J.P.

Morgan/Reuters

Second quarter 1997

New York
June 17, 1997

RiskMetrics Monitor

RiskMetrics News
Version 1.2 of FourFifteen J.P. Morgans system for evaluating, exploring and reporting
market risk has been released.
Please note that on or about July 17, 1997 it is our intention to cease updating the datasets at
the J.P. Morgan web site. They are now and will continue to be available but only at the Reuters web site.

Morgan Guaranty Trust Company

Risk Management Research
Peter Zangari
(1-212) 648-8641
[email protected]

Research, Development, and Applications

In response to reader feedback, this quarters Monitor offers two articles which expand on the material
presented in the last issue.
A detailed analysis of a simple credit exposure calculator

Reuters Ltd
International Marketing
Martin Spencer
(44-171) 542-3260
[email protected]

In the article On measuring credit exposure which appeared in the last issue of the RiskMetrics Monitor we presented three simple models to calculate the credit exposure of market
driven transactions. Since the publication we have received several inquiries concerning the
details of the credit exposure calculation, in particular, as they pertain to the methodology
that relies on monte carlo simulation. In this article, we present a step-by-step analysis of the
credit exposure calculation of a foreign exchange forward contract that employs monte carlo
simulation. The purpose of this article is to offer the reader a more complete understanding of
the credit exposure calculation and to make the reader aware of potential shortcomings of
such a simple credit exposure calculation.
A general approach to calculating VaR without volatilities and correlations

19

In the previous RiskMetrics Monitor in Streamlining the risk measurement process, we

described an alternative to the variance-covariance (VCV) method for portfolio risk analysis.
We called this method portfolio aggregation. In this article we provide a general framework
that end-users can apply to produce estimates of VaR. As a specific example of this approach,
we show how to employ Monte Carlo simulation without computing a covariance matrix.
.
Previous editions of the RiskMetrics Monitor

25

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 2

RiskMetrics News
Scott Howard
Morgan Guaranty Trust Company
Risk Management Advisory
(1-212) 648-4317
[email protected]

FourFifteen version 1.2 another leap forward

Like all FourFifteen upgrades the new version, designated FourFifteen 1.2, will be distributed to existing clients free of charge.
In line with our commitment to provide regular enhancements and new risk tools on an ongoing basis,
this is the second upgrade of the system since it was launched in April 1996. Version 1.2 offers improvements in a number of areas, including:
scenario analysis / stress testing
credit exposure analysis, including an export facility to CreditManager (the software system
for CreditMetrics )

basket currencies

compatibility with Excel 5.0c and Excel 7

report link to MATLAB
new instruments (equity derivatives, caps and floors) and new markets
These enhancements, along with the ongoing development plan for FourFifteen, mirror the risk-management concerns and priorities of our broad customer base. Current FourFifteen clients can be found
amongst supranational organizations, central banks and ministries of finance, commercial and investment banks, fund managers, hedge funds, insurance companies, and corporations.
Its use by institutions across such a wide range of industries reflects the benefits that structured risk
analysis can bring to financial decision-making.
Even as version 1.2 was being developed, work had already started on the next major release of the
system. In January this year it was announced that J.P. Morgan was teaming up with The MathWorks
Inc., a US software company with a long-standing reputation in mathematical software and data visualization. Together J.P. Morgan and The MathWorks are developing FourFifteen version 2.0, based on
The MathWorks acclaimed MATLAB software. This new version will offer a wider choice of alternative risk methodologies (including historical and Monte Carlo simulation, as well as the existing
parametric and stress-test methods), intuitive graphics and new tools for analyzing risk.
For further information on FourFifteen, please contact your local J.P. Morgan representative, or visit
our Website: http://www.jpmorgan.com/RiskManagement/415.htm

RiskMetrics Datasets
Reuters has been producing the datasets in parallel for the past 2 months. Therefore J.P. Morgan intends
to cease updating its web site on or about July 17, 1997. We expect that a month will allow those who
currently access J.P. Morgan to make the transition to Reuters. Their web addresses are
http://www.riskmetrics.reuters.com/WDown4.htm and ftp://ftp.riskmetrics.reuters.com/datasets/.

