Dublin Institute of Technology

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School of Surveying and Construction Management

2014-03-31

Contractors Claims for Loss and Expense under

the Principle Traditional Forms of Irish Building
Contract
Tony Cunningham
Dublin Institute of Technology, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation
Cunningham, Tony, "Contractors Claims for Loss and Expense under the Principle Traditional Forms of Irish Building Contract"
(2014). Other Resources. Paper 31.
http://arrow.dit.ie/beschreoth/31

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Contractors Claims for Loss and Expense under the Principle

Traditional Forms of Irish Building Contract
Tony Cunningham
School of Surveying and Construction Management
Dublin Institute of Technology

Abstract
Contractors claims for loss and expense have long been a contentious issue on many building
contracts. Claims are usually resolved during the final accounting process, but where negotiations
fail, they frequently become disputes, with the parties adopting a legal route to resolve their
differences. This review examines the topic of contractors claims in the context of traditionally
procured building contracts in the Republic of Ireland and focuses on the RIAI Yellow and the
GCCC Public Works PW-CF1 Contracts. The study examines the grounds on which a claim for
compensation may be made under these two contracts and describes the administrative procedures
to be observed. The principles underlying the evaluation of claims are discussed, identifying the
various heads of claim which may apply in particular circumstances. The study concludes with a
discussion of various issues in connection with contractual claims under the two forms of contract.
The study is intended as an aid to Irish students undertaking undergraduate and conversion masters
courses in quantity surveying and construction management related disciplines.

Introduction
The cost plan may be based upon countless data from previous schemes, the Contract Bills
measured against a precise set of rules, but the claim is too often settled by going to war.
(Trickey, 1983)
A contractor is entitled to payment for work including variations and may also be entitled to claim
for additional time and money (Murdoch and Hughes, 2008). Contractors claims may be described
as requests for the reimbursement for additional costs resulting from certain employer or
employers agents acts, which delay or disrupt the contractors progress, and which otherwise
would not be recoverable under the contract. They typically arise due to administrators
instructions, late information, postponement, employer interference and/or other employers default.
Claims are an almost inevitable consequence where construction projects are procured through
competitive tendering procedures based on less than perfect tender documentation.
The word claim captures the adversarial nature of the construction industry. March (2009)
comments on the emotive impact of contractors claiming for everything possible and exploiting
every opportunity and loophole in the contract. [and] that much of the disquiet between
developers and contractors has resulted from excessive use of these procedures. In practice,
however, claims often display failings by both parties, such as where a delay is initially caused by
the employers team, and is then complicated by some misunderstanding, shortcoming or
mismanagement by the contractor, sub-contractors, or both.
Claims are usually resolved during the final accounting process, but where negotiations fail, they
frequently become disputes, with the parties adopting a legal route to resolve their differences.
During normal and buoyant periods of the construction cycle claims may, at best, be viewed as an
inconvenience, during difficult economic periods they may present serious difficulties and result in
an increase in expensive legal disputes. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the incidence of claims
and disputes rose during the recent recession, as many contractors attempted to claw back money on
underpriced and uneconomic tenders. Opinions regarding the perception that contractors had
become more claims conscious have been reported by McCaul (2011) who quotes an architects
view:

Even guys that you could have relied on in the past, [are submitting more claims] clients are
becoming much more aware of the cut and thrust of the Industry and clients dont really appreciate
getting taken advantage of all the times on claims and extras. There are legitimate contractors who
submit legitimate claims, that is about 10% of the Industry. There are others who would have been
that way, but have been forced not to be like that. Otherwise they will not be at the table to get the
contracts
[Interviewer] There is a feeling that you are now going to have to exploit drawings and contract
documents. It is the practice among companies to set somebody down to comb through the contract
documents and see the weakness and exploit them.

Claims occur due to the nature of construction works. Employers typically want construction
projects to be built in the shortest possible period and at the least possible cost. Contractors aim to
construct at the minimum cost, and where a project is delayed or disrupted by the employer they
want fair compensation for the additional costs incurred. Claims may arise due to various failures to
effectively manage the procurement process such as: failing to adequately plan the project at precontract stage; providing inadequate information at the time of tendering; using inappropriate
tendering procedures; ordering extensive variations on site; employing deficient nomination
procedures, and causing delay due to other design team deficiencies. Risks and unforeseen events
also give rise to claims.
The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS, 2001) comment that it is the quantity
surveyors responsibility is to determine a proper ascertainment in accordance with the conditions
of contract and the circumstances that have prevailed. They note that while contractors press
hard and sometimes overstate their cases, that the quantity surveyor must not be seen as being at
the other end of a tug-of-war rope to the contractor in an attempt to minimise the reimbursement
of such claims. The surveyor, as an official of the contract, must act in a fair manner to both sides
and avoid the perhaps natural instinct to minimise fellow design team members shortcomings.
This study deals with contractors contractual claims for reimbursement for loss and expense arising
from delays and disruption caused by the employer or his/her agents under the principle Irish forms
of building contract where the design is provided by the employer. The focus is entitlement and
procedure under the Royal Institution of Architects in Ireland (RIAI) Yellow form of Contract
(RIAI, 2012) where quantities form part of the contract, which is used on substantial private sector
contracts, and the Public Works Contract PWC-CF1 version 1-9 published in January 2014 (Office
of Government Procurement, 2014) which is for use on public sector contracts exceeding five

million euro in value. The Public Works Contract (PWC) is also widely referred to as the GCCC
(Government Construction Contracts Committee) Contract.

Types of Claims
Ramus, Birchall and Griffiths (2006) categorise claims as being one of three kinds: common law
claims; ex gratia claims, and contractual claims.
Common law claims
These seek damages for breach of contract at common law. Ramus et al. (2006) explain that these
may arise from causes beyond the express terms of a contract, such as where an employer hinders
the contractors progress or where an architect is negligent in carrying out his/her duties thereby
causing the contractor loss. Knowles (n.d) adds that the late granting of possession of the site, or the
breaching of the implied condition not to interfere with the contractors progress, may be breaches
of contract. He recommends that employers draft contracts to provide for foreseeable breaches by
the employer, his/her agents and the design team, as these would otherwise eliminate the
employers right to seek liquidated damages if a contractor failed to complete on time. As a result,
most standard forms of contract provide for a range of employer default events, and these can
therefore be dealt with under contractual mechanisms.
Occasionally common law claims may take the form of a quantum meruit claim which typically
arises where a person has carried out work where no price has been agreed, or where the original
contract has been replaced by a new one and payment is claimed for work done.
The RICS (2001) explain that the level of damages payable at common law should put the injured
party so far as money can do it, to be placed in the same situation with regard to damages, as if the
contract had been performed. The principles governing damages under common law were
established in Hadley v Baxendale (1854), which provides that the injured party is entitled to
damages: either arising naturally, that is, according to the usual course of things for such breach
of contracts itself, or such as may reasonably be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both
parties at the time they made the contract as the probable result of the breach. These may be
summarised as direct and reasonably foreseeable costs.

Ex gratia claims
These ex-contractual claims are rare and commonly take the form of sympathy payments;
employers have no legal obligation to make them. Ramus et al. (2006) explain that employers may
feel a moral duty to pay a contractor in circumstances where, for example, the contractor has
seriously underpriced an item whose quantity has been increased substantially by a variation.
Ashworth, Hogg and Higgs (2013) comment that a sympathetic client may, on rare occasions, make
such a payment if there has been a long-standing relationship, or because a contractor has provided
a particularly satisfactory performance and has completed the contract on time, to the required
standard within the agreed price, but has incurred a loss through misfortune, or no fault of its own.

Contractual Claims
These arise from the express provisions of the contract.
Ramus et al. (2006) explain that these are by far the most common form of claim and typically
relate to fluctuations, variations, extensions of time and loss and/or expense due to matters
affecting regular progress of the works. This study focuses on the final issue, loss and/or expense
due to matters affecting the regular progress of the works, which is generally regulated by what are
known as claims clauses.
Knowles (n.d) explains that claims clauses set out in express terms the contractors entitlement to
additional payment when particular risks arise. He adds that many claims events cover what would
otherwise be breaches of contract by the employer or the architect acting on his/her behalf, for
example, late issue of drawings. Various events giving rise to a contractual claim do not, however,
amount to a breach of contract. For example, the ordering of variations typically does not cause a
breach of contract, as this action is specifically catered for in most building contracts.
The RIAI contract does not contain a specific claims clause, but instead makes provision under
various clauses for the contractor to be reimbursed in the event of suffering loss or expense caused
by architects instructions or employer defaults. The Public Works Contract and many standard
form contracts in use in the UK contain detailed claims clauses under which the contractor or the
sub-contractor can claim against the other party for loss and expense suffered as a result of delay or
disruption due to certain specified causes.
5

