR A C I N G

The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface and its underlying theory is described in
this chapter.
C H A R G E D P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G

The Charged Particle Tracing Interface and its underlying theory is described in this
chapter.
P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G F O R F L U I D F L OW

The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface and its underlying theory is described in
this chapter.
MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The built-in multiphysics interfaces, including The Particle Field Interaction,

Non-Relativistic Interface, The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic Interface, and
the The Fluid-Particle Interaction Interface, are described in this chapter.

18 |

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Particle Tracing Modeling

This chapter gives an overview of the physics interfaces available for modeling the
trajectories of particles and provides guidance on choosing the appropriate physics
interface for a specific problem.
In this chapter:
Particle Tracing
Modeling Tools

19

Particle Tracing
In this section:
Introduction to Particle Tracing Modeling
Charged Particle Tracing
Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
Mathematical Particle Tracing

Introduction to Particle Tracing Modeling

Particle tracing provides a Lagrangian description of a problem by solving ordinary
differential equations using Newtons law of motion. Newtons law of motion requires
specification of the particle mass and all forces acting on the particle. The forces can be
divided into two categories, those due to external fields and due to interactions
between particles. Forces due to external fields are typically computed from a finite
element model, using the physics interfaces available in COMSOL Multiphysics.
For each particle, a second-order ordinary differential equation is solved for each
component of the position vector. This means that three ordinary differential
equations are solved for each particle in 3D and two in 2D. A first-order formulation
of Newtons law of motion is also available, in which coupled first-order ordinary
differential equations are solved for the components of the particle position and
velocity. The Mathematical Particle Tracing interface also includes a Hamiltonian
formulation that solves coupled first-order ordinary differential equations for the
particle position and generalized momentum.
At each time step taken by the solver, the forces acting on each particle are queried
from the external fields at the current particle position. If particle-particle interaction
forces are included in the model then they are added to the total force. The particle
position is then updated and the process repeats until the specified end time for the
simulation is reached. During each time step, the particles may interact with
boundaries in the geometry, or they may be subjected to other phenomena that can
discontinuously change the particle velocity.
Because the Particle Tracing Module uses a very general formulation for computing
particle trajectories, the particle tracing interfaces can be used to model charged
particle motion in electromagnetic fields, large scale planetary and galactic movement,
and particle motion in laminar, turbulent, and multiphase fluid systems.

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Charged Particle Tracing

The Charged Particle Tracing Interface is designed to model the motion of electrons,
individual ions, or small ion clusters in electric and magnetic fields.
SPACE CHARGE EFFECTS

If the number density of charged species is less than around 1013 1/m3, the effect of
the particles on the fields can often be neglected. This allows the fields to be computed
in a different study from the particle trajectories. The fields can be computed using a
Stationary, Frequency Domain, or Time Dependent study. These fields are then used
to determine the forces on particles, which are computed in a separate Time
Dependent study. The fact that the particle trajectories can be computed in their own
study allows efficient and computationally inexpensive iterative solvers to be used.
As the number density of the charged particles exceeds 1013 1/m3, the particles begin
to exert a significant space charge on the field. This effect can be included in the model
by using The Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface, which
automatically adds the dedicated Electric Particle Field Interaction Multiphysics node
to account for space charge effects.
If, in addition, the particles move at relativistic speeds, the current density due to
particle motion may become significant. The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic
Interface automatically adds the Electric Particle Field Interaction and Magnetic
Particle Field Interaction Multiphysics nodes to account for the space charge density
and current density of particles, respectively.
The computational requirements for models that include particle-field interactions
increase significantly over those that neglect them. If the fields and particle trajectories
are directly coupled to each other, both must be computed in the same Time
Dependent study and a fairly small time step must be taken by the solver to account
for the constantly changing electric potential. In addition, the space charge density and
current density are computed using variables that are constant over each mesh element,
so it may be necessary to refine the mesh or increase the number of model particles to
more accurately model particle-field interactions.
If the fields are stationary, as often occurs when beams of particles are released at
constant current, it is possible to significantly reduce the computational cost of the
model by using a Stationary solver to compute the fields and a Time Dependent solver
to compute the particle trajectories. It is also possible to create a solver loop that
alternates between the Stationary and Time Dependent solvers so that a bidirectional
coupling between the trajectories and fields can be established. The process of

P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G

21

combining these solvers is described in the section Study Setup.

COULOMB FORCES

If the density of charged particles is extremely high then it can be necessary to include
the Coulomb force that acts between the particles. This is done by adding a
Particle-Particle Interaction node to the model. When particle-particle interactions are
included in a model the computational requirements increase and scale as the number
of particles squared. When including the Coulomb force, it is often best to start with
a small number of particles, solve the model, and then assess whether or not the effect
is important to the model.

Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow

The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface is designed for modeling microscopic
and macroscopic particles in a background fluid. There are two phases in the system:
a particle phase consisting of bubbles, particles, droplets, and so forth and a continuous
phase in which the particles are immersed. In order for the particle tracing approach
to be valid, the fluid system should be a dilute or dispersed flow. This means that the
volume fraction of the particles is much smaller than the volume fraction of the
continuous phase, generally less than 1%. When the volume fraction of the particles is
not small, the fluid system is categorized as a dense flow and a different modeling
approach is required.
It is important to realize that with the particle tracing approach, particles do not
displace the fluid they occupy. In addition, the finite size of the particle is not taken
into account when modeling particle-wall interactions.
SPARSE FLOW

In a sparse flow, the continuous phase affects the motion of the particles but not
vice-versa. This is often referred to as one-way coupling. When modeling such a
system in COMSOL, it is usually most efficient to solve for the continuous phase and
the dispersed phase in separate studies. The fluid usually affects the particle motion
through the Drag Force feature, which defines a drag force based on the fluid
properties, particle properties, and the particle velocity relative to the flow. Several
built-in drag laws can be used, and the optimal drag law usually depends on the size
and speed of the particles. Built-in options to apply random perturbations to account
for turbulence in the fluid are also available.

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For example, in the following model example, the velocity field is first computed using
a Stationary study, then the particle trajectories are computed using a separate Time
Dependent study.

Particle Trajectories in a Laminar Static Mixer: Application Library

path Particle_Tracing_Module/Fluid_Flow/laminar_mixer_particle

Increasing
particle mass
and volume
density

Flow type

Required features

Sparse flow

Drag force

Dilute flow
(two-way
coupling)

Drag force,
fluid-particle
interaction

Dispersed
flow (four-way
coupling)

Drag force,
fluid-particle
interaction,
particle-particle
interaction

Dense flow

Cannot be solved
with the Particle
Tracing Module

Figure 2-1: The physics features required to model sparse, dilute, and dispersed flows.
DILUTE FLOW

In a dilute flow the continuous phase affects the motion of the particles and the particle
motion in turn disrupts the continuous phase. This is often referred to as a
bidirectional coupling or two-way coupling. To include this effect in COMSOL,
you must use the Fluid-Particle Interaction Multiphysics node. This node can be added
manually if the necessary physics interfaces are already present. Alternatively, The

P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G

23

Fluid-Particle Interaction Interface can be used to automatically add the necessary

physics interfaces and Multiphysics nodes.
The body force exerted on the fluid by the particle is applied in an approximate way,
in that it is smeared out over a mesh element. This smearing effect makes volume force
computed by the Fluid-Particle Interaction node somewhat mesh dependent. When
modeling fluid-particle interactions for which the mass flow rate of particles is not
constant, the continuous phase and dispersed phase must be computed simultaneously
in the same study. The computational demand is significantly higher than in the Sparse
Flow case.
If the fields are stationary, as often occurs when particles are released at constant mass
flow rate, it may be possible to compute the particle trajectories using a Time
Dependent solver while computing the fluid flow variables using a Stationary solver. It
is also possible to create a solver loop that alternates between the Stationary and Time
Dependent solvers so that a bidirectional coupling between the trajectories and fields
can be established. The process of combining these solvers is described in the section
Study Setup.
DISPERSED FLOW

In addition to the effects mentioned above, particle-particle interactions also need to

be taken into account. This is often referred to as four-way coupling.
Particle-particle interactions can be included in a model by adding a Particle-Particle
Interaction node.
The following limitations apply:
Hard sphere collisions are not supported. Forces must vary continuously with
respect to the distance between particles as in, for example, the Coulomb force
between charged particles.
The computation time scales as the number of particles squared. This is because
every particle interacts with every other particle over all distances. Although it is
possible to apply a cut-off radius beyond which particles do not interact with each
other, the interaction force must still be evaluated for every pair of particles.
If the particle-particle interaction law is highly nonlinear, it can be necessary to use
a very small time step. This is particularly true if the Lennard-Jones option is
selected.
The Particle-Particle Interaction feature produces a Jacobian matrix that is
completely full. For a large number of particles, this is very expensive to factorize.
By default, the Exclude Jacobian contribution for particle-particle interaction check

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C H A P T E R 2 : P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D E L I N G

box is selected, which preserves the sparseness in the Jacobian. Clearing this check
box is likely to result in a dramatic increase in the amount of memory and time to
solve the problem.

Figure 2-2: The Settings window for Particle-Particle Interaction.

The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interface provides a convenient way of computing
the particle mass and temperature. Built-in auxiliary dependent variables for the mass
and temperature can be activated by selecting the Compute particle mass and Compute
particle temperature check boxes, respectively, in the physics interface Advanced Settings
section. When the option to compute particle mass is activated, it is possible to set the
initial particle mass in the release and inlet physics features. It is also possible to select
a distribution function for the initial mass. This is important when modeling separation
devices where the goal is to understand the transmission probability of particles of
various sizes.

P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G

25

Figure 2-3: Settings window for Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow.
MODELING ADVECTION AND DIFFUSION

Continuum methods have one major drawback when it comes to modeling the
advection and diffusion of a particulates in a fluid. The higher the Pclet number, the
more numerically unstable the method becomes. The Pclet number is the ratio of the
rate of advection to the rate of diffusion:
Lu
Pe = ----------D

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C H A P T E R 2 : P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D E L I N G

where L is the characteristic dimension, u is the advection velocity, and D is the

diffusion coefficient of the particles. In general, continuum methods cannot handle
systems where the Pclet number is above around 1000. The diffusion coefficient for
spherical particles is:
kB T
D = ------------6r
where is the fluid, kB is Boltzmanns constant, T is the temperature, and r is the
radius of the particles. For 100 nm diameter particles in water at room temperature,
this results in a diffusion coefficient of around 41012 m2/s. For a microfluidic device
with characteristic size 1 mm and velocity of 1 m/s, this results in a Pclet number of
2.5108. Handling such a large Pclet number with continuum methods is clearly not
possible (Ref. 1).
Particle trajectories are computed in a Lagrangian reference frame, removing the
restriction of the Pclet number. The Pclet number can be anything from 0 to infinity
without introducing numerical instabilities. Advection is added to the particles via the
drag force. Diffusion is added to particles by adding the Brownian force. If the
background velocity field is zero then particle motion is purely diffusive (zero Pclet
number). If the Brownian force is neglected and the background velocity is nonzero,
the motion is pure advection (infinite Pclet number).
PARTICLES IN A RAREFIED GAS

Many drag laws, such as the Stokes drag law, are based on the assumption of
continuum flow, in which the particle Knudsen number is very small:

Kn = ---- 1
L
where Kn (dimensionless) is the Knudsen number, (SI unit: m) is the mean free path
of molecules in the surrounding fluid, and L (SI unit: m) is a characteristic length of
the particle, which is often the particle radius or diameter.
When the particles are extremely small or they are surrounded by a rarefied gas, the
assumption of continuum flow may not be valid. By selecting the Include rarefaction
effects check box in the Settings window for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
interface, it is possible to apply correction factors to the Drag Force and
Thermophoretic Force, enabling accurate modeling of particle motion in the slip flow,
transitional flow, and free molecular flow regimes.

P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G

27

MODELING MOTION OF LIQUID DROPLETS

Several built-in features are available for modeling the formation, propagation, and
breakup of sprays of liquid droplets.
The Droplet Breakup feature and its two subnodes, Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup Model
and Rayleigh-Taylor Breakup Model, can be used to model the breakup of liquid
droplets into successively smaller child droplets. The Nozzle feature can be used to
release a spray of droplets at a specified location.

Mathematical Particle Tracing

The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface gives access to the underlying
mathematical formalism on which the Charged Particle Tracing and Particle Tracing
for Fluid Flow interfaces are built. The Mathematical Particle Tracing interface allows
for specification of particle motion in terms of either a Lagrangian or Hamiltonian.
Often it is easier to write down an expression for the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian for
particles rather than deriving the equations of motion. The Hamiltonian formulation
solves for both the particle position and the particle momentum, so the number of
degrees of freedom is doubled when the Hamiltonian formulation is activated.

Multiphysics Interfaces
The Charged Particle Tracing and Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interfaces can be
used to create unidirectional, or one-way, couplings between particles and fields. For
example, when using the Charged Particle Tracing interface, it is possible to compute
the electric potential using a Stationary study and then use the computed potential to
exert an electric force on the particles.
It is also possible to create bidirectional couplings, in which the particles contribute to
fields in the surrounding domains, which may then exert forces on the particles. A
typical example is a diverging beam of charged particles.
Dedicated Multiphysics nodes are available for several of the most common examples
of bidirectional coupling between particles and fields. The following Multiphysics
nodes are available depending on the other physics interfaces that are present:
Electric Particle Field Interaction
Space Charge Limited Emission
Magnetic Particle Field Interaction
Fluid-Particle Interaction

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In addition, it is possible to add all of the physics interfaces necessary for a specific
Multiphysics node by using the dedicated Multiphysics interfaces:
The Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface
The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic Interface
The Fluid-Particle Interaction Interface
For example, to model a non-relativistic beam of electrons that diverges due to
self-potential, add the Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic interface. This
automatically adds instances of the Charged Particle Tracing and Electrostatics physics
interfaces and the Electric Particle Field Interaction Multiphysics node.

P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G

29

Modeling Tools
In this section:
Choosing a Formulation
Special Variables
Component Couplings
Monte Carlo Modeling
Study Setup
Auxiliary Dependent Variables and Residence Time
Initialization of Auxiliary Dependent Variables
Accumulators
Overriding Particle Properties
Filters
Particle Counters
Improving Plot Quality

See Particle Tracing Plots, Data Sets, Derived Values, and Studies for links
to the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Choosing a Formulation
The formulation of the equations of motion is specified by selecting an option from
the Formulation list in the physics interface Particle Properties section.
NEWTONIAN

The Newtonian formulation is the default and the most common formulation. It
defines a set of second-order ordinary differential equations for the components of the
particle position.
NEWTONIAN, FIRST ORDER

The Newtonian, first order formulation is an alternative to the Newtonian formulation.

It defines a set of coupled first-order ordinary differential equations for the
components of the particle position and velocity.

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The default time stepping method for the first-order Newtonian formulation is the
Dormand-Prince 5 Runge-Kutta method, an explicit time stepping method. By
comparison, the second-order Newtonian formulation uses the Generalized alpha
implicit method by default.
The explicit time stepping method is less suitable for stiff problems, meaning that the
Newtonian formulation is more robust when the particles are subjected to extremely
large, abrupt accelerations. The Newtonian formulation is also favorable for problems
involving ultrarelativistic particles. However, for a substantial number of nonstiff
problems, the explicit method can give comparable or even better accuracy and
performance, compared to the implicit method.
Generally, it is most convenient to begin with the default Newtonian formulation, then
to consider switching to the Newtonian, first order formulation to optimize
performance if the problem is not overtly stiff.
Motion of Trapped Protons in Earths Magnetic Field: Application
Library path Particle_Tracing_Module/Charged_Particle_Tracing/
trapped_protons

MASSLESS

The Massless formulation defines a set of first-order ordinary differential equations for
the components of the particle position only. The particle velocity is directly specified,
either by an expression of by using a previously computed field.
The Massless formulation is useful for modeling the motion of extremely small particles
in a fluid. If Brownian diffusion and turbulent dispersion are neglected, the ratio of the
drag force to the mass of an extremely small particle is often so large that the particle
reaches equilibrium with the surrounding flow almost instantaneously, so that the
particles follow fluid streamlines. Such particles are sometimes referred to as tracer
particles, as opposed to inertial particles which are allowed to have some nonzero
velocity relative to the fluid.
LAGRANGIAN

The Lagrangian formulation (Ref. 2, Chapter 1) defines a set of second-order ordinary

differential equations for the components of the particle position. Compared to the
Newtonian formulation, the Lagrangian formulation has the same number of degrees of
freedom and offers greater flexibility in specifying the equations of motion, but it is not
possible to use the Force feature.

M O D E L I N G TO O L S

31

The equation of motion for a system with Lagrangian L (SI unit: J) is

d L = L
q
d t v

(2-1)

where v (SI unit: m/s) is the particle velocity and q (SI unit: m) is the particle
position. Equation 2-1 is called the Euler-Lagrange equation.
The Lagrangian of a free, nonrelativistic particle is
1
L = T = --- m ( v v )
2

(2-2)

For example, for an instance of The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface with tag
pt in 3D, the expression pt.mp*(pt.vx^2+pt.vy^2+pt.vz^2)/2 is the Lagrangian
for a free particle that is not subjected to any forces. Note that substitution into the
Euler-Lagrange equation yields
dv
m ------- = 0
dt
If all forces can be expressed as potentials, it is possible to specify Newtons law of
motion in terms of a Lagrangian,
L = TU
where T (SI unit: J) is the particle kinetic energy and U (SI unit: J) is the total
potential energy. For example, if U only depends on particle position, not velocity,
then substitution into the Euler-Lagrange equation yields
dv
m ------- = U
dt
HAMILTONIAN

The Hamiltonian formulation defines a set of coupled first-order ordinary differential

equations for the components of the particle position and generalized momentum.
Following Chapter 7 in Ref. 2 the Hamiltonian H (SI unit: J) can be derived directly
from an expression for the Lagrangian L. The degrees of freedom are the position
vector components qi and the generalized momenta pi, defined as
Lp i = ------
q i

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C H A P T E R 2 : P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D E L I N G

dq i

q i = --------dt

For example, for a free, nonrelativistic particle, the generalized momenta are
-1
p i = ------ --- m
q i 2

qj
j

This yields the simplified result

p i = mq i

(2-3)

Thus, in this case the generalized momentum is simply the particle momentum.
For some definitions of the Hamiltonian, the generalized momentum and
particle momentum may differ, so we cannot assume that Equation 2-3
holds in general. However, certain features that accept expressions for
momentum components, like the General reflection condition for the Wall
feature, treat the specified expressions as values of the particle
momentum, not the generalized momentum. When using the
Hamiltonian formulation, always begin by checking whether the
Equation 2-3 holds, and use extra caution when entering user-defined
expressions for momentum components if it does not.
The Hamiltonian is then defined as
H =

pj qj L
j

Using this Hamiltonian the following first-order equations are defined:

dq i
H
--------- = ------dt
p i

dp i
H
--------- = ------dt
q i

(2-4)

These are known as Hamiltons equations.

For example, for a free particle,
H =

p j2

pj qj -------2m
j

Substitution with Equation 2-2 and Equation 2-3then yields

M O D E L I N G TO O L S

33

1
H = --------- ( p p )
2m
For example, for an instance of The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface with tag
pt in 3D, using default names for the generalized momentum components, the
expression (px^2+py^2+pz^2)/(2*pt.mp) is the Hamiltonian for a free particle that
is not subjected to any forces. Substitution into Hamiltons Equations then yields
dq
1------- = ---p
dt
m

dp
-------- = 0
dt

As expected, the particle moves in a straight line and its momentum is conserved.

Special Variables
The particle tracing interfaces define a number of special variables, some of which can
only be used during results processing. These variables can be found in the Particle
statistics plot group during results processing, as shown in Figure 2-4. All of the
variables described in this section are preceded by its Name; see The Mathematical
Particle Tracing Interface for more information.

Figure 2-4: An example of variables available from the particle statistics menu and
available with the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface.

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C H A P T E R 2 : P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G M O D E L I N G

The following variables are defined:

Particle index, pidx. Each particle is assigned a unique index starting from 1 up to
the total number of particles. This expression can be passed into a function, which
can create, for example, random forces which are unique for each particle. Suppose
a random function has already been defined with name rn1 which takes 2 input
arguments. Then a random force can be constructed with the expression
rn1(pidx,t).
Particle release feature, prf. If there are multiple release features in a model, it is
useful to be able to visualize how the particles mix together based on their initial
release position. The Particle release feature variable takes a numeric value, starting
at 1 which is unique to each release feature.
When you also have the CFD Module, see Particle Tracing in a
Micromixer: Application Library path CFD_Module/Particle_Tracing/
micromixer_particle_tracing.
Particle release time, prt. Since particles can be released at arbitrary points in time,
it is often useful to visualize at what time a specific particle was released. The Particle
release time is only available for primary particles, not those released due to
secondary emission.
If the Store particle status data check box is selected, then the following additional
variables are created:
The release time of a given particle (variable name rti). This works for secondary
particles and thus allows for extraction of the time at which a secondary particle was
released.
The time at which a particle stopped at a boundary (variable name st).
The final status of the particle (variable name fs). This indicates the status of a
particle at a given point in time. When used during postprocessing, the value always

M O D E L I N G TO O L S

35

indicates the status of the particle at the last time step. The value is an integer which
has one of the following values:
- 0 for unreleased particles.
- 1 for particles which are still in the modeling domain.
- 2 for frozen particles.
- 3 for stuck particles.
- 4 for particles which have disappeared.
The status of the particle (variable name particlestatus, with no scope). This
indicates the current status of each particle. The value is an integer with the same
meaning as the final status of the particle. When the Store particle status data check
box is cleared, the variable particlestatus exists while computing particle
trajectories, so it can be used in weak expressions defined on the particles, but
cannot be used during postprocessing.
The following variables are only defined during results processing and can
only be evaluated using the Global Evaluation node under Derived Values.
They cannot be plotted as the Color Expression in a Particle Trajectories
plot, or used in the equation system.
Total number of particles, Nt. This total includes both primary and secondary
particles, and includes particles that have disappeared or have not been released.
Total number of particles in selection, Nsel. If a selection has been applied to the
Particle data set, the number of particles in that selection can be evaluated.
Transmission probability, alpha. Often the transmission probability is the main
quantity of interest in a particle tracing model. The transmission probability is
usually computed by dividing the total number of particles which reach an outlet by
the number of particles released at an inlet. The Transmission probability variable is
much more general, and can be used on domains, boundaries, or combinations of
both.
Particle Trajectories in a Laminar Static Mixer: Application Library
path Particle_Tracing_Module/Fluid_Flow/laminar_mixer_particle
Brownian Motion: Application Library path Particle_Tracing_Module/
Tutorials/brownian_motion

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The following variables are found in the Release statistics plot group during results
processing, as shown in Figure 2-5.

Figure 2-5: An example of variables available from the release statistics menu and
available with the Charged Particle Tracing interface.
Total number of particles released by feature, <tag>.Ntf, where <tag> is the tag of
a particle release feature, such as the Inlet or Release from Grid feature. This global
variable is uniquely defined for each release feature, and gives the total number of
particles that are released by that feature. This includes particles that have not yet
been released and particles that have disappeared or become frozen or stuck due to
collisions with walls. It does not include any secondary particles.
Release frequency, <tag>.frel (SI unit: Hz), where <tag> is the tag of a particle
release feature. This variable appears when the Particle release specification in The
Charged Particle Tracing Interface or The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface
is set to Specify current or Specify mass flow rate respectively, and yields the number
of physical particles per model particle per second which must be released in order
to generate the user defined Release current magnitude or Mass flow rate, respectively.

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 Release frequency, frel (SI unit: Hz). This variable also appears when the Particle
release specification is set to Specify current or Specify mass flow rate, and is defined
for every particle, yielding the release frequency of the feature which produced that
particle.
Release current magnitude, <tag>.rc (SI unit: A). This variable is available when the
Particle release specification in The Charged Particle Tracing Interface is set to
Specify current, and yields the magnitude of the release current at the release feature
identified by <tag>.
Mass flow rate, <tag>.mdot (SI unit: kg/s). This variable is available when the
Particle release specification in The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface is set to
Specify mass flow rate, and yields the mass flow rate at the release feature identified
by <tag>.

Component Couplings
The purpose of a model is often to compute the sum, average, maximum value, or
minimum value of a quantity over a group of particles, such as the average kinetic
energy or the maximum residence time. A particle tracing interface with Name <name>
creates the following four operators:
<name>.<name>op1(expr) evaluates the sum of the expression expr over all
particles. Because the sum is taken over all particles, the sum can return NaN if
secondary emission is enabled or if some wall collisions cause particles to disappear,
since many quantities are not defined for particles which have disappeared or have
not been released. To exclude these particles from the sum, use the isnan operator.
For example, an expression for the total kinetic energy can read
pt.ptop1(if(isnan(pt.Ep),0,pt.Ep)), which would compute the sum of the
kinetic energy of all particles for which a numerical value of the kinetic energy exists.
<name>.<name>aveop1(expr) evaluates the average of the expression expr over all
particles. If some particles have disappeared or have not been released, they can still
affect the average value and can cause it to appear artificially low in some cases. To
exclude these particles from the average, enter an expression such as
pt.ptop1(if(isnan(pt.Ep),0,pt.Ep))/pt.ptop1(if(isnan(pt.Ep),0,1)).
<name>.<name>maxop1(expr) evaluates the maximum value of the expression
expr over all particles.
<name>.<name>maxop1(expr, evalExpr) evaluates the expression evalExpr for
the particle that has the maximum value of the expression expr. For example, in a
model that uses the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface with name pt, the

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expression pt.ptmaxop1(pt.V, qx) would evaluate the x-coordinate qx of the

particle with the greatest velocity magnitude pt.V.
<name>.<name>minop1(expr) evaluates the minimum value of the expression
expr over all particles.
<name>.<name>minop1(expr, evalExpr) evaluates the expression evalExpr for
the particle that has the minimum value of the expression expr. For example, in a
model that uses the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface with name pt, the
expression pt.ptminop1(pt.V, qx) would evaluate the x-coordinate qx of the
particle with the smallest velocity magnitude pt.V.

Monte Carlo Modeling

It is possible to add forces on particles which are stochastic. In the Particle Tracing for
Fluid Flow interface, the Drag Force and Brownian Force physics features are forces
that potentially include components which are random in nature. In addition, some
settings for particle-wall interaction and emission of secondary particles depend on
random numbers. When these features are included in a model, it can be necessary to
solve the problem multiple times and take some kind of statistical average of the results.
The seeding of random number is controlled by the Arguments for random number
generation list in the physics interface Particle Properties section. The following options
are available:
Generate unique argumentsseed random numbers based on the position of each
physics feature in the Model Tree. This ensures that random numbers generated for
different physics features are independent of each other. Use this option to make the
results of a study reproducible when running the study multiple times in succession.
Generate random argumentsseed random numbers using randomly generated
double-precision numbers. The seeds are regenerated whenever the study is run,
causing the results to differ when running the same study multiple times.
User definedWhen this option is selected, additional text fields appear in the
settings windows for all features that use random numbers. The number entered in
this text field is used as an additional argument for random number generation. A
set of distinct solutions can be obtained by running a parametric sweep over several
values of this additional argument.
For more information about the available options, see Particle Properties in The
Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface.

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Brownian Motion: Application Library path Particle_Tracing_Module/

Tutorials/brownian_motion

Figure 2-6: An example of the Settings window for Brownian Force.

All three particle tracing interfaces include a Velocity Reinitialization feature. This
allows for general purpose Monte Carlo modeling because the velocity vector can be
discretely changed at each time step according to some logical expression. The
Charged Particle Tracing interface also includes dedicated features for reinitializing

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particle velocity to model the interaction of model particles with molecules in a rarefied
background gas.
The Collisions node includes a variety of subnodes, such as Elastic collisions and
Ionization reactions, which can be used to model the interactions that can occur when
particles collide with atoms or molecules in a background gas. If a collision should
occur, the charged particle has its velocity vector reinitialized by sampling the velocity
of the background gas particle at random from a drifting Maxwellian distribution. This
provides an accurate description of a charged particle interacting with a background
gas.

Study Setup
For all of the particle tracing physics interfaces, the particle trajectories must be
computed using a Time Dependent solver. For single-physics particle tracing, this can
be set up by using the Time Dependent study.
UNIDIRECTIONAL COUPLINGS

If a unidirectional, or one-way, coupling between particle trajectories and fields is set

up, it is often useful to first compute the fields in the surrounding domains and then
to compute the particle trajectories using a Time Dependent study. For example, it is
possible to model the motion of particles in a channel containing fluid by first setting
up the Laminar Flow interface and computing the fluid velocity and pressure using a
Stationary study. Then the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interface and a Time
Dependent study can be used to model the motion of particles in the fluid.
The unidirectional coupling can be used when the particles dont significantly perturb
the surrounding fields. In the example of a distribution of particles in a fluid, this
means that the force exerted by particles on the fluid is not large enough to noticeably
redirect the flow. When modeling the motion of charged particles in an external
electric field, this means that the density of charged particles is not large enough to
significantly affect the electric potential.
BIDIRECTIONAL COUPLINGS

If the particles do significantly perturb the fields in the surrounding domains, it is

necessary to create a bidirectional, or two-way, coupling. The most straightforward
way to set up a bidirectional coupling is by using one of the Multiphysics Interfaces.
Alternatively, if the necessary physics interfaces are already present, it is possible to
manually add the contributions from the particles to the surrounding fields. For
example, if the Charged Particle Tracing and Electrostatics interfaces are present, the

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41

contribution of the charged particles to the space charge density can be included by
adding the Electric Particle Field Interaction Multiphysics node.
When setting up bidirectional couplings between physics interfaces, it is important to
determine whether the fields are stationary or not. For example, if a beam of charged
particles is released at constant current, then it is possible for the space charge density
at any point in the beam to remain constant over time.

Bidirectionally Coupled Time Domain Calculation

If the fields are not constant, it is necessary for the particle trajectories and fields to be
computed together in the time domain. For a charged particle beam, this might mean
that the beam is pulsed, and thus the electric potential is time-dependent. Full
time-domain calculation of the particles and fields is much more computationally
demanding than a unidirectional coupling between particles and fields, because it
requires particles to be released at a very large number of time steps. For fully
time-domain calculations, Specify release times should be selected from the Particle
release specification list in the physics interface Particle Properties section.

Using Iterative Solver Loops

If the fields are stationary, it is possible to significantly reduce the computational cost
of the model by using an iterative solver loop in which the particle trajectories are
computed using a Time Dependent solver and the fields are computed using a
Stationary solver. To obtain a self-consistent solution, it is necessary to ensure that the
result from each of these solvers is used to set the value of variables not solved for by
the other solver. The For and End For loops, when added to a solver sequence, can be
used to set up an iterative loop that does the following:
1 Set all contributions from particles to external fields to zero.
2 Compute the all field variables, using a Stationary solver, using the contributions

from particles to external fields computed in the previous step.

3 Compute the particle trajectories and their contributions to external fields, using the

field variables computed in the previous step.

4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 until a specified number of iterations has been reached.

The Bidirectionally Coupled Particle Tracing study step automatically sets up an

iterative solver loop, and can be used in place of a Time Dependent study to facilitate
the calculation of bidirectionally coupled particle trajectories and fields.

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If you have the AC/DC Module, see Electron Beam Divergence Due to
Self Potential, Application Library path ACDC_Module/Particle_Tracing/
electron_beam_divergence.
When solving for the fields using a Stationary study, it is possible to considerably
reduce the number of particles in the simulation by selecting Specify current or Specify
mass flow rate from the Particle release specification list in the physics interface Particle
Properties section. This causes each model particle to represent a number of real
particles per unit time, all moving along the same path, and therefore it is only
necessary to release particles during the first time step.

Auxiliary Dependent Variables and Residence Time

Auxiliary dependent variables can be used to help keep track of things like residence
time, particle trajectory length, integrated shear rate, and so forth. When an Auxiliary
Dependent Variable feature is added to the physics interface an additional ordinary
differential equation is solved for each particle.
To compute the residence time of particles:
1 From the Physics toolbar, Global menu, select Auxiliary Dependent Variable.
2 In the Settings window for Auxiliary Dependent Variable, Auxiliary Dependent Variable

section, enter 1 in the R field.

This solves for this differential equation for each particle:
d ( rp ) = 1
dt
and so the variable rp represents the residence time.
To compute the length of the particle trajectories:
3 In the Auxiliary Dependent Variable section, from the Integrate list, select Along
particle trajectory.

The following differential equation is now solved for each particle:

d ( rp ) = 1
ds

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and so the variable rp is now the total length of the particle trajectory. The initial values
for the auxiliary dependent variables are set in the release features included in the
model.
By defining an appropriate source term, it is possible to evaluate the time integral or
path integral of any quantity that is known at the particles position. It is also possible
to change the value of an auxiliary dependent variable discontinuously when a particle
interacts with a boundary by entering an expression for the new value in the New Value
of Auxiliary Dependent Variables section of the settings window for the Wall node. The
new value of an auxiliary dependent variable may be defined recursively, for example,
to count collisions of a particle with the surrounding walls. In addition, the value of an
auxiliary dependent variable can be changed when the Velocity reinitialization condition
specified in a Velocity Reinitialization feature is satisfied, enabling the variable to be
reinitialized at any location within a domain.
Several built-in features are available for creating auxiliary dependent variables for
quantities that are frequently used. For example, the Compute particle mass and
Compute particle temperature check boxes in the settings window for The Particle
Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface create auxiliary dependent variables for the particle
mass and temperature, respectively. Several built-in features are available for applying
heat sources to the particles when the particle temperature is computed.
The residence time can also be computed in a different way by setting the Store particle
status data property to On. This creates variables for the particle release time and the

particle stop time (the time when a particle left the modeling domain). The residence
time is then simply the difference between the two.
It is also possible to integrate a quantity over time by using the timeint() operator.
The expression timeint(t1,t2,expr) evaluates the integral of the expression expr
from initial time t1 to final time t2. The accuracy of the integral depends on the total
number of time steps taken by the solver. The timeint() operator offers a convenient
way to evaluate the integrals of many different quantities without recomputing the
solution.

timeint and timeavg in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

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Initialization of Auxiliary Dependent Variables

When considering the ways in which auxiliary dependent variables can be initialized, it
is useful to separate them into two categories. Built-in variables for several frequently
used quantities are created by certain physics features or physics interface properties.
User-defined variables are created when Auxiliary Dependent Variable nodes are added
to the Model Builder.
CONTROLLING THE ORDER IN WHICH VARIABLES ARE INITIALIZED

When assigning initial values to particle degrees of freedom, the components of the
particle position vector are always assigned first. The initial values of the remaining
degrees of freedom, which may include velocity or momentum as well as auxiliary
dependent variables, may depend on the initial particle position. In addition, the initial
value of any variable may be defined in terms of other variables that are initialized
before it.
By default, user-defined auxiliary dependent variables are initialized after all other
particle variables. However, in the Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables section
of the Settings window for each release feature, the text field for the initial value of each
auxiliary dependent variable is accompanied by a check box, Initialize before particle
momentum. When this check box is selected, the corresponding variable is initialized
immediately after the particle position vector components and before any other
degrees of freedom. If multiple user-defined auxiliary dependent variables are present,
the order in which they are initialized is determined by their relative position in the
model tree; variables that appear earlier in the model tree are evaluated before variables
that appear below them.
The particle degrees of freedom are then initialized in the following order:
1 Position vector components.
2 User-defined auxiliary dependent variables for which the Initialize before particle
momentum check box has been selected. These variables are initialized in the order
in which the Auxiliary Dependent Variable nodes appear in the model tree.
3 Particle mass (Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interface only).
4 Particle temperature (Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interface only).
5 Particle velocity or momentum.
6 Other built-in auxiliary dependent variables, including the out-of-plane degrees of

freedom in a 2D and 2D axisymmetric geometry. This also includes collision

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counters created by the Collisions node and the various collision types that can be
added to it (Charged Particle Tracing interface only).
7 User-defined auxiliary dependent variables for which the Initialize before particle
momentum check box is cleared.
RELEAS IN G DISTR IBUTION S O F A UXILIA R Y DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

It is possible to assign a single initial value to an auxiliary dependent variable or to

sample multiple values from a distribution. The type of distribution can be selected
using the Distribution function setting in the Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables
section of all release features. Select None to enter a single initial value, Normal to create
a normal distribution function, Lognormal to create a log-normal distribution function,
Uniform to create a uniform distribution function, and List of values to enter an a list of
numerical values. For the Normal, Lognormal, and Uniform distributions, enter a
user-defined Mean (default 0) and Standard deviation (default 1). It is possible to create
a set of uniformly distributed numbers between 0 and 1 by selecting the Uniform
distribution and entering a Mean of 0.5 and a Standard deviation of sqrt(1/12).

Accumulators
Often the quantity of interest in particle tracing simulations involves the interaction of
particles with fields defined on a set of domains or boundaries. Examples of
particle-domain interactions include the accumulation of space charge density due to
ions and electrons, and the volume force exerted by moving particles on the
surrounding fluid. Examples of notable particle-boundary interactions include erosion
due to the impact of solid particles on a surface, sputtering of surface molecules due to
the impact of ions at a high velocity, and boundary loads generated by a stream of
particles impinging on a surface.
An Accumulator is a physics feature that allows dependent variables that are defined on
domain or boundary mesh elements to be affected by particles that interact with those
elements. When an Accumulator is added directly to a physics interface, it defines a
variable, called an accumulated variable, in each mesh element in a set of domains. The
value of the accumulated variable in a mesh element is affected by the presence of
particles within that element. Particles may either affect the accumulated variable
directly, by changing the value of the accumulated variable within the mesh element
occupied by the particle; or by changing the accumulated variables time derivative.
When an Accumulator is added as a subnode to a Wall, Outlet, or Axial Symmetry
node, it defines an accumulated variable on boundary elements in the selection list of

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its parent node, defining one degree of freedom per element. These degrees of
freedom are incremented as particles hit the boundary. For more information on the
Accumulator features, see Accumulator (Boundary) and Accumulator (Domain).
The Accumulator features are available with all particle tracing interfaces. In addition,
the following features are available in The Charged Particle Tracing Interface to define
accumulated variables for more specialized applications: Etch, Surface Charge Density,
Current Density, and Heat Source.
The following features in The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface define
accumulated variables for specific applications: Erosion, Mass Deposition, Boundary
Load, and Mass Flux.
The dedicated Multiphysics nodes and interfaces described in the section Multiphysics
Interfaces also use special cases of accumulators on domains to model particle-field and
fluid-particle interactions.
Because each particles location is defined as a point whereas the accumulated variables
are defined on mesh elements of finite size, accumulators are inherently
mesh-dependent. If the accumulated is the density of a physical quantity, it tend to
become infinitely large in the limit as the mesh elements become infinitesimally small.
To obtain reasonable solutions, the number of particles moving through a domain or
interacting with the boundary should typically be at least an order of magnitude larger
than the total number of domain elements in a typical cross-section of the domain or
the total number of elements on the boundary, respectively.