RiskMetrics and FourFifteen@ are registered trademark of J.P. Morgan in the United States and in other countries. They are written with the symbol
on its first occurrence and RiskMetrics and FourFifteen thereafter.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 3

A detailed analysis of a simple credit exposure calculator

Peter Zangari
Morgan Guaranty Trust Company
Risk Management Research
(1-212) 648-8641
[email protected]

In the article On measuring credit exposure which appeared in the last issue of the RiskMetrics Monitor we presented three simple models to calculate the credit exposure of market driven transactions.
Since the publication we have received several inquiries concerning the details of the credit exposure
calculation, in particular, as they pertain to the methodology that relies on monte carlo simulation. In
this article, we present a step-by-step analysis of the credit exposure calculation of a foreign exchange
forward contract that employs monte carlo simulation. In so doing, we highlight some of the important
assumptions underlying the calculation. The purpose of this article is to offer the reader a more complete understanding of the credit exposure calculation and to make the reader aware of potential shortcomings of such a simple credit exposure calculation.
The rest of the article is organized as follows:
In section 1 we present the specifications of a foreign exchange forward contract where a US
importer agrees to purchase German marks (DEM) with US dollars (USD) from a Bank at
some future point in time. We identify the forward contracts cashflows, find its mark-to-market value and compute the forwards current credit exposure.
Section 2 provides the details behind the forwards potential credit exposure calculation.
Potential exposure calculations such as expected, maximum and average exposure, are computed via monte carlo simulation. More specifically, we
- describe the sampling times when we compute the forwards expected and maximum
exposures
- explain how to construct forward foreign exchange and interest rate curves, and
- explain how to produce cashflow maps at each sampling time
Before simulating foreign exchange and interest rates we:
- review the basic assumptions of the model used in the simulation
- explain how forward rates are used to determine the drift component in foreign
exchange and interest rates, and
- describe the technique used to generate returns at each sampling time
Having simulated the rates, we explain how to revalue the forward contract at each sampling
time and how we compute expected and maximum exposure. Finally, we compare the forwards exposure profile to the exposure profile of an interest rate swap.
Section 3 summarizes the main results of the article and provides direction for future research.

1. A foreign exchange forward and its current credit exposure

Recall from On measuring credit exposure that current exposure is the exposure based on a transactions mark-to-market value. If a transaction has a positive market value then its current exposure will
be equivalent to its market value since if a counterparty defaults, the mark-to-market value of the transaction is lost. On the other hand, the current exposure of a transaction that has a negative (or zero) markto-market value is zero. This follows from the fact that if a party owes money at the time its counterpart defaults, its loss is zero.
In this article we analyze the credit exposure of a US importer who entered into a foreign exchange
forward contract on January 23, 1996 that gives the importer the right to buy 1 million German marks
(DEM) at a strike price of 0.6937 USD/DEM on May 2, 2001. We analyze the credit exposure of this

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 4

transaction on April 24, 1997 which is referred to as the analysis date. Table 1 provides the details of
the contract.
Table 1
Foreign exchange forward description
Analysis date: April 24, 1997
Trade date:
Maturity date:
Notional amount
Spot exchange rate
Strike price
US importer
Bank

January 23, 1996

May 2, 2001 (4.002 years between analysis date and maturity)
1,000,000 DEM
0.5824 USD/DEM
0.6937 USD/DEM
purchase 1,000,000 DEM with 693,700 USD
sell 1,000,000 DEM with 693,700 USD

The forward contracts cashflows, from the importers perspective, are presented in chart 1.
Chart 1
Forward contracts cashflows
US importer perspective

Receive
1 million DEM

23 Jan 97
Trade date

24 Apr 97
Analysis date

1 Nov 97

2 May 01
Maturity date
Pay
693,700 USD

To calculate the US importers current credit exposure we must find the forwards mark-to-market
(MTM) value. In general, the forwards MTM is calculated as follows:
[1]

MTM = Notional x (current forward rate - strike price) x discount factor

On April 24, 1997, the current forward USD/DEM exchange rate (from the analysis date to maturity)
is 0.6379 USD/DEM. The US interest rate for the same period (4.022 years) is 6.783%. Using a con1
tinuous discounting procedure we find the MTM to be -42,419 USD, that is,
[2]

1, 000, 000 ( 0.6379 0.6937 ) exp ( 0.06783 4.022 ) = 42, 419 USD

Note that the forwards MTM is negative. This implies that at the analysis date the forward is out-ofthe-money for the importer. Consequently, the US importers current credit exposure is zero. Chart 2
shows the foreign exchange forwards profit and loss (P&L) profile as a function of the current forward
rate.

Throughout this analysis we employ a continuous compounding convention.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 5

Chart 2
Forwards P&L profile
P&L is reported in USD
Forward's P&L
out-of-the-money

in-the-money

-42,419

0.6379

0.6937(strike)

USD/DEM forward exchange rate

Intuitively, the foreign exchange forwards value to the US importer is negative because on the trade
date, January 23, 1996, the importer contracted to pay 0.6937 USD/DEM and the forward price has
since fallen. Alternatively expressed, the importer agreed to pay 693,700 USD to buy 1,000,000 DEM
on May 2, 2001. At the analysis date, however, the current price for 1,000,000 DEM to be received on
May 2, 2001 is 637,900 USD. Hence, the USD price of DEM has fallen relative to the USD price of
DEM at the trade date. Consequently, on the analysis date it would cost the US importer 42,419 USD
less to purchase DEM at the current forward price rather than at 0.6937 USD/DEM.
Now, suppose instead of decreasing to 0.6937USD/DEM, the current forward price of DEM increased
relative to the strike price. In this case we would find that the US importers forward contract would
have a positive mark-to-market value (refer to chart 2) it would be in-the-moneysince the importer
could buy DEM (with USD) at a discount relative to the market prices at the analysis date.