Deciding whether to sue at common law or claim under the contract

Although most contractors claim loss and expense for delay and disruption under the terms of a
contract, they may also have a concurrent right at common law to claim damages for breach of
contract. Murdoch and Hughes (2008) comment:
This feature of claims [employers disruption] provisions means that, in many cases, an
event that enables a claim to be made will also entitle the contractor to recover damages for
breach of contract. In particular, it may amount to a breach of the employers implied
obligation of co-operation with the contractor ... If this is so, it is for the contractor to decide
whether to sue for breach of contract at common law or to claim under the appropriate
clause in the contract. The contractor's right to choose between these remedies can only be
removed by clear words in the contract itself, and this would be most unusual.
They add that the amount payable is not affected by the choice of action as the English courts have
held that the contract term loss and/or expense equates to common law damages 1. They note
however, that there are distinctions between the two actions, the main ones being:
Although broadly similar the two causes of action are not identical. For example, an architects
instruction to postpone work may give rise to a disruption claim under the contract, but such an
instruction would seldom be a breach of contract. However, if an employer failed to provide
access to the site as promised, this is a clear breach of contract, but not all contracts make this
the subject of a claim.
Contractual claims are settled by the contract administrator, usually assisted by the quantity
surveyor, and these are paid through interim certificates. Damages for breach of contract are
awarded by a court or an arbitrator.
The conditions of contract will usually require the contractor to comply with specific procedures
such as serving written notice backed up by details, these must be strictly complied with. If they
are not, then the contractor may be restricted to common law rights to sue for damages.
Knowles, (n.d.) adds that a common law damages claim will be a matter for agreement
between the parties, failing which, the matter will be referred to arbitration or litigation.

This comment is supported by Keane (2001) who views it as being the position of the Irish courts

see below
6

As a general rule, a claim under a specific provision of the contract can be made as soon as the
event occurs and the loss is suffered. By contrast, a contractor who sues for breach of contract
will normally have to wait a considerable period to get to court or arbitration.

The RIAI Contract

Individual contracts vary widely as to the grounds on which a claim may be based. Murdoch and
Hughes (2008) explain that any contractual claim made must be based upon some specific provision
of the particular contract, and that the contractor must incur loss which would otherwise not be
reimbursed under the contract. They add no valid claim arises where contractors experience
unexpected difficulties, or where the work turns out to be more expensive than was originally
estimated.
Grounds for contractual claims
There is no specific claims clause per se in the RIAI form, however two key provisions, Clause 2
and Clause 29(b), entitle the contractor to recover additional monies resulting from disruption and
delay to the works.
Clause 2
This clause sets out the scope of the contract and caters for losses or expense incurred due to
compliance with architects instructions. It states:
If compliance with an Architects Instruction will involve the Contractor in loss or expense beyond
that provided for in or reasonably contemplated by this contract the Contractor shall so inform the
Architect; then, unless such instruction was issued by reason of some breach of this contract by the
Contractor the amount of such loss or expense shall be ascertained by the Architect and be added to
the contract sum.
Keane (2001) comments that such claims must relate to items of loss and/or expense that could not
be claimed under the variations clause (Clause 13). Examples of possible claims arising under this
clause would include instructions dealing with:the ordering of variations; (Clause 2(a))

the correction of discrepancies or divergences between the drawings and the bill of quantities;
(Clause 2 (b))
the removal of materials from the site and the substitution of other materials therefore; (Clause 2
(c))
the opening up for inspection of any work covered up (Clause 2 (d)), - unless of course, this
reveals that the work was not in compliance with the contract;
the postponement of any work to be executed (Clause 2 (e)); Keane (2001) comments that this
power is provided to deal with circumstances which might have altered since the
commencement of the contract. It appears that this provision may encompass the whole of the
work.
any other matters appertaining to the proper execution of the contract (Clause 2 (i)).
Clause 30 (g), dealing with delays and extensions of time, provides that a contractor is entitled to an
extension of time where the Contractor has not received in due time necessary instructions from
the Architect for which he has specifically applied in writing. Keane (2001) comments that
architects must therefore ensure, that they provide timely information to the contractor. This is
usually set out in a Schedule of Information Requirements. He adds that claims for delay and
expense under this heading will not be viewed sympathetically by the Employer and might well
result in a claim against the Architect.
The architect may also issue instructions under the provisions of various clauses within the contract.
For example, appointments under Clause 16 Nominated Sub-Contractors and Clause 17
Nominated Suppliers, are typically made on foot of an architects instruction.
The procedure for dealing with provisional sums under Clause 18, requires the issue of an
architects instruction on the expenditure of the sum. ARM 4 (Construction Industry Federation and
Society of Chartered Surveyors, 2009) defines provisional sums as a sum provided for work or for
costs which cannot be entirely foreseen, defined or detailed at the time the tendering documents are
issued. The general position is that the contractor must make due allowance in the programme for
the execution of such works. However contractors often claim for additional time and loss and
expense if the extent of the works required significantly exceeds that suggested by the provisional
8

sum, or provisional quantities included in the bill of quantities. Such situations may arise where
ground conditions prove to be more difficult that those described and quantified in the bills of
quantities. Standard methods of measurement used in the UK differ from Irish methods and
Murdoch and Hughes (2008) comment that the standard UK JCT contract provides that loss and
expense may be recoverable in situations where the provisional sum relates to undefined work or
where the approximate quantities were not an accurate forecast of the amount of work required. It is
suggested therefore that catch-all contingency sums should be avoided and more defined risk
provisions inserted instead.
Clause 29 (b)
This clause in effect allows the contractor to recover loss and expense as a result of an employers
default. It states:
If any act or default of the Employer delays progress of the Works then the Contractor shall within
five working days of the act or default give notice in writing to the Architect to this effect and any
time lost from this cause shall be ascertained and certified by the Architect and the Employer shall
pay or allow to the Contractor such damages as the Contractor shall have incurred by the delay.
The scope of this provision is broad and provides for a variety of events that would otherwise
constitute a breach of contract. Claims typically arise from three events listed in Clause 30 of the
Contract (Delay and extension of time), these are: failure to grant possession; disruption caused by
the employers direct employees, and other matters of employer default. An example of other
matter of default could be where the employer fails to honour architects certificates, which
permits the contractor, subject to notice, to suspend work, and if the default continues, to
subsequently determine its employment under the contract.
Other Clauses Permitting Claims for Loss and Expense
Clause 28 of the contract deals with late possession. The final sentence of the clause reads: If the
Date for Possession is deferred by the Employer then the Contractor shall be entitled to receive
from the Employer compensation for any loss incurred due to dislocation of the Contractors
organisation . Keane (2001) comments that any delay in handing over possession of the site may
entitle the contractor to both an extension of time, and to compensation under this clause. He adds
that the dislocation of the contractors organisation and the impact on the contractors ability to
obtain other work may be extensive, if for example, the delay postpones a planned April start until
9

September. Each case must be judged on the particular facts. Keane adds that it is in everybodys
interests to ensure that the site is available (or as much of it as is necessary to allow a start to be
made) before the contract is signed.
Delays by other contractors, artists or tradesmen engaged by the employer are covered by Clause 20
where the Employer shall indemnify the Contractor against all claims whatsoever arising from
the employment of such specialists.
Claims Procedures
Having established that the contractor has been delayed or disrupted by the employer and has
incurred loss under the terms of the contract, the next stage is to successfully pursue a claim. The
RIAI Contract provides for the reimbursement of loss and expense arising from various architects
instructions and certain employers defaults.
Regarding architects instructions, paragraph 4 of Clause 2, requires the contractor to inform the
Architect if compliance with an Architect's Instruction will involve loss or expense beyond that
reasonably contemplated by this Contract. Likewise, Clause 29(b) provides that if any act or
default of the Employer delays progress of the Works then the Contractor shall within five working
days of the act or default give notice in writing to the Architect to this effect. In both cases the
architect must then establish the amount of such loss to be reimbursed to the contractor.
Although Clause 2 is not specific regarding the timeframe within which the architect should be
informed, it would be prudent to do so as soon as possible, preferably in writing. Ashworth, et al.
(2013) comment that problems arise when claims are notified or submitted late, as there may be
little opportunity to check the details in these situations. They add that contract administrators and
employers may view such claims unfavourably.
Keane (2001) stresses the importance of the contractor notifying the architect, as required, under
Clause 29(b) within five working days of the occurrence of the event which may, or has caused the
delay. He suggests that failure to do so might not necessarily deprive the contractor of his right,
but it would be prudent to avoid the risk. He offers the following advice regarding claims:
the claim should be made at the time the loss or expense is occasioned and not at the final
account stage.
10

the claim should be specific, and not an all-embracing claim, and

The claim must relate to items of loss and expense that could not be claimed under Clause 13
(variations).
Regarding late claims, Murdoch and Hughes (2008) comment that contract administrators may
simply ignore notice that does not comply with the contracts time limits, and the contractor may be
left with little option other than taking legal proceedings for breach of contract.
Murdoch and Hughes (2008) comment that the contract administrator may require additional
information from the contractor in order to decide whether the claim is justified or to establish the
value of the claim. Knowles (n.d.) quotes Vinelott J.
The contractor must clearly co-operate with the architect or the quantity surveyor giving such
particulars of the loss or expense claimed as the architect or quantity surveyor may require to enable
him to ascertain the extent of that loss or expense: clearly the contractor cannot complain that the
architect has failed to ascertain or to instruct the quantity surveyor to ascertain the amount of direct
loss or expense attributable to one of the specified heads if he has failed adequately to answer a
request for information which the architect if he or the quantity surveyor is to carry out that task.
[Stanley Hugh Leach v London Borough of Merton (1985) 32 BLR 51]