Overriding Particle Properties

It is often useful to compute the trajectories of multiple species of particle
simultaneously. By default, all Inlet, Release, Release from Grid, Release from Data
File, and Secondary Emission features introduce particles with properties defined in
the Particle Properties 1 node. The Override Properties node can be used to create
alternative sets of properties, which can then be assigned to groups of particles by
changing the Inherit properties setting for a release feature. For example, the Override
Properties node can be used to create one Release from Grid feature that produces ions
and a second Release from Grid feature that produces electrons.

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Figure 2-7: The Inherit Properties section of the Settings window for Release from Grid.

Filters
Visualizing the trajectory of systems with a very large number of particles can consume
a lot of computer resources and often particles obscure one another. It is possible to
filter the type of particle and the number of particles which should be rendered. To do
this, right-click the Particle Trajectories plot type and select Filter.

Figure 2-8: An example of the Settings window for the Filter node.
The Particle type can be set to render primary particles, secondary particles, both or by
a logical expression.

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If particles are obscuring one another or the burden on the graphics card is very high,
the number of particles rendered can be reduced by changing the Particles to render
option. A fraction of the total number of particles to render or the total number of
particles to render can be set.

Particle Counters
A Particle Counter feature is a domain or boundary feature that provides information
about particles arriving on a set of selected domains or surfaces from a release feature.
Such quantities include the number of particles transmitted, the transmission
probability, transmitted current, mass flow rate etc. The feature provides convenient
expressions that can be used in the Filters node of the Particle Trajectories plot, which
allows only the particles which reach the particle counter selection to be visualized.
The following variables are provided by the Particle Counter feature, with the feature
tag <tag>:
<tag>.Nfin is number of transmitted particles from the release feature to the
particle counter at the final time.
<tag>.Nsel is number of transmitted particles from the release feature to the
particle counter.
<tag>.alpha is the transmission probability from the release feature to the particle
counter.
<tag>.rL is a logical expression for particle inclusion. This can be set in the Filter
node of the Particle Trajectories plot in order to visualize the particles which connect
the release feature to the counter.
<tag>.It is the transmitted current from the release feature to the particle counter.
This variable is only available for the Charged Particle Tracing interface when the
Particle release specification is set to Specify current.
<tag>.mdott is the transmitted mass flow rate from the release feature to the
particle counter. This variable is only available for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
interface when the Particle release specification is set to Specify mass flow rate.
If the release feature is a Particle Beam feature in the Charged Particle Tracing interface,
additional variables for the average position, velocity and energy of the transmitted
particles are available.

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The Particle Counter feature only creates variables, which do not affect the
solution. Therefore, they can be added to a model without the need to
re-compute the solution, it just needs to be updated. To do this, right
click on the Study node and select Update Solution. The new variables
described above will be immediately available for results processing.

Improving Plot Quality

Particles can interact with boundaries at any time during a simulation. However, the
solution is only stored at a finite number of time steps. This can sometimes cause the
Particle Trajectories plot to give misleading results, since the exact instant at which a
particle-wall interaction occurs is often not included in the plot.
It is possible to improve the quality of the Particle Trajectories plot by selecting the
Store extra time steps for wall interactions check box in the physics interface Advanced
Settings section. When this check box is selected, the exact times of particle-wall
interactions are stored in memory. When the solution is plotted, a number of extra
time steps are included, which are typically close to the times at which particle-wall
interactions occur.
In the following example, a particle is released at point (0.2,0.5) in a unit square with
initial velocity (0.6,11.2). The walls of the square are given the Bounce wall condition.
The Time-Dependent study is run until 1 s, with output every 0.05 s.
The ray trajectory is computed with the Store extra time steps for wall interactions
check box cleared and with the check box selected. The results are shown in
Figure 2-9.
Note that the solution at the stored times is equally valid in both cases; even though a
time step isnt always stored at the exact instant a particle-wall collision occurs, the
collision is still handled at the correct time, using an extrapolation algorithm that is
determined by the Wall accuracy order setting in the physics interface Particle Properties
section.

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Figure 2-9: Comparison of the Particle Trajectories plot without extra time steps (left) and
with extra time steps (right).

References
1. E.M. Lifshitz and L.P. Pitaevskii, Fluid Mechanics, Butterworth, 1987.
2. L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz, Mechanics, 3rd ed., Elsevier, 1976.

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Mathematical Particle Tracing

This chapter describes the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface found under
the Mathematics branch (

) when adding a physics interface.

In this chapter:
The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface
Theory for the Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface

53

The Mathematical Particle Tracing

Interface
The Mathematical Particle Tracing (pt) interface (
), found under the Mathematics
branch (
) when adding a physics interface, computes the trajectories of particles
through a geometry. The motion of the particles is usually driven by an external field.
The particles can be massless or have their motion determined by Newtons second
law. Additionally, you can specify a Hamiltonian or Lagrangian that dictates the motion
of the particles.
When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
BuilderWall and Particle Properties. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes

that implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click
Mathematical Particle Tracing to select physics features from the context menu.
SETTINGS

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is pt.
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

Select a FormulationNewtonian (the default), Newtonian, first order, Lagrangian,

Massless, or Hamiltonian. This selection changes the available sections displayed on the
Settings windows for Particle Properties, Release from Grid, and Release. For
Newtonian or Newtonian, first order a Force node can also be added to the model.

For a comparison of the first- and second-order Newtonian formulations,

see Choosing a Formulation in the Modeling Tools section.

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The Wall accuracy order sets the accuracy order of the time stepping used for time steps
during which a particle-wall interaction happens:
Order 1 means that a forward Euler step is used to compute the motion both before
and after the wall collision.
Order 2 (the default) means that a second-order Taylor method is used to compute
the motion before the wall collision. After the collision a second-order Runge-Kutta
method is used.
The Wall accuracy order also controls the time stepping that is used when particles are
released during a time step taken by the solver.
Select an option from the Arguments for random number generation list: Generate unique
arguments, Generate random arguments, or User defined. This setting determines how
the additional argument to random functions is defined in features such as the Wall
boundary condition with the Diffuse scattering wall condition and the Brownian Force
in The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface. Typically the random numbers are
functions of the particle index, position, time, and another argument i, which is
defined as follows:
For Generate unique arguments the additional argument is based on the position of
each node in the Model Builder. As a result, random numbers generated in different
nodes are created independently of each other, but the same result can be
reproduced by running the same study several times.
For Generate random arguments the additional argument is randomly created,
causing the random functions to return different results each time the study is run.
For User defined the additional argument is defined by a user input in the Settings
window each feature. Independent solutions can be obtained by running a
parametric sweep for different values of i.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Relativistic Correction
If Newtonian or Newtonian, first order is selected as the Formulation, the Relativistic
correction check box is available but by default it is not selected. If you select the check
box, then the formulation is applicable for particles with very high speed, meaning you
can take relativistic effects on the particle mass into account. The particle mass mp is
then computed as

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mr
m p = ---------------------------------2
1vvc
where mr (SI unit: kg) is the rest mass, v (SI unit: m/s) is the particle velocity, and c
(SI unit: m/s) is the speed of light in a vacuum.

Store Particle Status Data

By default the Store particle status data check box is not selected. When selected it adds
new variables for quantities that cannot necessarily be recovered from the particle
trajectory data alone. This is especially true if automatic remeshing has been used in a
model. The following variables are created:
The release time of a given particle (variable name rti).
The time at which a particle stopped at a boundary (variable name st).
The final status of the particle (variable name fs). This indicates the status of a
particle at a given point in time. When used during postprocessing, the value always
indicates the status of the particle at the last time step. The value is an integer which
has one of the following values:
- 0 for unreleased particles.
- 1 for particles which are still in the modeling domain.
- 2 for frozen particles.
- 3 for stuck particles.
- 4 for particles that have disappeared.
In addition, the particle status (variable name particlestatus, with no scope) can
be used during postprocessing. This variable is always defined while computing the
particle trajectories, but its value is only stored if the Store particle status data check
box is selected.

Store Particle Release Statistics

By default the Store particle release statistics check box is not selected. When selected
it adds a new internal variable called releaseindex to identify the release feature that
creates each particle. Every node that is capable of releasing particles, including
secondary particles, is associated with a unique positive integer based on its position
relative to other nodes in the Model Builder.
When this check box is cleared, the variable <scope>.prf can still be used to identify
the release feature that creates each particle, but this variable does not account for
secondary particle emission.

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Maximum Number of Secondary Particles

Some physics features, such as the Secondary Emission subnode for the Wall boundary
condition, have the potential to release additional particles other than those that are
specified by particle release features. These particles are called secondary particles. The
memory for all secondary particles must be preallocated when beginning the study.
The Maximum number of secondary particles field ensures that sufficient memory for all
of the secondary particles is preallocated. It also prevents an inordinate number of
particles from being generated by capping them at the number supplied in the field.
The default value is 10,000.
If no sources of secondary particles such as Secondary Emission nodes are present, no
unreleased secondary particles are created. If at least one feature is capable of emitting
secondary particles, degrees of freedom are allocated for the total number of particles
entered in the Maximum number of secondary particles text field, even if some of these
particles are not released.

Store Extra Time Steps for Wall Interactions

Typically, the exact times at which particle-wall interactions occur do not coincide with
time steps taken by the solver. This does not actually affect the accuracy of the solution,
but it can lead to misleading-looking plots when the boundaries reflect particles,
because the particle may appear to change direction at a finite distance from the wall,
instead of while hitting the wall.
Select the Store extra time steps for wall interactions check box to make plot the
solution at additional time steps, in addition to the specified time steps in the output
of the time-dependent solver. Typically these additional time steps are close to times at
which the particles hit walls.
For an illustration of the effect of the Store extra time steps for wall
interactions check box, see Improving Plot Quality in the Modeling Tools
section.
DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variables (field variables) are the Particle position, Particle position
components, Particle momentum, Particle momentum components, Particle velocity, and
Particle velocity components. Note that not all of these dependent variables are needed

for every formulation of the equations of motion; for example, the field variable names
for Particle momentum and Particle momentum components are only used if Hamiltonian

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is selected from the Formulation list. The names can be changed but the names of fields
and dependent variables must be unique within a model.
Theory for the Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Mathematical
Particle Tracing Interface

Rssler Attractor: Application Library path

Particle_Tracing_Module/Tutorials/rossler_attractor

Ion Cyclotron Motion: Application Library path:

Particle_Tracing_Module/Charged_Particle_Tracing/ion_cyclotron_motion

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Mathematical

Particle Tracing Interface
The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface has these domain, boundary, pair, and
global nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).
In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what
operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.
DOMAIN

When Newtonian or Newtonian, first order is selected as the Formulation, the following
are available:
Force
Particle-Particle Interaction
When Newtonian, Newtonian, first order, Lagrangian, or Hamiltonian is selected as the
Formulation, the following are available:

Velocity Reinitialization
Secondary Emission (subnode to Wall)
Secondary Emission (subnode to Velocity Reinitialization)

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For all Formulation choices the following are available:

Release
Accumulator (Domain)
Particle Counter
BOUNDARY

Axial Symmetry
Inlet
Nonlocal Accumulator (subnode to Inlet)
Outlet
Wall (default)
Accumulator (Boundary) (subnode to Wall or Outlet)
Particle Counter
PAIRS

Inlet
Particle Continuity
EDGE

Release from Edge

PO IN T

Release from Point

GLOBAL

Auxiliary Dependent Variable

Particle Properties (default, singleton)
Release from Grid
Override Properties
Release from Data File
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

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Wall
Use the Wall node to determine what happens to the particles when contact with a wall
is made.The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. If
Newtonian, Newtonian, first order, Lagrangian, or Hamiltonian is selected from the
Formulation list in the physics interface Particle Properties section, the Secondary
Emission subnode is also available.
The Wall node can be applied to interior or exterior boundaries, but the instance of this
node that is created by default only applies to exterior boundaries.
WA LL CONDITION

Select a Wall conditionFreeze (the default), Bounce, Stick, Disappear, Pass through,
Diffuse scattering, Mixed diffuse and specular reflection, or General reflection.
If Massless is selected from the Formulation list in the physics interface Particle
Properties section, only the Freeze (default), Stick, and Disappear conditions are
available.
TABLE 3-1: WALL CONDITION OPTIONS

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OPTIONS

DESCRIPTION

Freeze

Select to fix the particle position and velocity at the instant a wall is
struck. So, the particle position no longer changes after contact with
the wall and the particle velocity remains at the same value as when the
particle struck the wall. This boundary condition is typically used to
recover the velocity or energy distribution of charged particles at the
instant contact was made with the wall.

Bounce

Select to specularly reflect from the wall such that the particle
momentum is conserved. It is typically used when tracing microscopic
particles in a fluid.

Stick

Select to fix the particle position at the instant the wall is struck. The
particle velocity is set to zero. This can be used if the velocity or energy
of the particles striking a wall is not of interest.

Disappear

This option means that the particle is not displayed once it has made
contact with the wall. Use this option if display of the particle location
after contact with the wall is not of interest.

Pass through

When applied to an interior boundary, the Pass through option allows

particles to cross the boundary unimpeded. When applied to an
exterior boundary, this option behaves like the Disappear option.

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TABLE 3-1: WALL CONDITION OPTIONS

OPTIONS

DESCRIPTION

Diffuse
scattering

Select to bounce particles off a wall according to Knudsens cosine law.

That is, the probability a particle bouncing off the surface in a given
direction within a solid angle d is given by cos()d where is the
angle between the direction of the particle and the wall normal. The
total particle momentum is conserved.

Mixed
diffuse and
specular
reflection

Select to bounce particles off a wall either specularly or according to

Knudsens cosine law, based on a user-defined probability. By combining
this wall condition with a primary particle condition, it is possible to
include up to three different types of particle-wall interactions at a
single boundary. Also enter the Probability of specular reflection s.

General
reflection

Select to allow an arbitrary velocity to be specified after a particle

makes contact with the wall. The velocity components can be functions
of the incident particle velocity, energy, or any other quantity. Note
that the total momentum of the particle does not necessarily have to
be conserved with this option. See General Reflection Settings.

GENERAL REFLECTION SETTINGS

This section is available when General reflection (see Table 3-1) is selected as the Wall
condition.
Enter values for the Reflected particle velocity vp (SI unit: m/s) either in Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z) (the default) or select the Specify tangential and normal velocity
components check box to enter coordinates in the tangent-normal coordinate system
(t1, t2, n). In this case the normal direction is selected so that an incident particle is
reflected back into the domain it previously occupied if the specified normal velocity
component is positive. The tangential directions are oriented so that they form a
right-handed coordinate system, together with the normal direction. As a result, the
tangential and normal directions may point in the opposite direction of the
corresponding vectors defined for the geometry (e.g. root.nx) and for the physics
interface (e.g. pt.nx).
PRIMARY PARTICLE CONDITION

Select a Primary particle conditionNone (the default), Probability, or Expression. When

the default, None, is kept, it means that the Wall condition is always respected by the
incident particles.

Probability
If Probability is selected, the Wall condition is applied with a certain probability. Enter
a value for the Probability (dimensionless) of the particle behaving according to the

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Wall condition. Otherwise the particle behaves according to the Otherwise setting.

The value of should always be between 0 and 1.

For example, if the Wall condition is set to:

Freeze and is set to 0.1, then for every 10 particles that strike the wall, on average
one freezes and the remaining 9 particles behave according to the Otherwise
setting.
Stick and is set to 0.5 then on average half of the particles stick to the wall and the
other half behave according to the Otherwise setting.

Expression
If Expression is selected, the Evaluation expression e (dimensionless) is evaluated
whenever the particle strikes the wall. The default value is 1. If the Evaluation
expression is nonzero, the particle behaves according to the Wall condition, otherwise
the particle behaves according to the Otherwise setting.

Otherwise
The options available for the Otherwise setting are the same as for the Wall Condition,
except that Mixed diffuse and specular reflection and General reflection are not available.
The Otherwise setting can be used to make particles interact with a wall differently
when a certain condition is satisfied. For example, to specify that particles with a
diameter greater than 1 micron stick to an interior boundary, and the rest pass
through:
Select Stick as the Wall condition,
set the Primary particle condition to pt.dp>1E-6, and
select Pass through as the Otherwise option.
N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model.
When a particle crosses or touches a boundary, the values of its auxiliary dependent
variables can be changed. The new values can be functions of any combinations of
particle variables and variables defined on the boundary. A simple application is to use
this to count the number of times a particle strikes the wall.

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Select the Assign new value to auxiliary variable check box or boxes based on the
number of auxiliary variables in the model. Then enter the new value or expression in
the field. For example, if there is an auxiliary variable, psi, then enter a value for psinew
in the field. So, to increment the value of psi by 1 when a particle touches or crosses
a boundary, enter psi+1 in the text field for psinew.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

If the Primary particle condition is set to Probability, or if the Diffuse scattering wall
condition is used, then the Wall feature generates random numbers. If, in addition, the
Arguments for random number generation setting is User defined, the Advanced Settings
section is available. Enter the Additional input argument to random number generator.
The default value is 1.

Accumulator (Boundary)
The Accumulator subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall,
Outlet, or Axial Symmetry parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Each Accumulator subnode defines a variable, called the accumulated variable, on each
boundary element in the selection of the parent node. Whenever a particle hits a
boundary element, the value of the accumulated variable in that element is
incremented based on the value of the user-defined Source term R for the incident
particle.
ACCUMULATOR SETTINGS

Select an option from the Accumulator type list: Density (default) or Count.
For Density the accumulated variable is divided by the surface area or length of the
boundary element where it is defined.
For Count the accumulated variable is the sum of the source terms of all particles that
hit the boundary element, and is unaffected by the boundary element size.
Select an option from the Accumulate over list: Particle-wall interactions (default) or
Particles in boundary elements.
For Particle-wall interactions the accumulated variable is affected by all particles that
hit the boundary element, including those that pass through or are reflected by the
boundary.
For Particles in boundary elements the accumulated variable is only affected by
particles that freeze or stick to the boundary element.

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Enter the accumulated variable name. The default is rpb. The accumulated variable is
defined as <scope>.<name>, where <scope> includes the name of the physics
interface node, parent boundary condition, and the Accumulator node; <tag2> is the
unique tag of the parent node; and <name> is the accumulated variable name.
For example, if the Accumulator subnode is added to a Wall node in an instance of the
Mathematical Particle Tracing interface using the default variable name rpb, the
accumulated variable name might be pt.wall1.bacc1.rpb.
Enter a Source R. The unit of the source term depends on the settings in the Units
section. Whenever a particle collides with a boundary element in the selection of the
parent node, the accumulated variable in that element is incremented by the source
term. If the Accumulator type is set to Density, the source term is divided by the area of
the boundary element (in 3D) or the length of the boundary element (in 2D).
UNITS

Select a Dependent variable quantity from the list; the default is Dimensionless [1]. To
enter a unit, select None from the list and in the Unit field enter a value, for example, K,
m/s, or mol/m^3.
SMOOTHING

The accumulated variables are computed using discontinuous shape functions. Select
the Compute smoothed accumulated variable check box to compute a smoothed
accumulated variable by computing the average value of the variable within a sphere of
a user-defined radius. Then enter a Smoothing radius r (SI unit: m). The default is
0.1[m].

Accumulator Theory: Boundaries

Particle Counter
Use the Particle Counter feature to compute information about particles that are
located in a set of selected domains or on a set of selected boundaries. The counter may
detect all particles or only the particles released by a specified release feature.
Computed variables are the number of particles transmitted, the number of particles
transmitted at the final time, the transmission probability, and a logical expression
which can be used to filter the rendered particles during results processing.

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When used with The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface, the Particle Counter also
computes the transmitted mass flow rate when the Particle release specification is set to
Specify mass flow rate.
When used with The Charged Particle Tracing Interface, the Particle Counter also
computes the transmitted current when the Particle release specification is set to Specify
current. If the release feature is a Particle Beam feature in the Charged Particle Tracing
interface, additional variables for the average position, velocity and energy of the
transmitted particles are available.
PARTICLE COUNTER

Select an option from the Release feature listAll (the default), or any of the features
which are capable of releasing particles. When All is selected, the variables computed
are summed over all release features in the model.

Secondary Emission
The Secondary Emission subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Wall, Axial Symmetry, or Velocity Reinitialization, parent node) or from the Physics
toolbar, Attributes menu. When Massless is selected as the Formulation, the Secondary
Emission subnode is not available.
If the Secondary Emission node is added to a boundary feature such as a
Wall or Axial Symmetry node, secondary particles are released when

particles hit the boundary. If the Secondary Emission node is added to a

Velocity Reinitialization node, secondary particles are released when the

particle velocity is reinitialized.

SECONDARY EMISSION CONDITION

For Secondary Emission subnodes applied to boundary nodes, select an option from the
Activate on wall conditions list: All, Primary only, or Otherwise only. These settings
determine which wall conditions in the parent node cause secondary particles to be
released.
For All both the Wall condition and Otherwise condition cause secondary particles to
be released.

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 For Primary only secondary emission only occurs if the incident particle behaves
according to the Wall condition setting.
For Otherwise only secondary emission only occurs if the incident particle behaves
according to the Otherwise only setting.
Select a Secondary emission conditionNone, Probability, or Expression. For Probability
enter the Probability (dimensionless) for secondary emission to occur. For Expression
enter an Evaluation expression e (dimensionless) that must be nonzero for secondary
emission to occur.
SECONDARY PARTICLES

Number of Secondary Particles

In the Number of secondary particles field Ns, specify the number of secondary particles
to release per incident particle. The default value is 1.

Initial Velocity
Select an Initial velocity. If the Secondary Emission feature is added to a Wall or Axial
Symmetry node, the available options are Isotropic hemisphere (the default), Reflection
of primary particle, Diffuse scattering, and User defined. If the Secondary Emission feature
is added to a domain level feature such as Velocity Reinitialization, the available options
are Constant speed, spherical and User defined (default). The following briefly explains
each option.

Isotropic hemisphere: releases the secondary particles with a constant speed and
hemispherical velocity direction with the north pole directed in the normal direction
away from the wall. The speed of the secondary particles is equal to the speed of the
incident particle, divided by the number of secondary particles.
Constant speed, spherical: releases the secondary particles with a constant speed and
spherical distribution of velocity directions. Enter a Speed with which all secondary
particles are released.
Diffuse scattering: causes secondary particles to be released with a probability
distribution based on Knudsens cosine law.
Reflection of primary particle: releases the secondary particles according to the law of
specular reflection of the incident particle. Each secondary particle has the same
speed equal to the speed of the primary particle divided by the number of secondary
particles.
User Defined: allows for an arbitrary velocity vector to be set for the secondary
particles. Enter values or expressions for the Initial particle velocity v0 (SI unit: m/s)

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either in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, and z for 3D) (the default) or select the Specify
tangential and normal velocity components check box (available only when the parent
node is a Wall or Axial Symmetry node) to enter coordinates in the tangent-normal
coordinate system (t1, t2, n), a specification of the tangential components of the
velocity and a normal component (in 2D) and two tangential components and a
normal component (in 3D). In this case, the normal is directed away from the wall
on which the particle is incident. As a result, the tangential and normal directions
may point in the opposite direction of the corresponding vectors defined for the
geometry (e.g. root.nx) and for the physics interface (e.g. pt.nx).

Scale Velocity by Number of Secondary Particles

For Secondary Emission nodes added to boundary features, select the Scale velocity by
number of secondary particles check box when the velocity of the secondary particles

depends on the velocity of the primary particle to divide the velocity of each secondary
particle by the number of secondary particles.
For example, suppose an incident particle with speed 2 m/s hits a Wall with a Secondary
Emission subnode. If the Secondary Emission node releases 4 particles in an Isotropic
hemisphere and the Scale velocity by number of secondary particles check box is selected,
each reflected particle will have a speed of 0.5 m/s. If the Scale velocity by number of
secondary particles check box is cleared, each reflected particle will have a speed of
2 m/s.

Offset Initial Position

This section is only shown if the Secondary Emission node is a subnode of a
domain-level feature such as the Velocity Reinitialization node, not a boundary feature
such as Wall node.
Select the Offset initial position check box to offset the initial positions of the secondary
particles before releasing them.
Select an Offset methodUsing initial velocity (the default) or Isotropic sphere.
For Using initial velocity enter a Time interval t (SI unit: s). The default is 0. Each
secondary particle is then displaced by the product of its initial velocity and the
specified time interval before being released.
For Isotropic sphere enter a Particle displacement magnitude r (SI unit: m). The
default is 0. All secondary particles are then moved a distance equal to the
displacement magnitude before they are released. If the offset would cause
secondary particles to be placed outside of the modeling domain, they are instead
released at the location of the primary particle.

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ADVANCED SETTINGS

For the following combinations of settings, the Secondary Emission feature generates
random numbers:
Probability is selected from the Secondary emission condition list.
Isotropic sphere, Diffuse scattering, or Constant speed, spherical, is selected from the
Initial velocity list.
The secondary particle positions are offset using the Isotropic sphere offset method
(shown for domain-level secondary emission only).
If, in addition, User Defined is selected from the Arguments for random number
generation list in the physics interface Particle Properties section, the Advanced Settings
section is available. Enter the Additional input argument to random number generator.
The default value is 1.
INHERIT PROPERTIES

Select an option from the Inherit Properties list. The Particle Properties node (default)
is always available. If any Override Properties nodes have been added to the model, they
can also be selected. Use this setting to determine what set of properties is given to the
particles that are released by this feature.
I NI TI AL VAL UE O F AUX I L IA R Y D EP E ND EN T VAR IA BL E S

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. For each of the Auxiliary Dependent Variables added to the model, enter a
value or expression for its initial value. For example, if the auxiliary dependent variable
has the default name rp, enter a value or expression for its initial value rp0.

About the Wall Boundary Conditions

Particle Properties
Use the Particle Properties node to set properties based on the Formulation selected on
the physics interface Settings window. Set the particle velocity for Massless

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formulations, or particle mass for Newtonian, Newtonian, first order, Lagrangian, or

Hamiltonian formulations.
For theory see:
Newtonian Formulation
Hamiltonian Formulation
Lagrangian Formulation
Massless Formulation
PARTICLE MASS

This section is shown when Newtonian, Newtonian, first order, Hamiltonian, or

Lagrangian is selected as the Formulation.
Enter a value or expression for the Particle mass mp (SI unit: kg). The default
expression is me_const, which is a predefined physical constant for the electron mass,
9.109381881031 kg.
If the Relativistic correction check box is selected in the physics interface Advanced
Settings section, instead enter a value or expression for the Particle rest mass mr
(SI unit: kg). The default expression is me_const.
LAGRANGIAN

This section is shown for The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface and when
Lagrangian is selected as the Formulation.
Enter a value or expression for Lagrangian L (SI unit: J). The default is 0 J. Much like
the Hamiltonian formulation, the Lagrangian is usually a function of the particle
kinetic energy and fields, which exert a force on the particles.
P A R T I C L E VE L O C I T Y

This section is shown when Massless is selected as the Formulation.

Enter a vector for the Particle velocity v (SI unit: m/s) based on space dimension. The
Massless formulation means that the particles follow streamlines of the particle velocity
expression.
HAMILTONIAN

This section is shown for The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface and when
Hamiltonian is selected as the Formulation.

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Select an option from the Specify Hamiltonian listDirectly (the default) or Manually.
For Directly enter a value for Hamiltonian H (SI unit: J). The Hamiltonian is typically
a function of the particle kinetic energy and any fields which would induce a force
on the particles.
For Manually enter coordinates for the Particle velocity vH (SI unit: m/s) and
Hamiltonian Force FH (SI unit: N) based on space dimension.
The Hamiltonian formulation solves a system of first order ordinary
differential equations for the particle coordinate and the particle
momentum. Thus, when using the Hamiltonian formulation, the number
of degrees of freedom is the same as the Newtonian, first order formulation
and twice as high as the Massless, Lagrangian, and Newtonian formulations.

Force

The Force node is only available when Newtonian or Newtonian, first order
is selected as the Formulation on the physics interface Settings window.
Use the Force node to define the force directly or using a susceptibility and field. It adds
forces to the particles to influence the particle motion.
FORCE

Select an option from the Specify force list: Directly (the default) or Using susceptibility
and field. For Directly enter values or expressions for the Force F (SI unit: N) based on
space dimension.
For Using susceptibility and field:
Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter a value or expression
in the field or matrix (based on space dimension) for the Susceptibility .
Enter values or expressions for the Field .
The units of the susceptibility and field are controlled by the Units section.

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AFFECTED PARTICLES

Select an option from the Particles to affect list: All (the default), Single species, or
Logical expression. If All is selected, the force is applied to every particle in the selected
domains.
For Single species select an option from the Affected particle properties list. The
Particle Properties node is always available and is the default. In addition, if any
Override Properties nodes have been added to the physics interface, they can be
selected. Use this option to apply a force to a specific type of particle.
For Logical expression enter a Logical expression for inclusion e. The default is 1. The
force is applied to all particles in the selected domains for which the logical
expression is nonzero.
UNITS

This section is available if Using susceptibility and field is selected from the Specify force
list. Select a Susceptibility quantity from the list; the default is Dimensionless [1]. To
enter a unit, select None from the list and in the Unit field enter a value, for example, K,
m/s, or mol/m^3. The unit of the Susceptibility is changed to the specified unit. The
unit of the Field is changed so that the product of the susceptibility and field has a unit
of force.

Velocity Reinitialization
The Velocity Reinitialization node is only available when Newtonian,
Newtonian, first order, Lagrangian, or Hamiltonian is selected as the
Formulation on the physics interface Settings window.
Use the Velocity Reinitialization node to reset the particle velocity to an arbitrary
expression if a specific condition is satisfied.
The Secondary Emission subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
VE L O C I T Y R E I N I T I A L I Z A T I O N

Enter an expression for the Velocity reinitialization condition e (dimensionless). If this

expression is nonzero then the effect of the Velocity Reinitialization node is applied to
the particle. This expression is evaluated at every time step taken by the solver.

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Select the Specify reinitialization time check box to make the velocity reinitialization
occur at a specific time. If this check box is selected, enter a value or expression for the
Reinitialization time tr (SI unit: s). The default value is 0.
If the Specify reinitialization time check box is cleared, the reinitialization
condition is only evaluated at the beginning of each time step taken by the
solver, so each particles velocity can only be reinitialized once per time
step.
If the Specify reinitialization time check box is selected, the reinitialization
condition and time are reevaluated after every velocity reinitialization and
wall interaction, so it is possible for each particles velocity to be
reinitialized multiple times in a single time step taken by the solver.
Select an option from the Effect on primary particle listNone, Reinitialize (the
default), Freeze, Stick, or Disappear. If None is selected, the trajectory of the primary
particle is not affected, although it is still possible to release secondary particles at the
primary particles position and to reinitialize its auxiliary dependent variables.
For Reinitialize the velocity is reinitialized at each time step according to the expression
specified in the Reinitialized particle velocity vr (SI unit: m/s) field. Both the Velocity
reinitialization condition and the Reinitialized particle velocity can be functions of any of
the particle variables, that is, particle position, energy, and so forth.
The options Freeze, Stick, and Disappear are identical to the same options described for
the Wall node.
N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. The values of auxiliary variables can be changed whenever the Velocity
reinitialization condition is satisfied. See Wall for all settings.

Accumulator (Domain)
Use the Accumulator node to define additional degrees of freedom on a domain. Each
Accumulator defines a variable, called the accumulated variable, on each domain
element in the selection list. The values of the accumulated variables are determined
by the properties of particles in each domain element.

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ACCUMULATOR SETTINGS

Select an option from the Accumulator type list: Density (default) or Count.
For Density the accumulated variable is divided by the volume of the mesh element
where it is defined.
For Count the accumulated variable is unaffected by the element size.
Select an option from the Accumulate over list: Elements (default) or Elements and time.
For Elements the value of the accumulated variable in an element is the sum of the
source terms of all particles in that element. If the Accumulator type is set to Density,
this sum is divided by the mesh element volume. At a later time, a particle has no
effect on the value of the accumulated variable in an element it passed through
previously.
For Elements and time the time derivative of the accumulated variable in an element
is the sum of the source terms of all particles in that element. If the Accumulator type
is set to Density, this sum is divided by the mesh element volume. As each particle
moves through a series of mesh elements, it leaves behind a contribution to the
accumulated variable that remains even after the particle has moved on.
Enter the Accumulated variable name. The default is rpd. The accumulated variable is
defined as <name>.<varname>, where <name> is the physics interface name and
<varname> is the accumulated variable name. For example, in an instance of the
Mathematical Particle Tracing interface with default name pt and default accumulated
variable name rpd, the variable would be named pt.rpd.
Enter a Source R. The unit of the source depends on the settings in the Units section.
The source term is used to calculate the accumulated variable in a manner specified by
the Accumulate over and Accumulator type settings.
If Elements and time is selected from the Accumulate over list, select an option from the
Source interpolation list: Constant, Linear (the default), Quadratic, or Exponential. The
Source interpolation determines what functional form the Source is assumed to follow
during each time step taken by the solver. This information is used to compute the
accumulated variable in mesh elements that the particles pass through during each time
step.

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UNITS

Select a Dependent variable quantity from the list; the default is Dimensionless [1]. To
enter a unit, select None from the list and in the Unit field enter a value, for example, K,
m/s, or mol/m^3.

Accumulator Theory: Domains

Particle-Particle Interaction
The Particle-Particle Interaction node is only available when Newtonian or
Newtonian, first order is selected as the Formulation on the physics
interface Settings window.
This feature does not support hard sphere collisions; the interaction
forces must be finite and must be expressed as continuous functions of the
distance between particles.
Use the Particle-Particle Interaction node to define how the particles interact with each
other. There are predefined options available for the Coulomb and Lennard-Jones
interaction forces. It is also possible to define arbitrary expressions for the interaction
force.
FORCE

Select an option from the Interaction force list: Coulomb (the default), Linear elastic,
Lennard-Jones, or User defined. If the default, Coulomb, is kept, a Coulomb force
describes the interaction between charged particles. No user input is necessary.

Linear elastic
For Linear elastic enter the Spring constant ks (SI unit: N/m) and the Equilibrium
distance between particles r0 (SI unit: m).

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Lennard-Jones
For Lennard-Jones it uses the Lennard-Jones potential to approximate the interaction
between neutral particles. The value of these parameters depend on the gas molecules
interacting and can usually be found from a literature search.
Enter the Collision diameter (SI unit: m), typically in the order of a few angstroms
(the default value is 3.3 1010 m or 3.3 ).
Enter the Interaction strength (SI unit: J), usually in the order of 1021 Joules (the
default value is 1.6 1021 J).

User Defined

There is specific syntax that you must use to specify user-defined

interaction forces.
For User defined enter a user-defined expression for the interaction Force Fu (SI unit:
N) based on space dimension.
The particle degrees of freedom are given the variable names qx, qy, and qz (in 3D),
but to access the position vector of neighboring particles use the expression dest(qx),
dest(qy), and dest(qz).
A predefined expression for the distance between particles is available because the
particle-particle interaction forces usually depend inversely on the distance between
the particles. This expression is accessed using <name>.r, where <name> is the physics
interface node name. So, if the name is pt, then this variable is accessed using pt.r.
As an example, the gravitational force on particle i depends on the position vector and
mass of all other particles:
N

Fi = G m

( ri rj )

-------------------3
r r

j=1

where ri is the position vector of the ith particle, G is the gravitational constant, and
m is the mass. To enter this as a user-defined force, enter (in 2D):
G*m^2*(qx-dest(qx))/sqrt((qx-dest(qx))^2+(qy-dest(qy))^2+tol)^3
G*m^2*(qy-dest(qy))/sqrt((qx-dest(qx))^2+(qy-dest(qy))^2+tol)^3

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where tol is a user-defined parameter to prevent divide by zero for the ith particle. In
practice it is quite difficult to choose the value of tol. It should in general be a small
fraction of the smallest distance you want to allow between particles.
USING THE DEST() OPERATOR

When reading or writing the expressions for a user-defined particle-particle interaction

force, the dest() operator is used to identify properties of the particle that is being
subjected to a force, while the omission of the dest() operator indicates some
property or a particle that is exerting the force. For example, when computing the
force on the ith particle, the expression qx-dest(qx) is the difference between the
x-coordinate of some other particle (say, the jth particle) and the x-coordinate of the
ith particle.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

The fact that all particles can interact with all other particles in the system means that
a full Jacobian matrix is generated at each time step when solving. Assembly and
factorization of such a matrix is very expensive in both time and memory.
By default, the Exclude Jacobian contribution for particle-particle interaction force check
box is selected. This means the contribution to the Jacobian matrix is ignored due to
the particle-particle interaction force. This also means that the problem solves much
faster and requires much less memory. The drawback of this is that the Jacobian is not
exact, and the solver therefore needs to take very small time steps when solving.
Rotating Galaxy: Application Library path
Particle_Tracing_Module/Tutorials/rotating_galaxy

By default, the Apply cutoff length check box is cleared. If this check box is selected,
enter a value or expression for the Cutoff length rc (SI unit: m). The default is 5 mm.
If the distance between particles is greater than the cutoff length, the particle-particle
interaction force between them is set to zero.

Release
Use the Release node to set the release times, initial position, and initial value of any
auxiliary dependent variable. The sections available are based on the Formulation
selected in the physics interface Settings window. If Newtonian, Newtonian, first order,
Lagrangian, or Hamiltonian are selected, also enter an initial velocity.

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RELEASE TIMES

Enter Release times (SI unit: s) or click the Range button (

) to select and define a
range of specific times. At each release time, particles are released with initial position
and velocity as defined next.
For models using The Charged Particle Tracing Interface the Release
Current section is available instead of Release Times when the Particle
release specification is set to Specify current. Enter a value for the Release
current magnitude I (SI unit: A). The default is 1 nA. For models using
The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface the Mass Flow Rate section
is available instead of Release Times when the Particle release specification

is set to Specify mass flow rate. Enter a value for the Mass flow rate m (SI
unit kg/s). The default is 1 mg/s. In either case, all particles are released
at time t = 0. The expression for the Release current magnitude or Mass
flow rate should only depend on parameters and global variables, not on
particle variables such as the particle mass.
INITIAL POSITION

Select an Initial positionMesh based (the default) or Density.

Mesh Based
For Mesh based the particles are released from a set of positions determined by a
selection of geometric entities (of arbitrary dimension) in the mesh.
Select a Refinement factor between 1 and 5 (the default is 1), where the centers of the
refined mesh elements are used. Thus, the number of positions per mesh element is
refine^dim, except for pyramids, where it is (4*refine2-1)*refine/3.

Density
For Density enter a value for the Number of particles per release (N) and the Density
proportional to (). Both are dimensionless numbers.

The Number of particles per release is the number before Maxwellian velocity
multiplication.
The field Density proportional to is an expressionthe resulting particle distribution
approximately has a density that is proportional to this expression. The resulting

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distribution looks a bit random, and it depends on the order in which the mesh
elements are numbered.