2. Calculating the foreign exchange forwards potential exposure

Recall that potential exposures, which include expected, average, maximum and peak exposures, are a
function of future changes in underlying prices and rates that affect the value of a particular transaction.
That is to say, potential exposure calculations recognize the probability distribution of underlying financial prices.

2.1 Background
The first step towards measuring potential credit exposures is to define sampling times. Sampling times
are future dates when exposures are calculated. Table 2 presents the sampling times for the US importers forward contract.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 6

Table 2
Sampling times
In days and years; calculations assume 1 year = 365 days
Days from analysis date
Years from analysis date

30
0.083

192
0.526

373
1.021

557
1.526

738
2.022

922
2.526

1102
3.022

1287
3.526

Having determined the sampling times, next we need to identify the RiskMetrics interest rate and foreign exchange rate nodes that will be used to map the forwards cashflows. Remember that cashflow
mapping is the process of redistributing the observed cashflows onto so-called RiskMetrics nodes, to
2
produce RiskMetrics cashflows . RiskMetrics provides volatilities and correlations for the following
US and German interest rate nodes:
Table 3
RiskMetrics interest rate nodes
For US and German interest rates
Years

0.083

0.25

0.50

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

7.0

9.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

In addition, RiskMetrics provides volatilities and correlations associated with the logarithmic change
in the USD/DEM exchange rate.
In order to compute potential exposures we will need to simulate a distribution of the forwards value
at each sampling time. It follows from interest rate parity (IRP), that the simulation of the forwards
3
future value can be done in two (equivalent) ways :
1. At each sampling time, simulate forward (USD/DEM) exchange rates and US interest rates and
compute a distribution of future values of the forward contract, or
2. At each sampling time, simulate German and US interest rates as well as spot foreign exchange
rates and compute a distribution of future values of the forward contract.

2.2 Constructing foreign exchange and interest rate curves and cashflow mapping
As a first step, to determine the future values of the forward contract at each sampling time we must
build foreign exchange forward and interest rate curves. Chart 3 shows the US and German term structure of interest rates on April 24, 1997.

2
3

See section 6.2 of the RiskMetrics Technical document, 4th edition.

In cases where interest rate parity (IRP) does not hold, the appropriate premium or discount should be incorporated into
the IRP equation.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 7

Chart 3
USD and DEM zero rates
April 24, 1997
4.50

6.75
USD

6.50

4.00

6.25

DEM
3.50

6.00
3.00

5.75
5.50

2.50
0.1

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

Based on these zero rates and the spot USD/DEM exchange rate we can construct USD/DEM forward
rates at each sampling time. We now explain how to construct the forward USD/DEM curve. In general,
us
de
if we let S t denote the spot USD/DEM exchange rate at time t and let r t, T and r t, T denote all US and
German zero rates at time t, for the period between time t and T, then it follows from interest rate parity
that the forward foreign exchange rate F t, T is given by the expression
us

exp r t, T years
F t, T = S t --------------------------------------------[1]
de

exp r t, T years
where years represents the times presented in table 2. Using the appropriate spot exchange rate and zero
interest rates, the foreign exchange forward curve is presented in chart 4.
Chart 4
USD/DEM forward exchange rate curve on April 24, 1997
Spot USD/DEM foreign exchange rate is 0.5824.
USD/DEM forward exchange rate
0.650
0.625
0.600
0.575
0.550
0.525
0.1

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

Years

Table 4 provides the US and German interest rates and the corresponding foreign exchange forward
curve at each of the 8 sampling times

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 8

Table 4
US and German interest rates and foreign exchange forward curve
Spot USD/DEM foreign exchange rate is 0.5824
Years from
analysis date
0.083
0.526
1.021
1.526
2.022
2.526
3.022
3.526

us

de

r t, T (%)

r t, T (%)

Ft

5.687
6.062
6.427
6.450
6.475
6.576
6.674
6.729

3.221
3.266
3.384
3.494
3.607
3.838
4.066
4.294

0.584
0.591
0.601
0.609
0.617
0.624
0.630
0.634

In addition to the foreign exchange forward rates we also need to construct US and German forward
interest rate curves. We must construct such curves at each sampling time. Further, since we will map
the forwards cashflows to the RiskMetrics nodes, the forward rates must coincide with the RiskMetrics
nodes. We will now demonstrate the construction of forward interest rates with an example.
Assuming that bond yields are continuously compounded, we can relate the so-called short rate, r 0 ,
and forward rate, r f to the long rate, r 1 as follows:
e