This process may require contractors to reveal otherwise confidential information regarding wages,
bonuses and head office overheads etc. (Ramus et al., 2006). Knowles (n.d) adds that it is clear that
the contractors evidence must prove, on the balance of probabilities, that matters for which the
employer is responsible has directly caused him to suffer loss and/or expense. Amounts ascertained
should be included in the following interim certificate.
Evaluation of Claims
Where a contractors claim is accepted in principle, it must then be evaluated. Although it is the
responsibility of the architect to determine the value of the claim, the evaluation is usually based on
the recommendation of the quantity surveyor following negotiations with the contractor. Murdoch
and Hughes (2008) comment that the evaluation of loss and/or expense claims is seldom an easy
task and add that it demands a deep knowledge and experience of construction, a careful study of
the contract conditions, an appreciation of their legal application, and a knowledge of the relevant
case law. The RICS (2001) emphasise that the ascertainment of loss and/or expense is an exercise
in calculating as precisely as possible that which is incurred by the contractor directly and solely
due to the matters listed in contract.
11

It may be said that claims evaluation under the RIAI form of contract follows the loss and expense
approach adopted by a number of UK contracts including the JCT contract. Murdoch and Hughes
(2008) comment that the English courts have ruled that terms such as direct loss and/or expense,
require a similar valuation approach to that used to in determining an award of damages for breach
of contract. They add that this process requires compensation, not only for out of pocket losses, but
also for loss of profit. They also comment that such an award must comply with the normal rules of
remoteness of damage for breach of contract.
Keane (2001) adds that while the word 'direct' does not occur in the RIAI form, a number of English
cases have examined the distinction between direct loss and consequential loss. He explains that
the courts will examine the facts carefully where a contract seeks to exclude the recovery of
consequential loss. He claims that if the damages result directly and naturally from the event in
question, the Courts will hold that the loss is direct, and any consequential or indirect loss will not
be recoverable.
Keane adds that
The various cases have established; that interest would be payable on a loss and expense
claim if payment were delayed; that the phrase loss and expense can be equated to
damages at common law; that an allowance can be included for office overheads; and
finally, that loss of profit would be a permissible item for loss and expense claims, but only
if the Contractor could prove that he could have employed his resources profitably
elsewhere.
Keane describes loss as any monies that the Contractor should have received, but which he did
not receive, because of one or more of those events listed in the conditions of the relevant contract.
He adds that expense refers to any cost to the Contractor, which is more than it would otherwise
have been, because of the events referred to above.
The RICS (2001) identify various heads of claim which may become reimbursable: (a) extended
and/or increased preliminaries; (b) reduced labour outputs; (c) extra waste or abortive purchase of
materials; (d) inflation; (e) increased head office overheads; (f) loss of profit and, (g) finance
charges. They state that the following items which are frequently claimed by contractors are
generally not admissible: (h) cost of accelerating the works unless specifically required by the
employer and (i) cost of preparing a claim.

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Additional Preliminaries
Many contractors adopt the approach of getting the time first and the money will follow and
contract administrators are often nervous about granting extensions because they fear a loss and
expense claim as a probable consequence. Murdoch and Hughes (2008) comment that where a job
is prolonged certain types of losses are likely to occur and that it is obvious that the cost of on-site
overheads will be greater if the contract period is lengthened. Keane (2001) explains that these can
often be calculated from items in the preliminaries section of the bill of quantities. These may
contain items setting out the site staff costs, site accommodation and temporary offices, plant,
security, scaffolding, temporary services etc.
Knowles (n.d) notes that traditionally, quantity surveyors often valued prolongation claims on a pro
rata basis of the cost of the preliminaries divided by the original contract period. This formulaic
approach may be convenient but it often produces inaccurate results. Errors may arise due to:
the pricing strategy adopted by the contractor in many cases the cost of preliminaries items
are partially contained in the unit rates in the measured works sections of the bill. In such cases
the rates contained in the preliminaries section will not reflect the actual cost of providing the
various facilities. In practice preliminaries are occasionally left largely unpriced.
many preliminaries items represent point costs such as setting out and drying out the works,
these are not time-related, and are therefore not affected by prolongation of the project. Other
items such as scaffolding are only partly time-related, in that the erection, alteration and
dismantling of the scaffold are point activities, while the hire cost is time related.
The formula approach typically does not reflect what actual costs are incurred. These costs
vary considerably during the course of a project and can peak when a project is operating at
maximum intensity. Delays caused during these periods are unlikely to be covered by a pro-rata
preliminaries allocation.
Preliminaries do not cover disruption and the knock-on costs of inefficient or underutilised
resources. For example direct labour or subcontractors may have been diverted or underutilised
during the delay period.

13

Labour Disruption
Murdoch and Hughes (2008) emphasise that a claim for loss and/or expense is based not on delay in
completion of the works, but on the fact that the regular progress of those works have been
disrupted.
The Society of Construction Law Delay and Disruption Protocol (Society of Construction Law,
2002) defines disruption as: (as distinct from delay) disturbance, hindrance, or interruption to a
contractors normal working methods, resulting in lower efficiency. Disruption can affect noncritical, as well as critical activities, and is witnessed as a reduction in productivity through standing
or idle time of labour and plant; part-time utilisation of labour and plant; out of sequence
operations; additional costs resulting from plant, and operatives being brought back after having
already left the site.
Disruption can be difficult to quantify (Hackett 2007, Keane 2001). Hackett notes that quantifying
disruption requires the measurement of labour/resources productivity. He adds that the parties
usually cannot agree on even the crude level of disruption, or indeed the on the actual time lost due
to the various small interruptions/stoppages. He argues that the most convincing way of assessing
disruption is to compare productivity during a normal period with that in an affected period. This
echoes the Society of Construction Laws Delay and Disruption Protocols (2002) approach which
states:
The most appropriate way to establish disruption is to apply a technique known as the
Measured Mile. This compares the productivity on an un-impacted part of the contract
with that achieved on the impacted part. Such a comparison factors out issues concerning
unrealistic programmes and inefficient working. The comparison can be made on the man
hours expended or the work performed.
Nevertheless, there are few hard and fast rules about the calculation of disruption or loss of
productivity, and the difficulty remains that it is impossible to prove what the work would have cost
if the disrupting event had not occurred. Evaluating disruption costs therefore often require
professional judgements based on the best information available.
Regardless of the difficulties in valuing disruption these do not relieve the employer from making a
proper assessment. Knowles (n.d) quotes the following statement of Davies J.

14

It is clearly impossible under the facts of the case to establish with anything approaching
mathematical accuracy the damages sustained by the plaintiffs, but it seems to me to be clearly laid
down there by the learned judges that such an impossibility cannot relieve the wrongdoer of the
necessity of paying damages for his breach of contract and that on the other hand the tribunal to
estimate them whether jury or judge must under such circumstances do the best it can and its
conclusion will not be set aside even if the amount of the verdict is a matter of guess work. [Wood v
Grand Valley Railway Co., (1913) 30 O.L.R. 44]

Ramus et al (2006) comment that quantity surveyors operating in a commercial context should
satisfy themselves as to the reasonableness and adequacy of a contractors claim, adding that in
many instances a degree of calculation or formulaic assessment may be necessary.
Hackett (2007) sets out the following example of ascertaining the loss of output from records.
A variation to part of a foundation of a building delays the erection of one bay of the
precast concrete frame. This prospect is predicted well before it takes place and the clerk
of works and the contractor, at the request of the architect agree records of output both
before and after the period of disruption These are as follows:
(a) Recorded cost of an erection gang per week

3,500.00

(b) Recorded output of the gang prior to the disruption

1.50 bays per week

(c) Recorded output of the gang during disruption

1.15 bays per week

(d) Output of the gang assumed at tender stage deduced from the 1.30 bays per week
contract bill prices
(e) After discussion with the clerk of works it is decided that the 1.25 bays per week
contractor did not manage the disrupted work as well as he
should have done. Had he done so the output would have been
Thus the reasonable cost per bay during disruption is (a)(e) 2,800.00
(3,500.00/1.25)
Whereas the cost per bay before disruption (i.e. that which 2,333.00
should have prevailed had disruption not taken place) is (a)(b)
(3,500.00/1.50)
Therefore the direct loss and/or expense is 467 per bay (2,800.00 - 2,333.00) and this
is the contractors entitlement
Fig 1 Example of a Calculation of a Disruption Claim Adapted From Hackett (2007)