The distribution is probably not exactly the same in different COMSOL

versions, but the total number of particles released is always N.
Select a Release distribution accuracy order between 1 and 5 (the default is 5), which
determines the integration order that is used when computing the number of particles
to release within each mesh element. The higher the accuracy order, the more
accurately particles will be distributed among the mesh elements.
The Position refinement factor (default 0) must be a nonnegative integer. When the
refinement factor is 0, each particle is always assigned a unique position, but the density
is taken as a uniform value over each mesh element. If the refinement factor is a positive
integer, the distribution of particles within each mesh element is weighted according
to the density, but it is possible for some particles to occupy the same initial position.
Further increasing the Position refinement factor increases the number of evaluation
points within each mesh element to reduce the probability of multiple particles
occupying the same initial position.
If the model includes a Particle-Particle Interaction then there is a risk
that the force may become infinite if the initial particle positions are not
unique. When modeling particle-particle interactions the Position
refinement factor should be 0 to ensure that initial positions are unique.
However, it may then be necessary to refine the mesh to get an accurate
initial distribution of particle positions if the density is not uniform.
I N I T I A L VE L O C I T Y

For The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface this section displays when Newtonian,
Newtonian, first order, Lagrangian, or Hamiltonian is selected as the Formulation.
For The Charged Particle Tracing Interface and The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
Interface this section displays when Newtonian or Newtonian, first order is selected as
the Formulation.

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Select an option from the Initial velocity list: Expression (the default), Kinetic energy and
direction, Constant speed, spherical, Constant speed, hemispherical, Constant speed, cone,
or Maxwellian.
For Expression enter coordinates for the Initial particle velocity v0 (SI unit: m/s)
based on space dimension. The defaults are 0 m/s.
For Kinetic energy and direction enter the Initial kinetic energy E0 (SI unit: J). The
default is 1 keV. Then enter coordinates for the Initial particle direction L0
(dimensionless) based on space dimension. It is not necessary to normalize the
components of the initial direction vector because this is done automatically when
computing the initial velocity.
For Constant speed, spherical this generates Nvel particles for each release point, each
with the same speed. The velocity distribution is spherical for 3D components and
circular for 2D. Enter the:
- Speed v (SI unit: m/s). The default is 1 m/s.
- Number of particles in velocity space Nvel (dimensionless). The default is 200.
For Constant speed, hemispherical this generates Nvel particles for each release point,
each with the same speed. The velocity distribution is hemispherical for 3D
components and a half circle for 2D. Enter the:
- Speed v (SI unit: m/s). The default is 1 m/s.
- Number of particles in velocity space Nvel (dimensionless). The default is 200.
- A direction vector for the Hemisphere axis r (dimensionless). This sets the
direction of the north pole of the hemisphere or half circle.
For Constant speed, cone it generates Nvel particles for each release point, each with
the same speed. The velocity distribution is a cone of angle for 3D components
and an arc of half-angle for 2D. Enter the:
- Speed v (SI unit: m/s). The default is 1 m/s.
- Number of particles in velocity space Nvel (dimensionless). The default is 200.
- A direction vector for the Cone axis r (dimensionless). This sets the direction of
the cone axis for 3D components or the centerline of the arc for 2D.
- A Cone angle (SI unit: rad).

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 For Maxwellian enter the:

- Number of particles per velocity space direction Nv. The default is 50.
- Temperature T0 (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
This option can generate an overwhelming number of particles because
for each release time and release position, this number is multiplied by
Nvsdim, where sdim is the number of space dimensions. Typically only
choose this option when releasing particles at a single release time at a
single point in space.
For Constant speed, spherical, Constant speed, hemispherical, Constant speed, cone, and
Maxwellian, select an option from the Sampling from distribution list: Deterministic (the
default) or Random. If Deterministic is selected, the initial velocity is computed by
sampling from the velocity distribution in a deterministic and reproducible manner. If
Random is selected, the particle velocity is sampled from the distribution using
pseudo-random numbers and may not always generate the same results.
INHERIT PROPERTIES

Select an option from the Inherit Properties list. The Particle Properties node (default)
is always available. If any Override Properties nodes have been added to the model, they
can also be selected. Use this setting to determine what set of properties is given to the
particles that are released by this feature.
I NI TI AL VAL UE O F AUX I L IA R Y D EP E ND EN T VAR IA BL E S

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model.
For each of the Auxiliary Dependent Variables added to the model, choose a
Distribution function for the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables and

whether the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables should be a scalar value
or a distribution function.
The number of particles simulated can increase substantially and the following options
are available for each of the Auxiliary Dependent Variables added to the model.
When None is selected, enter an initial value (rp0).
For the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables, select Normal to create a
normal distribution function, Lognormal to create a log-normal distribution function,
or Uniform to create a uniform distribution function. For any selection, the Number of

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values sets the number of points in the distribution function. Enter a user-defined Mean
(default 0) and Standard deviation (default 1). Select List of values to enter a list of
numerical values for the auxiliary dependent variable directly.

By default auxiliary dependent variables are initialized after all other degrees of
freedom. Select the Initialize before particle momentum check box to compute the
initial value of the auxiliary dependent variable immediately after computing the initial
particle position. By selecting this check box it is possible to define the initial particle
velocity as a function of the auxiliary dependent variables.

Axial Symmetry
An Axial Symmetry node is automatically added to 2D axisymmetric components. The
options available for the feature are exactly the same as for Wall, except the Boundary
Selection is locked and is only applicable on the symmetry axis. The Accumulator
(Boundary) and/or Secondary Emission subnodes are available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Inlet
Use the Inlet node to determine how particles should enter the modeling domain from
a boundary. The Nonlocal Accumulator subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

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RELEASE TIMES

Enter Release times (SI unit: s) or click the Range button (

) to select and define a
range of specific times. At each release time particles are released with initial position
and velocity as defined next.
For models using The Charged Particle Tracing Interface the Release
Current section is available instead of Release Times when the Particle
release specification is set to Specify current. Enter a value for the Release
current magnitude I (SI unit: A). The default is 1 nA. For models using
The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface the Mass Flow Rate section
is available instead of Release Times when the Particle release specification

is set to Specify mass flow rate. Enter a value for the Mass flow rate m (SI
unit kg/s). The default is 1 mg/s. In either case, all particles are released
at time t = 0. The expression for the Release current magnitude or Mass
flow rate should only depend on parameters and global variables, not on
particle variables such as the particle mass.
INITIAL PO SITION

Select an Initial positionMesh based (the default), Uniform distribution (2D

components) Projected plane grid (3D components), or Density. Mesh Based and
Density have the same settings as described for the Release node.
For 2D components, if Uniform distribution is selected, enter the Number
of particles per release N (dimensionless). The union of the selected edges
is divided into N segments of approximately equal length, and a particle is
placed in the middle of each segment.

For 3D components, if Projected plane grid is selected, enter the Number

of particles per release N (dimensionless). The particles are distributed on
a plane grid in planes that are approximately tangential to the selected
boundaries (for a plane boundary, you thus get a uniform distribution).

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I N I T I A L VE L O C I T Y

Select an Initial velocity: Velocity field (the default), Kinetic energy and direction,
Constant speed, hemispherical, or Constant speed, cone.
For Velocity field enter expressions for the Initial particle velocity v0 (SI unit: m/s)
based on space dimension. Select the Specify tangential and normal vector
components check box to enter expressions for the initial velocity in terms of the
tangential and normal directions at the surface.
For Kinetic energy and direction enter the Initial kinetic energy E0 (SI unit: J). The
default is 1 keV. Then enter coordinates for the Initial particle direction L0
(dimensionless) based on space dimension. It is not necessary to normalize the
components of the initial direction vector because this is done automatically when
computing the initial velocity. Select the Specify tangential and normal vector
components check box to enter expressions for the initial direction in terms of the
tangential and normal directions at the surface.
For Constant speed, hemispherical enter a Speed v0 (SI unit: m/s), the Number of
particles in velocity space Nvel (dimensionless), and the Hemisphere axis r. Select the
Specify tangential and normal vector components check box to enter expressions for
the hemisphere axis in terms of the tangential and normal directions at the surface.
For Constant speed, cone enter a Speed v0 (SI unit: m/s), the Number of particles in
velocity space Nvel (dimensionless), the Cone axis r, and the Cone angle (SI
unit: rad). Select the Specify tangential and normal vector components check box to
enter expressions for the cone axis in terms of the tangential and normal directions
at the surface.
When the Specify tangential and normal velocity components or Specify
tangential and normal vector components check box is selected, arrows

indicating the normal direction on the selected boundaries will appear in

the Graphics window.
Note that the normal direction may be opposite the built-in variable for
the boundary normal (e.g.nx, ny, nz) to ensure that a positive value
causes particles to be released into the simulation domain. This often
occurs when the Inlet is applied to exterior boundaries.
When the normal direction used by the Inlet feature is opposite the
normal vector defined by the geometry, the tangential directions are
similarly inverted to ensure that the boundary coordinate system is
right-handed.

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For Constant speed, hemispherical and Constant speed, cone, select an option from the
Sampling from distribution list: Deterministic (the default) or Random. If Deterministic is
selected, the initial velocity is computed by sampling from the velocity distribution in
a deterministic and reproducible manner. If Random is selected, the particle velocity is
sampled from the distribution using pseudo-random numbers and may not always
generate the same results.
INHERIT PROPERTIES

Select an option from the Inherit Properties list. The Particle Properties node (default)
is always available. If any Override Properties nodes have been added to the model, they
can also be selected. Use this setting to determine what set of properties is given to the
particles that are released by this feature.
I NI TI AL VAL UE O F AUX I L IA R Y D EP E ND EN T VAR IA BL E S

See Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables as described for the Release node.

About the Inlet Boundary Conditions

Nonlocal Accumulator
Use the Nonlocal Accumulator subnode to communicate information from a particles
current position to the position from which it was released.
The subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Inlet parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Each Nonlocal accumulator subnode defines a variable, called the accumulated variable,
that is computed using variables defined on particles released by the parent Inlet node
or on domains and boundaries encountered by such particles.
ACCUMULATOR SETTINGS

Select an Accumulator type: Density (default) or Count.

For Density the accumulated variable is divided by the volume of the mesh element
where it is defined.
For Count the accumulated variable is unaffected by the element size.
Enter the Accumulated variable name. The default is rpi.

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Enter a Source R (SI unit: m3). The source term is used to calculate the accumulated
variable in a manner specified by the Accumulate over and Accumulator type settings.
Select a Source geometric entity levelDomains, Boundaries, or Domains and boundaries.
UNITS

Select a Dependent variable quantity from the list; the default is Dimensionless [1]. To
enter a unit, select None from the list and in the Unit field enter a value, for example, K,
m/s, or mol/m^3.
SMOOTHING

Select the Compute smoothed accumulated variable check box to enter a Smoothing
radius r (SI unit: m). The default is 0.1 m.

Outlet
Use the Outlet node to determine what should happen to particles when exiting the
modeling domain. The Accumulator (Boundary) subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
OUTLET

Select a Wall conditionFreeze (the default) or Disappear. When Freeze is selected, the
particle position and velocity remains frozen once the particle has made contact with
the outlet boundary. This allows information about the particle velocity, energy and so
forth to be recovered at the instant the particles left the modeling domain. For
Disappear it means that the particles are not visualized once they strike the outlet
boundary.
About the Outlet Boundary Conditions
Theory for the Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface

Particle Continuity
Use the Particle Continuity node to specify that particles should cross a pair boundary
as if it were invisible.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

To display this section, click the Show button (

) and select Advanced Physics Options.

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Auxiliary Dependent Variable

Use the Auxiliary Dependent Variable node to add additional degrees of freedom for
each particle. These can be used to solve for the particle size, mass, spin, temperature,
and so forth.
Auxiliary Dependent Variables and Residence Time
Initialization of Auxiliary Dependent Variables
AUXILIAR Y D EPENDENT VARIABLE

Enter a Field variable name. The default is rp and can be changed to anything provided
it does not conflict with the name of the variables for the position or momentum
degrees of freedom. The name should not conflict with other auxiliary dependent
variables. When postprocessing auxiliary dependent variables the model qualifier must
be used. So, if the Field variable name is set to rp in Component 1 with tag comp1, then
comp1.rp should be used.
Enter a Source R. There are no units assigned to the source variable because, in general,
it depends on what physical quantity the auxiliary dependent variable is supposed to
represent.
Under Integrate chose whether to integrate the equation you have defined With respect
to time or Along particle trajectory. If you are interested in the residence time of a group
of particles in a given system then you can set the Source to 1 and set Integrate to With
respect to time. To compute the length of the particle trajectory you can set the Source
to 1 and set Integrate to Along particle trajectories.
UNITS

Select a Dependent variable quantity from the list; the default is Dimensionless [1]. To
enter a unit, select None from the list and in the Unit field enter a value, for example, K,
m/s, or mol/m^3.

Release from Edge

Use the Release from Edge node to determine how particles should enter a domain from
positions along a set of edges in a 3D geometry. For Newtonian, Newtonian, first order,
Hamiltonian, and Lagrangian formulations, also set the initial velocity. The sections
available are based on the Formulation selected from the physics interface Settings
window.

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Go to Release for information about the following sections: Release Times, Initial
Velocity, Inherit Properties, and Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables.
INITIAL POSITION

Select an Initial positionMesh based (the default), Projected plane grid, or Density.
Mesh Based and Density have the same settings as described for the Release node. If
Uniform distribution is selected, enter the Number of particles per release N
(dimensionless). The union of the selected edges is divided into N segments of
approximately equal length, and a particle is placed in the middle of each segment.

Release from Point

Use the Release from Point node to determine how particles should enter a domain
from points in the geometry. By default, one particle is released at each selected point,
although a larger number of particles will be released if the initial velocity or an
auxiliary dependent variable is sampled from a distribution of values. For Newtonian,
Newtonian, first order, Hamiltonian, and Lagrangian formulations, also set the initial
velocity. The sections available are based on the Formulation selected on the physics
interface Settings window.
Go to Release for information about the following sections: Release Times, Initial
Velocity, Inherit Properties, and Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables.

Release from Grid

Use the Release from Grid node to set the release times, initial position, and initial value
of any auxiliary dependent variables. For Newtonian, Newtonian, first order, Hamiltonian,
and Lagrangian formulations, also set the initial velocity. The sections available are
based on the Formulation selected from the physics interface Settings window.
Go to Release for information about the following sections: Release Times, Initial
Velocity, Inherit Properties, and Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables.
INITIAL COORDINATES

Enter Initial coordinates based on space dimension (qx,0, qy,0, and qz,0 for 3D
) to select and
components) for the particle positions or click the Range button (
define a range of specific coordinates.

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Select an option from the Grid type list: All combinations (the default) or Specified
combinations. If Specified combinations is selected, the number of initial coordinates

entered for each space dimension must be equal, and the total number of particles
released is equal to the length of one of the lists of initial coordinates. If All
combinations is selected, the total number of particles released is equal to the product
of the lengths of each list of initial coordinates.
For example, suppose a 2D component includes a Release from Grid node with the
following initial coordinates:
qx,0=range(0,1,3)
qy,0=range(2,2,8)
If All combinations is selected, a total of 16 particles will be released, including every
possible combination of the initial x- and y-coordinates. If Specified combinations is
selected, 4 particles will be released with initial positions (0,2), (1,4), (2,6), and (3,8).
The number of released particles may increase if the initial velocity or initial values of
auxiliary dependent variables involve sampling from a distribution, as described below.
The position for any particles with initial coordinates outside the geometry are set to
NaN, so the particles do not appear when plotted during postprocessing.

Override Properties
By default, all particles are assigned properties based on the settings entered for
Particle Properties. Add an Override Properties node to create alternative sets of
properties that can be assigned to the particles. The user inputs in the Settings window
for Override Properties are identical to those in the Settings window for Particle
Properties. The properties in an Override Properties node can then be applied to
particles using the Inherit Properties section in the Release, Inlet, Release from Grid, and
Secondary Emission features.

Overriding Particle Properties

Release from Data File

Use a Release from Data File node to specify the initial position, velocity, and values of
auxiliary dependent variables using data from a text file.

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Formatting Guidelines for Files Containing Particle Data

The imported data file should be a text file (*.txt) arranged in a spreadsheet format;
that is, each row corresponds to a distinct particle and should have the same number
of columns as all other rows. Columns can be separated by spaces, tabs, or a
combination of the two. Begin a line with the percent (%) character to include
comments or empty lines in the data file.
For example, a data file containing the following text would insert particles at the
positions (0.1, 0.2, 0.6) and (0.2, 0.4, 0.8) in a three-dimensional geometry:
% Initial particle positions
% qx0 qy0 qz0
0.1 0.2 0.6
0.2 0.4 0.8
RELEASE TIMES

Enter Release times (SI unit: s) or click the Range button (

range of specific times.

) to select and define a

INITIAL POSITION

Browse your computer to select a text file, then click Import to import the data. To
remove the imported data, click Discard. Enter the Index of first column containing
position data i to indicate which column represents the first coordinate of the particle
position vectors. The default value, 0, indicates the first column.
I N I T I A L VE L O C I T Y

Select an option from the Initial velocity list: Expression (the default), From file, Kinetic
energy and direction, Constant speed, spherical, Constant speed, hemispherical, Constant
speed, cone, or Maxwellian.

For Expression, enter coordinates for the Initial particle velocity v0 (SI unit: m/s)
based on space dimension. The defaults are 0 m/s.
For From file, enter the Index of first column containing velocity data i. The default is
3. The columns are zero-indexed; that is, an index of 0 corresponds to the first
column.
For Kinetic energy and direction enter the Initial kinetic energy E0 (SI unit: J). The
default is 1 keV. Then enter coordinates for the Initial particle direction L0
(dimensionless) based on space dimension. It is not necessary to normalize the
components of the initial direction vector because this is done automatically when
computing the initial velocity.

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 For Constant speed, spherical it generates Nvel particles for each release point, each
with the same speed. The velocity distribution is spherical for 3D components and
circular for 2D. Enter the:
- Speed v (SI unit: m/s). The default is 1 m/s.
- Number of particles in velocity space Nvel (dimensionless). The default is 200.
For Constant speed, hemispherical it generates Nvel particles for each release point,
each with the same speed. The velocity distribution is hemispherical for 3D
components and a half circle for 2D. Enter the:
- Speed v (SI unit: m/s). The default is 1 m/s.
- Number of particles in velocity space Nvel (dimensionless). The default is 200.
- A direction vector for the Hemisphere axis r (dimensionless). This sets the
direction of the north pole of the hemisphere or half circle.
For Constant speed, cone it generates Nvel particles for each release point, each with
the same speed. The velocity distribution is a cone of angle for 3D components
and an arc of half-angle for 2D. Enter the:
- Speed v (SI unit: m/s). The default is 1 m/s.
- Number of particles in velocity space Nvel (dimensionless). The default is 200.
- A direction vector for the Cone axis r (dimensionless). This sets the direction of
the cone axis for 3D components or the centerline of the arc for 2D.
- A Cone angle (SI unit: rad).
For Maxwellian enter the:
- Number of particles per velocity space direction Nv. The default is 50.
- Temperature T0 (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
This option can generate an overwhelming number of particles because
for each release time and release position, this number is multiplied by
Nvsdim, where sdim is the number of space dimensions. Typically only
choose this option when releasing particles at a single release time at a
single point in space.
INHERIT PROPERTIES

Select an option from the Inherit Properties list. The Particle Properties node (default)
is always available. If any Override Properties nodes have been added to the model, they

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can also be selected. Use this setting to determine what set of properties is given to the
particles that are released by this feature.
IN IT IA L VA LUE OF AUXILIAR Y DEPEN DENT VARIABLES

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model.
For each of the Auxiliary Dependent Variables added to the model, choose a
Distribution function for the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables and

whether the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables should be a scalar value
or a distribution function.
The number of particles simulated can increase substantially and the following options
are available for each of the Auxiliary Dependent Variables added to the model.
When None is selected, enter an initial value (rp0).
When From file is selected, enter the Index of column containing data. The default value
is 3. The columns are zero-indexed; that is, an index of 0 corresponds to the first
column.
For the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variables, select Normal to create a
normal distribution function, Lognormal to create a log-normal distribution function,
or Uniform to create a uniform distribution function. For any selection, the Number of
values sets the number of points in the distribution function. Enter a user-defined Mean
(default 0) and Standard deviation (default 1). Select List of values to enter a list of
numerical values for the auxiliary dependent variable directly.
By default auxiliary dependent variables are initialized after all other degrees of
freedom. Select the Initialize before particle momentum check box to compute the
initial value of the auxiliary dependent variable immediately after computing the initial
particle position. By selecting this check box it is possible to define the initial particle
velocity as a function of the auxiliary dependent variables.

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Theory for the Mathematical Particle

Tracing Interface
The equation system solved by the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface depends on
the formulation selected. In the following, the particle has a position vector q, a
velocity vector v, and a momentum vector p.
The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface theory is described in this section:
Newtonian Formulation
Hamiltonian Formulation
Lagrangian Formulation
Massless Formulation
Initial ConditionsPosition
Initial ConditionsVelocity
Particle-Particle Interactions
Auxiliary Dependent Variables
About the Boundary Conditions for the Particle Tracing Interfaces
Accumulator Theory: Domains
Accumulator Theory: Boundaries

Newtonian Formulation
The Mathematical Particle Tracing interface makes it possible to solve arbitrary
ordinary differential equations. The particle position is always computed using
Newtons second law:
d m
(
v) = F
dt p
where mp is the particle mass (SI unit: kg) and F is the force exerted on the particle
(SI unit: N). The force is either specified directly or using a susceptibility multiplied by
a suitable field:
F =

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where is the susceptibility tensor and is a vector field. The particle velocity is
defined as:
v =

dq
dt

where q is the particle position vector.

If you use a relativistic correction of the particle mass for particles with very high
velocity, the particle mass mp is defined as
mr
m p = ---------------------------------2
1vvc
where v is the particle velocity, mr is the rest mass, and c is the speed of light.
If the default Newtonian formulation is selected, Newtons second law is expressed as a
set of second-order ordinary differential equations for the particle position vector
components:
d m dq
------- = F
d t p dt
If the first-order Newtonian formulation is selected, Newtons second law is instead
expressed as a set of coupled first-order ordinary differential equations:
d m
(
v) = F
dt p
v =

dq
dt

USING FIRST-ORDER AND SECOND-ORDER FORMULATIONS

The advantage of using the first-order Newtonian formulation is that it avoids mixing
first- and second-order equations when any Auxiliary Dependent Variables are also
solved for, since the equations for auxiliary dependent variables are always first-order.
This allows efficient, high-order explicit time stepping methods to be used for a wider
class of problems compared to the second-order Newtonian formulation.
The explicit time stepping methods, such as Runge-Kutta methods, are most suitable
for nonstiff problems. In a particle tracing context this often means that the particle
position, velocity, or other dependent variables arent expected to change abruptly over
an extremely short time interval.

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Hamiltonian Formulation
Sometimes it is more convenient to describe the particle motion using a Hamiltonian
formulation. In this case, the following system of first-order ODEs is solved:
dq
= v H ( q, t )
dt
dp
= F H ( q , v, t )
dt
The particle velocity vH (SI unit: m/s) and particle force FH (SI unit: N) can be
entered directly, or, more conveniently by specifying the Hamiltonian, H (SI unit: J).
The Hamiltonian is related to the particle velocity and force via:
vH =

H
p

and
FH =

H
q

Lagrangian Formulation
Instead of a Hamiltonian, a Lagrangian formulation can be used, in which case
Lagranges equation is solved:
L
d L
=
q
d t v
Lagranges equation is rearranged before solving into the following form:
m q = N 1 L L
q v v
t t
where N is the Hessian of the Lagrangian with respect to the velocities:
2

N ij =

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L
v i v j

Massless Formulation
The pathline of a massless particle is given by:
dq
= v
dt
where v is a user-defined velocity vector.
When the Newtonian, Lagrangian, or Massless formulations are used there are degrees
of freedom for the particle position only. When the Newtonian, first order formulation
is used there are degrees of freedom for the particle position and velocity. When the
Hamiltonian formulation is used, there are degrees of freedom for the particle position
and momentum.

Initial ConditionsPosition
Initial conditions for the particle position are either mesh based, from a user-specified
grid, uniformly distributed or based on an analytic expression.

Initial ConditionsVelocity
There are several options available for specifying the initial velocity of particles:
EXPRESSION

The default is to specify an initial expression for each component of the velocity, v0. In
the case of the Newtonian, first-order Newtonian, and Lagrangian formulations the
following condition is implemented:
dq
= v0
dt
In this case the initial velocity of every particle is defined using the same expression.
The particles may have different initial velocity if v0 is a function of initial position.
KINETIC ENERGY AND DIRECTION

If the initial kinetic energy E0 (SI unit: J) and initial particle direction L0
(dimensionless) are specified, for the Newtonian, first-order Newtonian, and
Lagrangian formulations the following condition is implemented:

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95

L 0 2E
dq
= ---------- ----------0
dt
L0 mp
where mp is the mass of the particle. If either Newtonian formulation is used and a
relativistic correction is enabled, instead the following condition is implemented:
cL 0
1
dq
= ---------- 1 ------------------------------2dt
L0
E0

------------2- + 1
mr c

where mr is the rest mass of the particle and c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
MAXWELLIAN

When a Maxwellian initial velocity distribution is selected, an array of Nv initial

velocities is created for each particle in each velocity direction. This substantially
increases the number of degrees of freedom in the problem because Nv differential
equations need to be solved for each initial particle position and velocity dimension.
For a given initial temperature, in each velocity direction, the distribution function is
given by:
2

mp vi
mp
-------------------- exp -----------------
2k B T 0
2k B T 0

f ( vi ) =
So the total distribution function is:

nsdim

f(v) =

f ( vi )
i=1

The probability a particle has an initial velocity vi is given by:

nsdim

g( v) =

vi f ( vi )
i=1

This can clearly generate a large number of particles because the total number of initial
velocities are Nvnsdim. This option is useful in plasma and AC/DC modeling but not
particularly useful for particle tracing in fluids.

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CONSTANT SPEED, SPHERICAL

Sometimes it is desirable to release Nvel particles with the same speed isotropically in
velocity space. Defining the speed as c, the following expressions generate such a
velocity distribution in 2D according to:
v x = c cos
v y = c sin
where goes from 0 to 2 in Nvel steps. In 3D the velocity distribution is given by:
v x = c cos sin
v y = c sin sin
v z = c cos
where goes from 0 to 2 and goes from 0 to .
CONSTANT SPEED, HEMISPHERICAL

The constant speed, hemispherical option is the same as above, except that in 2D
goes from 0 to and in 3D goes from 0 to /2. The angle is measured from the
direction given by the Hemisphere axis setting.
C O N S TA N T S P E E D, C O N E

The constant speed, cone option is the same as above, except that in 2D goes from
0 to and in 3D goes from 0 to . The angle is measured from the direction given
by the Cone axis setting.

Particle-Particle Interactions
COULOMB FORCE

The Coulomb force on particle i in a system of N particles is defined as:

N

Fi = ke e

( ri rj )

Zi Zj -------------------3
r r

j=1

where e is the elementary charge (SI unit: C), ke = 8.9875109 N m2/C2 is a

multiplication factor, ri is the position vector of the ith particle (SI unit: m), rj is the
position vector of the jth particle (SI unit: m), and Z is the particle charge number. The

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97

Coulomb force is repulsive with particles of the same charge and attractive for particles
with opposite charge.
LENNARD-JONES FORCE

The Lennard-Jones interaction is often used as the intermolecular potential function

to estimate the transport properties of a gas. The Lennard-Jones potential is given by:

U ( r ) = 4 ---
r

12

6
---
r

where r is the distance between the particles (SI unit: m), is the interaction strength
(SI unit: Nm), and is the collision diameter (SI unit: m).

Figure 3-1: Plot of the Lennard-Jones potential normalized to the interaction strength
versus the nondimensional radial distance.
Using the fact that the force is computed as:
F = U
the expression for the force on the ith particle becomes:
N

24
F i = --------

j=1

98 |

13
7
ri rj

2 ------------------ ------------------ ------------------

ri rj
ri rj
ri rj

C H A P T E R 3 : M A T H E M A T I C A L P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G

(3-1)

A typical interaction strength is around 1.61021 J and a typical collision diameter is

around 3.31010 m (3.3 ). The first term in the square brackets is a repulsive force
due to internuclear repulsion, and the second term is an attractive force known as the
London dispersion force (LDF). The variation of the force with distance is plotted in
Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-2: Plot of the Lennard-Jones force versus nondimensional radial distance between
particles.
LINEAR ELASTIC FORCE

The linear elastic force Fi on particle i in a system of N particles is defined as

N

Fi = ks

j = 1 ;i j

( ri rj )
( r i r j r 0 ) -------------------ri rj

where ks is the spring constant and r0 is the equilibrium distance between particles.

Auxiliary Dependent Variables

In certain cases it is desirable to add additional degrees of freedom to compute particle
mass, temperature, size, spin, and so forth. The additional degree of freedom is solved

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99

for each particle. For each degree of freedom, w, the following ODE is solved for each
particle:
dw
= R
dt
where R is a user-specified source term. When the Integrate option is set to Along
particle trajectory, the following ODE is solved for each particle:
dw
= R
ds
where s is the direction tangential to the motion of the particle.

About the Boundary Conditions for the Particle Tracing Interfaces

The equations of motion for the particle trajectories are supplemented with a variety
of options to describe how the particles behave at walls, inlets, and outlets.
ABO U T TH E WAL L BO UN DA R Y C ON DITIO N S

The following nomenclature is used with time as an example:

Value of a variable precontact, t.
Value of a variable at the moment of contact, tc.
Value of a variable postcontact, t'.
When a particle comes in contact with a wall, at time tc, the following options are
available for what happens as a result of the particle-wall interaction.

Disappear
When the particle strikes the wall it disappears from view. Mathematically the particle
location is set to not-a-number (NaN) at all time steps after the particle makes contact
with the wall:
q = NaN
This condition means that the particle is not rendered during results processing.

Freeze
The particle position and velocity remain the same at all time steps t > tc:
q = q c

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v = v c
Because the velocity is frozen at the time of impact, this boundary condition allows for
recovery of velocity and energy distribution functions.

Stick
The particle follows the motion of the wall after contact:
q = q w
v = v w

Bounce
The particle is reflected from the wall in the tangent plane. The incident angle and
reflected angle are the same with respect to the surface normal:
q = q
v = v 2 ( n v )n
This conserves energy if the Hamiltonian depends isotropically on momentum.

Diffuse Scattering
The particle is reflected from the wall with a velocity vector according to Knudsens
cosine law. Specifically, for the particle position:
q = q
and for the particle velocity in 3D:
v t1 = v c sin sin
v t2 = v c sin cos
v n = v c cos
where vc is the velocity vector when the particle strikes the wall vt1 and vt2 are the
outcoming tangential components of the velocity and vn is the normal component of
the velocity. The angle is a uniformly distributed random number between 0 and 2.
The angle is defined as:
= asin ( )

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101

where is a uniformly distributed random number between 0 and 1. The probability

distribution of the normal velocity component is directly proportional to cos().
In 2D, the particle velocity is simple:
v t = v c sin
v n = v c cos
where the angle is defined as:

= acos ( ) --2
where is now a uniformly distributed random number between -1 and 1.

Mixed Diffuse and Specular Reflection

The particle has probability to be reflected specularly, as if using the Bounce
condition. Otherwise the particle is reflected diffusely, as if using the Diffuse scattering
condition.

General Reflection
The general reflection option allows for arbitrary velocities to be specified for the
particles after they strike the wall:
q = q
and
v' = v p
where vp is the user-defined velocity vector. The velocity can be specified either in
Cartesian coordinates or in the normal-tangent coordinate system.
ABOUT THE INLET BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

At the inlet the number of particles, particle position, initial velocity, and the number
of releases is specified. An Inlet node can contribute with a Wall or Outlet node, so it is
possible to specify a behavior for particles that return to the inlet at a later time.
ABOUT THE OUTLET BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

At the outlets the particles either freeze or disappear.

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Accumulator Theory: Domains

The Accumulator (Domain) node is used to transfer information from particles to the
domains they occupy or pass through. Each Accumulator defines a variable, called the
accumulated variable, in the selected domains. The accumulated variable is discretized
using constant shape functions, so its value is uniform over every mesh element and
may be discontinuous between mesh elements.
The name of the accumulated variable is specified in the Accumulated variable name edit
field in the Accumulator Settings section of the settings window. The default variable
name, rpd, will be used in the remainder of this section when referring to the
accumulated variable.
ACCUMULATOR TYPE

The options in the Accumulator type list are Density and Count. If Density is selected, the
source term is divided by the area or volume of the mesh element when calculating
each particles contribution to the accumulated variable. If Count is selected, no
division by the area or volume of the mesh element occurs.
The equations in the following section are valid for the Density type. The
corresponding value of the accumulated variable for the Count type is
rpd j, count = rpd j, density meshvol j
where meshvolj is the mesh element volume or area and j is the index of the mesh
element.
ACCUMULATION OVER ELEMENTS

When Elements is selected from the Accumulate over list, the accumulated variable is the
sum of the source terms Ri evaluated at the instantaneous positions of all particles:
N

rpd =

Ri ( r qi )

(3-2)

i=1

where is the Dirac delta function and N is the total number of particles. Equation 3-2
is the value of the accumulated variable in the limit as the mesh becomes arbitrarily fine,
producing infinitesimally narrow peaks at the particle positions and having a value of
zero everywhere else. A more numerically feasible approach is to compute the average
of the accumulated variable over every mesh element:

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103

Nj

1
rpd j = ----Vj

Ri
i=1

where rpdj is the value of the accumulated variable in the jth mesh element, Vj is the
volume of the mesh element, and Nj is the total number of particles in the element.
If Elements and time is selected from the Accumulate over list, the time derivative of the
accumulated variable replaces the accumulated variable in the previous equations:
d ( rpd j )
1
-------------------= ----dt
Vj

Nj

Ri
i=1

Thus the value of the accumulated variable depends on the time history of particles in
the mesh element, instead of the instantaneous positions of the particles. As each
particle propagates, it will leave behind a trail based on its contributions to the
accumulated variables in mesh elements it has traversed.

Accumulator Theory: Boundaries

The Accumulator (Boundary) feature transfers information from particles to the
boundaries they hit or pass through. Each Accumulator defines a variable, called the
accumulated variable, on the selected boundaries. The accumulated variable is
discretized using constant shape functions, so its value if uniform over every mesh
element and may be discontinuous between mesh elements.
The name of the accumulated variable is specified in the Accumulated variable name edit
field in the Accumulator Settings section of the settings window. The default variable
name, rpb, will be used in the remainder of this section when referring to the
accumulated variable.
ACCUMULATOR TYPE

The options in the Accumulator type list are Density and Count. If Density is selected, the
source term is divided by the surface area or length of the boundary mesh element
when calculating each particles contribution to the accumulated variable. If Count is
selected, no division by the surface area or length of the boundary element occurs.
The equations in the following section are valid for the Density type. The
corresponding value of the accumulated variable for the Count type is

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rpb j, count = rpb j, density meshvol j

where meshvolj is the boundary element surface area or length and j is the index of
the boundary element.
ACCUMULATION OVER ELEMENTS

When Particles in boundary elements is selected from the Accumulate over list, the
accumulated variable is the sum of the source terms Ri evaluated at the instantaneous
positions of all particles on the surface:
N

rpb =

Ri ( r qi )

(3-3)

i=1

where is the Dirac delta function and N is the total number of particles. Equation 3-3
is the value of the accumulated variable in the limit as the mesh becomes arbitrarily fine,
producing infinitesimally narrow peaks at the particle positions and having a value of
zero everywhere else. A more numerically feasible approach is to compute the average
of the accumulated variable over every mesh element:
Nj

1
rpb j = ----Vj

Ri
i=1

where rpdj is the value of the accumulated variable in the jth boundary element, Vj is
the surface area or length of the element, and Nj is the total number of particles in
contact with the element.
If Particle-wall interactions is selected from the Accumulate over list, the time derivative
of the accumulated variable replaces the accumulated variable in the previous
equations:
d ( rpb j )
1
-------------------- = ----dt
Vj

Nj

Ri ( r q, t tw )
i=1

where tw is the time at which the ith particle interacts with the jth element. Thus the
value of the accumulated variable depends on the time history of particles that have
interacted with the boundary element, including particles that have been reflected by
the surface. As each particle propagates, it contributes to the value of the accumulated
variable at every surface it touches.

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105

BUIL T-IN GLOBAL VA RIABLES

By default, the boundary Accumulator defines the following global variables:

TABLE 3-2: BUILT-IN GLOBAL VARIABLES FOR BOUNDARY ACCUMULATORS
NAME

DESCRIPTION

<scope>.<name>_ave

Average of accumulated variable

<scope>.<name>_int

Integral of accumulated variable

<scope>.<name>_max

Maximum of accumulated variable

<scope>.<name>_min

Minimum of accumulated variable

<scope>.<name>_sum

Sum of accumulated variable over elements

Here, <scope> includes the physics interface name and the names the Accumulator
and parent feature. For example, the average of the accumulated variable over a
boundary may be called pt.wall1.bacc1.rpb_ave, where pt is the name of the
Mathematical Particle Tracing interface, wall1 is the name of the parent Wall node,
bacc1 is the name of the Accumulator node, and rpb is the accumulated variable
name. These variables are all available in the Add/Replace Expression menus during
results evaluation.
These global variables are computed by defining a set of component couplings on the
selection of the parent physics feature, such as the Wall feature to which the
Accumulators are added. The following expressions for the global variables are used.
TABLE 3-3: BUILT-IN GLOBAL VARIABLE DEFINITIONS FOR BOUNDARY ACCUMULATORS
NAME

EXPRESSION

<scope>.<name>_ave

<wscope>.aveop(<scope>.<name>)

<scope>.<name>_int

<wscope>.intop(<scope>.<name>)

<scope>.<name>_max

<wscope>.maxop(<scope>.<name>)

<scope>.<name>_min

<wscope>.minop(<scope>.<name>)

<scope>.<name>_sum

<wscope>.intop(<scope>.<name>/<scope>.meshVol)

Here, <wscope> is the scope of the parent boundary feature, e.g. pt.wall1.

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Charged Particle Tracing

This chapter describes the Charged Particle Tracing interface, which is found
under the AC/DC branch (

) when adding a physics interface.

In this chapter:
The Charged Particle Tracing Interface
Theory for the Charged Particle Tracing Interface
See The Electromagnetics Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual for other AC/DC interface and feature node settings.

107

The Charged Particle Tracing

Interface
The Charged Particle Tracing (cpt) interface (
), found under the AC/DC>Particle
) when adding a physics interface, is used to model charged particle
orbits under the influence of electromagnetic forces. In addition, it can also model
two-way coupling between the particles and fields. Some typical applications are
particle accelerators, vacuum tubes and ion implanters. The physics interface supports
time-domain modeling only in 2D and 3D.