[2]

r0 T 0 r f T f

= e

r1 T 1

where T 0 , T f and T 1 are the time periods for the short, forward and long rates, respectively.
Chart 5 illustrates the relationship between the time periods when the short, forward and long rates prevail.

r0(T0)

rf(Tf)

Maturity date

Analysis date

Chart 5
Time profile of short, forward and long rates

r1(T1)

Now, to determine the forward rate, we solve [2] r f , i.e.,

[3]

r1 T 1 r0 T 0
r f = --------------------------Tf

Given the short and long rates, we can use [3] to solve for the relevant forward rates. For example, suppose the sampling time, T 0 , is 0.526 (about one-half of a year from the analysis date). The (short) US
us
interest rate corresponding to this time period, r 0 , is 6.062%. Our goal is to construct forward interest
us
rates, r f , at the following RiskMetrics nodes; 0.083, 0.25, 0.50, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 years. We can
now use the short and long rates to solve for the forward rates corresponding to the RiskMetrics nodes.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 9

us

These forward rates are presented in table 5 along with the corresponding long rates, r 1 , and the time
at which they occur. Note that the T 1 = T f + T 0 .
Table 5
Constructing US interest forward rates at second sampling time
us
All times are presented in years, T 0 = 0.526; r 0 = 6.062%
Tf

T1

0.083
0.250
0.50
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00

0.609
0.776
1.026
1.526
2.526
3.526
4.526

us

us

6.126
6.254
6.427
6.450
6.576
6.729
6.819

6.531
6.659
6.813
6.654
6.712
6.846
6.918

r 1 (%) r f (%)

These forward interest rates correspond to the relevant RiskMetrics nodes that are used for mapping at
the second sampling time. Having created the forward rates, the next step is to map the forwards cashflows to the RiskMetrics nodes. To demonstrate the mapping procedure we continue to focus on the
cashflow map that occurs at the second sampling time (i.e., at 0.526 years from the analysis date).
Since the time from the analysis date until maturity is 4.022 years, the forwards cashflows (1,000,000
DEM and -693,700 USD) occur approximately 3.50 years from the second sampling time. Chart 6
shows the relationship between the forwards cashflows and the sampling time.
Chart 6
Forwards cashflows at the second sampling time
4.022 years.
3 months

23 Jan 97
Trade date

24 Apr 97
Analysis date

3.50 years

Sampling period .526 years

1 Nov 97

Receive
1 million DEM

2 May 01
Maturity date
Pay
693,700 USD

Since these cashflows occur between years 3 and 4, we map these cashflows to the 3 and 4 year RiskMetrics nodes. Table 6 presents the cashflow maps for the DEM and USD positions at the second sampling time

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 10

Table 6
Cashflow maps and RiskMetrics nodes
Cashflow occurs in 3.50 years from 0.526 year sampling time
RiskMetrics nodes
DEM position
USD position

3 year
501,369.86
347,800.27

4 year
498,630.14
345,899.73

For a more complete picture of the cashflow maps table 7 presents the cashflow maps and the corresponding RiskMetrics nodes for each of the 8 sampling times. The column denoted Cashflow date
represents the time at which the forwards cashflows occur, adjusting for the sampling time.
Table 7
Cashflow maps for all sampling times
Sampling
time (yrs)
0.083

Cashflow
date (yrs)
3.940

0.526
1.021
1.526
2.022
2.526
3.022
3.526

3.500
3.003
2.500
2.003
1.500
1.003
0.498

US position (RM node)

USD
40,703 (3)
652,996 (4)
347,800 (3)
691,799 (3)
347,800 (2)
691,799 (2)
347,800 (1)
691,799 (1)
3,801 (0.25)

345,899 (4)
1,900 (4)
345,899 (3)
1,900 (3)
345,899 (2)
1,900 (2)
698,898 (0.50)

German position (RM node)

DEM
58675 (3)
941324 (4)
501,369 (3)
997,260 (3)
501,369 (2)
997,260 (2)
501,369 (1)
997,260 (1)
5,479 (0.25)

498,630 (4)
2,739 (4)
498,630 (3)
2,739 (3)
498,630 (2)
2,739 (2)
994,520 (0.50)

2.3 Performing monte carlo simulation

With the appropriate foreign exchange and interest rate forward curves as well as the cashflow map, we
now demonstrate how to simulate future foreign exchange and interest rates at each of the eight sampling times. For ease of exposition we describe the simulation process for the second sampling time,
i.e., simulating future rates 0.526 years from the analysis date.
First, we specify the appropriate covariance matrix of returns, or as written in Pete Bensons piece a
matrix of underlying price and interest rate returns. These data are determined by the RiskMetrics cashflow map that were described in the last section. For example, for the simulation that occurs at the second sampling time, we require a time series of logarithmic changes (returns) on the USD/DEM foreign
exchange rate as well as US and German 3 and 4 year government bond rates.
Next, we assume that the USD/DEM foreign exchange rate and the 3 and 4 year interest rates evolve
according to the following process.
[4]

S t + 1 = S t exp ( t )

or, using natural logarithms, we get

[5]

ln ( S t + 1 ) = ln ( S t ) + t

where
2

t is a normally distributed random variable with mean t and variance t .