15

Materials
The RICS (2001) comment that extra waste may arise due to moving of materials, stores or
compounds, following the occurrence of a relevant event. Trickey and Hackett (2002) comment
that the most common claims for the extra cost of materials are usually based on materials
becoming surplus to requirements due to, for example, (a) a variation order and (b) extra costs for
protecting materials during periods of delay. They add that the extra cost of ordering small
quantities of materials and additional waste associated with variation orders should be included in
the valuation of the particular variation.
McGovern (2011) notes that surplus materials may arise where an employer changes or omits part
of the works. He notes however, that in an inflationary market contractors will put in place
purchase agreements with suppliers at the outset of the contract to manage material price variation
risks. He suggests that employers may have to take possession of such materials if they form part
of the works being omitted. Trickey and Hackett (2001) suggest, however, that where a contractor
orders materials at an unreasonably early stage, that he/she runs the risk of not being able to
recover the cost of the materials if they are not subsequently required. They add that in any event, a
contractor has no claim for loss and expense where surplus materials have been ordered from a Bill
of Quantities containing excess quantities.
Trickey and Hackett (2001) comment that evaluating surplus materials is straightforward. It
involves verifying that the costs of the invoiced materials are reasonable, and that they are adjusted
to take account of any credit for returns, and/or cancellation charges. They add that there may be
little or no recoverable credit for purpose-made materials and components.
Regarding extra protection, Trickey and Hackett (2001) note that contractors will not be able to
claim the cost of replacing materials which have deteriorated during a prolonged period. However
contractors may be able to claim for the extra costs associated with extending the protective
measures.
This head of claim is rarely encountered in practice, and it is more likely that such costs will form
part of the variation account.

16

Inflation
According to March (2009) inflation will automatically be taken into account in loss and expense
settlements where a contract contains a fluctuations clause. He argues, however, that if the contract
is a firm price arrangement and the client causes delays, then in principle, the contractor is entitled
to be reimbursed for increased costs due to inflation. The contractor is likely to have to pay higher
costs for labour and materials during a period of prolongation particularly where this occurs during
periods of rising demand in the construction cycle. Trickey and Hackett (2001) comment that the
amount of inflation qualifying as loss and expense is never easy to calculate with precision. These
calculations are typically carried out on a formula or indices basis.
Head Office Overheads
Ramus et al. (2006) explain that head office overheads refer to the costs of maintaining head and
branch offices, plant and material yards, rent, rates, directors and staff salaries, office running
expenses, travelling expenses, professional fees, and depreciation. During the normal course of a
business these overheads are recovered by calculating their anticipated cost over the financial year
and identifying an average percentage to be applied to estimates thereby allowing the overheads to
be recovered.
Murdoch and Hughes (2008) comment that contractors are likely to incur additional costs when
works are disrupted because head office management time and effort are often diverted. These costs
are recoverable, provided they are fully documented in the claim. They add that where a project is
prolonged the contractor may also seek additional general head office overheads on the grounds
that (a) the contract is producing a lesser contribution to head office overheads than tendered for
and/or (b) the organisation is now being prevented from taking on other work which would
contribute to the recovery rate. Such losses are extremely difficult to ascertain and Ramus et al
(2006) note for many years surveyors often dismissed such claims on the grounds of
unforeseeabilty, i.e. that they were indirect and too remote from the cause.
The decision in Peak Construction Ltd v McKinney Foundations Ltd (1970) ruled that such losses
are admissible, provided the contractor can show that other work could have been secured. Murdoch
and Hughes (2008) stress that the contractor must, nevertheless, prove such losses. Ramus et al.
(2006) explain that there are two ways of doing this: (a) by assessing the actual costs incurred, and
17

they recommend that this should be done wherever possible, or (b) using a formula approach where
it is not practicable to assess the losses.
There are a number of formulae which are used to evaluate head office overheads. Murdoch and
Hughes (2008) explain that these typically involve calculating a notional daily or weekly
contribution to profit and overheads which is then multiplied by the period of the delay. They
identify two formulae in common use in the UK: Hudsons, formula, and Emdens formula, of
which Hudsons formula appears to be the one more commonly used in practice. This formula
relates the contract value to annual turnover as a means of apportioning head office overheads, and
is expressed as:
Overheads/profit percentage
100

Contract sum x
Contract period

Period of delay

March (2009) comments that the weakness in this approach is that it relates to the tender, which is
based on value, rather than actual costs. Equally, it assumes that the overheads for the contract are
constant throughout its running period. The following matters should also be borne in mind:
Not all overheads are affected by prolongation or disruption;
Part or all of the overhead allocation may be incorporated in the individual rates when pricing
the Bills of Quantities.
Loss of Profit
Ramus et al. (2006) refer to this as profit which the contractor was prevented from earning as a
direct result of an employers default event, for example, not being able to take on other work
because of the prolongation of the delayed project. This process is very similar to a claim for
additional general overheads discussed above and the two items are often dealt with together.
Again, the difficult task of proving such losses falls on the contractor.
Financing Charges/Interest
Ramus et al. (2006) explain that finance charges and interest charges typically arise where the
contractor has to borrow money, or use its own capital to finance the claimed loss and expense.
18

They note that the decisions in the cases of F.G. Minter Ltd v Welsh Health Technical Services
Organisation (1980). and Rees and Kirby Limited v Swansea City Council (1985) established that
the contractor is entitled to such costs when the settlement of a claim is delayed by the employer2.
They add that the appropriate reimbursement would be the interest rate paid, or rates for providing
finance, which would typically be those charged by the contractors bank or certified by the
contractors auditors.
Global Claims
According to Knowles (n.d) The correct manner of presenting a claim is to link the cause with the
effect. He notes however that contractors often attempt to short cut the need to link cause and
effect by use of the global claim. All causes of delay under the global claim method are lumped
together and one overall delay given as a consequence. Ramus et al. (2006) comment that global
claims are often presented when contractor claim that it is not practical to provide a breakdown of
the loss incurred against each employers disruption event. They suggest that contractors may
review the project as a whole, identifying a number of disrupting events and then provide an overall
costing for all these events. Knowles (n.d) considers that the status regarding global claims is that,
whenever it is practicably possible to itemise causes of delay and their individual effects, this
should be done. If, on the other hand, the causes of delay are of an extremely complicated nature, or
the compounding effects of several causes cannot be distinguished one from another, then a global
claim may, if the court so decides, be acceptable.

The Public Works Contract

Securing cost certainty is a key objective of public sector clients undertaking construction projects
and has underpinned recent initiatives to improve performance within the sector. The Capital Works
Management Framework launched by Department of Finance in 2004 comprises a series of four
pillars which sets out practice and procedure for the delivery of construction projects. It
incorporates contractual provisions, guidance material and technical procedures covering the
planning, implementation and review phases of projects. According to the National Public

Murdoch and Hughes (2008) cast some doubt as to the extent of the legal authority for these

decisions but note that they have since been applied to other cases.
19

Procurement Policy Unit (NPPPU) (2007) the Framework aims to establish an integrated
methodology and a consistent approach to the planning, management and delivery of public capital
works projects with the objectives of greater cost certainty, better value for money and more
efficient project delivery. The Public Works Contracts, PWC-CF1, in the context of this study, is a
key component of the Framework.
The PWCs have been designed, primarily, to deliver cost certainty, enable lump-sum fixed-price
contracts to be awarded, rebalance risk, achieve value for money; and deliver projects more
efficiently (NPPPU, 2007). The NPPPU claims that it is possible to achieve these aims by requiring
design teams to provide comprehensive design information; contracting authorities to allocate
known risks in a considered and balanced manner and, contractors to implement improved
management practices. The NPPPU also claims that the forms of contract will support these
objectives through being expressed in ordinary language designed to be easily understood, having
an improved structure and defining roles so there should be few disputes about who is to do what
and when.
PWC-CF1 was introduced in February 2007 and supersedes the Government Authorities and Local
Authorities (GDLA) contract, which, in its approach to claims, was almost identical to that of the
RIAI contract discussed above. Fahy and Forde (2014) comment that the PWCs are largely
original documents rather than modified versions of well known forms of contract used elsewhere
and they contain many novel concepts. They add that this originality means there are no sources to
consult when disagreements arise over how the contracts provisions are to be interpreted. The
dispute resolution procedures included in the PWCs are private and confidential with the result that
those involved with interpretation of the PWC have tended to operate in a vacuum. They also note
that this lack of binding interpretation is being complicated by frequent revisions to the contract.
They say that their experience has been that in any dispute subclauses 10.6 and 10.7 which set out
the mechanisms by which the Contract Sum may be altered, always come up for discussion very
frequently with contrasting views as regards their interpretation. These subclauses are at the heart
of this study.
Commenting on these matters, The Society of Chartered Surveyors Ireland (SCSI) (2014) noted that
unidentified changes to the forms of contract were far too frequent and are undermining familiarity
with, and are generating mistrust of the contract. The Society also notes that the lack of precedent
20