Tracing branch (

The physics interface solves the equation of motion for charged particles. It is possible
to add forces to ions and electrons, including predefined electric, magnetic, and
collisional forces. Collisions can be modeled as a continuous force or using a Monte
Carlo model in which particles can undergo elastic or inelastic collisions with a rarefied
gas, including charge exchange and ionization reactions.
When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder: Wall and Particle Properties. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes

that implement, for example, boundary conditions and point conditions. You can also
right-click Charged Particle Tracing to select physics features from the context menu.
SETTINGS

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is cpt.
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

The Formulation, Wall accuracy order, and Arguments for random number generation
settings are the same as for The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface, except that
only the Newtonian, Newtonian, first order, and Massless formulations are available.
Select a Particle release specification: Specify release times (the default) or Specify
current. If Specify release times is selected, then each model particle is treated as the

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instantaneous position of one or more charged particles for the purpose of modeling
particle-field interactions. This means, for example, that if the Space Charge Density
Calculation node is used, the space charge density is only nonzero in mesh elements
that are currently occupied by particles.
If Specify current is selected, then for the purpose of modeling particle-field
interactions, each model particle traces a path that is followed by a number of charged
particles per unit time. This means that the charge density computed by the Space
Charge Density Calculation node is nonzero in all mesh elements that the particle
trajectories pass through, not just at the instantaneous positions of the particles.
The Specify current particle release specification is primarily used to model charged
particle beams in which the charge and current density do not change over time.
Changing the particle release specification affects some inputs in the settings windows
for release features such as the Release and Inlet nodes. In addition, the Surface Charge
Density node is only available with the Specify release times article release specification,
while the Current Density, Heat Source, and Etch nodes are only available with the
Specify current particle release specification.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Except for the option described below, these settings are the same as for The
Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface.
For 2D axisymmetric components an azimuthal particle velocity gives rise
to a force in the radial direction, the centrifugal force. The out-of-plane
velocity thus has an effect on the in-plane motion of the particles. In 2D
components it is still possible to compute the out-of-plane position and
velocity, but the effect on the in-plane trajectories is not as pronounced as
in the axisymmetric case.
Select the Include out-of-plane degrees of freedom check box to add
additional degrees of freedom for each particle for the out-of-plane
position and velocity.

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The extra degrees of freedom that are created by selecting the Include
out-of-plane degrees of freedom check box are considered auxiliary
dependent variables and are solved for using coupled first-order
differential equations. If, in addition, Newtonian is selected from the
Formulation list, then the resulting system of equations includes both firstand second-order equations.
Mixed first- and second-order equations systems are not supported for all
solver configurations. For example, it is not possible to use explicit time
stepping methods such as Dormand-Prince 5. To use explicit
time-stepping methods with out-of-plane degrees of freedom, consider
using the Newtonian, first order formulation instead.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES

The dependent variables (field variables) are the Particle position, Particle position
components, Particle velocity, and Particle velocity components. The degrees of freedom

for particle velocity are only used if Newtonian, first order is selected from the
Formulation list. The name can be changed but the names of fields and dependent
variables must be unique within a model.
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Charged Particle
Tracing Interface
Theory for the Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface
Theory for the Charged Particle Tracing Interface

With the AC/DC Module see Magnetic Lens: Application Library

path ACDC_Module/Particle_Tracing/magnetic_lens and Quadrupole Mass
Filter: Application Library path
ACDC_Module/Particle_Tracing/quadrupole_mass_filter.
With the Plasma Module see Ion Energy Distribution Function:
Application Library path
Plasma_Module/Inductively_Coupled_Plasmas/ion_energy_distribution_fu
nction.

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Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Charged Particle
Tracing Interface
The Charged Particle Tracing Interface has these domain, boundary, pair, and global
nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).
In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what
operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.
These nodes and subnodes are described in this section (listed in alphabetical order):
Attachment

Nonresonant Charge Exchange

Collisions

Nuclear Stopping

Current Density

Particle Beam

Elastic

Particle-Matter Interactions

Electric Force

Particle Properties

Etch

Reference Edge

Excitation

Reference Point

Friction Force

Resonant Charge Exchange

Heat Source

Space Charge Density Calculation

Ionization

Surface Charge Density

Ionization Loss

User Defined

Magnetic Force

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

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These nodes and subnodes are described for The Mathematical Particle Tracing
Interface (listed in alphabetical order):
Accumulator (Boundary)

Particle-Particle Interaction

Accumulator (Domain)

Release

Auxiliary Dependent Variable

Release from Data File

Force

Release from Edge

Inlet

Release from Grid

Nonlocal Accumulator

Release from Point

Outlet

Secondary Emission

Override Properties

Velocity Reinitialization

Particle Continuity

Wall (the default boundary

condition)

Particle Counter

Collisions
Use the Collisions node model the interaction between model particles and a rarefied
background gas using a Monte Carlo model. Particles have a random chance to be
deflected by gas molecules during each time step taken by the solver, based on the gas
density and collision cross-section. A variety of different built-in collisions are available,
each with predefined expressions for the post-collision velocity of the model particles.
By itself, the Collisions node does not cause any collisions to occur. It is necessary to
add one or more subnodes, which correspond to different collision types. The
following subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click the parent node)
or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu: Elastic, Excitation, Attachment,
Ionization, Resonant Charge Exchange, Nonresonant Charge Exchange, and User
Defined.
When the Collisions node and subnodes (the reaction set) are used,
collisions with a background gas occur randomly and the particle velocity
can change discontinuously over time. The friction model, a deterministic
force, can be accessed using a dedicated Friction Force node.

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FLUID PROPERTIES

Enter the Background number density Nd (SI unit: 1/m3). The default is
1 1020 1/m3.
Enter the Background gas molar mass Mg (SI unit: kg/mol). The default is
0.04 kg/mol.
Enter coordinates for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) based on space dimension. If
another physics interface is present which computes the velocity field then this can be
selected from the list.
To model the case of a stagnant background fluid, leave all the velocity
components as zero. If a nonzero velocity field is specified, the
background gas molecules will follow a drifting Maxwellian velocity
distribution.
Enter values or expressions for the Temperature T (SI unit: K) of the background gas.
The default is 293.15 K.
COLLISION STATISTICS

Select the Count all collisions check box to allocate an auxiliary dependent variable that
records the number of times each particle collides with the background gas. If the
Collisions node has multiple subnodes, the variable created by the Count all collisions
check box is updated for collisions caused by any of these subnodes. In addition, the
settings window for each collision type includes a Count collisions check box that can
be used to count the number of times a specific type of collision occurs.
N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. The settings are the same as described for the Wall node.
AFFECTED PARTICLES

Select an option from the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles:
All (the default), Single species, or Logical expression. The settings are described for the
Force node.

Collisional Force Theory

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Elastic
The Elastic subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Collisions
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
COLLISION FREQUENCY

Select an option from the Specify list: Cross section (the default) or Collision frequency.
For Collision frequency, enter a value or expression for the Collision frequency
(SI unit: Hz). The default is 2 106 Hz.
For Cross section enter a value or expression for the Collision cross section
(SI unit: m2). The default is 3 10-19 m.
For either choice:
Select the Number density specification From parent (the default) or User defined.
For User defined, enter a Background number density Nd (SI unit: 1/m3). The
default is1 1020 1/m3. If From parent is selected, the number density is inherited
from the Collisions node.
Select the Molar mass specification From parent (the default) or User defined. For
User defined, enter the Background gas molar mass Mg (SI unit: kg/mol). The default
is 0.04 kg/mol. If From parent is selected, the background gas molar mass is
inherited from the Collisions node.
If the molar mass of the background gas is similar to the molar mass of the
particles then the particles tend to form a Maxwellian velocity distribution
function very rapidly. If the mass of the particles is very different to that
of the background gas then the particles tend to have a non-Maxwellian
distribution function.
If the geometry is axisymmetric and Include out-of-plane degrees of freedom is selected
in the physics interface Advanced Settings section, enter a value or expression for the
Cutoff radial coordinate for out-of-plane momentum rc (SI unit: m). The default value
is 0. If a particle undergoes a collision while its radial coordinate is less than the
specified cutoff, the azimuthal component of its reinitialized velocity is set to zero. Use
this setting to prevent particles from being subjected to inordinately large centrifugal
forces if they may undergo collisions very close to the axis of symmetry.

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COLLISION STATISTICS

Select the Count collisions check box to count the number of times each particle collides
with the background gas. The collision counter is only incremented by this instance of
the Elastic node, not by any other collision type or by other Elastic nodes. To define a
variable that counts all types of collisions, select the Count all collisions check box in the
settings window for the parent Collisions node.
N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

This section is available if an Auxiliary Dependent Variable has been added to the
model. For each auxiliary dependent variable, select an option from the New value of
auxiliary dependent variable list: From parent (the default) or User defined. If From
parent is selected, the new value of the auxiliary dependent variable is reinitialized
according to the settings for the parent Collisions node.
If User defined is selected, select the Assign new value to auxiliary variable check box to
assign a new value to the auxiliary dependent variable when an elastic collision occurs.
Then enter the new value or expression in the field. For example, if there is an auxiliary
variable, psi, then enter a value for psinew in the field. So, to increment the value of
psi by 1 when a particle undergoes an elastic collision, enter psi+1 in the text field
for psinew.

Excitation
The Excitation subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Collisions
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Excitation subnode
causes particles to undergo inelastic collisions with the background gas.
COLLISION FREQUENCY

These settings are the same as for the Elastic subnode with the addition of entering a
value for the Energy loss E (SI unit: J). The default value is 0 eV. Typical values for
electron impact collisions are between 6 eV and 10 eV.
COLLISION STATISTICS

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

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Attachment
The Attachment subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Collisions
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Attachment subnode
causes particles to become attached to background gas particles, removing them from
the simulation. Optionally, the attached particle can then be released.
COLLISION FREQUENCY

These settings are the same as for the Elastic subnode with an additional option to
select the Release attached particle check box.
ION PROPERTIES

This section is available when the Release attached particle check box is selected. Select
an option from the Ion properties list when either a Particle Properties or Override
Properties node is added to the physics interface.
COLLISION STATISTICS

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

I NI TI AL VAL UE O F AUX I L IA R Y D EP E ND EN T VAR IA BL E S

This section is available when the Release attached particle check box is selected. For
each auxiliary dependent variable that is defined in the model, enter the initial value of
the auxiliary dependent variable for the attached particle. The default value is 0.

Ionization
The Ionization subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Collisions
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Ionization subnode
causes particles to ionize background gas molecules, releasing secondary electrons into
the simulation. Optionally, the ionized background gas molecule can also be released.
COLLISION FREQUENCY

These settings are the same as for the Elastic subnode with additional options to enter
a value for the Energy loss E (SI unit: J) and to select the Release ionized particle check
box. Typical energy loss values for electron impact collisions are between 12 eV and
24 eV.

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ELECTRON PROPERTIES

Select an option from the Electron properties list, which may be any Particle Properties
or Override Properties node that has been added to the physics interface.
ION PROPERTIES

This section is available when the Release ionized particle check box is selected. Select
an option from the Ion properties list when either a Particle Properties or Override
Properties node is added to the physics interface.
COLLISION STATISTICS

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

IN IT IA L VA LUE OF AUXILIAR Y DEPEN DENT VARIABLES

For each auxiliary dependent variable that is defined in the model, enter the initial
value of the auxiliary dependent variable for the electron and ionized particle that are
released as a result of the ionization reaction. The default value is 0.

Resonant Charge Exchange

The Resonant Charge Exchange subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the Collisions parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Resonant
Charge Exchange subnode causes particles to undergo charge exchange reactions with a
background gas. Resonant charge exchange occurs between atoms of the same element
or molecules of the same substance that differ in charge. The total internal energy of
the particles does not change as a result of the collision. The ionized particle,
neutralized particle, or both ionized and neutralized particles can be released.
COLLISION FREQUENCY

These settings are the same as for the Elastic subnode with additional options to enter
a value for the Scattering angle in the center of mass system (SI unit: rad) and to select
one of the following from the Species to release list Ion (the default), Neutral particle,
or Ion and neutral particle.
NEUTRAL PROPERTIES

This section is available when Neutral particle or Ion and neutral particle is selected from
the Species to release list. Select an option from the Neutral properties list, which may

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be any Particle Properties or Override Properties node that has been added to the
physics interface.
COLLISION STATISTICS

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

I NI TI AL VAL UE O F AUX I L IA R Y D EP E ND EN T VAR IA BL E S

This section is available when Neutral particle or Ion and neutral particle is selected from
the Species to release list. For each auxiliary dependent variable that is defined in the
model, enter the initial value of the auxiliary dependent variable for the released neutral
particle. The default value is 0.

Nonresonant Charge Exchange

The Nonresonant Charge Exchange subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the Collisions parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
The Nonresonant Charge Exchange subnode causes particles to undergo charge
exchange reactions with a background gas. Unlike the Resonant Charge Exchange
node, it is possible for the particle that undergoes the collision and the ionized and
neutralized particles that result from it to be three different species. The ionized
particle, neutralized particle, or both ionized and neutralized particles can be released.
COLLISION FREQUENCY

These settings are the same as for the Elastic subnode with additional options to enter
a value for the Energy loss E (SI unit: J), enter a value for the Scattering angle in the
center of mass system (SI unit: rad), and to select one of the following from the
Species to release list: Ion (the default), Neutral particle, or Ion and neutral particle.
NEUTRAL PROPERTIES

This section is available when Neutral particle or Ion and neutral particle is selected from
the Species to release list. Select an option from the Neutral properties list, which may
be any Particle Properties or Override Properties node that has been added to the
physics interface.

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ION PROPERTIES

This section is available when Ion or Ion and neutral particle is selected from the Species
to release list. Select an option from the Ion properties list, which may be any Particle

Properties or Override Properties node that has been added to the physics interface.
COLLISION STATISTICS

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

IN IT IA L VA LUE OF AUXILIAR Y DEPEN DENT VARIABLES

For each auxiliary dependent variable that is defined in the model, enter the initial
value of the auxiliary dependent variable for the released neutral particle. The default
value is 0.

User Defined
The User Defined subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Collisions
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The User Defined node
allows the post-collision particle velocity to be expressed with user-defined expressions.
COLLISION FREQUENCY

These settings are the same as for the Elastic subnode.

R E I N I T I A L I Z E D P A R T I C L E VE L O C I T Y

Enter values or expressions for the Reinitialized particle velocity vr (SI unit: m/s) based
on space dimension.
COLLISION STATISTICS

These settings are the same as for the Elastic subnode.

INCLUDE SECONDARY EMISSION

Select the Include secondary emission check box to release a secondary particle when the
collision occurs.
SECONDARY EMISSION CONDITION

This section is available when the Include secondary emission check box is selected.

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Select a Secondary emission condition: None (the default), Probability, or Expression. For
Probability enter the Probability (dimensionless) for secondary emission to occur. For
Expression enter an Evaluation expression e (dimensionless) that must be nonzero for
secondary emission to occur.
SECONDARY PARTICLES

This section is available when the Include secondary emission check box is selected.
In the Number of secondary particles field Ns, specify the number of secondary particles
to release per primary particle. The default value is 1.
Select an Initial velocity User defined (the default) or Constant speed, spherical.
Constant speed, spherical releases the secondary particles with a constant speed and
spherical distribution of velocity directions. Enter a Speed v0 (SI unit: m/s) with
which all secondary particles are released.
User Defined allows for an arbitrary velocity vector to be set for the secondary
particles. Enter values or expressions for the Initial particle velocity v0 (SI unit: m/s)
based on space dimension.
Select the Offset initial position check box to offset the positions of the secondary
particles before releasing them. Then select an Offset method Using initial velocity
(the default) or Isotropic sphere.
For Using initial velocity, enter a Time interval t (SI unit: s). The default is 0. Each
secondary particle is then displaced by the product of its initial velocity and this time
interval before being released.
For Isotropic sphere, enter a Particle displacement magnitude r (SI unit: m). The
default is 0. All secondary particles are then moved a distance equal to the
displacement magnitude before they are released. If the offset would cause
secondary particles to be placed outside of the modeling domain, they are instead
released at the location of the primary particle.
INHERIT PROPERTIES

This section is available if the Include secondary emission check box is selected. Select
an option from the Inherit Properties list. The Particle Properties node (default) is
always available. If any Override Properties nodes have been added to the model, they
can also be selected. Use this setting to determine what set of properties is given to the
secondary particles that are released by this feature.

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N EW VA L U E O F A U X I L I A R Y D E P E N D E N T VA R I A BL E S

These settings are described for the Elastic node.

IN IT IA L VA LUE OF AUXILIAR Y DEPEN DENT VARIABLES

For each auxiliary dependent variable that is defined in the model, enter the initial
value of the auxiliary dependent variable for the secondary particles that are released as
a result of the User Defined collision. The default value is 0.

Friction Force
Use the Friction Force node to model collisions between particles and a background gas
as a friction force that is proportional to the relative speed of the particles. Unlike the
collision types that are available with the Collisions node, the Friction Force is
deterministic and does not cause the particle velocity to change discontinuously over
time.
COLLISION FREQUENCY

Choose an option from the Specify list: Cross section and number density or Collision
frequency.

If Cross section and number density is selected, enter the following:

Collision cross section (SI unit: m2). The default is 3 10-19 m2.
Background number density Nd (SI unit: 1/m3). The default is 1 1020 1/m3.
If Collision frequency is selected, enter the Collision frequency (SI unit: 1/s). The
default value is 2 106 Hz.
FLUID PROPERTIES

Enter coordinates for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) based on space dimension.

To model the case of a stagnant background fluid, leave all the velocity
components as zero.

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AFFECTED PARTICLES

Select an option from the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles:
All (the default), Single species, or Logical expression. The settings are described for the
Force node.

Collisional Force Theory

Particle-Matter Interactions
Use the Particle-Matter Interactions node to model the propagation of energetic ions
through solid material. The Ionization Loss and Nuclear Stopping subnodes are
available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics
toolbar, Attributes menu. In order to model the interaction of particles with the target
material, at least one subnode must be added.
TARG E T MATE RIAL PRO P ER TIES

By default, the Refractive index, real part n (dimensionless) is taken From material. For
User defined enter another value or expression.
By default, the Density (SI unit: kg/m2) is taken From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.
Enter a value or expression for the Atomic mass A (SI unit: kg). The default value is
28.0855 amu. Then enter a value or expression for the Atomic number Zm
(dimensionless). The default value is 14.
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

Enter a value or expression for the Atomic number Zp (dimensionless). The default
value is 1. The particle atomic number is used to define screened Coulomb potentials
for the Nuclear Stopping node.
CUTOFF ENERGY

Select the Stop particles with energy below cutoff to cause particles to stop moving when
their energy is less than a specified value. This check box is selected by default. Then

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enter a value or expression for the Cutoff energy Ec (SI unit: J). The default value is
8.6 eV.
In general, the Stop particles with energy below cutoff check box should
always be selected if it is possible for ions in the material to approach
extremely low energies. With the built-in ionization loss and nuclear
scattering models, accurate data is not available for energies significantly
less than the default value, 8.6 eV.
AFFECTED PARTICLES

Use this section to determine which particles are subjected to the particle-matter
interaction. By default, all particles in the model are affected. The settings are
described for the Force node.

Ionization Loss
The Ionization Loss subnode is available from the context menu (right-click a
Particle-Matter Interactions parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Use this subnode to model the deceleration of ions by electrons in the target material.
The deceleration is treated as a continuous braking force that acts opposite the
direction of motion of the particles.
LOSS MECHANISM

Select an option from the Electronic Stopping Power list: Protons on silicon, Alpha
particles on silicon, or User defined. For Protons on silicon and Alpha particles on silicon

the force that opposes the particle motion is expressed as a function of the particle
kinetic energy based on empirical data tabulated in Ref. 1. For User defined enter a
value or expression for the stopping power Se (SI unit: m4/s2). The default value is
1 MeV-cm2/g.

Nuclear Stopping
The Nuclear Stopping subnode is available from the context menu (right-click a
Particle-Matter Interactions parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Use this subnode to model the deflection of ions by nuclei in the target material. The
deflection is modeled using a Monte Carlo model in which the particle velocity can
change discontinuously in any time step.

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LOSS MECHANISM

Select an option from the Screening function list: None (the default), Bohr, Moliere,
Lenz-Jensen, or Universal.
Enter a value or expression for the Cutoff scattering angle c (SI unit: rad). The default
is 0.1 deg.
COLLISION STATISTICS

Select the Count collisions check box to assign an auxiliary dependent variable for the
number of collisions with the target material that each particle undergoes. The name
of this collision counter is Nc preceded by the scope of the Nuclear Stopping node.

Particle-Matter Interaction Theory

Particle Beam
Use the Particle Beam node to release particles normal to a boundary with a uniform
or Gaussian distribution in phase space.
The Nonlocal Accumulator subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Depending on settings,
Reference Edge and Reference Point subnodes are also available.
RELEASE TIMES

This section is available if Specify release times is selected from the Particle release
specification list in the physics interface Particle Properties section. Enter Release times

) to select and define a range of specific times.

(SI unit: s) or click the Range button (
At each release time, particles are released with initial position and velocity as defined
next.
RELEASE CURRENT MAGNITUDE

This section is available if Specify current is selected from the Particle release
specification list in the physics interface Particle Properties section. Enter Release current
magnitude (SI unit: A). The default is 1[nA].
INITIAL PO SITION

Enter the Number of particles per release N (dimensionless). The default is 1000.

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Select a Beam position From coordinates (the default), Centroid of selection, or

Selected point. This option determines how the position of the center of the beam is
computed. For 2D axisymmetric components, an additional option is available Axis
of symmetry (the default).
For From coordinates enter the Beam center location rc (SI unit: m). When Selected
point is selected, the Reference Point subnode is available. It is then necessary to add
a Reference Point node to indicate the location of the center of the beam.
I N I T I A L TR A N S VE R S E VE L O C I T Y

The Equation section of the Particle Beam feature contains images indicating how the
phase space ellipses are constructed for the different settings available. To enable this,
use Show>Equation Sections in the Model Builder toolbar.
Select a Sampling from phase space ellipse: KV, Waterbag, Parabolic or Gaussian (the
default). The KV distribution places particles uniformly on the surface of a
hyper-ellipsoid in 4 dimensional phase space. In 3D, this results in a particle
distribution which is uniform in physical space, i.e. the distance between particles is
roughly the same. The Waterbag distribution places particles uniformly inside the
volume of a hyper-ellipsoid in 4 dimensional phase space. This results in a
distribution in physical space in which particles are placed preferentially towards the
center of the beam. The Parabolic distribution is similar to the Waterbag distribution,
but more particles are placed towards the center of the beam in physical space. The
Gaussian distribution fills the volume of a hyper-ellipsoid with a normal distribution
density profile in 4 dimensional phase space. Similar to the Waterbag and Parabolic
distributions, particles are preferentially placed closer to the center of the beam,
although in this case, some particles can be placed a significant distance from the
center
In 3D, select a Beam symmetry: Symmetric (the default) or Asymmetric. This allows
independent phase space ellipses to be constructed in the two transverse directions
and thus duplicates the number of user input options available below.
Select a Beam orientation: Upright (the default) or Not upright. Upright means that
the semimajor and semiminor axes of the phase space ellipses are parallel to the
phase space coordinate axis. For a beam that is not subjected to any forces, Upright
means that the beam is released at the location of the beam waist. Not upright allows
the phase space ellipse to be rotated about its centroid.
Select a Transverse velocity distribution specification: Specify emittance and Twiss
parameters (the default) or Specify phase space ellipse dimensions. Twiss parameters
are generally favored by accelerator physicists, as they provide a standard method of

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defining the geometric properties of the phase space ellipse. Specifying phase space
ellipse dimensions is often favored by spectrometer designers, as it allows the
dimensions of the phase space ellipse and rotation angle to be specified directly.
In some cases it is possible to specify the Brightness B (SI unit: A/m2) instead of
emittance. The default value is 1 mA/m2. The beam emittance is then computed
from the brightness and the specified Release current magnitude. It is possible to
enter a value or expression for the brightness of the beam if the following conditions
are met:
- The model component is 3D or 2D axisymmetric.
- Specify current is selected from the Particle release specification list in the physics
interface Particle Properties section.
- Symmetric is selected from the Beam symmetry list.
- Specify emittance and Twiss parameters is selected from the Transverse velocity
distribution specification list.
- Specify brightness is selected from the Emittance specification list, which is only
shown if the preceding conditions are met.
For 3D components, when the Beam symmetry is set to Asymmetric, select a
Transverse direction specification: User defined or Parallel to reference edge. This
option determines how the two transverse beam directions are specified. It is then
possible to enter beam properties for each transverse beam direction separately.
When Parallel to reference edge is selected, the Reference Edge subnode is available
and must be added.
Depending on the options selected above, it is possible to enter values for different
physical quantities which describe the phase space ellipse dimensions. These are
summarized below and in the following table:
The Twiss parameter beta (SI unit: m). The default value is 1 m. The product of
this and the emittance give an indication of the transverse size of the particle beam.
For a given value of the beam emittance, increasing causes the particle distribution
in transverse position space to be broadened and the distribution in transverse
velocity space to be tightened.
The 1-RMS beam emittance rms (SI unit: m). The default is 1 mm. The emittance is
a measure of the average spread of the particles in phase space. Qualitatively, a larger
emittance means that the area occupied by the distribution of particles in phase
space is larger.

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 The Brightness B (SI unit: A/m2). The default is 1 mA/m2. For symmetric beams
the brightness can used instead of specifying the emittance. This option is only
available when a certain combination of settings are applied, as explained in the
previous list.
The Twiss parameter alpha (SI unit: dimensionless). The default is 0. When this
value is non-zero, the phase space ellipse becomes rotated about the position
velocity axis. When Upright is selected from the Beam orientation list, =0.
The Maximum transverse displacement xm (SI unit: m). The default is 0.1 m.
Typically, this value should be the same as the initial beam radius.
The Maximum relative transverse velocity xm (SI unit: dimensionless). The default is
0.04. Larger values indicate that the particles will have higher velocities in the
transverse direction with respect to the longitudinal direction.
The Rotation angle (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad. This rotates the phase space
ellipse about the position velocity axis.
Two separate values for all of the above options can be entered in 3D when the Beam
symmetry is set to Asymmetric.

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TABLE 4-1: SUMMARY OF INITIAL TRANSVERSE VELOCITY OPTIONS

SAMPLING

ORIENTATION

TRANSVERSE
VELOCITY
SPECIFICATION

KV

Upright

Twiss

IMAGE

AVAILABLE
INPUT

, rms
, B

Waterbag

Upright

Twiss

, rms
, B

Parabolic

Upright

Twiss

, rms
, B

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TABLE 4-1: SUMMARY OF INITIAL TRANSVERSE VELOCITY OPTIONS

SAMPLING

ORIENTATION

TRANSVERSE
VELOCITY
SPECIFICATION

Gaussian

Upright

Twiss

IMAGE

AVAILABLE
INPUT

, rms
, B

KV

Not upright

Twiss

, rms,
, B,

Waterbag

Not upright

Twiss

, rms,
, B,

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TABLE 4-1: SUMMARY OF INITIAL TRANSVERSE VELOCITY OPTIONS

SAMPLING

ORIENTATION

TRANSVERSE
VELOCITY
SPECIFICATION

Parabolic

Not upright

Twiss

IMAGE

AVAILABLE
INPUT

, rms,
, B,

Gaussian

Not upright

Twiss

, rms,
, B,

KV

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Upright

Dimensions

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xm, xm

TABLE 4-1: SUMMARY OF INITIAL TRANSVERSE VELOCITY OPTIONS

SAMPLING

ORIENTATION

TRANSVERSE
VELOCITY
SPECIFICATION

IMAGE

AVAILABLE
INPUT

Waterbag

Upright

Dimensions

xm, xm

Parabolic

Upright

Dimensions

xm, xm

Gaussian

Upright

Dimensions

xm, xm

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TABLE 4-1: SUMMARY OF INITIAL TRANSVERSE VELOCITY OPTIONS

132 |

SAMPLING

ORIENTATION

TRANSVERSE
VELOCITY
SPECIFICATION

KV

Not upright

Dimensions

xm, xm,

Waterbag

Not upright

Dimensions

xm, xm,

C H A P T E R 4 : C H A R G E D P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G

IMAGE

AVAILABLE
INPUT

TABLE 4-1: SUMMARY OF INITIAL TRANSVERSE VELOCITY OPTIONS

SAMPLING

ORIENTATION

TRANSVERSE
VELOCITY
SPECIFICATION

IMAGE

AVAILABLE
INPUT

Parabolic

Not upright

Dimensions

xm, xm,

Gaussian

Not upright

Dimensions

xm, xm,

I N I T I A L L O N G I T U D I N A L VE L O C I T Y

Select a Longitudinal velocity specification: Specify kinetic energy (the default) or Specify
velocity. For Specify kinetic energy enter the Kinetic energy E (SI unit: J). The kinetic

energy is used to compute the initial longitudinal velocity component of the beam. The
default value is 1 eV. For Specify velocity enter the Velocity magnitude V (SI unit: m/s).
The default value is 1 m/s.
The options available to specify the initial velocity and energy of the particles depends
on whether the Longitudinal velocity specification is set to Specify kinetic energy or
Specify velocity. Select a Longitudinal velocity distribution: None (the default), Normal,
Uniform or List of values. The following options are available.
For None, enter either a Kinetic energy E (SI unit: J), default 1 eV or a Velocity
magnitude V (SI unit: m/s), default 1 m/s. This option releases one particle for each
initial position.

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 For Normal, enter either a Mean kinetic energy Em (SI unit: J), default 1 eV and a
Kinetic energy standard deviation (SI unit: J), default 0.1 eV, or a Mean velocity
magnitude Vm (SI unit: m/s), default 1 m/s and Velocity magnitude standard
deviation (SI unit: m/s), default 0.1 m/s. In both cases, also enter the Number of
velocity values. The default is 1, and this option determines the number of particles
released for each initial position, meaning this value multiplies the total number of
particles released. The longitudinal component of the velocity is sampled from a
normal distribution, meaning that roughly 68% of the particles will have an initial
velocity within one standard deviation, and 95% within two standard deviations.
For Uniform, enter either a Minimum kinetic energy Emin (SI unit: J), default 1 eV and
a Maximum kinetic energy Emax (SI unit: J), default 2 eV, or a Minimum velocity
magnitude Vmin (SI unit: m/s), default 1 m/s and Maximum velocity magnitude Vmax
(SI unit: m/s), default 2 m/s. In both cases, also enter the Number of velocity values.
The default is 1, and this option determines the number of particles released for each
initial position, meaning this value multiplies the total number of particles released.
The uniform distribution will always include the minimum and maximum velocity
or energy values if the Number of velocity values is greater than 1. If the Number of
velocity values is 1, the velocity magnitude is simply the mean of the minimum and
maximum values.
For List of values, enter either a list of Kinetic energy values (SI unit: J) or a list of
Velocity values (SI unit: m/s). The length of this list determines how many particles
are released per initial position.

Particle Beam Theory

Reference Point
The Reference Point subnode is available from the context menu (right-click a Particle
Beam parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. This subnode is
available and is required when Selected point is chosen from the Beam position list in
the Initial Position section.
The coordinates of the selected point determine the center of the released particle
beam. If multiple points are selected, the location of the center of the beam will be
determined by taking the average of the coordinates of all selected points.

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Reference Edge
The Reference Edge subnode is available from the context menu (right-click a 3D
Particle Beam parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. This subnode
is available and is required in 3D when Asymmetric is selected from the Beam symmetry
list and Parallel to reference edge is selected from the Transverse direction specification
list in the Initial Transverse Velocity section.
The first of the two transverse directions is parallel to the selected edge. If several edges
pointing in different directions are selected, the transverse direction is computed based
on the average tangential direction over the selection. The second transverse direction
is computed based on the cross product of the surface normal with the first transverse
direction.

Particle Properties
Use the Particle Properties node to specify the particle mass and charge number when
using the Newtonian or Newtonian, first order formulation. Specify the particle velocity
when using the Massless formulation.
PARTICLE MASS

This section displays when Newtonian or Newtonian, first order is selected as the
Formulation.
Enter a value or expression for the Particle mass mp (SI unit: kg). The default
expression is me_const, which is a predefined constant within COMSOL Multiphysics
for the electron mass, 9.109381881031 kg.
If the Relativistic correction check box is selected in the physics interface Advanced
Settings section, instead specify the Particle rest mass mr (SI unit: kg). The default
expression is me_const.
CHARGE NUMBER

This section displays when Newtonian or Newtonian, first order is selected as the
Formulation.
Enter a value for the Charge number Z (dimensionless). The default is 1 corresponding
to the charge number of an electron.
P A R T I C L E VE L O C I T Y

This section displays when Massless is selected as the Formulation.

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Enter a vector for the Particle velocity v (SI unit: m/s) based on space dimension. The
Massless formulation means that the particles follow streamlines of the particle velocity
expression.

Particle Properties Theory

Electric Force
The Electric Force node is also only available when Newtonian or
Newtonian, first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window
for The Charged Particle Tracing Interface.
Use the Electric Force node to define the electric part of the Lorentz force. The
particles are accelerated in the same orientation as the electric field. The force is
specified via an electric potential or the electric field. For cases where the field was
computed in the frequency domain, the force can be computed by multiplying the field
by the phase angle. Additionally, piecewise polynomial recovery can be used, which can
give a more accurate representation of the specified electric field.
ELECTRIC FORCE

Select an option from the Specify force using list Electric field (the default) or Electric
potential.

For Electric field enter values or expressions in the table for the Electric field E (SI
unit: V/m) based on space dimension. If the electric field is computed by another
physics interface then it can be selected from the list.
For Electric potential enter a value or expression for Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
If the electric potential is computed by another physics interface then it can be
selected from the list.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Select the Multiply force by phase angle check box in cases where the field is computed
in the frequency domain. Then set the Initial phase angle 0 (SI unit: rad). The default
value is 0 radians. When the particle trajectories are computed, the value of the field
used to compute the force is computed from the complex field via:

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E = real ( E exp ( j ( t + 0 ) ) )

where E is the electric field value used to compute the force, E is the complex-valued
electric field, and is the angular frequency. If the field is computed using a different
study type, such as a Stationary or Time Dependent study, this option has no effect.
Select the Use piecewise polynomial recovery on field check box to smooth the electric
field using piecewise polynomial recovery. This can give a much more accurate
representation of the electric field as it uses information on adjacent mesh elements to
reconstruct the field. If a coarse mesh is used to compute the field then this option can
be especially useful.
Use the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles. The available
settings are the same as for the Force node.

Electric Force Theory

Magnetic Force
The Magnetic Force node is only available when Newtonian or Newtonian,
first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window for The
Charged Particle Tracing Interface.
Use the Magnetic Force node to define the magnetic component of the Lorentz force.
This causes the particle to curve perpendicularly to the particle velocity and magnetic
field. A magnetic force alone does no work on the particles, so in the absence of any
other external forces, the particle retains its original energy. The force is specified via a
magnetic flux density.
MAGNETIC FORCE

Enter values or expressions in the table for the Magnetic flux density B (SI unit: T)
based on space dimension, or, if the magnetic flux is computed by another physics
interface, select another option from the list.

Computing a Force due to Earths Magnetic Field

Select Earths magnetic field from the Magnetic flux density list to use measurements of
the Earths magnetic field to compute the magnetic force. The external data is from

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the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF; Ref. 2). Select an option from
the Location specification list: From particle positions (default) or Geographic location.
Enter a value or expression for the Epoch E (dimensionless) to determine which
measurements are used to compute the Earths magnetic field. The default value is
2015. The IGRF data is tabulated in 5-year increments, and data from 1950 to 2015
is included for the Magnetic Force node.
If From particle positions is selected, the magnetic force is computed by treating the
particle coordinates as position vector components with respect to the center of the
Earth, such that the geographic North pole points in the positive z-direction and the
Prime Meridian intersects the positive x-axis.
If Geographic location is selected the magnetic field components are assigned constant
values based on the specified location. By default, the magnetic field is determined
based on the assumption that the positive x-axis points to the North, the positive y-axis
points to the West, and the positive z-axis points upward. Select an option from the
Location defined by list: City (the default) or Coordinates. If City is selected, choose one
of several major cities available in the City list. The default is Las Vegas, USA. If
Coordinates is selected, enter the Latitude and Longitude . Positive values indicate
latitude North of the equator and longitude East of the Prime Meridian, respectively.
The default values are 36,1N , 115,2W .
For the Latitude and Longitude it is important to indicate that the entered
quantities are in degrees, usually by including [deg] after the numeric
value. Otherwise, numeric values with no specified unit will be interpreted
in the default plane angle unit, which is typically the radian.
For both options in the Location defined by list, enter the Altitude h (SI unit: m). The
default is 0.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Select the Multiply force by phase angle check box in cases where the field is computed
in the frequency domain. Then set the Initial phase angle 0 (SI unit: rad). The default
value is 0 radians. When the particle trajectories are computed, the value of the field
used to compute the force is computed from the complex field via:

B = real ( B exp ( j ( t + 0 ) ) )

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where B is the magnetic flux density value used to compute the force, B is the
complex-valued magnetic flux density, and is the angular frequency. If the field is
computed using a different study type, such as a Stationary or Time Dependent study,
this option has no effect.
Select the Use piecewise polynomial recovery on field check box to smooth the magnetic
flux density using piecewise polynomial recovery. This can give a much more accurate
representation of the magnetic flux density as it uses information on adjacent mesh
elements to reconstruct the field. If a coarse mesh is used to compute the field then
this option can be especially useful.
Use the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles. The available
settings are the same as for the Force node.

Magnetic Force Theory

Space Charge Density Calculation

Use the Space Charge Density Calculation node if space charge effects are important.
This node defines a dependent variable for the space charge density in the selected
domains. Optionally, the current density can also be computed.
The Space Charge Density Calculation node computes space charge density
and current density in the same way as the Electric Particle Field
Interaction and Magnetic Particle Field Interaction Multiphysics nodes,
respectively, but does not automatically include the accumulated variables
as source terms when computing the fields. For modeling bidirectionally
coupled particle-field interactions, consider using The Particle Field
Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface or The Particle Field Interaction,
Relativistic Interface instead of the Space Charge Density Calculation node.
For more information about the calculation of the space charge density,
see Space Charge Density Calculation in the section Theory for the
Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface. For more
information about the calculation of current density, see Current Density
Calculation in the section Theory for the Magnetic Particle Field
Interaction, Relativistic Interface.

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SPACE CHARGE DENSITY CALCULATION

If Specify release times is selected from the Particle release specification list in the physics
interface Particle Properties section, enter a value or expression for the Charge
multiplication factor n (dimensionless). The Charge multiplication factor can be used to
represent each particle as a group of n particles that follow the same trajectory. This
means that the magnitude of the contribution to the space charge density by each
particle is multiplied by n. It is thus possible to model space charge effects without
allocating degrees of freedom for an overwhelming number of particles.
If Specify current is selected from the Particle release specification list in the
physics interface Particle Properties section, the Charge multiplication
factor n cannot be specified because the number of charged particles
represented by each model particle is instead controlled by the Release
current magnitude, which is specified in the settings for release features
such as theRelease and Inlet nodes.
Select the Compute current density check box to allocate additional degrees of freedom
for the components of the current density.
The following features are specific applications of the core functionality
used in the Accumulator (Boundary) subnode, described in The
Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface.

Surface Charge Density

When the Particle release specification is set to Specify release times, the Surface Charge
Density subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall, Axial
Symmetry, or Outlet parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The
Surface Charge Density subnode defines an accumulated variable on each boundary
element in the selection of the parent node that calculates the charge density of
deposited particles.

Surface Charge Density Theory

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Current Density
When the Particle release specification is set to Specify current, the Current Density
subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall, Axial Symmetry, or
Outlet parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Current Density
subnode uses accumulated variables on each boundary element in the selection of the
parent node to calculate the current density due to the impact of charged particles.
CURRENT DENSITY

Select a Type: Current density or Normal current density. For Current density
accumulated variables are defined for the components of the current density vector.
For Normal current density one accumulated variable is defined for the normal current
density in each boundary element.