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 11

S t is a generic variable representing the USD/DEM foreign exchange rate and the relevant US and German interest rates.
Now, suppose we wanted to simulate the USD/DEM foreign exchange rate over one day. To do so, we
2
would need estimates of the one-day mean, fx, t , and variance, fx, t . We would then set S fx, t to the
current spot foreign exchange rate (0.5824 USD/DEM, as of the analysis date) and simulate a random
2
set of numbers, t , from a normal distribution with a mean fx, t and variance fx, t . We would then
substitute these normally distributed numbers as well as the current spot rate into [4] to produce a distribution of foreign exchange rates for the next day.
Extending this approach, if one were to simulate prices over, say, the next T days we would modify [4]
to become

[6]

St + T

= S t exp

t=1

= S t exp ( z t )
2

Note that z t is normally distributed with a mean T t and variance T t . Therefore, if we were to simulate foreign exchange rates T days from the analysis date we would simulate normal random variates
2
with mean T fx, t and variance T fx, t , and then using the current spot rate( S fx, t ) would apply [6].
In practice, while the variance is often estimated from historical data, the mean, or drift parameter is
derived from the current forward rate. We derive an expression for the mean t as follows:
1. Find the expected value of the price T days forward, S t + T . The mathematical expectation of [6] is
given by the following expression

[7]

T
E ( S t + T ) = S t exp T t + ---------t-

2. Set the exchange rates forward value, F t, T equal to the spot rates expected value, i.e,
F t, T = E ( S t + T ) and solve for the mean T t . This yields the expression
2

[8]

F t, T T
T t = ln ---------- --------t St 2

Therefore, for a given forward rate, which was derived in section 2.2, and an estimate of the daily variance of foreign exchange returns, we can back-out the foreign exchange rates drift parameter. At the
second sampling time, the foreign exchange forward rate, ( F t, T ) , is 0.591 and at the analysis date the
spot rate, ( S fx, t ) , is 0.5824. The one-day variance, 2 fx, t , for the returns on the USD/DEM exchange rate is 0.0000211. Substituting this information into [8] yields T fx, t = 1.4%.
Note that we can solve for the interest rate drift parameters in exactly the same way.
Using the drift parameters and the estimated daily variances (and covariances) we can simulate foreign
exchange and interest rates, taking into account the correlation among the rates, by applying any of the
techniques presented in Appendix E of the RiskMetrics Technical Document, 4th edition. Specifically,

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 12

we will demonstrate how to perform monte carlo simulation by applying the singular value decomposition of the estimated covariance matrix.
Suppose we wish to simulate 1000 foreign exchange and interest scenarios (simulations) at the second
sampling time. We will generate a 1000 x 5 matrix of future prices, Y. At the second sampling time, the
columns of Y represent the USD/DEM foreign exchange rate, the US 3 and 4 year rates and the German
3 and 4 year rates, respectively, 0.526 years from the analysis date. We now demonstrate how we construct Y in three steps.
First, we assume that each row of Y, y i , (i=1,..,1000) is distributed according to the multivariate (5-variate) normal distribution with a mean m i and covariance matrix i . i has dimenus
us
de
de
sion 5 x 5.The mean m i is defined as m i = f x, t 3 y, t 4 y, t 3 y, t 4 y, t
T

Decompose i , using a singular value decomposition as follows: i = VDV . Let

12
T
Q = VD
so that i = QQ .
T

Second, write y i = m i + i Q where i is a 1 x 5 vector of normal random variates with a

mean 0 and a variance 1. Now, if we simulate i and then construct y i , we know from its definition that y i has a mean m i and covariance matrix i . Therefore, we can use the definition
of y i to recover the properties of y i .
Third, we generate 1000 y i from 1000 randomly generated i s, to form Y.
It is important to understand that the simulation involves only those elements of the generic RiskMetrics covariance matrix that correspond to the mapped cashflows. That is, simulation is performed only
after cashflow mapping. This greatly reduces the amount of required simulation.
Applying this algorithm at the second sampling time, we simulate 5 rates (one foreign exchange and
four interest rates) 0.526 years from the analysis date. This results in distributions of the USD/DEM
exchange rate and the 3 and 4 year US and German (forward) interest rates at that sampling time.
Chart 7 shows the distribution of simulated USD/DEM exchange rates at the second sampling time.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 13