from the resolution of previous disputes is hindering the building up of a knowledge base regarding
the contract.
Contractors claims are dealt with under Clause 10 of the PWC. This clause contains the following
nine subclauses: 10.1 Compensation Event; 10.2 Contractor to Pay Employers Cost of Checking
Quantities; 10.3 Contractor Claims; 10.4 Proposed Instructions; 10.5 Employers Representatives
Determination; 10.6 Adjustments to Contract Sum; 10.7 Delay Cost; 10.8 Price Variation, and 10.9
Employers Claims. This study is primarily concerned with subclauses 10.1, 10.3, 10.6 and 10.7.
Grounds for contractual claims
The Department of Finances objective of securing greater cost certainty is apparent from the outset
of the Contract. Article 4 of the Articles of Agreement states that:
The Contractor has included in the initial Contract Sum allowances for all risks, customs, policies,
practices, and other circumstances that may affect its performance of the Contract, whether they
could or could not have been foreseen, except for events for which the Contract provides for
adjustment of the initial Contract Sum.
The explanation notes to Schedule 1K of the Contact defines unforeseeable as a
A condition, circumstance or occurrence is unforeseeable if an experienced contractor tendering
for the Works could not have reasonably foreseen it on the Designated Date, having inspected the
Site and its surroundings and having satisfied itself, insofar as practicable and taking into account
any information in connection with the Site provided by the Employer, as to all matters concerning
the Site, including its form and nature and its geotechnical, hydrological and climatic conditions.
This is a clear expression that the Contract Sum will not change except for the occurrence of
specific risk events set out in the Contract. The NPPPU (2007) advises that these risks should be
allocated to the party which is best able to manage them. The risk events which may be retained by
the employer are set out in Schedule Part 1 Section K, which is discussed below.
Clause 10 of the Contract Claims and Adjustments deals with contractors claims, together with
variations and extensions of time. These are considered to be Compensation Events.
Subclause 10.1 Compensation Event provides that contractors will be compensated, i.e. gain
additional payment, where the contract so provides, only if the contractor is blameless, has

21

minimised unavoidable cost, and has fully complied with the notice and information procedures. It
reads:
10.1.1 Subject to and in accordance with this subclause 10.1, if a Compensation Event occurs the
Contract Sum shall be adjusted [upward or downward] by the amount provided in subclause 10.6.
However, if the adjustment is an increase it shall only take effect to the extent that all of the
following apply to the Compensation Event:
1
The Compensation Event is not a result of the Contractors or Contractors Personnels act
or omission or the Contractors breach of the Contract
2
The Contractor makes all reasonable efforts to avoid and minimise the adverse effects of the
Compensation Event.
3
The Contractor has complied with this clause 10 in full [including giving notices and details
within the time required]
4

The Contract does not provide otherwise.

10.1.2 The Contractors sole remedies for a Compensation Event shall be those stated in the
Contract.
The Contract envisages that the Contract Sum can only be adjusted on the basis of a Compensation
Event. The Compensation Events are set out in Schedule Part 1 Section K of the Contract which
contains twenty one events that may be Delay Events and/or Compensation Events, depending on
whether they indicated by a yes or no in the Schedule. Seventeen of the events are potential
Compensation Events. The following Tables 1 and 2 are extracted from the Schedule in Part 1K.
Table 1 identifies twelve default Compensation Events where employers bears the risk. Table 2
contains a further five risks which the employer, may retain, or alternatively, allocate to the
contractor.
In brief, the twelve default Compensation Events are: change orders; unnecessary opening up; work
suspension of the work by the employer; or contractor; incorrect site or setting out information;
early employer occupation of works; late instructions; failure to provide access; failure to give a
work item or other thing required by the contract; unforeseeable interference by employers
personnel; rectifying loss / damage insured by the employer; and other, unspecified, employer
default.

22

1. The Employers Representative gives the Contractor a Change Order

2. The Employers Representative directs the Contractor to search for Defects or their cause and no Defect is
found, and the search was not required because of a failure of the Contractor to comply with the Contract
3. The Employers Representative directs the Contractor to suspend work under subclause 9.2
4. The Contractor suspends work in accordance with subclause 12.3
5. There is a factual error in information about the Site or setting out information in the Works Requirements.
[This does not include an error of interpretation]
6. The Employer takes over part of the Works before Substantial Completion of the Works and any relevant
Section
7. The Employer's Representative does not give the Contractor an instruction required under subclause 4.5.4
within the time required under subclause 4.11.2 when the Contractor has asked for the instruction in accordance
with subclause 4.11.1
8. The Employer does not allow the Contractor access to and use of a part of the Site in accordance with
subclause 7.1
9. The Employer does not give the Contractor a Works Item or other thing as required by the Contract when the
Contractor has asked for the instruction in accordance with subclause 4.11.1
10. Employers Personnel interfere with the execution of the Works on the Site, and the interference is
unforeseeable and not in accordance with the Contract
11. The Employer instructs the Contractor under subclause 3.2.3 to rectify loss of or damage to Risk Items for
which the Contractor is not responsible
16. A breach by the Employer of the Contract delaying the Works that is not listed elsewhere in this table.
Table 1 Compensation Events in the PWC CF-1 Form of Contract

The employer also has the option of allocating the following risks to the contractor as
Compensation Events: incorrect quantities exceeding 500 in value; archaeological finds;
unforeseeably adverse ground conditions or obstructions; unforeseeable buried utilities, and delays
caused by utility companies. These are risks which would previously have been borne by the client
and their transfer to the client has caused considerable disquiet within the industry.
17. A difference between the Contract value of the Works according to the quantities and descriptions in the
Bill of Quantities [taking into account the method of measurement identified below when it applies] and the
Contract value of the Works described in the Works Requirements, because the Bill of Quantities, when
compared with the Works Requirements:
includes an incorrect quantity or
includes an item that should not have been included or
excludes an item that should have been included or
gives an incorrect item description
And the difference for an item in, or that should have been in, the Bill of Quantities is more than 500
18. An item of value or archaeological or geological interest or human remains is found on the Site, and it was
unforeseeable
19. The Contractor encounters on the Site unforeseeable ground conditions or man-made obstructions in the
ground, other than Utilities
20. The Contractor encounters unforeseeable Utilities in the ground on the site
21. Owners of Utilities on the Site do not relocate or disconnect Utilities as stated in the Works Requirements,
when the Contractor has complied with their procedures and the procedures in the Contract, and the failure is
unforeseeable
Table 2 Optional Compensation Events in the PWC CF-1 Form of Contract

23

There are four Delay Events identified in Schedule IK which are not Compensation Events, these
are: weather events; strike/lockout; court order not caused by the employer, and rectifying
loss/damage insured by the contractor. Force majeure and national material and labour shortages,
which are both grounds for granting an extension of time under the RIAI form of contract, do not
qualify as Delay Events in the Public Works Contracts.
Claims Procedures
The procedures for submitting claims under the PWC contract are set out in subclause 10.3, which
requires strict notification and information follow-up procedures. Section 10.3.1 reads
If the Contractor considers that under the Contract there should be an extension of time or an
adjustment to the Contract Sum, or that it has any other entitlement under or in connection with the
Contract, the Contractor shall, as soon as practicable and in any event within 20 working days after
it became aware, or should have become aware, of something that could result in such an
entitlement, give notice of this to the Employers Representative. The notice must be given
according to subclause 4.14 and prominently state that it is being given under subclause 10.3 of the
Contract. Within a further 20 working days after giving the notice, the Contractor shall give the
Employers Representative details of all of the following:
(1) all relevant facts about the claim
(2) a detailed calculation and, so far as practicable, a proposal, based on that calculation, of any
adjustment to be made to the Contract Sum and of the amount of any other entitlement claimed by
the Contractor
(3) if the Contractor considers that the programme contingency referred to in subclause 9.4 should
be used or that there should be an extension of time, the information required under subclause 9.3,
and, so far as practicable, a proposal, based on that information for any use of the programme
contingency or any extension to the Date for Substantial Completion of the Works and any affected
Section.
The Contractor shall give any further information about the event or circumstance requested by the
Employers Representative.
This subclause requires the contractor to submit a formal written claims notice within twenty
working days of becoming aware, or should have become aware, of the occurrence of a
Compensation Event. This claim must be followed up within a further 20 working days with: all
relevant details; a detailed valuation of, or proposal in relation to the claim, and a proposal for the
use of the Programme Contingency or application for an extension of time. Further information may
be requested by the employers representative. The notice must state that it is given pursuant to
24

subclause 10.3 of the Contract and must comply with the provisions of subclause 4.14
(Communications; purposefully interpreted).
Subclause 10.3.1.(3) refers to the Programme Contingency which may be applied in these
situations. This has the effect of reducing the overall extension of time and delay payment which
the contractor will become entitled to. This issue is discussed further below. The Programme
Contingency applies only in the event of a Compensation Event and does not apply to extensions of
time for sections of works.
Subclause 10.3.2 establishes a time bar in relation to the providing notice. Knowles (n.d) describes
such clauses as forming a condition precedent to the contractors entitlement to levy a claim. In
other words, if the procedure is not followed then the contractor will lose his rights to levy a claim
under the conditions of contract. Clause 10.3.2 reads:
If the Contractor does not give notice and details in accordance with and within the time provided in
this subclause 10.3, except where the Contractor has been required to and has given a proposal
complying in full with subclause 10.4 [notwithstanding anything else in the Contract] the
Contractor shall not be entitled to an increase to the Contract Sum or extension of time or use of the
programme contingency referred to in subclause 9.4 [and the Employer shall be released from all
liability to the Contractor in connection with the matter].
The requirements in relation to strict notice do not apply where the contractor has complied with a
request for a proposal pursuant to subclause 10.4
Clause 10.3.3 provides that where the claim has a continuing effect the contractor must update and
provide information on a monthly basis setting out the delay and cost already incurred and if
practicable proposing a final adjustment to the Contract Sum and Date for Substantial Completion.
Clause 10.3.4 requires the contractor to keep detailed contemporaneous records of the claim and
make these available to the employers representative.
One of the main criticisms of the PWC contract is the perceived bureaucracy involved in its
administration, There is a view supported by recent undergraduate research within Dublin Institute
of Technology that both consultants and, in particular, contractors have had to deploy additional
resources to administer the contract. This has drawn some interesting commentary from the
industry.