Current Density Theory

Heat Source
When the Particle release specification is set to Specify current, the Heat Source subnode
is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall, Axial Symmetry, or Outlet
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Heat Source subnode
defines an accumulated variable on the selection of the parent node that calculates a
boundary heat source using the kinetic energy of the incident particles.

Heat Source Theory

Etch
When the Particle release specification is Specify current, the Etch subnode is available
from the context menu (right-click the Wall, Axial Symmetry, or Outlet parent node)
or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu, which computes the etch rate due to the
impact of particles.

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ETCH

Select an Angular dependence model: Argon on polysilicon or Expression. Argon on

polysilicon defines the dependence of the etch rate on the angle of incidence by using

an empirical model for the impact of argon ions on polysilicon. For Expression enter an
Angular dependence function Y (dimensionless). The default is 1.
Enter a Threshold energy Eth (SI unit: J). The default is 50[eV].
Enter a Slope of etch yield curve Y (SI unit: J). The default is 625[eV].
Enter a Plasma type: Collisionless (default) or Collisional. For Collisional enter a value or
expression for the Normal ion current density nJi (SI unit: A/m2). If the normal ion
current density is computed by another physics interface then it can be selected from
the list.
SURFACE PROPERTIES

The following settings are required if the Angular dependence model is set to Expression.
Enter the Molecular weight of surface material Ms (SI unit: kg/mol). The default is
0.028[kg/mol].

Enter the Mass density of surface (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is 2320[kg/m^3].

Etch Theory

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Theory for the Charged Particle

Tracing Interface
The Charged Particle Tracing Interface theory is described in this section:
Introduction to the Charged Particle Tracing Interface Theory
Particle Properties Theory
Electric Force Theory
Magnetic Force Theory
Collisional Force Theory

Introduction to the Charged Particle Tracing Interface Theory

Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic field is best understood by starting with
the Lagrangian for a charge in an electromagnetic field:
L = mp c

1 v v c + qA v qV

where mp is the particle mass, c is the speed of light, v is the particle velocity, q is the
particle charge, A is the magnetic vector potential, and V is the electric scalar potential.
The particle charge is:
q = Ze
where Z is the charge number and e is the elementary charge (SI unit: C). For low
velocities, after subtracting the rest energy, the Lagrangian becomes:
2

mp v
L = -------------- + qA v qV
2
The equations of motion are given by the Lagrange equation:
d L = L
q
d t v
where q is the particle position vector. The right-hand side of the Lagrange equation
is:

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143

L
= L = q ( ( A v ) V )
q
Using some elementary vector calculus, this can be rewritten as:
L
= q ( v )A + q ( v A ) q V
q
So, the Lagrange equation becomes:
d ( mv + qA ) = q ( v )A + q ( v A ) q V
dt

(4-1)

The second term on the left-hand side of Equation 4-1 represents the total differential
which can be expressed as:
d ( qA ) = q A + ( v )A
t

dt

(4-2)

Inserting Equation 4-2 into Equation 4-1 results in:

d ( mv ) = q A q V + q ( v A )
t
dt

(4-3)

Defining the electric field as:

E =

A
V
t

and the magnetic flux density as:

B = A
the equation of motion for a charged particle in an electromagnetic field can be written
as:
d ( mv ) = qE + q ( v B )
dt

(4-4)

The term on the right-hand side of Equation 4-4 is called the Lorentz force. In
addition to forces due to an electromagnetic field, the particles undergo collisions with
a background fluid. The elastic collisional damping force with a background gas is
either approximated using a friction factor or determined by a Monte Carlo model.
When a friction factor is used, the elastic collisional force acts as a continuous force on

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the particle, rather than changing the particle velocity direction when a collision event
occurs.

Particle Properties Theory

The Particle Properties feature adds the following equation contribution:
d ( mv )
= Ft
dt
where Ft is zero in the absence of any force features. Adding additional forces to the
model add contributions to Ft. You specify the particle mass m and particle charge q
in this feature.

Electric Force Theory

The Electric Force feature adds the following contribution to Ft:
F t = qE
When an electric potential is used to specify the electric field, the following is used:
E = V
When the electric field is computed in the frequency domain it is complex valued. The
field must be cast into a real value which depends on the angular frequency and the
simulation time:

E ( t ) = real ( E exp ( j ( t + 0 ) ) )

where E is the complex-valued electric field, is the angular frequency, 0 is the initial
phase angle, and t is time.

Magnetic Force Theory

The Magnetic Force feature adds the following contribution to Ft:
Ft = q ( v B )
When the magnetic flux density is computed in the frequency domain it is complex
valued. The field must be cast into a real value which depends on the angular frequency
and the simulation time:

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B ( t ) = real ( B exp ( j ( t + 0 ) ) )

where B is the complex-valued electric field, is the angular frequency, 0 is the initial
phase angle, and t is time.

Computing Earths Magnetic Field

It is possible to exert a magnetic force on particles based on the Earths magnetic field.
The data for Earths magnetic field is the International Geomagnetic Reference Field
(IGRF; Ref. 2) and is based on the Geomag 7.0 software. The IGRF data consists of
sets of Gauss coefficients that define a spherical harmonic expansion for the magnetic
scalar potential:
L

V ( r, , ) =

R
-----e-
r

l1

( g l cos ( m ) + h l sin ( m ) )P l cos ( )

l = 1 m = l

where r is the radial distance from Earths center, L is the maximum degree of the
expansion, is the East longitude, is the co-latitude (polar angle), Re is Earths
m
m
m
radius, g l and h l are Gauss coefficients, and P l cos ( ) are the Schmidt
normalized associated Legendre functions of degree l and order m.

Collisional Force Theory

It is possible to apply collisional forces that are deterministic or random. A
deterministic force based on a friction model can be applied using the Friction Force.
Random collisional forces can be applied using the Collisions node, which includes
several different forces for modeling the interaction of particles with a background gas.
FRICTION FORCE

The Friction Force feature adds the following contribution to Ft:

F t = m ( v u )

The limitations of this option are described in the Introduction to the

Charged Particle Tracing Interface Theory section.
where v is the particle velocity and u is the fluid velocity. The collision frequency, is
either specified directly, or via a collision cross section, and background number
density, Nd:

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 = Nd v
RANDOM COLLISIONAL FORCES

The Collisions node may cause the particle velocity to change during a time step of size
t taken by the solver, with a collision probability P defined as:
P = 1 exp ( t )
If P is greater than a random number between 0 and 1 then the particle velocity is
reinitialized. The collision frequency is the sum of the individual collision frequency
values j for each subnode of the Collisions node, which corresponds to a specific type
of collision:
N

j
j=1

where N is the total number of subnodes. If two or more subnodes are present and a
collision occurs, one of the collision types is chosen at random. The probability pj of a
specific collision type occurring is
j
p j = ---
The collision probability for each collision type is
j = Nd g
where g = v v g is the relative velocity in the center of mass reference.
The Collision cross section is defined for each subnode to the Collisions node. The
Background number density Nd can either be defined individually for each subnode or

inherited from the parent node.

For the purpose of computing the collision probability and post-collision particle
velocity, the background gas is assumed to follow a drifting Maxwellian velocity
distribution:
2

mg vg u
1
- exp ----------------------------f ( v g ) = ------------------------------------------32
2k B T
( 2k B T m g )

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where:
vg (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity of a gas molecule,
u (SI unit: m/s) is the average gas velocity,
mg (SI unit: kg) is the mass of a gas molecule,
T (SI unit: K) is the gas temperature, and
kB (SI unit: J/K) is the Boltzmann constant.
The mass mg can be expressed in terms of the molar mass Mg (SI unit: kg/mol):
Mg
m g = -------NA
where NA (SI unit: 1/mol) is the Avogadro constant. The molar mass can either be
defined individually for each subnode or inherited from the parent node.
Although all collision types use the same expression for the background gas velocity
distribution and the collision probability, they generally have different expressions for
the post-collision particle velocity. In addition, some collision types produce secondary
particles. The available collision types are described in the following sections.
ELASTIC

The Elastic collision force causes a particle to collide with a background gas molecule
in such a way that the total energy of the system is conserved. The post-collision
velocity of the particle is defined by the expression:
v' = v m g ( m p + m g ) ( g g )
where g = v vg is the relative velocity in the center of mass reference, mg is the
mass of the background gas atoms or molecules. The post-collision relative velocity g
is g = g R where R is a uniformly distributed random unit vector. No secondary
particles are produced.
EXCITATION

The Excitation collision force causes a particle to collide with a background gas
molecule in such a way that the total energy of the system is not conserved. The
post-collision velocity of the particle is defined by the expression:
v' = v m g ( m p + m g ) ( g g )
where g = g R and where

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g =

2E ( m p + m g )
g g --------------------------------------mp mg

where R is a uniformly distributed random unit vector, and E is the kinetic energy
lost as a result of the collision. No secondary particles are produced.
ATTACHMENT

The Attachment node causes the model particle to be annihilated, as in the Disappear
condition for the Wall node. Optionally, the attached species can be released as a
secondary particle that is initially at rest.
IONIZATION

The Ionization collision force causes a particle to collide with a background gas
molecule in such a way that the total energy of the system is not conserved. The
post-collision velocity of the particle is defined by the expression:
collision velocity of the particle is defined by the expression:
v' = v m g ( m p + m g ) ( g g )
where g = g R and where
g =

2E ( m p + m g )
g g --------------------------------------mp mg

where R is a uniformly distributed random unit vector, and E is the kinetic energy
lost as a result of the collision. No secondary particles are produced.
The background gas molecule is assumed to be ionized; that is, one model particle
collides with the background gas molecule and causes a secondary particle to be
released. For the results to be physical, this particle should inherit its properties from
a Particle Properties or Override Properties node that is appropriate for electrons.
It is also possible to release the ionized particle as a secondary particle. Both secondary
particles, the ion and the electron, are initially assumed to be at rest.
CHARGE EXCHANGE COLLISIONS

The Resonant Charge Exchange and Nonresonant Charge Exchange nodes are used
to model collisions in which charge is exchanged between a model particle and a
background gas particle. It is possible to compute the post-collision trajectories of

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either or both products of the charge exchange reaction. The post-collision velocity of
the ionized species v' and neutralized species v n' are defined by the expressions:
v' = v g + m g ( m p + m g ) ( g g )
v n' = v m g ( m p + m g ) ( g g )
where
g' = g cos ( ) + g || sin ( )
and is the scattering angle in the center of mass coordinate system. The vectors g ||
and g are defined by the expressions:
g'
g || = ------- g
g
g = g' ( e 1 cos ( ) + e 2 sin ( ) )
where is a uniformly distributed angle between 0 and 2. The unit vectors e 1 and
e 2 are defined so that they form an orthonormal basis with the normalized
pre-collision relative velocity g g .The post-collision relative velocity magnitude is
defined by the expression:
g =

2E ( m p + m g )
g g --------------------------------------mp mg

where E is the energy loss. During resonant charge exchange collisions the energy
loss is 0 and g' = g .

Particle-Matter Interaction Theory

The Particle-Matter Interactions node is used to model interaction of energetic ions
with solid material. The interaction of energetic ions with the target material is divided
into two main interaction types: ionization losses and nuclear stopping.
IONIZATION LOSS

The Ionization Loss node models the interaction of ions with the electrons in the
target material as a continuous braking force:
v
F = S e -----v

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where F (SI unit: N) is the force on the ion, Se (SI unit: m4/s2) is the electronic
stopping power, (SI unit: kg/m3) is the mass density of the target material, and v
(SI unit: m/s) is the ion velocity. Thus the force always acts opposite the direction of
particle motion. For built-in ionization loss models empirical data from Ref. 1 is used
to generate a 1D interpolation function, from which the stopping power is expressed
as a function of the particle kinetic energy.
NUCLEAR STOPPING

The Nuclear Stopping node models the interaction of ions with the nuclei in the target
material. Unlike ionization losses, which are treated as a force that is continuous as a
function of time, interactions with target nuclei are treated as distinct events that occur
instantaneously with a given probability during each time step. In addition, nuclear
interactions may change the direction of the ion velocity as well as its magnitude.
During each time step taken by the solver, a value of the scattering angle
(SI unit: rad) is computed for each particle using the expression

= 2

b
--------------------------------------------- d
2
2
() b
min 1 ------------ -----2

(4-5)

which is a dimensionless version of the expression for the scattering angle as given in
Ref. 3, in which b (dimensionless) is the reduced impact parameter and is the
dimensionless energy defined as
r
= ----aI
where r (SI unit: m) is the radial distance from the particle trajectory to the target
nucleus and aI (SI unit: m) is the screening length. The definition of the screening
length changes depending on the option selected from the Screening function list; see
Table 4-2 below.
The reduced energy (dimensionless) is defined by the expression
4 0
= --------------------2- a I E cm
Zp Zm e
Where Zp (dimensionless) is the atomic number of the propagating ions, Zm
(dimensionless) is the atomic number of the material, 0 (SI unit: F/m) is the

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151

permittivity of vacuum, e (SI unit: C) is the magnitude of the elementary charge, and
Ecm (SI unit: J) is the kinetic energy in the center-of-mass coordinate system. The
lower limit of integration min (dimensionless) is the largest positive root of the
equation
( min )
2
2
min + ---------------------- min + b = 0

The screening function () (dimensionless) changes depending on the option

selected from the Screening function list. The available options are tabulated below.
TABLE 4-2: SCREENING LENGTH AND SCREENING FUNCTION DEFINITIONS
SCREENING FUNCTION EXPRESSION ()

SCREENING
FUNCTION

SCREENING
LENGTH
EXPRESSION aI

None

0,8853a 0
-------------------------------0,23
0,23
Zp + Zm

Bohr

a0
-------------------------------0,23
0,23
Zp + Zm

exp ( )

Moliere

0,8853a 0
-----------------------------23
23
Zp + Zm

0,35 exp ( 0,3 ) + 5,5 exp ( 1,2 ) + 0,1 exp ( 6 )

Lenz-Jensen

0,8853a 0
-----------------------------23
23
Zp + Zm

0,7466 exp ( 1,038 ) + 0,2433 exp ( 0,3876 )

+ 0,01818 exp ( 0,206 )

Universal

0,8853a 0
-------------------------------0,23
0,23
Zp + Zm

0,1818 exp ( 3,2 ) + 0,5099 exp ( 0,9423 )

+ 0,2802 exp ( 0,4028 ) + 0,2817 exp ( 0,2016 )

Information on the various screening functions and supplemental references can be

found in Ref. 4.
The value of the impact parameter b is sampled from a Rayleigh probability
distribution using the expression
1 ln ( U )
b = ----- ------------------a I LN
where U is a dimensionless random number sampled with uniform probability from
the interval (0,1), L is the distance traveled by the particle during the time step, and N
is the number density of particles in the target material. Thus it is clear that if very small

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time steps are taken by the solver, the value of b is typically quite large. This in turn
means that the scattering angle is very close to 0, so most collisions tend not to have
a large effect on the particle trajectory. If the computed value of is less than the
specified Cutoff scattering angle c, then the collision is deemed insignificant and the
particle velocity is not reinitialized during that time step.
If the collision is considered significant, that is if c , then in addition to being
deflected by the scattering angle, the reinitialized particle trajectory is also rotated by
an azimuthal angle that is sampled at random from the interval [0,2]. A fraction of
the particle energy is also lost to the surroundings; the kinetic energy E of the particle
decreases by the recoil energy T, defined by the expression
4m 1 m 2

T = -----------------------------2- E sin ---

2
( m1 + m2 )
where m1 and m2 are the ion mass and the atomic mass of the target material.
To avoid the computational cost of evaluating the integral in Equation 4-5 at every
time step for every particle, the value of this integral is tabulated for a range of values
of b and , then imported into models as a set of 2D interpolation functions. Thus,
there is a finite range of values in which the nuclear stopping data is computed
accurately, corresponding to the interval defined by the inequalities
5 log ( ) 15
25 log ( b ) 10
outside of this range, the value of the scattering angle is computed by extrapolation
and may be less accurate compared to values that are computed within this range.

Particle Beam Theory

The Particle Beam feature can be used to release nonlaminar particle beams with
specified emittance values. The classification of a particle beam as laminar or
nonlaminar depends on the distribution of transverse position and velocity within the
beam. Further discussion of laminar and nonlaminar beams can be found in Ref. 5.
A beam is laminar if there is a one-to-one relationship between transverse position and
velocity. The volume occupied by the beam particles in phase space is essentially zero.
In addition, the transverse velocity of particles in a laminar beam must be linearly
proportional to the distance from the axis of beam symmetry; otherwise it is possible
for particles with unequal transverse velocity components to cross at a later point.

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153

If the beam is nonlaminar, it is possible for the trajectories of particles with different
transverse position and velocity components to intersect. Often, such beams occupy
nonzero areas in phase space. The area a beam occupies in phase space is related to a
quantity known as the emittance that can be defined in several different ways.
The particle beam is released normal to a surface and includes several options for
specifying the transverse velocity distribution of beam particles.
DEFINITIONS OF BEAM PROPERTIES

If at least one Particle Beam node is present, additional global variables are defined for
certain beam properties. Quantities that indicate the distribution of transverse beam
position and velocity are defined in a coordinate system that is centered at the average
position of beam particles, qav. In 2D, the transverse direction is orthogonal to the
average particle velocity vav; in 3D, the two transverse directions are orthogonal to vav
and to each other.
Let the transverse displacement from the beam center be denoted x, and the transverse
velocity be expressed using the dimensionless variable x' , which is the ratio of
transverse velocity to axial velocity. For 3D, the following discussion can be extended
to consider two distinct transverse displacement components in orthogonal directions,
called for example x1 and x2.
The area of the phase space ellipse is indicated by the beam emittance. In general,
beams may exhibit a gradual fall-off in particle number density, so that it is not always
possible to define a sharp boundary where the phase space distribution begins and
ends. Instead of being treated as the area of a clearly defined geometric entity, the
phase space ellipse can be defined in a statistical sense. The 1-rms emittance 1,rms is
defined as:
1, rms =

x 2 ( x' ) 2 xx' 2

Where the brackets represent an arithmetic mean over all particles. In addition, the
4-rms emittance 4,rms is frequently reported because it corresponds to the area of an
ellipse if the distribution of particles in phase space is uniform:
4, rms = 4 1, rms
In addition to the size of the phase space ellipse, several characteristics of its shape can
be described using the Twiss parameters , , and , defined as:

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 xx'
= ---------------- 1, rms
x 2
= ---------------- 1, rms
( x' ) 2
= ---------------- 1, rms
In 3D, it is also possible to define the hyperemittance:
h = 1 2
Depending on the way in which the hyperemittance is defined, either the 1-rms or
4-rms emittance may be used.
RELEASING PARTICLE BEAMS

The Particle Beam node includes built-in options for releasing distributions of particles
in velocity space by sampling from uniform or Gaussian distributions in each transverse
velocity direction. These distributions can be upright if the initial value of the Twiss
parameter is set to 0. In this case, for the elliptical distributions of particles in phase
space, the semimajor and semiminor axes of the ellipse are initially parallel to the x- and
x' -axes. The initial values of the Twiss parameters must fulfill the Courant-Snyder
condition,
2

= 1
Thus, out of the three Twiss parameters, it is only necessary to specify and .
Given the initial value of the Twiss parameter , the 1-rms beam emittance and the
Twiss parameter , the initial distribution of particles in phase space depends on the
option selected from the Sampling from phase space ellipse list.

Sampling from Phase Space

The initial particle positions and velocities can be generated by sampling from the
following function, as described in Ref. 6:
2
x 2
ax' a'x 2
y 2
by' b'y 2
A = --- + --------------------- + --- + ---------------------
a
x
b
y

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where a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axis of the ellipse in physical space,
a' and b' are the envelope angles which are related to the Twiss parameters according
to:
a = 2 x ,

a' = 2 ----x-,

b = 2 y

b' = 2 ----y- .

The amplitude of A2 can be resolved into two components:

2

A = Ax + Ay
where:

2
x 2
ax' a'x 2
A x = --- + ---------------------
a
x
2

2
y
by' b'y 2
A y = --- + --------------------- .
b
y

Algorithm for generating initial positions and velocities

As described in Ref. 6, start by defining 2 uniformly-distributed random numbers
u A [ 0, 1 ] and u [ 0, 1 ] , then define:
A x = A u ,

A y = A 1 u

with the definition of A depends on the type of distribution and follows later. Now
define two additional uniformly-distributed random numbers x [ 0, 1 ] and
y [ 0, 1 ] then the relative initial positions are the particles are given by:
x = aA x cos ( 2 x ),

y = bA y cos ( 2 y )

and the relative initial transverse velocities by:

4 x
x' = A x a' cos ( 2 x ) -------- sin ( 2 x )

a
4 y
y' = A y b' cos ( 2 y ) -------- sin ( 2 y )
b

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z' =

1 x' y' .

The definition of A changes depending on the requested distribution:

TABLE 4-3: DEFINITION OF VARIABLE A FOR DIFFERENT DISTRIBUTION TYPES
KV

WATERBAG

A = 1
A =

PARABOLIC

3
--- u A
2

A =

2
1 2 cos ----------------
3

= acos ( 1 2u A )

The Gaussian distribution is generated in a more straightforward way. Let

g x, g y, g x', g y' be normally distributed random numbers with zero mean and standard
deviation one. The beam position and velocity can be defined as:
a
x = --- g x,
2

b
y = --- g y
2

and
4 x
a'
x' = ---- x + -------- g x',
2a
a

4 y
b'
y' = ---- y + -------- g y',
2b
b

z' =

1 x' y' .

Once the relative initial positions and velocities are generated, they are converted to
global coordinates using the following:
r = r c + xt 1 + yt 2
v = x'Vt 1 + y'Vt 2 + z'Vn
where rc is the beam centroid, t1 and t2 are the two tangent vectors on the surface, n
is the surface normal and V is the velocity magnitude.
When the Beam symmetry is Symmetric, the same initial values of the Twiss parameter
, Twiss parameter and beam emittance are applied to each of the two transverse
directions. When the Beam symmetry is Asymmetric, distinct values of these parameters
can be assigned to each transverse direction.
When the Particle release specification property is Specify current, the Beam symmetry is
Symmetric, the Transverse velocity distribution specification is Specify emittance and Twiss

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157

parameters and the Emittance specification is Specify brightness, the Brightness is entered
instead of the emittance. In this case, the 1-rms emittance is computed from the
Brightness and the Release current magnitude using

rms =

I
---- .
B

Converting from Phase Space Ellipse Dimensions to Twiss Parameters

When the Transverse velocity distribution specification is set to Specify phase space ellipse
dimensions, the Twiss parameters are computed from the Maximum transverse
displacement, xm, the Maximum relative transverse velocity, xm and the Rotation angle,
using the following
xm
= -------x' m
and
x m x' m
rms = ---------------- .
4
The Twiss parameter is computed by first defining a rotation matrix

M =

cos sin = m 11 m 12
sin cos
m 21 m 22

then defining the semimajor and semiminor axis using

xm
x m, 1 = -------------------------- rms
2
2
x m + x' m
x' m
x' m, 1 = -------------------------- rms
2
2
x m + x' m
which results in
x' m, 1
x m, 1
= ------------- m 12 m 22 ------------- m 11 m 21 .
x m, 1
x' m, 1

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Surface Charge Density Theory

The Surface Charge Density feature adds an accumulated variable to the boundary
elements in the selection of its parent node. The variable defined on one of these
boundary elements is incremented by the charge of each particle that hits it, divided
by the surface area of the element,
1
i = -----Ai

eZ

where i is the surface charge density in boundary element i, Ai is the area of the
boundary element, e is the magnitude of the elementary charge, Z is the charge
number, and the sum is taken over all particles that hit the boundary element.

Current Density Theory

The Current Density feature adds one or more accumulated variables to each
boundary element in the selection of its parent node.
If the Type is set to Normal current density, the normal current density in each boundary
element is
1
J n, i = -----Ai

frel eZ cos

where Jn,i is the normal current density in boundary element i, Ai is the area of the
boundary element, e is the magnitude of the elementary charge, Z is the charge
number, is the acute angle of incidence measured from the surface normal, frel is the
effective frequency of release, and the sum is taken over all particles that hit the
boundary element. A particles effective frequency of release is determined by the
current of the particles release feature and the total number of particles released by the
feature,
I
( f rel ) = ---------------i
N tf eZ
If the Type is set to Current density, the components of the current density vector Js,i
are then calculated in each boundary element:
1
J s, i = -----Ai

frel eZ ---V-

where v/V is a unit vector in the same direction as the velocity of the incident particle.

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159

Heat Source Theory

The Heat Source feature adds an accumulated variable to the boundary elements in
the selection of its parent node. This accumulated variable represents a boundary heat
source equal to the kinetic energy lost by incident particles per unit time, divided by
the surface area of the boundary element:
1
Q i = -----Ai

frel E

where Qi is the heat source per unit area in boundary element i, Ai is the surface area
of the element, frel is the effective frequency of release of the incident particle, E is the
particle kinetic energy, and the sum is taken over all particles that hit the boundary
element.

Etch Theory
The Etch feature uses accumulated variables to calculate the etch rate due to physical
sputtering by energetic particles on a surface. The dependence of the sputtering yield
on the energy of particles and their angle of incidence has been described by Yin and
Sawin (Ref. 7) and by Guo and Sawin (Ref. 8).
If the Plasma type is Collisionless, a single accumulated variable is defined on each
boundary element in the selection of the parent node. The etch rate (SI unit: m/s) is
defined as
Ms
E E, i = -----------------N A A i

frel Y ( )

E th
E
---- -------Y
Y

where Ms is the molar mass of the surface material, is the density of the surface
material, NA is Avogadros constant, Ai is the surface area of the boundary element,
frel is the effective frequency of release, Y is a function that indicates the dependence
of the etch rate on the angle of incidence , E is the particle kinetic energy, Eth is the
threshold energy, and Y is the slope of the etch yield curve. The sum is taken over all
particles that hit the boundary element.
If the Plasma type is Collisional, the effective frequency of release is no longer a reliable
indicator of the incident charged particle current. Instead, incident particles in each
boundary element are assigned a weighting factor i (SI unit: 1/(m2s)), defined as

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n Ji
i = --------------------------eZ sin

where the numerator is the normal current of charged particles at the surface. The etch
rate is then defined as
i Ms
E E, i = ------------N A

Y ( )

E th
E
---- -------Y
Y

A typical angular dependence function is given by Guo and Sawin (Ref. 8) as

Y ( ) = 141,3 ( cos ) 2 + 641,1 ( cos ) 5 1111,3 ( cos ) 4
+ 944,6 ( cos ) 3 422,0 ( cos ) 2 + 95,31 ( cos ) 5,460
where the angle of incidence is measured from the surface normal. This angular
dependence function is appropriate for physical sputtering of polysilicon by argon ions.

References for the Charged Particle Tracing Interface

1. NIST Stopping-Power and Range Tables for Electrons, Protons, and Helium Ions,
http://www.nist.gov/pml/data/star/index.cfm.
2. International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF),
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/IAGA/vmod/igrf.html.
3. L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz, Mechanics, 3rd ed., Elsevier, 1976.
4. J. F. Ziegler, J. P. Biersack, and M. D. Ziegler, The Stopping and Range of Ions and
Matter, SRIM, 2015.
5. S. Humphries, Charged Particle Beams, Dover, 2013.
6. S. M. Lund, T. Kikuchi, R. C. Davidson, Generation of initial Vlasov distributions
for simulation of charged particle beams with high space-charge intensity, Physical
Review Special Topics--Accelerators and Beams, 2007.
7. Y. Yin and H.H. Sawin, Surface Roughening of Silicon, Thermal Silicon Dioxide,
and Low-k Dielectric Coral Films in Argon Plasma, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, vol. 26,
no. 1, pp. 151160, 2008.
8. W. Guo and H.H. Sawin, Modeling of the Angular Dependence of Plasma
Etching, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 13261336, 2009.

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Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow

This chapter describes the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interface found under
the Fluid Flow branch (

) when adding a physics interface.

In this chapter:
The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface
Theory for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface
See The Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for other Fluid Flow interface and feature node settings.

163

T he P a r ti c le Trac i n g for Fl u i d Fl ow
Interface
The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow (ftp) interface (
), found under the Fluid
Flow>Particle Tracing branch (
) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute
the motion of particles in a background fluid. Particle motion can be driven by drag,
gravity, and electric, magnetic, and acoustophoretic forces. User-defined forces can be
added. It is also possible to compute the particle mass and temperature as well as
particle-fluid interactions.
When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
BuilderWall and Particle Properties. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes

that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also
right-click Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow to select physics features from the context
menu.
SETTINGS

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is fpt.
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

The Formulation, Wall accuracy order, and Arguments for random number generation
settings are the same as for The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface, except that
only the Newtonian, Newtonian, first order, and Massless formulations are available.
Select a Particle release specification: Specify release times (the default) or Specify mass
flow rate. If specify release times is selected, then each model particle is treated as the
instantaneous position of one or more particles for the purpose of modeling
fluid-particle interactions. This means, for example, that if the Volume Force
Calculation node is used, the volume force on the fluid is only nonzero in mesh
elements that are currently occupied by particles.

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If Specify mass flow rate is selected, then for the purpose of modeling fluid-particle
interactions, each model particle traces a path that is followed by a number of particles
per unit time. This means that the volume force computed by the Volume Force
Calculation node is nonzero in all mesh elements that the particle trajectories pass
through, not just at the instantaneous positions of the particles.
The Specify mass flow rate option is primarily used to model streams of particles under
steady-state conditions. Changing the particle release specification affects some inputs
in the settings windows for release features such as the Release and Inlet nodes. In
addition, the Mass Deposition subnode to the Wall node is only available with the
Specify release times option, while the Boundary Load and Mass Flux subnodes are
only available when Specify mass flow rate is selected.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Select the Compute particle temperature check box to compute particle temperatures
(the default is to not compute particle temperatures). When this option is activated the
temperature of the particle is computed by solving an additional ordinary differential
equation per particle. Thermal properties for the particles can be specified in the
Settings window for the Particle Properties node.
Selecting this check box also enables you to add Heat Source, Convective
Heat Losses and Radiative Heat Losses nodes, which are available from
the context menu (right-click the parent node, then view the Thermal list)
or from the Physics toolbar, Domains menu.
Select the Compute particle mass check box to compute particle masses (the default is
to not compute particle masses). When this option is activated an additional equation
for the particle mass is computed by solving an additional ordinary differential
equation per particle. The accretion rate of each particle can be specified in the Settings
window for the Particle Properties node.
The Compute particle mass check box must be selected in order to use the
Droplet Breakup and Nozzle features, which are available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node). The Droplet Breakup feature
is also accessible from the Physics toolbar, Domains menu. The Nozzle
feature is accessible from the Physics toolbar, Points and Global menus.

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Some fluid-particle systems contain such a large number of particles or droplets that
modeling each entity individually is not feasible. In such cases, it is often convenient to
introduce the concept of a macroparticle, or a single model particle that can represent
a larger number of real particles.
Select the Enable macroparticles check box to allocate an auxiliary dependent variable
for a dimensionless multiplication factor, allowing the number of real particles
represented by each model particle to be stored.
The Enable macroparticles check box must be selected in order to use the
Nozzle feature, which is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Points and Global menus.
The Enable macroparticles check box is only available if Specify release
times is selected from the Particle release specification list.
Select the Include rarefaction effects check box to apply correction factors to the forces
defined by the Drag Force and Thermophoretic Force nodes. These correction factors
improve the accuracy of the drag and thermophoretic forces when the particle
Knudsen number is significantly large. This can be used to model the motion of
particles in a rarefied gas flow.
By default the Store particle status data, Store particle release statistics,
and Store extra time steps for wall interactions check boxes are not
selected. For details, see Store Particle Status Data, Store Particle
Release Statistics, and Store Extra Time Steps for Wall Interactions
described for The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface.
By default the Maximum number of secondary particles is 10000. For
details, see Maximum Number of Secondary Particles described for
The Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface.
For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components the Include out-of-plane
degrees of freedom check box is also available and described for The
Charged Particle Tracing Interface under Advanced Settings.

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Several advanced settings, such as Include out-of-plane degrees of freedom,

Compute particle mass, and Compute particle temperature, cause auxiliary
dependent variables to be allocated for the particles. These auxiliary
dependent variables are solved for by defining first-order differential
equations. If, in addition, Newtonian is selected from the Formulation list,
then the resulting system of equations includes both first- and
second-order equations.
Mixed first- and second-order equations systems are not supported for all
solver configurations. For example, it is not possible to use explicit time
stepping methods such as Dormand-Prince 5. To use explicit
time-stepping methods with auxiliary dependent variables, consider using
the Newtonian, first order formulation instead.
DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variables (field variables) are the Particle position, Particle position
components, Particle velocity, Particle velocity components, Particle temperature, Particle
mass, and Number multiplication factor. Note that not every dependent variable is
needed for every combination of physics interface settings; for example, the Particle
velocity and Particle velocity components are only used if Newtonian, first order is
selected from the Formulation list. The names can be changed but the names of fields
and dependent variables must be unique within a model.
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Particle Tracing for
Fluid Flow Interface
Theory for the Mathematical Particle Tracing Interface
Newtonian Formulation and Massless Formulation
Theory for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface

Particle Trajectories in a Laminar Static Mixer: Application Library

path Particle_Tracing_Module/Fluid_Flow/laminar_mixer_particle
With the CFD Module see Particle Tracing in a Micromixer:
Application Library path
CFD_Module/Particle_Tracing/micromixer_particle_tracing.
With the Acoustics Module see Acoustic Levitator: Application
Library path Acoustics_Module/Nonlinear_Acoustics/acoustic_levitator.

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Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Particle Tracing
for Fluid Flow Interface
The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface has these domain, boundary, pair, and
global nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users). The context menu includes dedicated menus for Forces and Thermal features.
In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what
operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

For a theoretical background to the forces, see Theory for the Particle
Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
These nodes and subnodes are described in this section (listed in alphabetical order):
Acoustophoretic Force

Magnetic Force

Boundary Load

Magnetophoretic Force

Brownian Force

Mass Deposition

Convective Heat Losses

Mass Flux

Dielectrophoretic Force

Nozzle

Drag Force

Particle Properties

Droplet Breakup

Radiative Heat Losses

Electric Force

Shell

Erosion

Thermophoretic Force

Gravity Force

Volume Force Calculation

Heat Source

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These nodes and subnodes are described for The Mathematical Particle Tracing
Interface (listed in alphabetical order):
Accumulator (Boundary)

Particle Counter

Accumulator (Domain)

Particle-Particle Interaction

Auxiliary Dependent Variable

Release

Axial Symmetry

Release from Data File

Force

Release from Edge

Inlet

Release from Grid

Nonlocal Accumulator

Release from Point

Outlet

Secondary Emission

Override Properties

Velocity Reinitialization

Particle Continuity

Wall (the default boundary

condition)

Particle Properties
Use the Particle Properties node to specify the particle properties, charge number, and
particle velocity based on whether a Newtonian formulation or Massless formulation
is selected.
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

This section displays when Newtonian or Newtonian, first order is selected as the
Formulation for the physics interface. If the Compute particle mass check box is cleared,
select the Particle property specification: Specify particle density and diameter (the
default), Specify particle mass and density, or Specify particle mass and diameter. Then
enter the applicable values or expressions for the following:
Particle density p (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is 2200 kg/m3.
Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m). The default is 1E-6 m.
Particle mass mp (SI unit kg). The default is 1E-6 kg.
If the Compute particle mass check box is selected, enter a value or expression for the
Particle density.

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Select an option from the Particle type listSolid particles (the default) or Liquid
droplets/bubbles. If Liquid droplets/bubbles is selected, enter values or expressions for

the following:
Particle dynamic viscosity p (SI unit: Pas) the default is 1[mPa*s].
Particle surface tension p (SI unit: N/m). The default is 0.0729[N/m].
CHARGE NUMBER

Enter a value or expression for the Charge number Z (dimensionless). The default is 0.
P A R T I C L E VE L O C I T Y

This section is shown when Massless is selected as the Formulation for the physics
interface. Enter a vector for the Particle velocity v (SI unit: m/s) based on space
dimension. The Massless formulation means that the particles follow streamlines of the
particle velocity expression.
THERMAL PROPERTIES

This section is shown when the Compute particle temperature check box is selected in
the physics interface Advanced Settings section. Enter a value or expression for the
Particle specific heat capacity Cp (SI unit: J/(kg K)). The default value is
2200[J/(kg*K)]. Then enter a value or expression for the Particle latent heat hp
(SI unit: J/kg). The default value is 42000[J/kg].
ACCRETION RATE

This section is shown when the Compute particle mass check box is selected. Enter a
value for the Accretion rate R (SI unit: kg/s). The Accretion rate is the time derivative
of the particle mass.

Drag Force
The Drag Force node is only available when Newtonian or Newtonian, first
order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window for The
Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
Use the Drag Force node to select a drag law, specify the velocity field, enter material
properties, and optionally apply random perturbations to account for particle motion
in a turbulent flow.

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DRAG FORCE

Select a Drag law: Stokes (the default), Schiller-Naumann, Haider-Levenspiel, Oseen

correction, Hadamard-Rybczinski, or Standard drag correlations.
Stokes drag and Oseen correction are applicable for particles that have a

relative Reynolds number much less than one. Either should be a good
enough approximation in most cases. If the particle Reynolds number is
greater than one, then select Schiller-Naumann. If, in addition, the particles
are non-spherical, select Haider-Levenspiel. If the particles are very pure gas
bubbles or liquid droplets, select Hadamard-Rybczinski. The Standard drag
correlations are a set of piecewise-continuous functions that are applicable
over a wide range of relative Reynolds numbers.
For all choices, enter coordinates for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) based on
space dimension. If another physics interface is present which computes the velocity
field then this can be selected from the list.
For all choices, the Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) is taken From material. For User
defined enter another value or expression.
If Schiller-Naumann, Haider-Levenspiel, Oseen correction, Hadamard-Rybczinski, or
Standard drag correlations is selected as the Drag law, or if the Include rarefaction
effects check box is selected, the fluid Density (SI unit: kg/m2) is taken From
material. For User defined enter another value or expression.
For Haider-Levenspiel enter a value or expression for the particle Sphericity Sp
(dimensionless). The default is 1.
For Hadamard-Rybczinski enter a value or expression for the Particle dynamic viscosity
p (SI unit: Pas). The default value is 1.8e-5[Pa*s].
Particle Motion in a Fluid in Theory for the Particle Tracing for Fluid
Flow Interface.
RAREFACTION EFFECTS

This section is only available if Include rarefaction effects is selected. It defines a

correction factor that is multiplied by the drag force to account for a large particle
Knudsen numbers.