Chart 7
Histogram of simulated USD/DEM exchange rates
At 0.526 years from analysis date; forward rate is USD/DEM 0.591
Frequency
25

20

15

10

0
0.489

0.516

0.542

0.569

0.595

0.622

0.648

0.675

0.701

USD/DEM exchange rate

Charts 8 shows the histograms of the simulated 3 and 4 year forward interest rates, 0.526 years from
the analysis date.
Chart 8
Histogram of 3 and 4 year US interest rate
Frequency

Frequency

25

25

20

20

15

15

10

10

0
4.66

5.27

5.87

6.48

7.08

7.69

8.29

3 year US interest rate

8.90

9.50

0
4.73

5.34

5.95

6.57

7.18

7.79

8.41

9.02

9.63

4 year US interest rate

2.4 Revaluation and the credit exposure calculation

Once the foreign exchange and interest rates have been simulated, the forward contract at each sampling time must be revalued at the new rates. As noted in section 2.1, there are two ways to generate
the profit and loss of the forward contract. According to the first approach, we simulate forward exchange rates at each sampling time using the simulated foreign exchange and interest rates.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 14

For example, consider computing the forward foreign exchange rate at the second sampling time. In
this case, the forwards cashflow occurs in 3.5 years from the sampling time and it is mapped to the 3
and 4 year RiskMetrics nodes. Therefore, we will calculate two forward foreign exchange rates corresponding to each node in the cashflow map. If we let SF X 0.526 represent the simulated (spot) foreign
us
us
de
exchange rates at the second sampling time and r 0.526, 3 yr ( r de
) and r 0.526, 4 yr ( r 0.526, 4 yr ) rep0.526, 3 yr
resent the simulated US (German) interest rates for each cashflow map at the 3 and 4 year nodes, then
the two forward foreign exchange rates are given by the following expressions.

[9]

us

exp r 0.526, 3 yr 3
---------------------------------------------FW D 0.526, 3 yr = S F X 0.526
de
(corresponding to the 3 year node)
exp r 0.526, 3 yr 3

and
us

exp r 0.526, 4 yr 4
FW D 0.526, 4 yr = S F X 0.526 --------------------------------------------- de
(corresponding to the 4 year node)
exp r 0.526, 4 yr 4
The distribution of profit and loss on the forward contract 0.526 years from the analysis date is (see
table 7):
[10]

[11]

us

P&L = ( 501, 369.86 FW D 0.526, 3 yr ) exp r 0.526, 3 yr 3

us

+ ( 498, 630.14 FW D 0.526, 4 yr ) exp r 0.526, 4 yr 4

us

us

347, 800.27 exp r 0.526, 3 yr 3 345, 899.73 exp r 0.526, 4 yr 4

Alternatively, it follows from interest rate parity that we can compute the profit and loss on the forward
contract as:
de

P&L = ( 501, 369.86 0.5824 ) exp r 0.526, 3 yr 3

[12]

de

+ ( 498, 630.14 0.5824 ) exp r 0.526, 4 yr 4

us

us

347, 800.27 exp r 0.526, 3 yr 3 345, 899.73 exp r 0.526, 4 yr 4

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 15

Chart 9 presents a histogram of the foreign exchange forward contracts P&L.

Chart 9
Histogram of forward contracts P&L (in USD)
At 0.526 years from analysis date
Frequency
25
20
15
10
5
0
$-134.4$-111.8 $-89.1 $-66.4 $-43.8 $-21.1 $1.5

$24.2 $46.9

P&L($000)

The P&L distribution has a mean value of -44,439 USD and a standard deviation of 32,941 USD. The
negative mean is the forwards mark-to-market at the second sampling time. This implies that the current exposure at the second sampling time is zero since the forwards forward value is out-of-the-money.
Recall that a party has positive credit exposure only if the contract it currently holds is in-the-money.
Consequently, the distribution of the forwards credit exposure corresponds to the non-negative values
of the P&L distribution. The distribution of the forwards credit exposure at the second sampling time
is presented in chart 10.
Chart 10
Histogram of forward contracts credit exposure (in USD)
At 0.526 years from analysis date
Frequency
65
60
55
10

0
$0.0

$6.9

$13.8 $20.7 $27.6 $34.6 $41.5 $48.4 $55.3

Credit exposure ($000)

Chart 10 is the same as chart 9 but with all negative values converted to zero. The mean of the credit
exposure distribution which represents the expected exposure 0.526 years after the analysis date is