25

McNamara (2011) investigated the notifications and submissions required under the contract.
Respondents to his survey of twenty one industry participants commented on, amongst other issues,
losing entitlements as a result of becoming time-barred. One claimed:
From the contractors viewpoint, the administration of these provisions is extremely onerous
and expensive. The man hours required to provide detailed notices and back-up in the tight
time frames concerned, takes away from attention to the actual construction of a project on
site. Effectively, a new layer of staff is required on a project to handle the administration
efficiently.
Another respondent identified the impact on the contractors productivity:
The contract dictates that change orders have to take priority and notifications need to be
issued as early as possible to negate the risk of time-bar. This means that other work can
suffer given the urgency with which change orders must be dealt with.
The link with disputes was identified in this contribution:
Condition precedent clauses are very expensive for the contractor to comply with. It is
difficult to provide sufficient programme and cost information within the strict timeframes
stated in the contract. The process leads to conflict with design team members.
Other contributors referred to a constant barrage of notices, difficulties in obtaining accurate
information and details from subcontractors in time, the inflaming of adversarial attitudes and the
undermining of the relationship between the contractor, consultants and the employer. (McNamara,
2011) These concerns have more recently been expressed by the SCSI (2014)
There is an overwhelming view that process is now dominating project delivery.
Unfortunately, there are examples on some projects of the contract forcing both employers
and contractors to adopt an overly legalistic approach to the project. The emphasis is then on
the process, paperwork and documentation often to the detriment of the build and quality of
the finished building. This can, and indeed has led to projects being executed in a
confrontational and antagonistic manner.
There is a heavy administrative burden in managing the contract and in particular the
cumbersome procedures of change orders. can be incredibly time consuming and usually
outside of the periods envisaged in the contract.
Subclause 10.3 has drawn particular criticism from the SCSI (2014) who argue that contractors may
be deprived of their costs by failing to observe an extensive list of requirements that are somewhat
difficult to understand and difficult to comply with entirely whereby the employer is enriched by
the contractors labours. In addition, the Society notes that some contractors claim that the notice
26

provisions only commence claims when the contractor considers that he has a contractual claim
and this may be a considerable time after the event. The Society adds that contractors can, in effect,
store up claims, release them all at once, thereby ambushing the employers representative and
making it almost impossible for him/her to respond within the required twenty days.
Evaluation of Claims
The PWC-CF1 contract employs a very different approach to valuing contractors claims for
reimbursement than the RIAI form. The provisions for adjusting the Contract Sum are set out in
subclauses 10.4, 10.5, 10.6 and 10.7.
Subclause 10.4 Proposed Instructions
Clause 10.4 provides that the employers representative can require the contractor to submit
proposals regarding a proposed instruction. The contractor must respond within twenty working
days and set out: a detailed calculation of any resulting adjustment to the contract sum;
information regarding any resulting delay, and/or a proposal for using the Programme Contingency
and/or request for an extension of time. The employers representative may also require any
contractors documents needed in relation to the proposed instruction or a timeline for their
production. If there is a proposal to omit work the contractor may be requested to submit a revised
programme and if appropriate, a proposal regarding an earlier date for Substantial Completion
(NPPPU, 2007)
Instances where proposed instructions may be required include where a client is considering
instructing change orders, or is seeking an up front lump sum quotation relating to a
Compensation Event. As such, it is similar to an accepted quotation arrangement which may be
made under other forms of contract. It is suggested that where an employers representative accepts
such a proposal, that this would be exhaustive of the contractors right to claim for additional
further loss and expense not included in the proposal.
Subclause 10.5 Employers Representatives Determination
The employers representative has twenty working days to respond to a claim under subclause 10.3
or a proposal under subclause 10.4 and must: (a) seek additional information or revised proposals,
(b) accept the claim or proposal, or (c) reject the claim or proposal.
27

Where additional information or a revised proposal is sought the contractor must provide this within
ten working days, and the employers representative must make a determination within a further ten
working days. The employers representative cannot seek further information at that stage. Where a
claim or proposal is accepted the employers representative must notify the contractor of that
acceptance and expend the Programme Contingency or grant an extension of time and/or adjust the
Contract Sum. Where a proposal is rejected the contractor must be notified that the proposed
instruction will not proceed. (NPPPU, 2007)
Clause 10.5.2 provides that the employers representative may [but is not bound to] determine an
extension of time for a Compensation Event that is a breach of the Contract by the Employer on its
own initiative even if the Contractor has not made a claim or proposal under subclauses 10.3 or
10.4.
The NPPPU (2007) notes that employers representative may make his own determination on any
extension of time, use of the Programme Contingency or adjustment to the contract sum despite the
contractor not having made any claim or proposals under the normal condition precedent channels
The Unit comments that this authority is:
a very important potential relaxation of the otherwise exacting provisions of the Contract in
relation to notice of claims. It will arguably impose an added responsibility on the ER to
decide in each case where he feels an extension of time or adjustment to the Contract Sum is
appropriate, whether or not to grant it where the Contractor would otherwise have lost his
entitlement because of a failure to give notice.
This provision seems to contradict the condition precedent requirements stated earlier in subclause
10.3 and introduces a degree of uncertainty as to whether strict compliance with the notice,
information and ascertainment procedures set out in that subclause is obligatory.
Subclause 10.6 Adjustments to the Contract Sum
The operation of subclause 10.6 is fundamentally important to the administration of claims and
operates where a proposal for an instruction has not been sought. Its focus is on valuing varied work
after the event. The opening sentence reads: Adjustments to the Contract Sum for a Compensation
Event shall only be for the value of any additional, substituted and omitted work required as a
result of the Compensation Event under this subclause 10.6 and any delay cost under subclause
10.7.
28

Fahy and Forde (2014) consider this sentence to be very significant and merits careful
consideration. They suggest that this sentence means that there are only the following two means
of adjusting the Contract Sum:
1. due to the impact of the Compensation Event on the work to be completed, and
2. due to the impact of the Compensation Event on the time for completion.
That is, the Contract Sum will only be adjusted for varied or delayed work. The subsequent rules
governing varied work i.e. additional, substituted, and omitted work generally correspond with the
valuation rules for variations included in the RIAI, with the main difference being the additional
detail in how cost reimbursement daywork claims are handled.
The terms additional and omitted work present little difficulty, however Fahy and Forde (2014)
consider the term substituted as comprising not only a mix of addition/omission but it also covers
work carried out under different constraints. They are of the view:
All of the subclauses of 10.6 provide for the valuation of substituted work and it is
suggested that this must include for changes in constraints under which the work is carried
out where change can be imposed by any one of the Compensation Events in a particular
contract
It appears, therefore, that original work which may have been delayed or disrupted due to changed
conditions brought about by the Compensation Event may be covered by this term. If this
interpretation is correct the disrupted work could be valued by applying the appropriate valuation
rules set out in subclauses 10.6.2 to 10.6.4, these are: adjusted contract rates, fair valuation, and on
the basis of cost reimbursement. Fahy and Forde comment that the valuation rules are in
hierarchical order, but that cost reimbursement under subclause 10.6.4 is an alternative to the other
methods and is only applied at the employers representatives discretion. This option is valued on
the basis of rates inserted by the contractor in Schedule Part 2D of the Contract.
With regard to the valuation of additional or substituted work under subclause 10.6.4 Schedule Part
2D requires contractors tender submissions to include:
hourly rates for craftspeople, general operatives and apprentices;
percentage additions to the cost of materials, and
29

percentage additions or deductions to the cost of plant

The Department of Public Expenditure and Reform (DPER) (2013) advise that these should not be
less than 75% of the wage rates provided by the Registered Employment Agreements. The rates
inserted by contractors form part of the tender assessment and contract award criteria. Fahy and
Forde (2014) remark that this leads contractors to tender unrealistic rates in Schedule Part 2D, with
the result that where work is valued on this basis that it is likely to be carried out at a loss. They
indicate that the default valuation rates for labour under this subclause are approximately 50% of
the actual costs of employing operatives.
The second matter referred to in the opening sentence of subclause 10.6 brings into play the
Programme Contingency.
Programme Contingency
Contractors are required under subclause 9.4.2. to include in the initial Contract Sum and shall
allow in its programme a contingency for delay to the Date for Substantial Completion of the Works
caused by Compensation Events.
The Programme Contingency applies only if the event is a Compensation Event. Subclause 9.4.4
rules that it does not apply to extensions of time for sections of the works, or to Delay Events which
are not Compensation Events. Therefore if a Delay Event is not a Compensation Event, a weather
event for example, an extension of time is allowable in full. In effect the Programme Contingency
reduces the allowable time for extensions of time and for delay payments. Compensation Events
cumulatively reduce, or exhaust, the Programme Contingency.
The Programme Contingency comprises two thresholds which are entered in Schedule 1 Part K.
Subclause 9.4.3 governs how the Programme Contingency operates:
(1) Unless delay exceeds the first threshold, there are no extensions.
(2) If delay exceeds the first threshold but is less than or equals the sum of the first threshold
and twice the second threshold, extensions equal half of the result obtained by subtracting
the first threshold from delay.
(3) If delay is more than the sum of the first threshold and twice the second threshold,
extensions equal delay minus the first threshold minus the second threshold.
30