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Select an option from the Rarefaction effects list: Basset, Epstein, Phillips,
Cunningham-Millikan-Davies (the default), or User defined.
The Basset model is appropriate for relative Knudsen numbers much less
than one, while the Epstein model is appropriate for free molecular flows.
The Phillips model is usable at intermediate values of the relative Knudsen
number and shares the same asymptotic behavior as the Epstein and Basset
numbers at very large and small Knudsen numbers, respectively. The
Cunningham-Millikan-Davies model includes three tunable parameters that
can be used to fit the drag force correction factor to empirical data.
Select an option from the Mean free path calculation listIdeal gas, hard sphere collisions
(the default) or User defined correction. For User defined correction enter a Mean free
path correction / (dimensionless). The default value is 1.
If Basset, Epstein, or Phillips is selected from the Rarefaction effects list, enter an
Accommodation coefficient R (dimensionless). The default value is 1. The
accommodation coefficient may be interpreted as the fraction of gas molecules that
undergo diffuse reflection at the particle surface.
If Cunningham-Millikan-Davies is selected from the Rarefaction effects list, enter the
three dimensionless coefficients C1, C2, and C3. The default values are 2.514, 0.8,
and 0.55, respectively.
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). If a physics interface is
present that computes the pressure, it can be selected directly from the list.

Drag Force Correction Factors in Theory for the Particle Tracing for
Fluid Flow Interface.
TU R B U L E N T D I S P E R S I O N

If particles are moving in a turbulent flow, this section can be used to apply random
perturbations to the drag force to account for the turbulence.
Select an option from the Turbulent dispersion model listNone (the default), Discrete
random walk, Discrete random walk, variable time step, or Continuous random walk.
If None is selected, no turbulent dispersion term is applied.

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 If Discrete random walk is selected, a random term is added to the background fluid
velocity when computing the drag force at every time step taken by the solver. The
random perturbation is regenerated at every time step.
If Discrete random walk, variable time step is selected, a random term is added to the
background fluid velocity when computing the drag force at every time step taken
by the solver. Unlike Discrete random walk, the random perturbation term is only
regenerated at time intervals greater than or equal to the eddy lifetime of the flow.
Usually, this improves the statistical convergence of the particle distribution as the
time step size is made arbitrarily small.
If Continuous random walk is selected, a random perturbation is applied to each
particle by integrating a Langevin equation. Unlike Discrete random walk, the
perturbation of the background velocity that is applied to each particle depends on
the time history of all previously applied perturbations.
If Discrete random walk, Discrete random walk, variable time step, or Continuous random
walk is selected, enter a value or expression for the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit:

m2/s2), which determines the magnitude of the turbulent dispersion term. If a physics
interface is present that computes the turbulent kinetic energy, it can be selected
directly from the list.
If Discrete random walk, variable time step or Continuous random walk is selected, enter
a value or expression for the Turbulent dissipation rate (SI unit: m2/s3), which is
related to the lifetime of eddy currents in the flow and thus determines how frequently
the random perturbation term is sampled. If a physics interface is present that
computes the turbulent dissipation rate, it can be selected directly from the list. Then
enter a value or expression for the Lagrangian time scale coefficient CL (dimensionless).
The default value is 0.2.

Particle Motion in a Turbulent Flow in Theory for the Particle Tracing

for Fluid Flow Interface.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Use the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles. The available
settings are the same as for the Force node.
If any option except None is selected from the Turbulent dispersion model list, the Drag
Force feature creates random numbers. If, in addition, the Arguments for random
number generation setting is User defined, enter the Additional input argument to random
number generator. The default value is 1.

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Brownian Motion: Application Library path

Particle_Tracing_Module/Tutorials/brownian_motion

Brownian Force
The Brownian Force node is only available when Newtonian or Newtonian,
first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window for The
Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
Use the Brownian Force node to account for diffusion of suspended particles in a fluid
according to Einsteins theory. When using this feature, a random force is applied on
each particle at each time step. This often forces the solver to take very small time steps
because the default relative and absolute tolerances solver settings are quite strict (105
and 106, respectively).
In order to make the model solve efficiently, it might be necessary to relax
these tolerances. The solver needs to take enough time steps so that the
random force is applied enough times to be meaningful, but not so many
time steps that the model takes a very long time to solve. As a general rule
of thumb, it is usually best to relax both the tolerances to 103 and then
perform a convergence study on the tolerances.
BROWNIAN FORCE

To define a Brownian force, there are two physical properties that you need to define
as inputs for the force expression: the fluid temperature and dynamic viscosity.
Enter a value or expression for the fluid Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is
293.15 K. If another physics interface that computes the fluid temperature is present
in the model, then this can be selected from the list as a model input.
Enter a value or expression for the Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas). If a physics
interface is present that computes the dynamic viscosity it can be selected directly from
the list, or the value or expression can come from the selected material.

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ADVANCED SETTINGS

Use the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles. The available
settings are the same as for the Force node.
The random number generator used in COMSOL Multiphysics uses seeding so that
the same results are obtained every time the model is solved. When adding forces that
are random in nature, this is not always desirable. When the Arguments for random
number generation setting is User defined, you can use the Additional input argument to
random number generator field in conjunction with a Parametric Sweep to perform a
Monte Carlo simulation. For example, use the following steps:
1 From the Home toolbar click Parameters (
Global Definitions (

). Or in the Model Builder, right-click

) and select Parameters.

2 Add a parameter with Name, for example, ds and set the Expression to 1.
3 In the Brownian Force feature, set the Additional input argument to random number
generator to ds.
4 Add a Parametric Sweep to the current Study and set the Parameter name to ds.
5 Set the Parameter values to be an array whose length is equal to the number of times

the model should be solved. For example, to solve the model 5 times, set the
Parameter values to 1 2 3 4 5.

About Parameters, Variables, and Expressions and Parametric Sweep in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
Additional Forces in the theory section.

Brownian Motion: Application Library path

Particle_Tracing_Module/Tutorials/brownian_motion

Gravity Force
The Gravity Force node is only available when Newtonian or Newtonian,
first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window for The

Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.

Use the Gravity Force node to define the gravity vector and density. The gravity force
causes particles with a suitably high mass and density to move in the same direction as

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the orientation of the gravity vector. For submicron particles, the drag and other
external forces can dominate and gravity can have little effect on the particle
trajectories.
GRAVITY FORCE

Enter coordinates based on space dimension for the Gravity vector g

(SI unit: m/s2).The default magnitude for the gravity vector is g_const, which is a
built-in physical constant corresponding to the standard acceleration due to gravity on
Earth. The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) is taken From material, from a physics
The default direction for the gravity vector is in the y-direction for 2D
components.

The default direction for the gravity vector is in the z-direction for 3D and
2D axisymmetric components.

interface that defines or computes the density, or select User defined to enter another
value or expression.
AFFECTED PARTICLES

Use the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles. The available
settings are the same as for the Force node.

Particle Motion in a Fluid in the theory section.

Acoustophoretic Force
The Acoustophoretic Force node is only available when Newtonian or
Newtonian, first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window
for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
Use the Acoustophoretic Force node to add forces on small particles due to acoustic
radiation. This force only adds equation contributions if the acoustic pressure was

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computed from a Frequency Domain Study type. This is because the magnitude of the
acoustophoretic force depends on the angular frequency.
ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES

Enter a value or expression for the following:

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). This should be computed from another physics interface
using a Frequency Domain study type.
Speed of sound c (SI unit: m/s) of the surrounding fluid. This can either be taken
From material or User defined, in which case the default is 343 m/s.
Density (SI unit: kg/m3) of the surrounding fluid. This can either be taken From
material or User defined, in which case the default is 1 kg/m3.
ACOUSTOPHORETIC FORCE

Select an option from the Specify listParticle bulk modulus (the default), Particle
compressibility, or Compressional speed of sound. Then, if required change the defaults
and enter a value or expression the available fields as follows:
Particle bulk modulus Kp (SI unit: Pa). The default is 2.2 GPa (2.2109).
Particle compressibility p (SI unit: 1/Pa). The default is 1/(2.2109) 1/Pa.
Compressional speed of sound cp (SI unit: m/s). The default is 3000 m/s.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Select the Use piecewise polynomial recovery on field check box to smooth the radiation
pressure using piecewise polynomial recovery. This can give a much more accurate
representation of the radiation pressure because it uses information on adjacent mesh
elements to reconstruct the field. If a coarse mesh is used to compute the field then
this option can be especially useful.
Studies and Solvers and Frequency Domain in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual
Additional Forces in the theory section.

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Electric Force
The Electric Force node is only available when Newtonian or Newtonian,
first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window for The
Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
Use the Electric Force node to add an electric force to the particles. The force is
specified via an electric potential or the electric field. For cases where the field was
computed in the frequency domain, the force can be computed by multiplying the field
by the phase angle. Additionally, piecewise polynomial recovery can be used which can
give a more accurate representation of the specified electric field.
The settings for this feature node are the same as for the Electric Force node described
for The Charged Particle Tracing Interface.

Additional Forces in the theory section.

Magnetic Force
The Magnetic Force node is only available when Newtonian or Newtonian,
first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window for The
Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
Use the Magnetic Force node to add a magnetic force to the particles. A magnetic force
alone does no work on the particles, so in the absence of any other external forces, the
particle retains its original energy. The force is specified via a magnetic flux density.
The settings for this feature node are the same as for the Magnetic Force node
described for The Charged Particle Tracing Interface.

Additional Forces in the theory section.

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Dielectrophoretic Force
The Dielectrophoretic Force node is only available when Newtonian or
Newtonian, first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window
for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
Use the Dielectrophoretic Force node to add a dielectrophoretic force to the particles.
The force is specified via an electric potential or the electric field. The force has a
different meaning depending on whether the source electric field is computed in a
Stationary or Frequency Domain study.
Additionally, piecewise polynomial recovery can be used which can give a more
accurate representation of the specified electric field. The influence of the
dielectrophoretic force on the particles depends on the difference in permittivity
between the particles and the fluid. When the particle relative permittivity is greater
than the relative permittivity of the fluid, the particles are attracted to regions where
the absolute electric field is strong. When the particle relative permittivity is less than
the relative permittivity of the fluid, the particles are attracted to regions where the
absolute electric field is weak. The Shell subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
DIELECTROPHORETIC FORCE

Select an option from the Specify force using listElectric field (the default) or Electric
potential.
For Electric field enter values or expressions in the table for the Electric field E (SI
unit: V/m) based on space dimension. If the electric field is computed by another
physics interface then it can be selected from the list.
For Electric potential enter a value or expression for Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
If the electric potential is computed by another physics interface then it can be
selected from the list.
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

Enter a value or expression for the Particle relative permittivity r,p (dimensionless).
The default value is 1. The value must be greater than or equal to one. Then enter a
value or expression for the Particle electrical conductivity p (SI unit: S/m). The
default value is 0.

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FLUID PROPERTIES

By default the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) is taken From material. Select

User defined from the list to enter a value or expression.
By default the Electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m) is taken From material. Select
User defined from the list to enter a value or expression.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Select the Use piecewise polynomial recovery on field check box to smooth the electric
field using piecewise polynomial recovery. This can give a much more accurate
representation of the electric field as it uses information on adjacent mesh elements to
reconstruct the field. If a coarse mesh is used to compute the field then this option can
be especially useful.
Select an option from the Angular frequency listFrom solution or User defined. For
From solution the Clausius-Mossotti factor is computed using the angular frequency of
the electric field computed in a previous study step. For User defined enter the Angular
frequency (SI unit: rad/s). The default value is 0.
Use the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles. The available
settings are the same as for the Force node.
Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
Additional Forces in the theory section.

Shell
The Shell subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Dielectrophoretic Force parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Add Shell subnodes to a Dielectrophoretic Force node to compute an equivalent
Clausius-Mossotti factor using the electrical properties of the interior of the particle
and one or more thin layers on its surface.

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SHELL PROPERTIES

Enter the Shell thickness ts (SI unit: m). The default is 1 10-7 m. Enter a value for
the Shell relative permittivity r,s (dimensionless). The default is 1. Enter a Shell
electrical conductivity s (SI unit: S/m). The default is 1 S/m.

Dielectrophoretic Force in the theory section.

Magnetophoretic Force
The Magnetophoretic Force node is only available when Newtonian or
Newtonian, first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window
for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
Use the Magnetophoretic Force node to include forces on particles due to a difference
in permeability between the particles and background fluid. The force is specified via
a magnetic field and the permeability of the particle and the fluid.
Additionally, piecewise polynomial recovery can be used, which can give a more
accurate representation of the specified magnetic field.
MAGNETOPHORETIC FORCE

Enter a value or expression for the Magnetic field H (SI unit: A/m) based on space
dimension, or if the field is computed by another physics interface then it can be
selected from the list.
The magnetophoretic force is a function of the spatial derivatives of the
magnetic field components. For formulations based on the magnetic
scalar potential A, these derivatives of H may not be available. See
Additional Forces in the theory section for more details.
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

Enter a value or expression for the Particle relative permeability r,p (dimensionless).
The value must be greater than or equal to one.

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FLUID PROPERTIES

Enter a value or expression for the Fluid relative permeability r,f (dimensionless). The
value must be greater than or equal to one.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Select the Use piecewise polynomial recovery on field check box to smooth the magnetic
field using piecewise polynomial recovery. This can give a much more accurate
representation of the magnetic field as it uses information on adjacent mesh elements
to reconstruct the field. If a coarse mesh is used to compute the field then this option
can be especially useful.
Use the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles. The available
settings are the same as for the Force node.

Additional Forces in the theory section.

Thermophoretic Force
The Thermophoretic Force node is only available when Newtonian or
Newtonian, first order is selected as the Formulation on the Settings window
for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
Use the Thermophoretic Force node to include forces on particles due to a temperature
gradient in the background fluid. The force is specified via the background
temperature and other properties of the fluid.
Additionally, piecewise polynomial recovery can be used which can give a more
accurate representation of the specified temperature.
THERMOPHORETIC FORCE

If the Include rarefaction effects check box is selected in the Advanced Settings section
of the settings window for the physics interface, select a Thermophoretic force model
Epstein, Waldmann, Talbot (the default), or Linearized BGK. Use these settings to
improve the accuracy of the thermophoretic force calculation in fluids with high
Knudsen numbers. When the Include rarefaction effects check box is cleared, the fluid
is treated as a continuum and only the Epstein model is used.

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Enter a value or expression for the Temperature T (SI unit: K), or if the temperature is
computed by another physics it can be selected from the list. The default is 293.15 K.
The following fluid parameters all take default values From material or can be
computed from another physics interface. Or select User defined to enter a value or
expression for the:
Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas). The default is 2E-5 Pas.
Density (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is 1 kg/m3.
Thermal Conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)). For User defined select Isotropic,
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and then enter values in the field or matrix.
Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)). The default is 1000.
If the Waldmann, Talbot, or Linearized BGK model is used, enter the Background gas
molar mass Mg (SI unit: kg/mol). The default is 0.04[kg/mol].

If the Waldmann, Talbot, or Linearized BGK model is used, select an option from the
Mean free path calculation list: Ideal gas, hard sphere collisions or User-defined correction.
For User-defined correction enter a Mean free path correction / by which the mean
free path differs from the value for hard spheres in an ideal gas.
If the Linearized BGK model is used, enter an Energy accommodation coefficient E
(dimensionless) and a Momentum accommodation coefficient M (dimensionless). The
default values are 1.
PARTICLE PROPERTIES

Enter a value or expression for the:

Particle thermal conductivity kp (SI unit: W/(mK)). The default is 1 W/(mK).
Thermophoretic correction factor Cs (dimensionless). The default is 1.17.
If the Talbot model is used, enter two additional dimensionless thermophoretic
correction factors Cm and Ct. The default values are 1.146 and 2.2, respectively.
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Select the Use piecewise polynomial recovery on field check box to smooth the
temperature using piecewise polynomial recovery. This can give a much more accurate
representation of the temperature as it uses information on adjacent mesh elements to
reconstruct the field. If a coarse mesh is used to compute the field then this option can
be especially useful.

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Use the Particles to affect list to apply the force to specific particles. The available
settings are the same as for the Force node.

Additional Forces in the theory section.

Erosion
The Erosion subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Use it to calculate the rate of
erosive wear or the total mass removed due to the impact of particles on a boundary.
When the Particle release specification is Specify release times, the Erosion node
calculates the total mass lost per unit area.
When the Particle release specification is Specify mass flow rate, the Erosion node
calculates the rate of erosive wear.
EROSION MODEL

Select an Erosion modelExpression, Finnie (default), E/CRC, Oka, or DNV. Then enter the
following settings:

Expression
If the Particle release specification is set to Specify release times, enter the Mass removed
by particle mi (SI unit: kg). The default is 1e-15 kg.
If the Particle release specification is set to Specify mass flow rate, enter the Erosive wear
of particle EM,i (SI unit: kg/s). The default is 1e-15 kg/s.

Finnie
Fraction of particles cutting in an idealized manner ci (dimensionless). The default is
0.1.
Ratio of normal and tangential forces K (dimensionless). The default is 2.
Surface hardness HV (SI unit: N/m). The default is 2e9 Pa.
Mass density of surface (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is 7.5e3[kg/m^3].

E/CRC
E/CRC model coefficient C (dimensionless).
Brinell hardness of surface material BH (dimensionless). The default is 200.

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 Particle shape coefficient Fs (dimensionless). The default is 0.2.

E/CRC model exponent n (dimensionless). The default is 2.41.

Oka
Oka model coefficient K (SI unit: m3/kg). The default is 65[mm^3/kg].
Reference diameter dref (SI unit: m). The default is 326[um].
Reference velocity vref (SI unit: m/s). The default is 104[m/s].
Each of the following dimensionless Oka model coefficient:
- k1 (default is -0.12) and k2 (default is 0.19).
- q1 default is 0.14) and q2 (default is -0.94).
- s1 (default is 0.71) and s2 (default is 2.4).
Surface hardness HV (SI unit: N/m^2). The default is 2e9[N/m^2].
Mass density of surface (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is 7.5e3[kg/m^3].

DNV
DNV model coefficient K (dimensionless). The default is 2e-9.
DNV mode exponent n (dimensionless). The default is 2.6.
If the Particle release specification is Specify release times, enter a Number multiplication
factor nn (dimensionless). The default is 1. The mass removed per unit area is
multiplied by this factor, which represents the number or particles corresponding to
each model particle.

Mass Deposition
When the Particle release specification is Specify release times, the Mass Deposition
subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall, Outlet, or Axial
Symmetry parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Mass
Deposition subnode uses an accumulated variable on each boundary element in the
selection of the parent node to calculate the mass of particles deposited on the surface,
expressed in mass per unit area.

Boundary Load
When the Particle release specification is Specify mass flow rate, the Boundary Load
subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall, Outlet, or Axial
Symmetry parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Boundary

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Load subnode uses accumulated variables on each boundary element in the selection of
the parent node to calculate the force due to the impact of particles.
BOUNDARY LOAD

Select a Type: Pressure or Force per unit area. For Force per unit area accumulated
variables are defined for components of the boundary load vector. For Pressure one
accumulated variable is defined for the normal force per unit area in each boundary
element.

Mass Flux
When the Particle release specification is Specify mass flow rate, the Mass Flux subnode
is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall, Outlet, or Axial Symmetry
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Mass Flux subnode uses
accumulated variables on each boundary element in the selection of the parent node
to calculate the mass flux of particles at a boundary.
MASS FLUX

Select a Type: Mass flux or Normal mass flux. For Mass flux accumulated variables are
defined for components of the mass flux vector. For Normal mass flux one accumulated
variable is defined for the normal mass flux in each boundary element.

Volume Force Calculation

Use the Volume Force Calculation node if the particles exert a significant force on the
surrounding fluid. This node defines dependent variables for the components of the
volume force; the net volume force is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the total drag force on the particles.

To compute the volume force exerted by the particles on the fluid, at least
one Drag Force node must be present.

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The Volume Force Calculation node computes the volume force in the same
way as the Fluid-Particle Interaction Multiphysics node but does not
automatically include the accumulated variables as source terms when
computing the fluid velocity and pressure. For modeling bidirectionally
coupled fluid-particle interactions, consider using The Fluid-Particle
Interaction Interface instead of the Volume Force Calculation node.
For more information about the calculation of the volume force, see
Volume Force Calculation in the section Theory for the Fluid-Particle
Interaction Interface.
VO L U M E F O R C E C A L C U L A T I O N

This section is available if Specify release times is selected from the Particle release
specification list in the physics interface Particle Properties section. Select an option

from the Force multiplication factor specification listFrom physics (the default) or User
defined.

If From physics is selected and the Enable macroparticles check box is cleared in the
physics interface Advanced settings section, the multiplication factor is 1.
If From physics is selected and the Enable macroparticles check box is selected in the
physics interface Advanced settings section, the multiplication factor is based on the
auxiliary dependent variable for the multiplication factor, which is typically specified
in release feature settings. If the physics interface has name fpt, this variable has
name fpt.nn.
If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Force multiplication
factor n (dimensionless). The default is 1.
The Force multiplication factor can be used to represent each particle as a group of n
particles that follow the same trajectory. This means that the magnitude of the
contribution to the volume force by each particle is multiplied by n.
If Specify mass flow rate is selected from the Particle release specification
list in the physics interface Particle Properties section, the Force
multiplication factor n cannot be specified because the number of particles
represented by each model particle is instead controlled by the Mass flow
rate, which is specified in the settings for release features such as
theRelease and Inlet nodes.

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Convective Heat Losses

The Convective Heat Losses node is available when the Compute particle temperature
check box is selected under Advanced Settings for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
Interface. Use the Convective Heat Losses node to model the heating or cooling of a
particle due to convective heat exchange with the surrounding fluid.
CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSSES

Enter a Heat transfer coefficient h (SI unit: W/(m2K)). Enter a value or expression for
the Temperature, T (SI unit: K), or if the temperature is computed by another physics
it can be selected from the list. The default is 293.15 K.

Radiative Heat Losses

The Radiative Heat Losses node is available when the Compute particle temperature
check box is selected under Advanced Settings for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
Interface. Use the Radiative Heat Losses node to model the heating or cooling of a
particle due to radiative heat exchange with its surroundings according to the
Stefan-Boltzmann law for diffuse gray surfaces.
RADIATIVE HEAT LOSSES

Enter a Particle emissivity p (dimensionless). Enter a value or expression for the

Temperature, T (SI unit: K), or if the temperature is computed by another physics it
can be selected from the list. The default is 293.15 K.

Heat Source
The Heat Source node is available when the Compute particle temperature check box is
selected under Advanced Settings for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface. Use
the Heat Source node to apply a source term that affects the particle temperature.
HEAT SOURCE

Enter a Heat source, Q (SI unit: W). The default is 0.

Droplet Breakup
Use the Droplet Breakup node to model the breakup of liquid droplets or parcels of
droplets.

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To use the Droplet Breakup feature, the following prerequisites must be met:
Newtonian or Newtonian, first order must be selected from the Formulation list in the
physics interface Particle Properties section.
The Compute particle mass check box must be selected in the physics interface
Advanced Settings section.
Liquid droplets/bubbles must be selected from the Particle type list in the settings
window for either the Particle Properties node or at least one instance of the
Override Properties feature.
The Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup Model and Rayleigh-Taylor Breakup Model subnodes
are available from the context menu (right-click the Droplet Breakup parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Only a single instance of each feature can be
created. The Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup Model is created by default.
To model droplet breakup, unreleased secondary particles must be
available. To ensure that all child droplets are released properly, a
sufficiently large value must be specified for the Maximum number of
secondary particles in the physics interface Advanced Settings section.

Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup Model

Use the Kelvin-Helmholtz breakup model to account for the effect of Kelvin-Helmholtz
instability on the breakup of liquid droplets.
Enter a value or expression for the Kelvin-Helmholtz model coefficient BKH
(dimensionless). The default value is 10.
Enter coordinates for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) based on space dimension. If
another physics interface is present which computes the velocity field then this can be
selected from the list.
The Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) is taken From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.
If the Enable macroparticles check box is selected in the physics interface Advanced
Settings section, enter a value or expression for the Maximum number of particles
released per breakup Nmax (dimensionless). This prevents an inordinate amount of
child droplets from being released. If more child droplets than the maximum specified
number would be released, then the multiplication factor of each particle is adjusted
to compensate for the limited number of model particles.

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Rayleigh-Taylor Breakup Model

Use the Rayleigh-Taylor breakup model to account for the effect of Rayleigh-Taylor
instability on the breakup of liquid droplets.
Specify the Rayleigh-Taylor coefficient CRT (dimensionless). The default value is 5.
If the Enable macroparticles check box is selected in the physics interface Advanced
Settings section, enter a value or expression for the Maximum number of particles
released per breakup Nmax (dimensionless). This prevents an inordinate amount of
child droplets from being released. If more child droplets than the maximum specified
number would be released, then the multiplication factor of each particle is adjusted
to compensate for the limited number of model particles.

Droplet Breakup Theory

Nozzle
Use the Nozzle feature to release a spray of liquid droplets.
To use the Nozzle feature, the following prerequisites must be met:
Newtonian or Newtonian, first order must be selected from the Formulation list in the
physics interface Particle Properties section.
Specify release times must be selected from the Particle release specification list in the
physics interface Particle Properties section.
The Compute particle mass and Enable macroparticles check boxes must be selected
in the physics interface Advanced Settings section.
Liquid droplets/bubbles must be selected from the Particle type list in the settings
window for either the Particle Properties node or at least one instance of the
Override Properties feature.
The Nozzle feature is supported on two geometric entity levels. If it is added as a global
feature (similar to the Release from Grid feature), the initial position of the injected
droplets can be specified by entering a list of coordinates. If it is added as a 0D feature
(similar to the Release from Point feature), the initial positions of the injected droplets
correspond to the selected points in the geometry.

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RELEASE TIMES

Enter values for the Release times (SI unit: s). The default expression is 0 1[ms]. At
least two release times must be specified, and the release times must increase
monotonically. This is because the time intervals between successive release times are
used to assign appropriate number multiplication factors to the released particles so
that the mass flow rate is constant in a finite time interval.
I N I T I A L VE L O C I T Y

Select an option from the Velocity specification listFrom mass flow rate (the default),
From change in pressure, From injection pressure, or User defined.

For From mass flow rate enter a value or expression for the Mass flow rate m
(SI unit: kg/s). The default is 1e-3[kg/s].
For From change in pressure enter a value or expression for the Change in pressure p
(SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[MPa]. Then enter a value or expression for the
Discharge coefficient cd (dimensionless). The default value is 0.7.
For From injection pressure enter a value or expression for the Injection pressure pinj
(SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[MPa]. Then enter a value or expression for the
Discharge coefficient cd (dimensionless). The default value is 0.7.
For User defined enter a value or expression for the Initial droplet velocity magnitude U0
(SI unit: m/s). The default value is 100 m/s.
INJECTION PARAMETERS

Specify the initial droplet positions based on space dimension (qx,0, qy,0, and qz,0 for
) to select and define a range of specific
3D components) or click the Range button (
coordinates.
Select an option from the Injector Location list: All combinations (the default) or
Specified combinations. If Specified combinations is selected, the number of initial
coordinates entered for each space dimension must be equal, and the total number of
release positions is equal to the length of one of the lists of initial coordinates. If All
combinations is selected, the total number of release positions is equal to the product
of the lengths of each list of initial coordinates.
For example, suppose a 2D component includes a Nozzle node with the following
initial coordinates:
qx,0=range(0,1,3)
qy,0=range(2,2,8)

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If All combinations is selected, a total of 16 initial positions will be released, including

every possible combination of the initial x- and y-coordinates. If Specified combinations
is selected, particles will only be released at 4 initial positions (0,2), (1,4), (2,6), and
(3,8).
The position for any particles with initial coordinates outside the geometry are set to
NaN, so the particles do not appear when plotted during postprocessing.
If the Nozzle feature is added as a 0D feature (similar to the Release from Point feature),
the Injector location list and the edit fields for the initial coordinates are not shown, and
the initial coordinates are instead specified by selecting points in the geometry.
Enter coordinates for the Injector axis r (dimensionless) based on space dimension. By
default the injector axis points in the positive x-direction.
Enter a value or expression for the Nozzle exit radius r0 (SI unit: m), which determines
the initial size of released droplets.
Enter a value or expression for the Number of parcels per release N0 (dimensionless).
The Number of parcels per release does not actually restrict the number of
droplets or the total mass of fluid that can be released by the Nozzle
feature; it only restricts the number of model particles that can be
released. Each model particle represents a parcel representing an arbitrary
number of droplets. The number of droplets per model particle is always
available as an auxiliary dependent variable because the Enable
macroparticles check box must be selected in order to use this feature.
MAXIMUM CONE ANGLE

Select an option from the Maximum cone angle specification listUser defined (the
default) or From Kelvin-Helmholtz instability model.
If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Maximum cone angle
(SI unit: rad). The default value is 10[deg].
If From Kelvin-Helmholtz instability model is selected, specify the Spray angle constant A
(dimensionless). The default value is 0.188.
INHERIT PROPERTIES

See Inherit Properties as described for the Release node.

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IN IT IA L VA LUE OF AUXILIAR Y DEPEN DENT VARIABLES

See Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables as described for the Release node.

Nozzle Theory

NOZZLE DOMAIN

The Nozzle Domain feature is automatically added as a subnode to the Nozzle feature. It
can never be added or removed. Use the Nozzle Domain feature to specify which fluid
domain the droplets are being injected into, and to specify material properties in this
domain.
The Density (SI unit: kg/m3) is taken From material. For User defined enter another
value or expression.
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). If another physics interface
is present which computes the pressure then this can be selected from the list.

To use the Nozzle release feature, at least one domain must be in the
selection of the Nozzle Domain subnode.

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T he Dr o ple t S p rays i n Fl u i d Fl ow
Interface
The Droplet Sprays in Fluid Flow interface (
), found under the Fluid Flow>Particle
Tracing branch (
) when adding a physics interface, creates an instance of the Particle
Tracing for Fluid Flow interface with specialized default settings and features that are
often used to model sprays of liquid droplets.
All available physics features and settings are the same as for The Particle Tracing for
Fluid Flow Interface, with the exception that the following defaults are used:
The Compute particle mass check box is selected in the Advanced Settings section of
the physics interface Settings window,
Liquid droplets/bubbles is selected from the Particle type list in the settings window
for the default Particle Properties node,
The Drag Force node is added to all domains by default, and
The Droplet Breakup node is added to all domains by default. The
Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup Model node is added as a default subnode to the Droplet
Breakup node.

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Theory for the Particle Tracing for

Fluid Flow Interface
The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface theory is described in this section:
Particle Motion in a Fluid
Particle Motion in a Turbulent Flow
Additional Forces
References for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface

Particle Motion in a Fluid

The particle momentum comes from Newtons second law, which states that the net
force on a particle is equal to its time rate of change of its linear momentum in an
inertial reference frame:
d
( m v ) = F D + F g + F ext
dt p
DRAG FORCE

In the above equation, FD is the Drag Force is defined as:

1
F D = ----- m p ( u v )
p
where
mp is the particle mass (SI unit: kg)
p is the particle velocity response time (SI unit: s)
v is the velocity of the particle (SI unit: m/s)
u is the fluid velocity (SI unit: m/s)
Fg is the gravitational force vector (SI unit: N), and
Fext is any other external force (SI unit: N).
A large number of expressions for the particle response time are available; selecting an
appropriate drag law requires knowledge of the relative Reynolds number Rer

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(dimensionless) of particles in the flow. The relative Reynolds number is given by the
expression
u v dp
Re r = ----------------------------
Many drag laws and the relative Reynolds numbers at which they are applicable are
given in Ref. 4.

Stokes
The particle velocity response time for spherical particles in a laminar flow is defined as:
2

p dp
p = ------------18
where is the fluid viscosity (SI unit: Pa s), p is the particle density (SI unit: kg/m3),
and dp is the particle diameter (SI unit: m). This is frequently known as Stokes drag
law. The Stokes drag law is applicable for creeping flows, Re r 1 .

Schiller-Naumann
When the drag law is set to Schiller-Naumann, the particle velocity response time is
redefined as:
2

4 p d p
p = ------------------------3C D Re r
where:
0,687
24
C D = --------- ( 1 + 0,15Re r
)
Re r

The Schiller-Naumann drag law is applicable at moderate relative Reynolds numbers,

Re r < 800 .

Haider-Levenspiel
When the drag law is set to Haider-Levenspiel, the drag coefficient is given by
B ( Sp )
C ( Sp )
24
+ --------------------------------------C D = --------- 1 + A ( S p )Re r
1 + D ( S p ) Re r
Re r

where A, B, C and D are empirical correlations of the particle sphericity. The sphericity
is defined as the ratio of the surface area of a volume equivalent sphere to the surface
area of the considered non-spherical particle

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A sphere
0 < S p = ------------------ 1
A particle
The correlation coefficients are given by
A ( Sp ) = e

2.3288-6.4581S p + 2.4486S p2

B ( S p ) = 0.0964+0.5565S p
C ( Sp ) = e

4.905-13.8944S p + 18.4222S p2 10.2599S p3

D ( Sp ) = e

1.4681 + 12.2584S p 20.7322S p2 + 15.8855S p3

The diameter used in the Reynolds number is that of the volume equivalent sphere.

Oseen Correction
When the drag law is set to Oseen correction, the drag coefficient is given by
24
3
C D = --------- 1 + ------ Re r
Re r
16
Like Stokes drag law, the Oseen correction is applicable at low relative Reynolds
numbers, typically Re r < 0,1 . The Oseen correction is determined by simplifying,
rather than neglecting, the inertia term in the Navier-Stokes equation, resulting in drag
coefficients that are slightly greater than those based on the Stokes drag law.

Hadamard-Rybczynski
The Hadamard-Rybczynski drag law is based on an analytical solution for creeping flow
past a spherical liquid drop or gas bubble. The interface between the two fluids is
assumed to be completely free of surface-active contaminants. The drag coefficient is
given by the expression
8 2 + 3
C D = --------- ----------------
Re r 1 +
where =p/ is the ratio of the particle viscosity and fluid viscosity. For arbitrarily large
values of p this expression asymptotically approaches the Stokes law.
The Hadamard-Rybczynski drag law is only applicable if the droplets and the
surrounding fluid are extremely pure and free from contaminants. If the fluids are not
sufficiently pure, the drag force on the bubble or droplet is more likely to be accurately
determined by the Stokes drag law.

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When the drag law is set to Standard Drag Correlations, the drag coefficient is defined
as a piecewise function of the relative Reynolds number:
RANGE

CORRELATION

Re r 0,01

24
3
C D = --------- 1 + ------ Re r

Re r
16

0,01 < Re r 20

0,82 0,05w
24
C D = --------- ( 1 + 0,1315Re r
)
Re r

20 < Re r 260

0,6305
24
C D = --------- ( 1 + 0,1935Re r
)
Re r

260 < Re r 1500

log C D = 1,6435 1,1242w + 0,1558w 2

1500 < Re r 1,2 10

log C D = 2,4571 + 2,5558w 0,9295w 2 + 0,1049w 3

1,2 10 < Re r 4,4 10

4,4 10 < Re r 3,38 10

5

3,38 10 < Re r 4 10
5

4 10 < Re r 1 10
6

1 10 < Re r

log C D = 1,9181 + 0,6370w 0,0636w 2

5

log C D = 4,3390 + 1,5809w 0,1546w 2

C D = 29,78 5,3w
C D = 0,1w 0,49
8 10 4
C D = 0,19 ------------------Re r

where w=log Rer and the base 10 logarithm has been used.
The Standard Drag Correlations can be used when the relative Reynolds number is
expected to change by several orders of magnitude during a simulation. It is also
applicable at significantly higher relative Reynolds numbers than the Schiller-Naumann
drag law.
The drag coefficient as a function of relative Reynolds number is shown in Figure 5-1.

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Figure 5-1: The piecewise function used to compute the drag coefficient when Standard
Drag Correlations are used.
DRAG FORCE CORRECTION FACTORS

When the Include rarefaction effects check box is selected, a correction factor is applied
to the drag force to account for the effects of a nonzero particle Knudsen number:
C D, C
C D = ------------S
Where CD is the drag coefficient, CD,C is the drag coefficient under conditions of
continuum flow (the limit as the particle Knudsen number Kn approaches zero), and
S is the correction factor that accounts for non-continuum flow.
For the following definitions of the drag force correction factor, the particle Knudsen
number is defined as:

Kn = -----dp
where is the mean free path of gas molecules:
=

----------
2p

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where p is the gas pressure, (SI unit: Pa), is the gas density (SI unit: kg/m3), and
is the gas viscosity (SI unit: Pa s). It is also possible to multiply this definition of the
mean free path by a user-defined coefficient.
If the Basset model is used, the drag force correction factor is defined as:
1
S = ---------------------------------------Kn
1 ( 2 R ) -------R
where R is the accommodation coefficient, the fraction of gas molecules that are
assumed to reflect diffusely from the particle surface. The Basset model is appropriate
for near-continuum flows.
If the Epstein model is used, the correction factor is defined as:
18Kn
S = -------------------8 + R
The Epstein model is appropriate for free molecular flows.
If the Phillips model is used, the correction factor is defined as:
15 + 12c 1 Kn + 9 ( c 12 + 1 )Kn 2 + 18c 2 ( c 12 + 2 )Kn 3
S = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15 3c 1 Kn + c 2 ( 8 + R ) ( c 12 + 2 )Kn 2
where c1 and c2 are functions of the accommodation coefficient:
2 R
c 1 = ---------------R
1
c 2 = ---------------2 R
The Phillips model has the same asymptotic behavior as the Basset and Epstein models,
and is also usable at intermediate values of the particle Knudsen number. This
asymptotic behavior is shown in Figure 5-2.

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Figure 5-2: Comparison of the Basset, Epstein, and Phillips models for drag coefficient
corrections in rarefied gases.
The Cunningham-Millikan-Davies model uses three dimensionless, user-defined
coefficients to define the correction factor:
C3

-----------

S = 1 + Kn C 1 + C 2 e Kn

GRAVITY FORCE

The Gravity Force is given by:

( p )
F g = m p g -------------------p
where is the density of the surrounding fluid (SI unit: kg/m3) and g is the gravity
vector.