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 16

1,341USD. The maximum exposure of the forward contract at the second sampling time, which is the
95th percentile of the credit exposure distribution, is 9,947USD. The average exposure of the forward
contract, which is a measure of how much, on average, the US importer expects to lose over the life of
the forward contract, is 9,687USD. Chart 11 shows the expected and maximum exposure profiles over
the life of the forward contract for the US importer.
Chart 11
US importers foreign exchange forward exposure profile
Exposure
$140,000
$120,000
Maximum exposure

$100,000
$80,000
$60,000
$40,000

Expected exposure
$20,000
$0
0.08

0.53

1.02

1.53

2.02

2.53

3.02

3.53

Years

Note that the exposure profile of the forward increases over the life of the contract. This reflects the
forwards single payment (at maturity) as well as the increase in the forwards volatility with time.
Compare the forwards exposure profile to that of an interest rate swaps (Chart 12).
Chart 12
IR swaps exposure profile
Exposure (percent of notional)
4.5%
4.0%

Maximum

3.5%
3.0%
2.5%
2.0%
1.5%

Expected

1.0%
0.5%
0.0%
0

Sampling times

Note that whereas the interest rate swaps profile has a hump shape, the forwards exposure profile increases towards the forwards maturity. The difference in the appearance of the exposure profiles is due
to the amortization of the swaps payments. In other words, unlike the forward whose cashflows remain

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 17

constant over the life of the contract, the swaps cashflows decrease (as more payments are made/received) over its life. Therefore, for the swap the volatility effect dominates at the beginning of the
swaps life and then is overtaken by the so-called amortization effect. However, in the case of the
forward, the volatility effect dominates the forwards exposure profile since there is no amortization.

3. Conclusions and directions for future research

This article has presents the computational details behind the credit exposure calculation of a foreign
exchange forward contract. After finding the forwards mark-to-market and we demonstrate how to
compute potential credit exposure by way of monte carlo simulation. The potential credit exposure calculation involves six important steps:
1. Setting sampling times
2. Constructing forward foreign exchange and interest rate curves
3. Producing cashflow maps at each sampling time
4. Simulating future foreign exchange and interest rates, and
5. Revaluing the foreign exchange forward contract at the simulated rates.
In order to simulate future foreign exchange and interest rates we propose a model where the mean and
variance parameters scale with time (Eq. [7]). In the case of forecasting interest rates, such a model is
reasonable for short-term forecasts but can become problematic when the forecasts are extended over
longer time periods. This should seem obvious since the variance of the logarithmic changes in interest
rates blows-up over time. Consequently, when estimating the potential credit exposure of a set of instruments over longer time horizons, we would want to model the term structure of interest rates within
a formal paradigm that allows interest rates to revert to some mean value. Such a model would rid us
of the problems associated with a scaled variance. We plan on presented credit exposure calculations
within a complete term structure model of interest rates in upcoming RiskMetrics Monitors.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 18

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 19

A general approach to calculating VaR without volatilities and correlations

Peter Benson *
Peter Zangari
Morgan Guaranty Trust Company
Risk Management Research
(1-212) 648-8641
[email protected]

In the previous RiskMetrics Monitor1, we described an alternative to the variance-covariance (VCV)

method for portfolio risk analysis. We called this new method portfolio aggregation. Recall that portfolio aggregation involves reconstructing a time series of daily portfolio returns from a current set of
portfolio positions and daily returns on individual securities. Value-at-Risk (VaR) estimates of such a
portfolio are then obtained by computing the portfolio standard deviation directly from the portfolio
return series instead of constructing individual volatilities and correlations.
In this note, we describe the data used in portfolio aggregation, and introduce more applications to risk
analysis, including Monte Carlo simulation. We provide a general framework that end-users can use to
produce estimates of VaR. As a specific example of this approach, we show how to employ Monte Carlo
simulation without computing a covariance matrix. The rest of this article is organized as follows:
In section 1 we demonstrate how to compute value-at-risk using without a covariance matrix.
Specifically, we show how to calculate VaR directly from the underlying return series under
equal and exponential weighting schemes. In the case where exponential weighting is applied,
we show that this VaR calculation is identical to that used by RiskMetrics VCV methodology.
In section 2 we explain how to compute Monte Carlo without first constructing a variance/
covariance matrix.
Section 3 briefly mentions other applications where covariance matrix is not required
Section 4 presents conclusions and direction for future research