These rules are expressed by the following formulae

Rule 1: If D T1 then E = 0
Rule 2: If T1 D but (T1 + 2T2) Then E = (D - T1)/2
Rule 3: If D > (T1 + 2T2) Then E = D - T1 - T2
Figure 5 below sets out various examples of entitlements to extensions of time for delays caused by
Compensation Events where the first threshold 1 (T1) is 15 days and the second threshold (T2) is 20
days.
Delay

Extension

Compensation Entitlement
Per Day

15

16

50%

35

10

50%

55

20

50%

56

21

100%

Figure 2 Example of operation of a Programme Contingency

The Table indicates that the duration covered by the Programme Contingency T1 + 2T2 is 55 days.
No compensation is paid until day 16. 50% of the agreed or proven rate for compensation will then
be paid between day 16 and day 55. Thereafter full compensation will be paid. It should be noted
that the minor works contract contains only one threshold.
Hussey (2009) regards the Programme Contingency as the most innovative and ingenious of all the
provisions contained in the contract. and argues that the mechanism will hugely discourage the
making of claims. He remarks that on the face of it, this mechanism appears to be generous to the
contractor, because if no compensable delays occur, the contractor keeps the premium included in
its tender to cover the Programme Contingency. He explains however that contractors never allow
for the full price of this provision as the rates tendered to cover the Programme Contingency forms
part of the tender assessment process and contract award criteria. He concludes that the tenderer
who succeeds is likely to have nominated a very low sum for his daily cost.
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The SCSI (2014) regards the Programme Contingency as most unusual and call for it to be
removed from the contract. They support Husseys (2009) observation regarding its pricing and
claim that this enables employers to take an unfair advantage. They note instances of excessive
contingencies relative to the contract period and claim that the mechanism promotes inefficiency by
prompting design teams/ employers to use up the contingency where there might not otherwise be a
delay.
Subclause 10.7 Delay Cost
Subclause 10.7 governs how delayed work is to be administered and contains six provisions relating
to: (1) reimbursement, (2) concurrent delays, (3) delays which overlap holiday periods, (4)
disruption and knock-on effects. The final two subclauses, 10.7.5 and 10.7.6 are relatively
straightforward and non-contentious and are not examined in detail. The former provides that there
will be no delay cost paid for an extension of time to a section of the work, while the latter deals
with the application of daily delay rates where multiple daily rates are included in the Schedule Part
2D. (Fahy and Forde, 2014)
Subclause 10.7 1 sets out the reimbursement provisions, it states:
10.7. 1.
If the Date for Substantial Completion of the Works has been extended because of a
Compensation Event [and not otherwise, and subject to subclause 10.7.2], there shall be added to
the Contract Sum an amount for delay cost, either (whichever it says in the Schedule, part 1K)
(1) for each Site Working Day for which the Date for Substantial Completion of the Works has
been extended because of the Compensation Event, the daily rate of delay cost tendered by the
Contractor in the Schedule, part 2D or
(2) the expenses [excluding profit and loss of profit] unavoidably incurred by the Contractor as a
result of the delay to the Date for Substantial Completion of the Works caused by the Compensation
Event in respect of which that date has been extended under the Contract.
This clause provides that compensation will only paid after Substantial Completion has been
extended on account of a Compensation Event. The compensation provisions are discussed below.
The contractor will then be reimbursed at either
the daily rate tendered by the contractor in Schedule Part 2D multiplied by the extension of
time, or
32

the expenses unavoidably incurred by the contractor, excluding profit and loss of profit.
The method of evaluation is entered by the employer in Schedule 1 Part K. If neither option is
indicated the first option, daily tender rates, applies.
The favoured approach, reimbursement according to daily tendered rates, provides clients with a
fair indication of their potential financial exposure should they delay the contractor. The contractor,
however, must predict the likely delay costs, spanning a range of possibilities from the best to worst
case scenarios and commit to a single recovery rate. The actual cost, of course cannot be predicted
in advance and bearing in mind the comments made in relation to the Programme Contingency
above, it is likely that the contractor will be tempted to price these at an unrealistically low level.
The Schedule states that if the tendered amount is left blank it will be read as zero. Nevertheless
such rates may be priced high, OLeary (2009) is of the opinion that under this evaluation option
that there is no opt out clause for the employer, nor is there any requirement for this delay cost to
be either reasonable or fair.
The NPPPU (2007) comment that:
the insertion by the Contractor of a delay rate in the Schedule and its use by the Employer in
compensating for relevant delays that may occur, greatly simplifies the entire process of
payment for delays to a contract. When taken in conjunction with the provision in subclause
10.7.4 to the effect that the Contractor has no other entitlement for delays, it should act so as
to avoid global and other claims for prolongation of contracts that have dogged the industry
over the years.
The counter argument to this approach, that it encourages contractors to tender unrealistic rates, has
been made above by Hussey (2009). The SCSI (2014) adds that contractors are very exposed if
inadequate provision is made (for delays).
The second option, expenses unavoidably incurred applies only in the event that the daily tendered
rates option is not indicated in tender documents. It is suggested that where this arrangement is
stipulated that the contractor would have to prove the cost incurred by the various elements of the
contractors organisation arising from the particular Compensation Event for which an extension
has been awarded. This approach may suggest that the proven damages approach discussed in
relation to the RIAI contract above, could be used.

33

The Contract, however, removes a number of the heads of claim which could generally apply in
RIAI contracts. This particular subclause, 10.7.1 (2), specifically excludes entitlement to profit and
loss of profit as elements of a claim. The 36 month fixed-price nature of the contract effectively
eliminates labour and material price fluctuation (inflation) claims on all but the largest of building
contracts. In addition the requirement to notify, detail and determine compensation claims within
the timeframe set out in the contract removes the requirement to seek interest and financing costs in
respect of the late settlement of claims.
Reimbursement Issues
Subclause 10.7.2 refers to concurrent delays and rules that if there are one or more causes of a
delay, one of which is not a Compensation Event, the contract sum will not be adjusted for the
period of concurrent delay, i.e. no delay cost is payable. Howley and Lang (2008) comment that this
measure removes any dispute or ambiguity about which delay is the dominant delay and whether
compensation is due to the contractor as a result of the dominant delay.
Subclause 10.7.3 provides that expenses unavoidably incurred are to be paid if an extension of
time extends the works by a period of seven consecutive days or more into a period of non-working
days (holidays), provided these do not exceed the rates tendered in Schedule 2D. Compensation for
delays is for site working days which are defined in subclause 1.1. as a day on which, according to
the Contract and the Contractors programme most recently submitted to the Employers
Representative, the Contractor is to execute the Works on the Site.
The introduction of the Programme Contingency raises a number of issues. There will be, no doubt,
many projects during which Compensation Events delay the contractor, but the operation of the
Programme Contingency will absorb the delay and no extension of time will be required.
Contractors are not entitled to any compensation for delay until the first threshold of the Programme
Contingency has been exhausted. Where longer delays occur the contractor will be entitled to half
of their tendered or unavoidably incurred costs for the period of the delay covered by the second
threshold.
The Programme Contingency in effect introduces a float period. If the float is large it becomes
probable that there will be no extensions of time. The Programme Contingency therefore reduces
the likelihood of extensions of time and their value if there are any. In such cases contractors may
34