Particle Motion in a Turbulent Flow

When particles move in a high Reynolds number flow, they may interact with a large
number of eddies that perturb their trajectories. The fluid velocity field used to perturb

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201

the particle trajectories is generally computed using one of the following numerical
methods (Ref. 5): Reynolds-averaged Navier Stokes (RANS), direct numerical
simulation (DNS), or large eddy simulation (LES).
Although DNS (and, to some degree, LES) are capable of resolving the fluid velocity
field on sufficiently small length scales so that the particle trajectories can be computed
deterministically, the relatively high computational cost of these numerical methods
often makes them impractical for simulation of high Reynolds number flows,
particularly in complicated geometries. Instead, in the following analysis, it will be
assumed that the fluid velocity field has been computed using the RANS model, in
which the mean flow is simulated and variations in fluid velocity are described via the
turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2). When solving for the particle trajectories,
the drag force is computed by first adding a term to the mean flow field based on the
local value of the turbulent kinetic energy.
The built-in turbulent dispersion models are dependent on the turbulent kinetic
energy and on the turbulent dissipation rate (SI unit: m2/s3). Therefore, the
accompanying fluid flow interface should use one of the following turbulence models,
for which these variables are defined:
k-
k-
SST
Low Reynolds number k-

For more information on the turbulence models see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module Users Guide.
The following sections describe the available turbulent dispersion models. Each of
these models can be used by selecting the appropriate option from the Turbulent
Dispersion section of the settings window for the Drag Force node.
C O NT IN U OU S R A N D O M WAL K M O D EL

In the Continuous Random Walk model (Ref. 5,6,7), the evaluation of the position
and velocity of a fluid element chosen at random is a Markov process. For a time step
dt (SI unit: s) taken by the Time-Dependent Solver, the general form for the change
in the ith fluid velocity component dui is
du i = a i ( x, u, t )dt + b ij ( x, u, t )d j

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where ai and bij are coefficients yet to be specified, x and u are the position and
velocity of the fluid element, and dj are the increments of a vector-valued Weiner
process with independent components, which are uncorrelated Gaussian random
numbers with zero mean and variance dt (Ref. 6). A more in-depth discussion of the
relevance of Weiner processes in turbulent dispersion is given in Ref. 8.
In homogeneous turbulence, the velocity perturbations dui are computed by solving
a classical Langevin equation (Ref. 6,7):
uf
2
du f = ----- dt + -----d
L
L
where s (SI unit: m/s) is the fluctuating rms of the velocity perturbation in any
direction. For isotropic turbulence computed using the k- model,
=

u f2, 1 =

u f2, 2 =

u f2, 3 =

2k-----3

In general, the Lagrangian integral time scale L (SI unit: s) is given by (Ref. 5)
L, i =

f, i ( t )u f, i ( t

+ s)

- ds
0 ----------------------------------------2
u (t)
f, i

Essentially, the Lagrangian time scale characterizes the time interval size over which
successively sampled random numbers should become uncorrelated. Typically L is
estimated using the functional form
k
L = C L --
where the dimensionless coefficient CL is on the order of unity. Typical values of CL
have been reported in the interval [0.2,0.96] (Ref. 5) and as low as 1/7 (Ref. 7).
It is convenient to express the Langevin equation in terms of a dimensionless velocity
perturbation of the form
uf
u' f = ----
The components of u' f are stored for each model particle as auxiliary dependent
variables, requiring one additional degree of freedom per particle per space
dimension (including out-of-plane DOFs). The normalized Langevin equation then
takes the form

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u' f
2
du' f = ------ dt + -----d
L
L
A drift correction term is added to the normalized Langevin equation to reduce
non-physical diffusion of particles:
u' f
2
du' f = ------ dt + -----d
+ u' f
L
L
For isotropic turbulence, the following expression for the velocity perturbation,
including the drift term, is given (Ref. 7):
u' f
1 k dt
2
du' f = ------ dt + -----d + ------- ------ ---------------L
3 x 1 + St
L
The particle Stokes number St (dimensionless) is defined as
p
St = ----L
where the particle relaxation time scale p (SI unit: s) or particle velocity response time
depends on the drag law being used (see the Drag Force section) and on rarefaction
effects applied to the drag force, if any (see the Drag Force Correction Factors section).
DISCRETE RANDOM WALK MODEL

In the Discrete Random Walk model (Ref. 5,9,10), the components of the velocity
perturbation are not computed by solving a Langevin equation, but are instead given
instantaneous values
2ku f, i = i -----3
where i (dimensionless) are uncorrelated Gaussian random numbers with unit
variance (Ref. 10).
If Discrete random walk is selected from the Turbulent dispersion model list, then the i
are recomputed at every time step taken by the solver, whenever particles are released,
and whenever particles interact with boundaries. If the time step taken by the solver is
made arbitrarily small, the amount of turbulent dispersion in the model will decrease
to non-physically small values.

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To avoid such non-physical behavior, when using the Discrete random walk option it is
recommended to specify a time step size approximately equal to the average interaction
time between a particle and an eddy in the flow. One estimate of this interaction time
is the eddy lifetime e (SI unit: s), given by (Ref. 5)
e = 2 L
If the option Discrete random walk, variable time step is selected, then the i are only
recomputed whenever a particle has existed for an integer number of eddy lifetimes.
This is accomplished by allocating a dimensionless auxiliary dependent variable N with
initial value 0. The value of N is integrated over time using the equation
dN
1
-------- = ---dt
e
Then floor(N) is used instead of the instantaneous time t as an argument in the
random number seed used to compute the Gaussian random numbers i. The resulting
distribution of particle velocity values will then statistically converge and have nonzero
variance, even if the time step taken by the solver is arbitrarily small.

Additional Forces
In addition to the Drag Force and Gravity Force described in Particle Motion in a
Fluid, the following predefined forces can be added to influence particle motion.
Brownian Force

Acoustophoretic Force

Electric Force

Thermophoretic Force

Magnetic Force

Magnetophoretic Force

Dielectrophoretic Force
BROWNIAN FORCE

The Brownian Force feature adds the following contribution to Fext:

12k B Tr p
F ext = ------------------------------t

(5-1)

where
t is the time step taken by the solver
rp is the particle radius

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205

 T is the absolute fluid temperature

is the fluid dynamic viscosity,
kB is Boltzmanns constant
is the fluid viscosity, and
is a normally distributed random number with a mean of zero and unit standard
variation.
As explained in Ref. 13, independent values for are chosen in all directions. A
different value of is created for each particle, at each time step for each component
of the Brownian force. The Brownian force leads to spreading of particles from
regions of high particle density to low density.
The fluid viscosity required by the Brownian force must be consistent
with the one supplied in the Drag force. Furthermore, the specific form
of the Brownian force given above is only consistent if the Drag law is set
to Stokes.
ELECTRIC FORCE

The Electric Force feature adds the following contribution to Fext:

F ext = eZE
where e is the elementary charge (SI unit: s A), Z is the charge number
(dimensionless), and E is the electric field (SI unit: V/m). The electric field can be
given directly or computed from an electric potential:
E = V
When the electric field is computed in the frequency domain it is complex valued. The
field must be cast into a real value that depends on the angular frequency and the
simulation time:

E ( t ) = real ( E exp ( j ( t + 0 ) ) )

where E is the complex-valued electric field, is the angular frequency, 0 is the initial
phase angle, and t is time.
MAGNETIC FORCE

The Magnetic Force feature adds the following contribution to Fext:

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F ext = eZ ( v B )
When the magnetic flux density is computed in the frequency domain it is complex
valued. The field must be cast into a real value that depends on the angular frequency
and the simulation time:

B ( t ) = real ( B exp ( j ( t + 0 ) ) )

where B is the complex-valued electric field, is the angular frequency, 0 is the initial
phase angle, and t is time.
DIELECTROPHORETIC FORCE

The Dielectrophoretic Force feature adds the following contribution to Fext for the
case of a static electric field:
p
2
F ext = 2r p3 0 real ( ) real ------------------------ E
p + 2
where (dimensionless) is the complex relative permittivity of the fluid, p
(dimensionless) is the complex relative permittivity of the particle, and E (SI unit:
V/m) is the electric field. When computing the dielectrophoretic force exerted by a
stationary electric field, the complex relative permittivity becomes the real-valued
relative permittivity. In the case that the electric field is computed in the frequency
domain, the following is added:
p
2
F ext = 2r p3 0 real ( ) real ------------------------ E rms
p + 2
where Erms denotes the root mean square electric field. For fields that are computed
in the frequency domain, the complex permittivity can be expressed as
i
= ----
where is the permittivity, is the electrical conductivity, and is the angular
frequency of the electric field.
The Shell feature can be added to the Dielectrophoretic Force node to model the
dielectrophoretic force on particles with thin shells. The complex permittivity of the
shell can differ from the permittivity of the rest of the particle. When computing the
dielectrophoretic force, the complex permittivity of the particle is replaced by the

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207

equivalent complex relative permittivity eq of a homogeneous particle comprising

both the shell and the interior of the particle:

eq

3
p s
r----0- + 2 -------------------------
ri
p + 2 s
= s -------------------------------------------------------r 0 3 p s
---------------------------- r i + 2
p
s

where r0 and ri (SI unit: m) are the outer and inner radii of the shell, respectively; p
(dimensionless) is the complex relative permittivity of the particle, and s
(dimensionless) is the complex relative permittivity of the outer shell. If multiple shells
are added, the shells are applied in the order in which they appear in the Model Tree,
with the first shell being the innermost. The present treatment of spherical particles
with thin shells is described in Jones (Ref. 3).
ACOUSTOPHORETIC FORCE

The Acoustophoretic Force is a special subclass of the CFD forces, which are the
acoustic radiation forces on small particles. The present theory is derived for inviscid
fluids and small particles. This implies that the expressions are valid for particles of
diameter dp = 2r much smaller than the acoustic wavelength and of size larger than
the acoustic boundary layer thickness bl. The last condition is not necessary for
buoyant particles (of same density p as the fluid density 0). The present expressions
are based on the work of Gorkov (Ref. 11) which is reviewed by Bruus (see Ref. 12).
Following the references the radiation force on a particle is given as
F aco = U

rad

where Urad is the radiation potential given by

U

rad

2
2
1
3
= V p f 1 --------------2- p in f 2 --- 0 v in
4
2 0 c 0
2

0 c0
p
K0
f 1 = 1 -----------2- = 1 ------ = 1 ------
K
0
p
p cp
2 ( p 0 )
f 2 = -------------------------2 p + 0

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where pin is the incident (external) pressure field and vin is the incident particle
velocity amplitude, c0 is the speed of sound in the fluid, cp is the compressional speed
of sound in the particle, and p is the compressibility of the particle (reciprocal of bulk
modulus = (Kp)1). The terms are time averaged over one period.
In the case of an acoustic field derived from a time-harmonic analysis
(frequency-domain analysis) where the dependent variables are complex valued, the
time-averaged expressions simplify as
2
1
p in = --- ( p in p in )
2
2
1
1
v in = --- ( v in v in ) = --- ( v in v in )
2
2

where * is the complex conjugate. For the case of pressure acoustics the velocity is
simply given as
1
v in = ------------ p
i 0
Thus the present acoustic radiation forces are only space dependent and not
time-dependent as they are time averaged.
THERMOPHORETIC FORCE

The Thermophoretic Force accounts for a force on a particle due to gradients in the
temperature of the background fluid. The thermophoretic force is defined as:
2

6d p C s T
F tp = --------------------------------------- ( 2 + 1 )T
k
= -----kp
where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, kp is the particle thermal conductivity,
T is the fluid temperature, is the fluid density, and Cs is a constant equal to 1.17. This
expression for the thermophoretic force is valid for continuum flows, in which the
particle Knudsen number is very small. The thermophoretic force makes particles
move from hotter to cooler regions. This is why dust tends to settle in a corner of the
kitchen, furthest away from the oven.

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209

RAREFACTION EFFECTS IN THERMOPHORESIS

If the Include rarefaction effects check box is selected, other expressions for the
thermophoretic force are available. The Epstein model is equivalent to the expression
for continuum flow.
If the Waldmann model is selected, the thermophoretic force is defined as:
8 2M
F tp = ------ --------------g-kr p2 T
15 k B T
where Mg is the gas molar mass, kB is Boltzmanns constant, and rp is the particle
radius. The Waldmann model is appropriate for free molecular flows.
If the Talbot model is selected, the thermophoretic force is defined as:
2

C s ( + C t Kn )
6d p
T
F tp = -------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------
( 1 + 3C m Kn ) ( 1 2 + 2C t Kn ) T
If the Linearized BGK model is selected, the thermophoretic force is expressed using
the analysis of the linearized Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) and S model kinetic
equations by Beresnev and Chernyak (Ref. 14). The thermophoretic force is defined
in terms of the free-molecular limit,

F tp

15
E + ------ ( 1 E ) ---- 1 + a E 2
R
8
= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- F W
15
5

E + ------ ( 1 E ) ---- 3 + E + --- ( 3 E ) ---- 4

8
8
R
R

where FW (SI unit: N) is the thermophoretic force as calculated in the Waldmann

model, R is a dimensionless number defined as

R = ------------------3PrKn
where Pr (dimensionless) is the fluid Prandtl number,
C p
Pr = ----------k
and E (dimensionless) is the energy accommodation coefficient, with E=1 and E=0
corresponding to diffuse and specular reflection of all gas molecules at the surface,
respectively. The dimensionless coefficients i are defined as

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 i = f i1 + ( 1 T )f i2
where the dimensionless terms fij are defined as interpolation functions of R (Ref. 14).
R

f11

f12

f21

f22

1000

1,324 10 5

1,317 10 5

1,366 10 9

4,924 10 8

800

2,067 10 5

2,055 10 5

2,677 10 9

9,601 10 8

600

3,673 10 5

3,645 10 5

6,379 10 9

2,270 10 7

400

8,256 10 5

8,159 10 5

2,175 10 8

7,619 10 7

200

3,291

3,215

1,791

10 7

5,997 10 6

100

1,307 10 3

1,248 10 3

1,502 10 6

4,643 10 5

80

2,036 10 3

1,921 10 3

2,987 10 6

8,917 10 5

60

3,598 10 3

3,331 10 3

7,225 10 6

2,055 10 4

40

8,004

7,139

2,439

10 5

6,551 10 4

20

3,115 10 2

2,505 10 2

1,066 10 4

4,417 10 3

10

0.1109

7,525 10 2

1,852 10 3

2,639 10 2

0.1636

0.1039

6,174 10 3

4,513 10 2
8,749 10 2

10 4

10 3

10 4

10 3

0.2626

0.1524

2,244

0.4780

0.2443

0.1013

0.2089

1.058

0.4507

0.7320

0.7674

1.749

0.6623

3.077

2.247

0.8

1.952

0.7205

4.501

3.051

0.6

2.181

0.7851

7.034

10 2

4.424

0.4

2.439

0.8559

1,237

0.2

2.717

0.9310

2,889 10 1

1,562 10 1

10 1

3,238 10 1

10 1

7.214

0.1

2.857

0.9678

6,220

0.08

2.884

0.9748

7,885 10 1

4,073 10 1

0.06

2.910

0.9816

1,066 10 2

5,463 10 1

0.04

2.835

0.9881

1,620 10 2

8,239 10 1

f31

f32

f41

f42

1000

0.9947

1.004

0.9991

800

0.9934

1.006

0.9989

600

0.9912

1.007

0.9985

400

0.9868

1.011

0.9978

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211

f31

f32

f41

f42

200

0.9739

1.022

0.9955

100

0.9489

1.044

0.9909

80

0.9367

1.055

0.9885

60

0.9169

1.074

0.9846

40

0.8794

1.110

0.9765

20

0.7812

1.218

0.9512

10

0.6360

1.415

0.8994

0.5819

1.504

0.8737

0.5101

1.635

0.8319

0.4098

1.847

0.7535

0.2570

2.226

0.5676

0.1421

2.533

0.357

0.8

0.1142

2.609

0.2962

8,453

10 2

2.691

0.2265

5,344

10 2

2.781

0.1482

0.2

2,237

10 2

2.881

6,437 10 2

0.1

8,413 10 3

2.937

2,470 10 2

0.08

5,993

10 3

2.945

1,767 10 2

0.06

3,793 10 3

2.961

1,123 10 2

0.04

1,900 10 3

2.973

5,648 10 3

0.6
0.4

Note that this data is tabulated assuming that the fluid Prandtl number is 2/3.
MAGNETOPHORETIC FORCE

The Magnetophoretic Force causes motion of permeable particles toward regions

where the magnetic field is stronger. The magnetophoretic force is applicable for
particles which are charge neutral and have a different relative permeability than the
background fluid. The magnetophoretic force is defined as:
3

F m = 2r p 0 r K H

(5-2)

where H is the magnetic field, r is the fluid relative permeability, r,p is the particle
relative permeability, and K is defined as:

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 r, p r
K = ------------------------- r, p + 2 r
The force is only valid for nonconducting particles, so additional force contributions
due to eddy currents induced in particles are not taken into account.

Numerical Differentiation of Magnetic Field Components

As shown in Equation 5-2, the magnetophoretic force is a function of derivatives of
the components of the magnetic field H. Depending on the physics interface used to
compute the magnetic field, its derivatives may not be available.
For example, in instances of the Magnetic Fields interface, the degrees of freedom
correspond to components of the magnetic vector potential A (SI unit: Wb/m). The
magnetic field can be derived from the magnetic vector potential using the relations
B = A
B = 0 ( H + M )
where B (SI unit: T) is the magnetic flux density and M (SI unit: A/m) is the
magnetization vector. Thus, derivatives of the magnetic field components correspond
to second derivatives of the degrees of freedom, the components of A. However, the
second derivative is not defined for the vector (curl) elements that are used to
discretize the components of A in 3D or the in-plane components of A in 2D. In these
situations, the derivatives of the magnetic field components will be evaluated as zero
everywhere, resulting in zero magnetophoretic force.
Therefore, depending on the formulation used to compute the magnetic potential, it
may be necessary to take additional steps to ensure that the derivatives of the magnetic
field components are evaluated correctly. A typical approach involves the definition of
an intermediate PDE interface to store the values of the magnetic field components
using scalar basis functions.

Erosion Theory
The Erosion feature calculates the rate of erosive wear or the total mass removed per
unit area due to the impact of particles on a surface. It includes the following models:
FINNIE

Finnie (Ref. 16) defined the volume removed from a surface as:

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213

cMU 2
V = ---------------------------------- [ ( cos ) 2 ]
mr 2
4p 1 + -----------

P
tan > ---2

cMU 2
2
( sin ) 2
V = ---------------------------------- ---- sin ( 2 ) 2 -------------------P
mr 2 P
4p 1 + -----------

P
tan ---2

The parameters are defined as follows:

c (dimensionless) is the fraction of particles cutting in an idealized manner.
M (SI unit: kg) is the total mass of eroding particles.
U (m/s) is the magnitude of the incident particle velocity.
p (Pa) is the Vickers hardness of the material.
m (SI unit: kg) is the mass of an individual particle hitting the surface.
r (SI unit: m) is the average particle radius.
I (SI unit: kg-m2) is the moment of inertia of an individual particle about its center
of mass. For an isotropic sphere, I=2mr2/5.
(rad) is the angle of incidence, with =0 tangent to the surface and =/2 normal
to the surface.
P is a dimensionless parameter, defined as P=K/(1+mr2/I), where K (dimensionless)
is the ratio of vertical and horizontal forces acting on the particle.
In the Finnie model, particles are assumed to remove mass from the surface via an
idealized cutting mechanism. It does not predict any erosive wear by particles at
normal incidence to a surface, and is recommended for modeling erosion of ductile
materials by particles at small angles of incidence.
E/CRC

The E/CRC model defines the erosion rate in terms of the ratio of mass lost by the
surface to mass of incident particles:
E = CF s ( BH )

0,59

v -
------------------F()
1 [ m s ]
3

F ( a ) = 5,40a 10,11a + 10,93a 6,33a + 1,42a

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where C is a dimensionless model coefficient, Fs is the particle shape coefficient

(dimensionless), and BH is the Brinell hardness of the wall material (dimensionless).
The angle of incidence is measured in radians.
OKA

The Oka model defines the volume of surface material removed per unit mass of
incident particles (in units of mm3/kg) as:
E ( ) = g ( )E 90
where E() is the etch rate, E90 is the etch rate at normal incidence, and g() is an
angular dependence function:
Hv
g ( a ) = ( sin ) n1 1 + --------------------- ( 1 sin )
1 [ GPa ]

n2

k1 v k2 D k3
Hv
E 90 = --------------------- ---- -----
1 [ GPa ]
v'
D'

where v is the reference velocity; D is the reference diameter; the dimensionless

parameters n1, n2, and k2 are defined as
q1
Hv
n 1 = s 1 ---------------------
1 [ GPa ]
q2
Hv
n 2 = s 2 ---------------------
1 [ GPa ]
0,038
Hv
k 2 = 2,3 ---------------------
1 [ GPa ]

and the remaining dimensionless parameters s1, s2, q1, q2, K, k1, and k3 are constants.
DNV

The DNV model defines the erosion rate in terms of the ratio of mass lost by the
surface to mass of incident particles:
n
v
E = K -------------------- F ( )
1[m s]
2

F ( a ) = 9,370 42,295 + 110,864 175,804

+ 170,137 5 98,398 6 + 31,211 7 4,170 8

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215

where K and n are constants that depend on the surface material.

Droplet Breakup Theory

It is possible to model the breakup of liquid droplets using the Droplet Breakup
feature. This feature supports two subfeatures, Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup Model
(added by default) and Rayleigh-Taylor Breakup Model, which correspond to different
mechanisms for breakup. It is possible to include either breakup model separately or
to use both models at once.
DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS

When analyzing the mechanisms of droplet breakup, several dimensionless parameters

are useful. These parameters are summarized in Table 5-1.
TABLE 5-1: DIMENSIONLESS QUANTITIES USED IN DROPLET BREAKUP MODELS
SYMBOL

NAME

EXPRESSION

Weg

Gas Weber number

g U r2 r 0
We g = -------------------

Wel

Liquid Weber number

l U r2 r 0
We l = ------------------

Rel

Droplet Reynolds number

2rU 2 l
Re l = ------------------l

Ohnesorge number

2 We l
Z = -----------------Re l

Taylor number

T = Z We g

where
g (SI unit: kg/m3) is the gas density,
l (SI unit: kg/m3) is the droplet density,
Ur (SI unit: m/s) is the relative speed between the droplet and gas,
r0 (SI unit: m) is the droplet radius,
(SI unit: N/m) is the surface tension, and
l (SI unit: Pa s)is the droplet dynamic viscosity.

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KELVIN-HELMHOLTZ BREAKUP

The Kelvin-Helmholtz Breakup Model is based on a first-order linear analysis of

Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in a cylindrical jet of fluid. For a parent droplet of radius
r0 (SI unit: m), the wavelength KH (SI unit: m) of the fastest-growing disturbance
on the surface of the particle is
9,02r 0 ( 1 + 0,45 Z l ) ( 1 + 0,4T 0,7 )
KH = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------( 1 + 0,865We g1,67 ) 0,6
The corresponding growth rate KH (SI unit: 1/s) of the fastest-growing disturbance
is
0,34 + 0,385We g1,5
KH = --------------------------------------------------------------( 1 + Z l ) ( 1 + 1,4T 0,6 ) l r 03
The characteristic breakup time KH (SI unit: s) can be derived from the wavelength
and frequency of the fastest-growing disturbance,
3,788B KH r 0
KH = -------------------------------- KH KH
where BKH is a dimensionless constant. The value of BKH can vary considerably,
depending on the mechanism for spray formation. Typical values are between 3
and 60.
Kelvin-Helmholtz breakup is likely to occur when the parent droplet is sufficiently
large and the time since previous breakup is comparable to or greater than KH. The
approximate size of the parent droplet over time is computed by allocating an effective
Kelvin-Helmholtz radius rKH (SI unit: m) as an auxiliary dependent variable for all
particles. The effective radius is initially equal to the parent droplet radius r0 and
decreases over time according to the expression
r ch r KH
dr KH
-------------= -----------------------dt
KH
Where rch (SI unit: m) is the child droplet radius,

r ch

=
min

B 0 KH
2 U
3r KH
rel
------------------------------
2

KH

1/3

2 U
1/3
3r KH
rel
, ------------------------------
4

B 0 KH r KH
B 0 KH > r KH

T H E O R Y F O R T H E P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G F O R F L U I D F L O W I N T E R F A C E

217

where B 0 = 0,61 is a dimensionless constant.

The criterion for breakup is that, at a time step taken by the solver, there exists a
positive integer nch such that
m 0 m + n ch r ch
When this is true, is the number of child droplets. The new mass of the parent droplet
mnew (SI unit: kg) is
m new = m 0 n ch r ch
R AY L E I G H - TAY L O R B RE A K UP

The Rayleigh-Taylor Breakup Model is a significant breakup mechanism for droplets

that undergo rapid accelerations. Compared to the Kelvin-Helmholtz model, in which
child droplets are continually stripped away from a liquid jet, the Rayleigh-Taylor
model describes the complete annihilation of the parent droplet as it breaks into a large
number of child droplets.
According to the Rayleigh-Taylor model, a droplet breaks up when the wavelength of
a disturbance on the droplets surface exceeds a critical value, which depends on the
droplets radius.
Following Ref. 18, the wavelength of the fastest-growing disturbance RT (SI unit: m)
is
RT = 2 3
------a
The frequency of the fastest-growing wave RT (SI unit: 1/s) is
RT =

2a
a------- -----3 3

where a (SI unit: m/s2) is the droplet acceleration. The time constant for breakup RT
(SI unit: s) is
RT =

3- 3
-----------2a a

The radius of the child droplets rch (SI unit: m) is

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C H A P T E R 5 : P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G F O R F L U I D F L O W

C RT RT
r ch = ---------------------2
where CRT is a dimensionless constant, with typical values ranging from 2.5 to 5.
When the Rayleigh-Taylor model is used, the time since previous Rayleigh-Taylor
breakup tRT (SI unit: s) is defined as an auxiliary dependent variable for all particles.
Whenever t RT > RT at the beginning of a time step taken by the solver, the parent
droplet is completely broken up into child droplets. The number of child droplets nch
is
r 03
-
n ch = floor ------3
r ch

The floor operator is used to ensure that the number of child droplets is an integer,
even though the resulting droplets may have radii different from rch.
USING MULTIPLE DROPLET BREAKUP MODELS

It is possible to include the Kelvin-Helmholtz and Rayleigh-Taylor breakup models in

the same simulation. In this case, separate auxiliary dependent variables are allocated
for the Kelvin-Helmholtz effective radius rKH and the time since previous
Rayleigh-Taylor breakup tRT.
If the condition for Kelvin-Helmholtz breakup is met, then for the parent droplet and
all child droplets tRT is set to zero.
If the condition for Rayleigh-Taylor breakup is met, then for all child droplets the
Kelvin-Helmholtz radius rKH is set equal to the child droplet radius.

Nozzle Theory
The Nozzle feature is used to release a spray of liquid droplets, as if they were released
from a nozzle. It computes the initial size and velocity of the released droplets using
the so-called Blob model (Ref. 19). This model requires the following assumptions:
The inlet is circular and produces a round liquid jet of density l (SI unit: kg/m3).
The gas in the adjacent domain is incompressible and initially quiescent, vg,0=0.
The liquid velocity vl (SI unit: m/s) is constant inside the jet.
Both the injection pressure pinj (SI unit: Pa) and the ambient pressure pamb
(SI unit: Pa) are constant.

T H E O R Y F O R T H E P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G F O R F L U I D F L O W I N T E R F A C E

219

 The initial parent drop radius is constant and equal to the injector radius r0
(SI unit: m).
The maximum cone angle (SI unit: rad) is constant and stays constant as the
injection progresses.
The following discussion uses several dimensionless variables. Their
definitions are listed in Table 5-1 in the Droplet Breakup Theory section.
The initial speed of the released droplets is
U0 =

1
2p
----------- c d = --------------2 m
l
l r 0

where cd (dimensionless) is the discharge coefficient and m (SI unit: kg/s) is the mass
flow rate.
The droplets are released in a cone with maximum spray angle . The spray angle can
be specified directly, or it can be estimated from Kelvin-Helmholtz instability theory:

tan ---- = A -------- 2

U0
where and are, respectively, the wavelength and growth rate of the fastest-growing
disturbance on the surface of a liquid jet:
9,02r 0 ( 1 + 0,45 Z l ) ( 1 + 0,4T 0,7 )
KH = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------( 1 + 0,865We g1,67 ) 0,6
0,34 + 0,385We g1,5
KH = --------------------------------------------------------------( 1 + Z l ) ( 1 + 1,4T 0,6 ) l r 03
The number multiplication factor n, activated by the Enable macroparticles check box
in the physics interface Advanced settings section, is a dimensionless quantity that
indicates the number of droplets that are represented by each model particle.
Suppose the range of specified release times is t 1, t 2, t 3, , t Nt , where Nt is the
number of release times.
The droplets that are released at time ti are assigned initial multiplication factor ni:

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C H A P T E R 5 : P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G F O R F L U I D F L O W


3m t i
n i = -------------------------34N 0 l r 0
where N0 is the number of model particles per release and the time intervals ti are
defined as
t2 t1
--------------
2

ti + 1 ti 1
t i = --------------------------2

t t
N
N1
-----------------------
2

i = 1
1<i<N
i = N

where N is the number of release times. Note that, based on the previous expressions,
Np

--3- l nr03

= m ( tN t1 )

i=1

where N p = N N 0 is the total number of released model particles. That is, the sum
of the masses of all released droplets, scaled by their multiplication factors, equals the
total mass released by the nozzle, assuming that the mass flow rate is constant between
the initial and final release times and zero otherwise.

References for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface

1. E.M. Lifshitz and L.P. Pitaevskii, Physical Kinetics, Butterworth, 1981.
2. E.M. Lifshitz and L.P. Pitaevskii, Fluid Mechanics, Butterworth, 1987.
3. T. B. Jones, Electromechanics of Particles, Cambridge, 1995.
4. R. Clift, J.R. Grace, and M.E. Weber, Bubbles, Drops, and Particles, Dover, 1978.
5. L. Tian, G. Ahmadi, Particle deposition in turbulent duct flowscomparisons of
different model predictions, Aerosol Science, vol. 38, 2007, pp. 377-397.
6. D.J. Thomson, Criteria for the selection of stochastic models of particle trajectories
in turbulent flows, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 180, 1987, pp. 529-556.
7. A. Dehbi, Turbulent particle dispersion in arbitrary wall-bounded geometries: A
coupled CFD-Langevin-equation based approach, International Journal of
Multiphase Flow, vol. 34, 2008, pp. 819-828.

T H E O R Y F O R T H E P A R T I C L E TR A C I N G F O R F L U I D F L O W I N T E R F A C E

221

8. P. A. Durbin, Stochastic Differential Equations and Turbulent Dispersion, NASA

Reference Publication 1103, 1983.
9. P. Hutchinson, G.F. Hewitt, and A.E. Dukler, Deposition of liquid or solid
dispersions from turbulent gas streams: a stochastic model, Chemical Engineering
Science, vol. 26, 1971, pp.419-439.
10. B. Zhao, C. Yang, X. Yang, and S. Liu, Particle dispersion and deposition in
ventilated rooms: Testing and evaluation of different Eulerian and Lagrangian
models, Building and Environment, vol. 43, 2008, pp. 388-397.
11. L.P. Gorkov, Sov. Phys. Doklady, vol. 6, p. 773, 1962.
12. H. Bruus, Lecture Notes: Microfluidics and ultrasound acoustophoreses.
http://www.nanotech.dtu.dk/Research/Research%20groups/TMF.aspx
13. M. Kim and A.L. Zydney, Effect of Electrostatic, Hydrodynamic, and Brownian
Forces on Particle Trajectories and Sieving in Normal Flow Filtration, J. Colloid and
Interface Science, vol. 269, pp. 425431, 2004.
14. S. Beresnev and V. Chernyak, Thermophoresis of a Spherical Particle in a Rarefied
Gas: Numerical Analysis Based on the Model Kinetic Equations, Phys. Fluids, vol. 7,
pp. 1743-1756, 1995.
15. F. Zheng, Thermophoresis of Spherical and Non-Spherical Particles: a Review of
Theories and Experiments, Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 97,
pp. 255-278, 2002.
16. I. Finnie, Some Observations on the Erosion of Ductile Metals, Wear, vol. 19,
pp. 8190, 1972.
17. Y. Zhang, E.P. Reuterfors, B.S. McLaury, S.A. Shirazi, and E.F. Rybicki,
Comparison of computed and measured particle velocities and erosion in water and
air flows, Wear, vol. 263, pp. 330338, 2007.
18. M. A. Patterson and R. D. Reitz, Modeling the Effects of Fuel Spray
Characteristics on Diesel Engine Combustion and Emission, SAE Paper 980131,
1998.
19. R. D. Reitz, Modeling Atomization Processes in High-Pressure Vaporizing
Sprays, Atomization and Spray Technology, vol. 3, pp. 309-337, 1987.

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Multiphysics Interfaces
The Particle Tracing Module contains predefined multiphysics interfaces to
facilitate easy setup of models with the most commonly occurring settings. This
chapter describes the multiphysics interfaces that are available with the Particle
Tracing Module. Two of these multiphysics interfaces can be found under the AC/DC
branch (
) when adding a physics interfaceParticle Field Interaction,
Non-Relativistic and Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic. The Fluid Particle
).
Interaction interface is found under the Fluid Flow branch (
In this chapter:
The Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface
Theory for the Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface
The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic Interface
Theory for the Magnetic Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic Interface
The Fluid-Particle Interaction Interface
Theory for the Fluid-Particle Interaction Interface
See The Electromagnetics Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual for other AC/DC interface and feature node settings.

223

T he P a r ti c le F i el d In t erac t i on ,
Non-Relativistic Interface
The Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic (
) multiphysics interface combines the
Charged Particle Tracing interface with the Electrostatics interface. The Electric
Particle Field Interaction multiphysics coupling feature is added automatically. The
Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic interface is used to model beams of charged
particles at non-relativistic speeds. The particles generate a space charge density term
as they propagate through domains. The space charge density is then used as a source
term in the Electrostatics interface, and the resulting electric force on the particles is
computed.
When a predefined Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic interface is added from the
AC/DC>Particle Tracing branch (
) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows,
Electrostatics and Charged Particle Tracing interfaces are added to the Model Builder. A
Multiphysics node is also added, which automatically includes the Electric Particle Field
Interaction multiphysics coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Electrostatics interface is used to compute the electric field, the electric
displacement field and potential distributions in dielectrics under conditions where the
electric charge distribution is explicitly prescribed. The formulation is stationary but
for use together with other physics, also eigenfrequency, frequency-domain,
small-signal analysis, and time-domain modeling are supported in all space dimensions.
The physics interface solves Gauss Law for the electric field using the scalar electric
potential as the dependent variable.
The Charged Particle Tracing interface is used to model charged particle orbits under
the influence of electromagnetic forces. In addition, it can also model two-way
coupling between the particles and fields. Some typical applications are particle
accelerators, vacuum tubes, and ion implanters. The physics interface supports
time-domain modeling only in 2D and 3D. The physics interface solves the equation
of motion for charged particles subjected to electromagnetic forces.
SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplingsfor example,
Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativisticspecific settings are included with the

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

physics interfaces and the coupling features. However, if physics interfaces are added
one at a time, followed by the coupling features, these modified settings are not
automatically included.
For example, if single Electrostatics and Charged Particle Tracing interfaces are added,
COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can choose from the available
coupling features but the modified settings are not included.
Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.
TABLE 6-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, NON-RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE
PHYSICS INTERFACE OR
COUPLING FEATURE

MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Electrostatics

No changes.

Charged Particle Tracing

For the Charged Particle Tracing interface, under

Particle Properties, the Particle release specification is
set to Specify current.
The Electric Force node is added to the Charged
Particle Tracing interface. The Domain Selection is the
same as that of the Charged Particle Tracing interface.

Electric Particle Field

Interaction

The Domain Selection is the same as that of the

participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Electrostatics and Charged Particle
Tracing interfaces are preselected in the Electric
Particle Field Interaction section.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coupling Features
The Electric Particle Field Interaction and Space Charge Limited Emission coupling
feature nodes are described in this section.

THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, NON-RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

225

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).
In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what
operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.
The available physics features for The Charged Particle Tracing Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Particle Tracing
for Fluid Flow Interface.
The available physics features for The Electrostatics Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electrostatics Interface in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Electric Particle Field Interaction

The Electric Particle Field Interaction multiphysics coupling (
) computes the space
charge density due to particles and assigns this to a dependent variable that is defined
on the domain mesh elements that contain the particles. It also applies the
accumulated space charge density as a source when computing the electric potential.
The computation of the space charge density is controlled by the Particle release
specification setting in the settings window for the Charged Particle Tracing interface.

If Specify release times is selected, each particle contributes to the space charge density
based on its instantaneous location. If Specify current is selected, each model particle is
treated as representing a number of charged particles per unit time, leaving behind a
contribution to the space charge density in mesh elements it has previously passed
through.
SETTINGS

The Label is the default multiphysics coupling name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling in the model) is epfi1.
CHARGE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR

Enter a Charge multiplication factor n (dimensionless). The default value is 1 106. If

the Particle release specification in the settings window for the Charged Particle Tracing
interface is set to Specify release times, the Charge multiplication factor indicates the
number of real particles represented by every model particle for the purpose of
computing the space charge density.
ELECTRIC PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION

This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. By default, the
applicable physics interface is selected in the Source and Destination lists.
You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder then the applicable list
defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.
If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Source or Destination lists. This is applicable to all
multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the once
present physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Space Charge Limited Emission

Use the Space Charge Limited Emission multiphysics coupling (
charge limited emission of electrons from a surface.

) to model the space

SETTINGS

The Label is the default multiphysics coupling name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling in the model) is scle1.

THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, NON-RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

227

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Enter an Electric potential at emission surface V0 (SI unit: V). The default value is 0.
NUMBER OF PARTICLES

Enter the Number of particles per release N (dimensionless). The default value
is 1 103.
EXTRA DIMENSION SETTINGS

Enter the Position offset os (SI unit: m). The default value is 1 mm.
Select the Initial value of electric potential in extra dimensionAutomatic (the default)
or User defined. For User defined enter the value for Vxd,0 (SI unit: V). The default value
is 1 V.
Select the Mesh settings: Automatic (the default) or User defined. For User defined enter
values for the following settings:
Number of elements (dimensionless). The default value is 50.
Element ratio (dimensionless). The default value is 10.
SPACE CHARGE LIMITED EMISSION

This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. By default, the
applicable physics interface is selected in the Source and Destination lists.
You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder then the applicable list
defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.
If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Source or Destination lists. This is applicable to all
multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the once
present physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

T he o r y f o r t he Part i c l e Fi el d
Interaction, Non-Relativistic
Interface
The Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface combines charged particle
tracing with electrostatics to model non-relativistic beams of charged particles that can
create significant space charge density distributions in the domains that contain the
particles. The space charge density may, in turn, exert a significant electric force on the
particles, resulting in a bidirectional coupling between the particle trajectories and the
electric potential.
If all charged particle beams are released at constant current, it is possible to
significantly reduce the simulation time and computational cost by combining a
time-domain calculation of the particle trajectories with a Stationary solver for the
calculation of the electric potential. The two calculations can then be performed using
an iterative procedure that alternates between them until a self-consistent solution is
attained.
An iterative solver loop that consists of a time-dependent solver for computing particle
trajectories and a stationary solver for computing all other dependent variables can be
set up automatically using the Bidirectionally Coupled Particle Tracing study step,
described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Electrostatics and Charged Particle Tracing Equations

Under static conditions, Gauss law can be written as a variant of Poissons equation
( 0 V P ) =
where 0 (SI unit: F/m) is the permittivity of vacuum, V (SI unit: V) is the electric
potential, P (SI unit: C/m2) is the polarization, and (SI unit: C/m3) is the charge
density. The electric field E can be expressed in terms of the electric potential using the
relationship
E = V

THEORY FOR THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, NON-RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

229

The equation of motion for a charged particle in an electromagnetic field can be

written as
d----( mv ) = qE + q ( v B )
dt
where m (SI unit: kg) is the particle mass, v (SI unit: m/s) is the particle velocity, q
(SI unit: C) is the particle charge, and B (SI unit: T) is the magnetic flux density. For
non-relativistic particles, the contribution of the particles to the magnetic force is
assumed to be negligibly small compared to the contribution of particles to the electric
force; thus, the self-magnetic field is neglected. In the next section the contribution to
the electric force based on particle position is considered.