tender a very low premium as the daily delay cost in Schedule Part 2D in order to submit a
competitive tender. Where delays are caused the contractor will have to bear significant losses for
costs incurred during the extended period.
Disruption and knock on costs
A further key provision governing entitlements is contained in subclause 10.7.4. It states:
Except as provided in this subclause 10.7 [notwithstanding anything else in the Contract] losses or
expenses arising from or in connection with delay, disruption, loss of productivity or knock-on
effect shall not be taken into account or included in any increase to the Contract Sum, and the
Employer shall have no liability for such losses or expenses resulting
Fahy and Forde (2014) comment that this subclause is widely regarded as one of the most
contentious provisions within the contract. The subclause appears to exclude employers liability
for loss or expense relating to delays, disruption, loss of productivity or knock-on effect. The Public
Works Contracts Training Manual (NPPPU, 2007) states that there is no entitlement to recovery of
disruption costs or loss of productivity costs. McGovern (2011) observes that there is an apparent
lack of understanding at present that claims submitted as delay, disruption, loss of productivity or
knock-on effect cannot be considered by the Employers Representative.
Fahy and Forde (2014) however, comment that this provision is open to two different
interpretations one of which appears to allow recovery of disruption costs, loss of productivity or
knock-on effect. They state:
The real question in relation to subclause 10.7.4 is whether its application is restricted to
subclause 10.7 or whether it has more general application throughout the Contract and
specifically if it applies to subclause 10.6. If it does not apply to subclause 10.6 then clearly
a Contractor could bring a claim for disruption, for example on the basis of changed
constraints giving rise to substituted work under subclause 10.6. If 10.7.4 has general
application. If 10.7.4 has general application then it means that that no such claim for
disruption or acceleration or loss of productivity or knock on effect could be brought under
subclause 10 .6.
They present various arguments regarding the meaning of this subclause and it is clear that this
issue is not resolved at present. They suggest, however, that the argument for a narrow
interpretation is sufficiently strong to allow a conciliator or an arbitrator to proceed on that basis.
They make following points in support of this position:
35

a provision in a contract to the effect that a Contractor would not be compensated for as a result
of disruption, or for example an instruction to accelerate, would be a big statement and, if not
unprecedented, would certainly be very unusual.
If it was intended to exclude disruption, acceleration, etc., in this manner it would be relatively
easy to achieve. It would simply be necessary to move 10.7.4 from its current position and, with
some very minor changes, place it immediately after the first sentence in subclause in order to
give it general application.

Concluding Discussion
The evaluation of contractors claims for loss and expense is perhaps the most contentious issue in
the post-contract financial management of building projects. Loss and expense claims are somewhat
inevitable given the organisation of the industry, but many claims are also avoidable to a greater or
lesser extent and are therefore frequently viewed as an embarrassing failure to effectively manage
the delivery of the project. The RIAI and the Public Works Contract envisage possible variations,
changes in scope, and delays occurring for various reasons during the contract. Both permit the
contract price and/or period to be adjusted in these circumstances and set out procedures on how
claims are to be assessed and evaluated by the contract administrator.
The procedures for settling claims under the RIAI Contract reflect its more flexible approach to
design changes than the PWC. Under the RIAI Form, contractors typically submit claims as and
when they arise during the course of the contract. These should be settled promptly in order to
maintain proper cash-flow and effective cost control, and the employer and contractor should be
informed of the financial and programme implications as soon as possible. Nevertheless, claims are
often assessed on a pro tempore basis with provisional valuations being included in interim
certificates pending their settlement, typically during the final accounting stage. This approach
allows contract administrators and quantity surveyors to view the project in the round when the
full impact of change and delays become clearer. In these situations the quantity surveyor can assess
claims in the context of the other financial variables in the final account: prime cost and provisional
sums, contingencies, variations, and fluctuations (if applicable). There is usually a degree of swings
and roundabouts in this accounting process. It should be noted that in many cases loss and expense
claims arise from variations and where possible these should be allocated to the particular variation.
Evaluating delay and disruption is difficult, and where the quantity surveyor takes this wait and
see approach he/she will need to ensure that realistic estimates are included in cost
reports/valuations in order to avoid the final accounting process throwing up any nasty surprises.
36

The Public Works Contracts condition precedent and time-bar procedures rule out a wait-andsee approach. This has drawn criticism from the SCSI (2014) which argues that the contracts
insistence on immediate notice, information and determination procedures is counterproductive and
generates adversarial relationships between the employers representatives and contractors. It also
appears that the wording of these procedures may not be watertight. The SCSIs submission to the
Department of Finance raises the doubt as to when a claim may be lodged, suggesting that this may
be a considerable time after the Compensation Event occurs. Subclause 10.5.2 also provides for an
alternative discretionary approach to determining claims, regardless of the procedures set out in
subclause 10.3.
On the face of it, however, the PWC provides for a greatly simplified means of reimbursing loss
and expense where a contractor is delayed by an employer or the employers agents. In the first
instance, a risk premium to cover delay should automatically be included in the Contract Sum by
virtue of the Programme Contingency. This premium should be calculated by assessing a probable
delay period and its associated cost. The Programme Contingency, itself, should represent a genuine
assessment of the length of potential delays. The Contract and Guidance Note GN 1.5 (DPER,
2013) both set out illustrations of a Programme Contingency which contains twenty and thirty day
thresholds, and as such could be seen as being indicative of how employers or consultants might
complete Schedule Part 1K. This builds in a substantial float period which should be reflected in the
premium charged which should, therefore, also be substantial.
Evidence suggests, however, that programme contingencies are frequently being overestimated.
McGovern (2011) states: first and second thresholds [are] not generally being exhausted. The
SCSI (2014) comment: there is evidence of inappropriate use of programme thresholds with little,
if any, reference to the guidance notes. They add these are sometimes equating up to 30% of the
overall programme period. Foley (2013) reports Philip Crampton, President of the Construction
Industry Federation, who has called for threshold levels to be reviewed and set at more realistic
levels. This suggests that programme contingencies are more than adequate and should therefore
enable a contractor to complete on time, avoid liquidated damages and possibly retain all or part of
the premium to cover potential delay risk. This could, in theory, present windfall opportunities, and
would certainly provide a powerful incentive to contractors to manage the process and to take early
and effective action to avoid situations which might delay or disrupt the works.

37

However, the situation is not entirely under the contractors control. The reality of competitive
tendering forces a contractor to submit a bid which is capable of beating its competitors. The
process requires contractors to carefully examine all resource costs, overheads and risk provisions
to arrive at a tender, which is both profitable and competitive. A key area in which a contractor can
gain a competitive advantage is in the pricing of risk items, particularly Delay and Compensation
Events covered by the Programme Contingency. Where a contractor assesses that a risk is unlikely
to arise, such as the probability of an apparently generous first threshold not being exhausted, then
the contractor will consider this to be an acceptable low-level risk, and will price it accordingly.
This effectively removes the safety net apparently provided by the Programme Contingency.
A more significant constraint on the pricing of the Program Contingency and further delay is their
method of reimbursement, which in most instances is on the basis of tendered rates per day of
delay. The rates are applied at 50% once the first threshold has been exhausted and in full when the
second threshold has been expended. The difficulty for contractors is that these rates form part of
the Most Economically Advantageous Tender (MEAT) assessment process, and as such directly
affect the contractors chances of winning the project. This is a necessary measure from an
employers perspective, as otherwise the process would be open to blatant abuse. Contractors are
conscious, therefore, that the tendered rates must be competitive, and where long programme
contingencies are included, there may be little or no rationale for pricing these at realistic rates.
Hussey (2009) has indicated above (p.31) that the Programme Contingency operates to discourage
claims. Another view might see it as an attempt to buy out substantial delay risks, and in
depressed markets this is typically at minimal cost to the employer.
The Programme Contingency example set in the Contract and Guidance Note referred to above
would, in effect require a contractor to bear a compensable delay risk extending up to eighty
working days, i.e. nearly four months when holiday breaks are taken into consideration. Given this
example, in the event that a serious delay arises requiring an eighty day extension of time; a
contractor would gain thirty days compensation at tendered rates. It is almost certain that it will
suffer considerable losses in these circumstances which are not of its making. While a contractor
may be able to absorb these costs on a single project, where this experience is repeated on a number
of projects the cumulative effects may be catastrophic. In this light the Programme Contingency
appears less of a carrot and more of a stick.

38

With regard to disruption and knock-on head office costs, subclause 10.7.4 of the Contract appears
to disallow these entirely, and it is likely that many quantity surveyors will take McGoverns view
(p.35 above), and disallow disruption and as a matter of course. However, Fahy and Forde (2014)
raise doubts over the meaning of this subclause and its relationship to subclause 10.6. They regard
the term substituted work as including work carried out under different conditions, thereby
justifying the valuation of such work beyond bill rates and introducing a cost reimbursement
element for the work.
In conclusion, where a contractor is delayed or disrupted by an employers or employers
representatives action it will seek fair compensation for the additional costs incurred. Contract
conditions regulate how this is to be administered. Contracts such as the RIAI are relatively flexible
in this regard and the contractor would become entitled to proven foreseeable loss and expense.
Contracts which emphasise cost certainty, such as the PWC, often seek to restrict the ability to
recover such loss and expense. No contract, however, appears to be entirely watertight in this regard
and loopholes will be found in even the most carefully drafted document. It is in the nature of
things, that where recovery of loss is initially prevented the aggrieved party will look for other
means of recovery and this could involve considerable additional costs to both.

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