Space Charge Density Calculation

Given an array of idealized point sources such that the position vector of the ith source
is denoted qi (SI unit: m), the space charge density at position r is
N

(r) =

qi ( r qi )

(6-1)

i=1

where is the Dirac delta function, qi is the charge of the ith particle, and N is the total
number of particles. The equation for the charge density is unusable in this form,
however, for the following reasons:
The number of particles may be extraordinarily large, making it impractical to model
all of them.
The charge density becomes infinite at the location of each idealized point source,
making the calculation of the electric potential infeasible with most numerical
methods.
In the following sections we discuss solutions to each of these problems.
MODELING A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF PARTICLES

Because the number of real particles, such as ions or electrons, may be too large for
every particle to be modeled individually, a practical numerical approach is to release a
representative sample of model particles, allowing each model particle to make the
same contribution to the space charge density as an equivalent number of real particles.

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

For example, instead of allocating degrees of freedom for 1012 electrons, it will often
suffice to model 104 particles, each of which has a Charge multiplication factor of 108,
meaning that it represents 108 electrons.

Simplification for Constant-Current Beams

If a beam of particles is released at constant current, then a full time-domain calculation
of the coupled particle trajectories and electric fields may require particles to be
released at a large number of time steps until a stationary solution for the electric
potential is reached. This can be needlessly memory-intensive and time-consuming. An
alternate approach is to release particles at time t=0 and to allow each model particle
to represent a continuous stream of real particles per unit time. The number of real
particles per unit time represented by each model particle is denoted the effective
frequency of release, frel.
The charged particles will tend to contribute to a greater space charge contribution in
regions in which they are moving slowly, causing particles that are released at successive
times to be closer together. This behavior can be conveniently reproduced by defining
an expression for the time derivative of the charge density, rather than the charge
density itself:
d
( r )-------------=
dt

frel, i qi ( r qi )

(6-2)

i=1

The charge density can then be computed by integrating over time, as long as sufficient
time is given so that the particle trajectories can be traced completely through the
modeling domain.
The frequency of release can be computed using the current and number of model
particles that are specified in release feature settings. For example, for an Inlet node
with release current magnitude I (SI unit: A) and number of particles per release N
(dimensionless), the effective frequency of release is
I
f rel = ----------qN
When particle beams are assumed to have constant current, then the space charge
density at the last time step includes contributions from particles at every point along
their trajectories in the modeling domain. Thus, it can be applied as the space charge
density term when computing the electric potential.

THEORY FOR THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, NON-RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

231

The treatment of particle beams as constant-current beams is determined by the

Particle release specification setting in the settings window for the Charged Particle
Tracing physics interface. If Specify release times is selected, the charge density is
computed using Equation 6-1 and is determined by the instantaneous positions of all
model particles. Thus, it is necessary to solve for the particle trajectories and electric
potential in the time domain. If Specify current is selected, the charge density is
computed using Equation 6-2 and is determined by the time history of the model
particle positions.
The difference between the Specify current and Specify release times particle release
specification is thus analogous to the difference between integration over Elements and
time and integration over Elements as described for the Accumulator (Domain) node.
At this point, the effect of a bidirectional coupling between the particle trajectories and
fields has not been considered. For the Specify release times particle release
specification, this does not require special consideration because the trajectories and
fields are computed simultaneously. For the Specify current particle release
specification, however, the trajectories and fields are computed using different study
types, and an additional feedback mechanism is needed. The Bidirectionally Coupled
Particle Tracing study step can be used to generate a solver sequence that does the
following:
1 Set the space charge density contribution due to the particles to zero.
2 Compute the electric potential and other field variables using a Stationary solver,

using the value of the space charge density computed in the previous step.
3 Compute the particle trajectories and the resulting space charge density in the time

domain, using the field variables computed in the previous step.

4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 until a specified number of iterations has been reached.

If the number of iterations taken by the solver sequence is sufficiently large, the
resulting solution will fully account for the bidirectional coupling between the particle
trajectories and stationary fields.
AVOIDING INFINITELY LA RGE VALUES OF TH E SPACE CHARGE DENS IT Y

The Electric Particle Field Interaction node defines a variable for the contribution to
the space charge density by particles in each mesh element. This variable is discretized
using constant shape functions that are, in general, discontinuous across boundaries
between elements. For a mesh element j with volume Vj, and with the Particle release
specification set to Specify release times, the average space charge density j is

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

1
j = ----Vj

ni qi ( r qi ) dV
i=1

where ni is the charge multiplication factor of the ith model particle. The integral on
the right-hand side is a volume integral over element j. The resulting charge density is
the average charge density over the mesh element, which may be written more
concisely as
Nj

1
j = ----Vj

ni qi
i=1

where the sum is taken over all particles that are within mesh element j.
If instead the Particle release specification is Specify current, each model particle
represents a number of particles per unit time which follow along the same path,
determined by the effective frequency of release frel. The space charge within the mesh
element can then be expressed as the solution to the first-order equation
d
1
---------j = ----dt
Vj

Nj

frel, i qi
i=1

Theory for the Space Charge Limited Emission Node

The space charge density of an electron beam can generate significant electric forces
that slow or deflect the beam electrons. The self-repulsion of electrons in the beam
results in a maximum allowed value for the current that is emitted from the surface.
For example, the space charge limited current J in a plane-parallel vacuum diode is
given by Childs Law,
4 0 2e V 3 / 2
J = --------- ------- ----------9 me d2
where 0 is the permittivity of vacuum, e is the magnitude of the charge of the electron,
me is the electron mass, V is the potential difference across the diode, and d is the gap
thickness. The space charge limited current may vary depending on the shape of the
geometry, but the underlying principle remains the same: excessive charge
accumulation in the domain surrounding the emitting surface will repel the released
electrons and prevent them from propagating.

THEORY FOR THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, NON-RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

233

EXTRA DIMENSION DEFINITION

The assumption that electron current is space charge limited at a cathode surface
imposes the condition
nD = 0
at the boundary. The space charge limited current that satisfies this condition is often
not known in advance but can be conveniently computed by creating a fictitious
surface, called the emission surface, to release particles a short distance away from the
cathode. The particle velocity at the emission surface is nonzero and can be computed
by solving Poissons Equation in the thin region between the emission surface and the
cathode. To avoid the explicit creation of geometric entities to represent this narrow
buffer region, the gap between the emission surface and the cathode is treated as a 1D
extra dimension of length s. The electric potential Vxd in the product space of this
1D extra dimension and the selection of the Space Charge Limited Emission node is
then computed using Poissons Equation:
2 V xd
---------------- = ---2

0
x
where x is the position in the extra dimension, i.e. the distance from the cathode. If
the current density in the gap is J0, the charge density can be denoted
J0
= -----v
where v is the particle speed,
v =

2eVxd
---------------me

Thus the electric potential can be obtained by solving the equation

J0
2 V xd
---------------- = ------------------------------------2
0 2eV xd m e
x
for which the following boundary conditions are enforced. At the cathode (x=0),
V xd = 0
n 0 V xd = 0

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

At the emission surface (x=s),

V xd = V
Where V is the electric potential that is computed in the base geometry. Although J0
is currently unknown, it can act as a Lagrange multiplier during the computation of
Vxd, which would otherwise be over-constrained.
STABILIZATION OF THE SPACE CHARGE LIMITED CURRENT
CALCULATION

If the magnitude of the gradient of the electric potential V at the emission surface
becomes too large, it is possible for the electric potential in the extra dimension Vxd to
become negative at some point. This causes the expression for the particle velocity in
the extra dimension to become complex. To prevent this occurrence, the effect of the
space charge density on the electric potential V in the base geometry should not all be
applied at once, but should instead be increased gradually, to allow the space charge
limited current to increase in a stable manner.
In the settings for the Electric Particle Field Interaction node, the Continuation Settings
section controls the way in which the space charge density is included in the calculation
of the electric potential. The Number of iterations is the number of iterations taken
by the Bidirectionally Coupled Particle Tracing study step before the full contribution
of the space charge density term is taken into account. For iteration numbers i<, the
space charge density that is used to compute the electric potential is multiplied by the
scale factor i/.
If the Use cumulative space charge density check box is selected, then the computed
space charge density is expressed as the average charge density over all previous
iterations for which i . This provides additional stability to prevent Vxd from
becoming negative at any location in the extra dimension.
ADDITIONAL SETTINGS FOR SPACE CHARGE LIMITED EMISSION

The Extra Dimension Settings section in the settings window for the Space Charge
Limited Emission node can be used to improve the accuracy and stability of the space
charge limited current calculation.
The Position offset s is the width of the extra dimension in which Vxd is computed.
As s becomes smaller relative to the size of the rest of the geometry, the aspect ratio
of the extra dimension increases and the accuracy of the current calculation increases
while the stability of the calculation is reduced. In general, s should be small relative

THEORY FOR THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, NON-RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

235

to the geometry size and to the radius of curvature of any curved boundaries in the
selection of the Space Charge Limited Emission node.
Use the Initial value of electric potential in extra dimension setting to define the initial
value of Vxd. If Automatic is selected, the initial value increases linearly from 0 at the
cathode to 1 V at the emission surface.
Use the Mesh settings to control the mesh in the extra dimension. The Automatic
settings result in a mesh that consists of 50 elements which increase according to an
arithmetic sequence with an element ratio of 10. As a result, the default mesh is very
fine close to the cathode and coarser at the emission surface.
To maximize the stability of the space charge limited current calculation, the following
should typically be used:
The Number of iterations must be less than the Number of iterations specified in the
Bidirectionally Coupled Particle Tracing study step; otherwise, the effect of the
space charge density will not be fully taken into account.
As the thickness of the extra dimension s is reduced, it is often necessary to increase
the Number of iterations .
The domain adjacent to the selection for the Space Charge Limited Emission node
should be meshed using a boundary layer mesh.

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Particle Field Interaction,

Relativistic Interface
The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic (
) multiphysics interface combines the
Charged Particle Tracing, Electrostatics, and Magnetic Fields physics interfaces. The
Electric Particle Field Interaction and Magnetic Particle Field Interaction multiphysics
coupling features are added automatically. The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic
interface is used to model beams of relativistic charged particles. The particles generate
space charge density and current density terms as they propagate through domains.
The space charge density and current density are then used to compute electric and
magnetic forces, respectively, which are exerted on the particles. This physics interface
requires both the AC/DC Module and the Particle Tracing Module.
When a predefined Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic interface is added from the
AC/DC (
)>Particle Tracing branch (
) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows,
Electrostatics, Magnetic Fields, and Charged Particle Tracing interfaces are added to the
Model Builder. A Multiphysics node is also added, which automatically includes the
multiphysics coupling features Electric Particle Field Interaction and Magnetic Particle
Field Interaction.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Electrostatics interface is used to compute the electric field, the electric
displacement field and potential distributions in dielectrics under conditions where the
electric charge distribution is explicitly prescribed. The formulation is stationary but
for use together with other physics, also eigenfrequency, frequency-domain,
small-signal analysis and time-domain modeling are supported in all space dimensions.
The physics interface solves Gauss Law for the electric field using the scalar electric
potential as the dependent variable.
The Magnetic Fields interface is used to compute magnetic field and induced current
distributions in and around coils, conductors, and magnets. Depending on the licensed
products, stationary, frequency-domain, small-signal analysis and time-domain
modeling are supported in 2D and 3D. Note that the frequency- and time-domain
formulations become ill-posed when approaching the static limit. One may extend the
useful frequency range downward by adding a low conductivity. The physics interface
solves Maxwells equations formulated using the magnetic vector potential and,
optionally for coils, the scalar electric potential as the dependent variables.

THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

237

The Charged Particle Tracing interface is used to model charged particle orbits under
the influence of electromagnetic forces. In addition, it can also model two-way
coupling between the particles and fields. Some typical applications are particle
accelerators, vacuum tubes and ion implanters. The physics interface supports
time-domain modeling only in 2D and 3D. The physics interface solves the equation
of motion for charged particles subjected to electromagnetic forces.
SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example Particle
Field Interaction, Relativistic, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces

and the coupling features. However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time,
followed by the coupling features, these modified settings are not automatically
included.
For example, if single Electrostatics, Magnetic Field, and Charged Particle Tracing
interfaces are added, COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can choose from
the available coupling features but the modified settings are not included.
Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.
TABLE 6-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE
PHYSICS INTERFACE OR
COUPLING FEATURE

MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Electrostatics

No changes.

Magnetic Fields

No changes.

Charged Particle Tracing

For the Charged Particle Tracing interface, under

Particle Properties, the Particle release specification is
set to Specify current. Under Advanced settings, the
Relativistic correction check box is selected.
The Electric Force and Magnetic Force nodes are added
to the Charged Particle Tracing interface. The Domain
Selection for each node is the same as that of the
Charged Particle Tracing interface.

238 |

CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

TABLE 6-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE
PHYSICS INTERFACE OR
COUPLING FEATURE

MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Electric Particle Field

Interaction

The Domain Selection is the same as that of the

participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Electrostatics and Charged Particle
Tracing interfaces are preselected in the Electric
Particle Field Interaction section.

Magnetic Particle Field

Interaction

The Domain Selection is the same as that of the

participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Magnetic Fields and Charged
Particle Tracing interfaces are preselected in the
Electric Particle Field Interaction section.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coupling Features
The Magnetic Particle Field Interaction coupling is described in this section. The
Electric Particle Field Interaction and Space Charge Limited Emission coupling
feature nodes are described for The Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic
Interface.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).
In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what
operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.
The available physics features for The Charged Particle Tracing Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Particle Tracing
for Fluid Flow Interface.

THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

239

 The available physics features for The Electrostatics Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electrostatics Interface in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
The available physics features for The Magnetic Fields Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields Interface
in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
This physics interface requires the addition of the AC/DC Module. This
means that additional feature nodes are available for the Electrostatics and
Magnetic Fields interfaces. These are described in the AC/DC Module
Users Guide and the information is most easily available from the online
Help found when working in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Magnetic Particle Field Interaction

The Magnetic Particle Field Interaction multiphysics coupling (
) computes the
current density due to the motion of charged particles and assigns the current density
components to a set of dependent variables that are defined on the domain mesh
elements that contain the particles. It also applies the accumulated current density as a
source when computing the magnetic vector potential.
The computation of the current density is controlled by the Particle release specification
setting in the settings window for the Charged Particle Tracing interface. If Specify
release times is selected, each particle contributes to the current density based on its
instantaneous location. If Specify current is selected, each model particle is treated as
representing a number of charged particles per unit time, leaving behind a
contribution to the current density in mesh elements it has previously passed through.
SETTINGS

The Label is the default multiphysics coupling name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling in the model) is mpfi1.

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

MAGNETIC PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION

This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. By default, the
applicable physics interface is selected in the Source and Destination lists.
You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder then the applicable list
defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.
If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Source or Destination lists. This is applicable to all
multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the once
present physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

241

Theory for the Magnetic Particle

Field Interaction, Relativistic
Interface
The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic Interface combines charged particle tracing
with the Electrostatics and Magnetic Fields interfaces to model relativistic beams of
charged particles that can create significant space charge density and current density
distributions in the domains that contain the particles. The space charge density may,
in turn, exert a significant electric force on the particles, whereas the current density
contributes to the magnetic field in the surrounding domains, exerting a magnetic
force on the particles.
If all charged particle beams are released at constant current, it is possible to
significantly reduce the simulation time and computational cost by combining a
time-domain calculation of the particle trajectories with a Stationary solver for the
calculation of the electric potential and magnetic vector potential. The two calculations
can then be performed using an iterative procedure that alternates between them until
a self-consistent solution is attained.
An iterative solver loop that consists of a time-dependent solver for computing particle
trajectories and a stationary solver for computing all other dependent variables can be
set up automatically using the Bidirectionally Coupled Particle Tracing study step,
described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Electrostatics and Charged Particle Tracing Equations

Under static conditions, Gauss law can be written as a variant of Poissons equation
( 0 V P ) =
where 0 (SI unit: F/m) is the permittivity of vacuum, V (SI unit: V) is the electric
potential, P (SI unit: C/m2) is the polarization, and (SI unit: C/m3) is the charge
density. The electric field E can be expressed in terms of the electric potential using the
relationship
E = V

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The equation for the magnetic vector potential A may be written as

A
------- + H = J e
t
B = A
where is the electrical conductivity, H (SI unit: A/m) is the magnetic field, B
(SI unit: T) is the magnetic flux density, and Je (SI unit: A/m2) is the external current
density. The constitutive relationship between B and H can be written
B = 0 ( H + M )
where 0 (SI unit: H/m) is the permeability of free space and M (SI unit: A/m) is the
magnetization.
The equation of motion for a charged particle in an electromagnetic field can be
written as
d----( mv ) = qE + q ( v B )
dt
where m (SI unit: kg) is the particle mass, v (SI unit: m/s) is the particle velocity, and
q (SI unit: C) is the particle charge. For relativistic particles, the particle mass is
expressed in terms of the rest mass mr (SI unit: kg):
mr
m = ---------------------------------1 v v c2
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. For non-relativistic particles, the particle mass
can be replaced by the rest mass and the self-imposed magnetic force of the beam is
often negligibly small compared to the electric force, allowing The Particle Field
Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface to be used effectively.
The calculation of the space charge density term and the resulting effect on the electric
force is explained in Space Charge Density Calculation in Theory for the Particle Field
Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface. The contribution of particle motion to the
magnetic force is considered in the following section.

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

243

Current Density Calculation

Given an array of idealized point sources such that the position vector of the ith source
is denoted qi (SI unit: m), the contribution to the current density by particles js at
position r is
N

js ( r ) =

qi vi ( r qi )

(6-3)

i=1

where is the Dirac delta function, qi is the charge of the ith particle, vi is the velocity
of the ith particle, and N is the total number of particles. The equation for the current
density is unusable in this form, however, because the number of particles involved
may be extraordinarily large, and because the transfer of information from the point
particles to degrees of freedom defined on a finite element mesh introduces some
discretization error. In the following sections we discuss solutions to these problems.
MODELING A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF PARTICLES

Because the number of real particles, such as ions or electrons, may be too large for
every particle to be modeled individually, a practical numerical approach is to release a
representative sample of model particles, allowing each model particle to make the
same contribution to the current density as an equivalent number of real particles.
For example, instead of allocating degrees of freedom for 1012 electrons, it will often
suffice to model 104 particles, each of which has a Charge multiplication factor of 108,
meaning that it represents 108 electrons.

Simplification for Constant-Current Beams

If a beam of particles is released at constant current, then a full time-domain calculation
of the coupled particle trajectories and electric and magnetic fields may require
particles to be released at a large number of time steps until a stationary solution for
the electric potential and magnetic vector potential is reached. This can be needlessly
memory-intensive and time-consuming. An alternate approach is to release particles at
time t=0 and to allow each model particle to represent a continuous stream of real
particles per unit time. The number of real particles per unit time represented by each
model particle is denoted the effective frequency of release, frel.
The charged particles will contribute to the current density along their entire
trajectories, not just at their instantaneous positions. This behavior can be conveniently
reproduced by defining an expression for the time derivative of the current density,
rather than the current density itself:

244 |

CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

dj s ( r )
--------------- =
dt

frel, i qi vi ( r qi )

(6-4)

i=1

The current density can then be computed by integrating over time, as long as
sufficient time is given so that the particle trajectories can be traced completely
through the modeling domain.
The frequency of release can be computed using the current and number of model
particles that are specified in release feature settings. For example, for an Inlet node
with release current magnitude I (SI unit: A) and number of particles per release N
(dimensionless), the effective frequency of release is
I
f rel = ----------qN
When particle beams are assumed to have constant current, then the current density at
the last time step includes contributions from particles at every point along their
trajectories in the modeling domain. Thus, it can be applied as the current density term
when computing the magnetic vector potential.
The treatment of particle beams as constant-current beams is determined by the
Particle release specification setting in the settings window for the Charged Particle

Tracing physics interface. If Specify release times is selected, the charge density is
computed using Equation 6-3 and is determined by the instantaneous positions of all
model particles. Thus, it is necessary to solve for the particle trajectories, electric
potential, and magnetic vector potential in the time domain. If Specify current is
selected, the current density is computed using Equation 6-4 and is determined by the
time history of the model particle positions.
The difference between the Specify current and Specify release times particle release
specifications is thus analogous to the difference between integration over Elements
and time and integration over Elements as described for the Accumulator (Domain)
node.
At this point, the effect of a bidirectional coupling between the particle trajectories and
fields has not been considered. For the Specify release times particle release
specification, this does not require special consideration because the trajectories and
fields are computed simultaneously. For the Specify current particle release
specification, however, the trajectories and fields are computed using different study
types, and an additional feedback mechanism is needed. The Bidirectionally Coupled
Particle Tracing study step generates a solver sequence that does the following:

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC PARTICLE FIELD INTERACTION, RELATIVISTIC INTERFACE

245

1 Set the current density contribution due to the particles to zero.

2 Compute the magnetic vector potential and other field variables using a Stationary

solver, using the value of the current density computed in the previous step.
3 Compute the particle trajectories and the resulting current density in the time

domain, using the field variables computed in the previous step.

4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 until a specified number of iterations has been reached.

Given a sufficient number of iterations, the resulting solution will fully account for the
bidirectional coupling between the particle trajectories and stationary fields.
AVOIDING INFINITELY LARGE VAL UES OF TH E CURRENT DEN SITY

The Magnetic Particle Field Interaction node defines a variable for each component of
the contribution to the current density by particles in each mesh element. This variable
is discretized using constant shape functions. For a mesh element j with volume Vj,
and with the Particle release specification set to Specify release times, the average current
density j is
N

1
j s, j = ----Vj

ni qi vi ( r qi ) dV
i=1

where ni is the charge multiplication factor of the ith model particle. The integral on
the right-hand side is a volume integral over element j. The resulting current density
is the average current density over the mesh element, which may be written as
Nj

j s, j

1
= ----Vj

ni qi vi
i=1

where the sum is taken over all particles that are within mesh element j.
If instead the Particle release specification is Specify current, each model particle
represents a number of particles per unit time which follow along the same path,
determined by the effective frequency of release frel. Then the time derivative of the
current density can be expressed as
dj s, j
1
----------- = ----dt
Vj

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Nj

frel, i qi vi
i=1

T he Flui d- P a r ti cl e In t eract i on
Interface
The Fluid-Particle Interaction (
) multiphysics interface combines the Particle
Tracing for Fluid Flow interface coupled with the Laminar Flow interface. The Fluid
Particle Interaction multiphysics coupling feature is added automatically. The Fluid
Particle Interaction interface is used to model the motion of particles in a fluid. As the
particles are accelerated or decelerated by the drag force exerted by the fluid, the
corresponding reaction force is applied to the fluid.
When a predefined Fluid-Particle Interaction interface is added from the Fluid
)>Particle Tracing branch (
) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows,
Laminar Flow and Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interfaces are added to the Model
Builder. A Multiphysics node is also added, which automatically includes the
multiphysics coupling feature Fluid-Particle Interaction.
Flow (

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier-Stokes equations
for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.
A Fluid model is active by default on all the interface selection. The flow interface
domain selection may be edited if the model contains solid domains.
The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interface is used to compute the motion of
particles in a background fluid. Particle motion can be driven by drag, gravity, and
electric, magnetic, and acoustophoretic forces. User-defined forces can be added. It is
also possible to compute the particle mass and temperature.
SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling features. However, if physics
interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling features, these modified
settings are not automatically included.
For example, if single Laminar Flow and Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interfaces are
added, COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can choose from the available
coupling features but the modified settings are not included.

THE FLUID-PARTICLE INTERACTION INTERFACE

247

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.
TABLE 6-3: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A FLUID-PARTICLE INTERACTION INTERFACE
PHYSICS INTERFACE OR
COUPLING FEATURE

MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Laminar Flow

No changes.

Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow

For the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow interface, under

Particle Properties, the Particle release specification is
set to Specify mass flow rate.
The Drag Force node is added to the Particle Tracing
for Fluid Flow interface. The Domain Selection is the
same as that of the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
interface.

Fluid-Particle Interaction

The Domain Selection is the same as that of the

participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Laminar Flow and Particle Tracing
for Fluid Flow interfaces are preselected in the
Fluid-Particle Interaction section.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coupling Features
The Fluid-Particle Interaction coupling feature node is described in this section.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).
In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what
operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

248 |

CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 The available physics features for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Global Nodes for the Particle
Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface.
The available physics features for The Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interface
are listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase
Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Fluid-Particle Interaction
The Fluid-Particle Interaction multiphysics coupling (
) computes a volume force
that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the total drag force exerted on
particles in each mesh element in the selected domains. This volume force contributes
to the total force acting on the fluid in the Laminar Flow interface.
SETTINGS

The Label is the default multiphysics coupling name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling in the model) is fpi1.
FORCE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR

Use this section to specify a proportionality factor to multiply by the change in particle
momentum when computing the volume force.
Select an option from the Force multiplication factor specification listFrom physics (the
default) or User defined.
Is Specify mass flow rate is selected from the Particle Properties section in the Settings
window for The Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow Interface, this section has no effect
because the proportionality factor is based on the mass flow rate of particles, which is
specified in the particle release features. Otherwise, the following conditions apply:
If From physics is selected and the Enable macroparticles check box is cleared in the
physics interface Advanced settings section, the multiplication factor is 1.
If From physics is selected and the Enable macroparticles check box is selected in the
physics interface Advanced settings section, the multiplication factor is based on the

THE FLUID-PARTICLE INTERACTION INTERFACE

249

auxiliary dependent variable for the multiplication factor, which is typically specified
in release feature settings. If the physics interface has name fpt, this variable has
name fpt.nn.
If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Force multiplication
factor n (dimensionless). The default is 1.
COUPLED INTERFACES

This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. By default, the
applicable physics interface is selected in the Source and Destination lists.
You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder then the applicable list
defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.
If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Source or Destination lists. This is applicable to all
multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the once
present physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Theory for the Fluid-Particle

I nte r a c t i o n Interfac e
The Fluid-Particle Interaction Interface combines the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
and Laminar Flow interfaces to model the motion of particles in a fluid in which the
acceleration or deceleration of particles creates a significant volume force that affects
the motion of the fluid. The Fluid-Particle Interaction node computes a volume force
that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the total drag force that the
fluid exerts on particles.
If particles are released into the fluid at a constant mass flow rate, it is possible to
significantly reduce the simulation time and computational cost by combining a
time-domain calculation of the particle trajectories with a Stationary solver for the
calculation of the pressure and fluid velocity. The two calculations can then be
performed using an iterative procedure that alternates between them until a
self-consistent solution is attained.
An iterative solver loop that consists of a time-dependent solver for computing particle
trajectories and a stationary solver for computing all other dependent variables can be
set up automatically using the Bidirectionally Coupled Particle Tracing study step,
described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Laminar Flow and Particle Tracing Equations

For an incompressible single-phase fluid in the laminar flow regime, the Navier-Stokes
equations can be reduced to the following:
T
u
------- + ( u )u = [ pI + ( u + ( u ) ) ] + F
t

u = 0
where u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity, p (SI unit: Pa) is the pressure,
(SI unit: kg/m3) is the density, (SI unit: Pas) is the dynamic viscosity, and F
(SI unit: N) is the total volume force. In the following, let FV denote the contribution
of particle motion to the total volume force acting on the fluid.
The equation of motion of particles in the fluid can be written as

THEORY FOR THE FLUID-PARTICLE INTERACTION INTERFACE

251

d----( m v ) = F D + F g + F ext
dt p
where
mp is the particle mass (SI unit: kg)
v is the velocity of the particle (SI unit: m/s)
FD is the drag force (SI unit: N),
Fg is the gravitational force (SI unit: N), and
Fext is any other external force (SI unit: N).
Several different expressions for the drag force are available; these are described in the
section Particle Motion in a Fluid in Theory for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow
Interface.

Volume Force Calculation

Given an array of idealized point masses such that the position vector of the ith particle
is denoted qi (SI unit: m), the volume force at position r is
N

FV ( r ) =

F D, i ( r q i )

(6-5)

i=1

where is the Dirac delta function, FD,i is the drag force exerted on the ith particle,
and N is the total number of particles. The equation for the volume force is unusable
in this form, however, for the following reasons:
The number of particles may be very large, making it impractical to model all of
them.
The magnitude of the volume force becomes infinite at the location of each
idealized point mass, making the calculation of the electric potential infeasible with
most numerical methods.
In the following sections we discuss solutions to each of these problems.
MODELING A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF PARTICLES

Because the number of real particles may be too large for every particle to be modeled
individually, a practical numerical approach is to release a representative sample of
model particles, allowing each model particle to make the same contribution to the
volume force as an equivalent number of real particles.

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

For example, instead of allocating degrees of freedom for 107 small particles, it will
often suffice to model 104 particles, each of which has a Force multiplication factor of
103, meaning that it exerts a volume force that is 103 times greater in magnitude than
the drag force that acts on it.

Simplification for Constant Mass Flow Rate

If particles are released into the fluid at a constant mass flow rate, then a full
time-domain calculation of the coupled particle trajectories and field variables may
require particles to be released at a large number of time steps until a stationary
solution is reached. The calculation of the fluid velocity and pressure at each time step
can be needlessly memory-intensive and time-consuming. An alternate approach is to
release particles at time t=0 and to allow each model particle to represent a continuous
stream of real particles per unit time. The number of real particles per unit time
represented by each model particle is denoted the effective frequency of release, frel.
The behavior of a continuous stream of particles can be conveniently modeled by
defining an expression for the time derivative of the volume force, rather than the
volume force itself:
dF V ( r )
-------------------- =
dt

frel, i FD, i ( r qi )

(6-6)

i=1

The charge density can then be computed by integrating over time, as long as sufficient
time is given so that the particle trajectories can be traced completely through the
modeling domain.
The frequency of release can be computed using the current and number of model
particles that are specified in release feature settings. For example, for an Inlet node

with release current magnitude m (SI unit: kg/s) and number of particles per release
N (dimensionless), the effective frequency of release is

m
f rel = ------------mp N
When the mass flow rate can be assumed to be constant, then the volume force at the
last time step includes contributions from particles at every point along their
trajectories in the modeling domain. Thus, it can be applied as the volume force term
when computing the fluid pressure and velocity.
The treatment of the constant mass flow rate is determined by the Particle release
specification setting in the settings window for the Particle Tracing for Fluid Flow

THEORY FOR THE FLUID-PARTICLE INTERACTION INTERFACE

253

interface. If Specify release times is selected, the volume force is computed using
Equation 6-5 and is determined by the instantaneous positions of all model particles.
Thus, it is necessary to solve for the particle trajectories, fluid velocity, and pressure in
the time domain. If Specify mass flow rate is selected, the volume force is computed
using Equation 6-6 and is determined by the time history of the model particle
positions.
The difference between the Specify mass flow rate and Specify release times particle
release specification is thus analogous to the difference between integration over
Elements and time and integration over Elements as described for the Accumulator
(Domain) node.
At this point, the effect of a bidirectional coupling between the particle trajectories and
fields has not been considered. For the Specify release times particle release
specification, this does not require special consideration because the trajectories and
fields are computed simultaneously. For the Specify mass flow rate particle release
specification, however, the trajectories and fields are computed using different study
types, and an additional feedback mechanism is needed. The Bidirectionally Coupled
Particle Tracing study step can be used to generate a solver sequence that does the
following:
1 Set the volume force exerted by the particles on the fluid to zero.
2 Compute the fluid velocity and pressure using a Stationary solver, using the value of

the volume force computed in the previous step.

3 Compute the particle trajectories and the resulting volume force in the time

domain, using the field variables computed in the previous step.

4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 until a specified number of iterations has been reached.

If the number of iterations taken by the solver sequence is sufficiently large, the
resulting solution will fully account for the bidirectional coupling between the particle
trajectories and stationary fields.
AVOIDING INFINITELY LA RGE VALUES OF TH E SPACE CHARGE DENS IT Y

The Fluid-Particle Interaction node defines variables for each component of the
volume force exerted by particles on the surrounding fluid. These variables are
discretized using constant shape functions that are, in general, discontinuous across
boundaries between elements. For a mesh element j with volume Vj, and with the
Particle release specification set to Specify release times, the average volume force FV,j is

254 |

CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

F V, j

1
= ----Vj

ni FD, i ( r qi ) dV
i=1

where ni is the force multiplication factor of the ith model particle. The integral on the
right-hand side is a volume integral over element j. The resulting volume force is the
average volume force over the mesh element, which may be written more concisely as
Nj

1
F V, j = ----Vj

ni FD, i
i=1

where the sum is taken over all particles that are within mesh element j.
If instead the Particle release specification is Specify mass flow rate, each model particle
represents a number of particles per unit time which follow along the same path,
determined by the effective frequency of release frel. The volume force within the mesh
element can then be expressed as the solution to the first-order equation
dF V, j
1
--------------- = ----dt
Vj

Nj

frel, i FD, i
i=1

THEORY FOR THE FLUID-PARTICLE INTERACTION INTERFACE

255

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CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Glossary
This Glossary of Terms contains modeling terms in a particle tracing context. For
mathematical terms as well as geometry and CAD terms specific to the COMSOL
Multiphysics software and documentation, see the glossary in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. For references to more information about a term,
see the index.

257

Glossary of Terms
Brownian motion The random drifting of particles suspended in a fluid.
Coulomb force The force between charged particles which is inversely proportional

to the square of the distance between the particles.

dispersed flow A fluid-particle system where particle-fluid and particle-particle

interactions need to be accounted for in the model.

Hamiltonian A convenient way of describing how a system of particles interact with

surrounding fields. The Hamiltonian is usually defined as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energy.
Lagrangian A convenient way of describing how a system of particles interact with

surrounding fields. The Lagrangian is usually defined as the kinetic energy minus the
potential energy.
Maxwellian velocity distribution Describes the probability that a velocity is near a given
value as a function of the temperature of the system.
residence time The average amount of time that a particle spends in a particular

system. The residence time can be computed by adding Auxiliary dependent variables.
space charge effects When the number density of charged particles is sufficiently high,

they can affect the field in which they are placed. This is often referred to as a space
charge effect.
sparse flow A particle laden flow is described as a sparse flow when the particles have

no appreciable effect on the motion of the fluid.

transmission probability The probability that a particle transmits from a given

selected boundary or domain to another.

258 |

CHAPTER 7: GLOSSARY

I n d e x
A

accumulator (node), boundaries 63

accumulator (node), domains 72

charged particle tracing 21

charged particle tracing interface 108

accumulator theory, boundaries 104

theory 143

accumulator theory, domains 103

collision diameter 75

accuracy order, of time stepping 55

collisions (node) 112

acoustophoretic force (node) 176

common settings 14

acoustophoretic force, theory 208

continuous random walk 202

Application Libraries window 16

convective heat losses (node) 188

application library examples

Coulomb force 22, 97

Brownian force 175

Coupling Operators 38

charged particle tracing 110

current density (node) 141

drag force 174

for-end for loop 43

degrees of freedom, out-of-plane 109

dense flow 22

mathematical particle tracing 58

dielectrophoretic force (node) 179

Monte Carlo modeling 40

dielectrophoretic force, theory 207

newtonian, first order 31

diffuse scattering, wall condition 61, 101

particle release feature 35

dilute flow 23

particle tracing 12

disappear, wall condition 60, 100

particle tracing for fluid flow 167

discrete random walk 204

particle-particle interactions 76

dispersed flow 24

sparse flow 23

documentation 15

transmission probability 36

drag force (node) 170

attachment (node) 116

drag force, theory 195

auxiliary dependent variable 62, 99

droplet breakup 188, 216

auxiliary dependent variable (node) 86

droplet sprays in fluid flow interface 194

auxiliary dependent variables, initializing

45

azimuthal particle velocity 109

elastic (node) 114

electric force (node) 136, 178
electric force, theory 206

bndenv operator 12
bounce, wall condition 60, 101
boundary conditions
theory 100
boundary load (node) 185
Brownian force (node) 174
Brownian force, theory 205

electric particle field interaction (node),

multiphysics 226
emailing COMSOL 17
env operator 12
erosion (node) 184
etch (node) 141
excitation (node) 115

INDEX|

259

filtering particles to view 48

magnetic particle field interaction

fluid flow, particle tracing for 22

(node), multiphysics 240

fluid-particle interaction (node), multi-

magnetophoretic force, theory 212

physics 249

mass deposition (node) 185

fluid-particle interaction interface 247

mass flux (node) 186

force (node) 70

massless formulation 69

forces

massless particle 95

on particles in fluids 195

mathematical particle tracing interface 54

freeze, wall condition 60, 100

theory 92

friction force (node) 121

Maxwellian initial velocity distribution 96

general reflection, wall condition 61, 102

mixed diffuse and specular reflection,

gravity force (node) 175

wall condition 61, 102

gravity force, theory 201

Monte Carlo modeling 39

Monte Carlo simulation 175

Hamiltonian 69

MPH-files 16

Hamiltonian formulation 94

multiphysics

heat source (node) 141, 188

I

electric particle field interaction 226

initial conditions, particle position 95

magnetic particle field interaction 240

initial velocity of particles 95

space charge limited emission 227

initializing 45
inlet (node)

multiphysics coupling 249

N

particle tracing 81

nodes, common settings 14

internet resources 14

nonlocal accumulator (node) 84

ionization (node) 116

nonresonant charge exchange (node)

ionization loss (node), particle-matter in-

118

teractions 123
K

Nozzle 193

Kelvin-Helmholtz breakup model 189,

nozzle 190, 219

217

nozzle domain 193

knowledge base, COMSOL 17

L

nuclear stopping (node), particle-matter

interactions 123

Lagrangian 69
Lagrangian formulation 94

Lennard-Jones force 75

outlet (node)

London dispersion force 99

particle tracing 85

Lorentz force 144

out-of-plane degrees of freedom 109

magnetic force (node) 137, 178

override properties (node) 88

magnetic force, theory 206

260 | I N D E X

operators
env and bndenv 12

Lennard-Jones potential 98

Newtons second law 92, 195

particle beam (node) 124

particle continuity (node) 85

sparse flow 22

particle field interaction, non-relativistic

standard settings 14
stick, wall condition 60, 101

interface 224
particle field interaction, relativistic interface 237

surface charge density (node) 140

T

particle index 35

technical support, COMSOL 17

theory

particle mass 69, 135

charged particle tracing 143

particle motion in fluids 195

mathematical particle tracing 92

particle properties (node) 68, 135, 169

particle tracing for fluid flow interface

particle release time 35

195

particle tracing for fluid flow interface

thermophoretic force (node) 182

164, 194

thermophoretic force, theory 209

theory 195

total number of particles 36

particle velocity 69

transmission probability 36

particle-matter interactions (node) 122

particle-particle interaction (node) 74
particle-particle interactions 97
pass through, wall condition 60
Pclet number 26
physics interfaces, common settings 14
R

radiative heat losses (node) 188

user defined (node), collisions 119

velocity reinitialization (node) 71

volume force calculation (node) 186

W wall (node)

particle tracing 60
websites, COMSOL 17

Rayleigh-Taylor breakup model 190, 218

reference edge (node) 135
reference point (node) 134
release (node) 76
release from data file (node) 88
release from edge (node) 86
release from grid (node) 87
release from point (node) 87
residence time 43
resonant charge exchange (node) 117
S

secondary emission (node) 65

shell (node) 180
space charge density calculation (node)
139

space charge effects 21

space charge limited emission (node),
multiphysics 227

INDEX|

261

262 | I N D E X