1. Using returns time series in place of volatilities and correlations

RiskMetrics provides volatilities and correlations for a set of benchmark securities. These securities are
what we use to map actual cashflows. For example, suppose we need to compute the VaR of a cashflow
denominated in US dollars that occurs in 6 years time. In order to compute VaR, we would map this
cashflow to the two nearest RiskMetrics nodes which represent the 5 and 7 year US zero rates. The volatility of the log changes on the 5 and 7 year nodes as well as the correlation between the two log changes are then used to (1) find how much to allocated to the two nodes, and (2) compute VaR. Note that
the 5 and 7 year nodes are what we refer to as the benchmark securities.
In these calculations, each benchmark has associated with it a time series of volatility adjusted returns,
i.e., returns divided by their standard deviation. The volatilities and correlations are calculated from the
set of all time series, and then these time series are discarded. Here, we suggest that rather than computing the volatilities and correlations and discarding the time series, we work directly with the time
series of returns, and bypass the calculation of correlations.
This provides a number of advantages:
Existing time series can be modified directly, and new time series added, without recalculating
the correlations with other time series
If returns are to be weighted (e.g, exponentially), the weighting scheme can be altered without
replacing the dataset
* Peter Benson, previously with Risk Management Research at J.P. Morgan, is now with
Greenwich Capital Markets Inc. in Connecticut.

See the article, Streamlining the market risk measurement process.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Secpmd Quarter 1997
page 20

If there are a large number of benchmarks relative to the number of returns per benchmark, the
dataset of benchmark returns is smaller than the correlation matrix
Better numerical precision
An intuitive interpretation of how Monte Carlo returns are generated
Fast marginal risk analysis.
We now explain how users can work directly with the return time series (RTS). Define the RTS dataset
as follows. For benchmark i, let r i be the T 1 vector of returns (with mean 0), where T is the number of returns (historical observations) for each benchmark. Define r i, t to be the return in period t of
benchmark i . Let R = r 1, r 2, ...., r n , where n is the number of benchmarks. We can write the T x n
matrix of returns R as follows.
r 11 r 1n
[1]

R =

r JJ

r T 1 r Tn

Since R is a T n matrix, the RTS dataset has Tn values. Compare this to the VCV dataset which
has n standard deviations, and n ( n 1 ) 2 correlations, for a total of n ( n + 1 ) 2 values. For situations
where the number of benchmarks is more than twice the number of observations, RTS requires less
storage, i.e., R requires less storage than its corresponding covariance matrix.

1.1 Relationship to the covariance matrix

The fact that we can use the returns directly to compute VaR is made obvious from the following observation: the covariance matrix under equally weighted observations is
1 T

[2]
C = T R R.
T
where R is the transpose of R. Hence, R provides a simple factoring of the covariance matrix. This
will be useful later.

1.2 Application to VCV

If w is the vector of benchmark equivalents where each element of w , w i , is the position value associated with one of the n benchmarks, VaR is given by the equation:
[3]

VaR = 1.65 w Cw

assuming that underlying returns are distributed according to the conditional multivariate normal distribution. Now, it follows from [1] that
[4]

T 1 T

VaR = 1.65 w Cw = 1.65 w T R Rw = 1.65T

Rw .

As we can see from the right-hand side of equation [3], the VaR calculation depends only on the benchmark weights, w , the underlying return matrix, R, and the number of historical observations T. Because
the computational effort varies linearly with the number of benchmarks, using the RTS matrix is faster

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 21

than using the covariance matrix C (provided the number of benchmarks is more than twice the number
of observations in each benchmark).
The preceding analysis demonstrates how to compute VaR by the VCV method when the data are equally weighted. However, we note that this methodology is general and applies equally well when the data
are weighted exponentially.

1.3 Applying exponential weighting

We now show how similar results to those presented in section 1.2 are obtained when applying exponential weighting. When computing the covariance and correlation matrices, use, instead of the data
matrix R, the augmented data matrix R shown in equation [5].

[5]

r 11

r 1n

r 21

r 21

R =

T1

J1

rT 1

r JJ

T1

r Tn

Now, we can define the covariance matrix based on exponential weighting simply as

[6]

C =

i 1

i=1

1
T
R R

T
R R

where
T

[7]

i1

i=1

It follows immediately from the results presented in [4] that VaR in this case is
[8]

VaR = 1.65

R w

Once a decay factor, , is selected in the VCV method, the correlation matrix is computed, and it is no
longer possible to change the weight without recomputing the entire covariance matrix. However, since
there are no assumed weights in the RTS dataset, we are free to choose different values without any
additional computational burden.

2. Generating multivariate normal returns for Monte Carlo

To generate multivariate normal returns, one typically performs a Cholesky or Singular Value decom2
position (SVD) on the correlation matrix . The resulting matrix is then combined with a vector of random variates to produce multivariate returns.
There are drawbacks to this approach:
2

See Appendix E of the RiskMetrics Technical document, 4th edition.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Secpmd Quarter 1997
page 22

The decomposed matrix does not easily provide an intuitive understanding of how the deviates
are generated
Changing a single return value of one benchmark requires a new decomposition
Cholesky decomposition requires that the correlation matrix be PD (positive definite), and
SVD requires PSD (positive semi-definite).3
Using the RTS dataset, we can take a more direct approach that suggests an intuitive interpretation.
Consider a row of the R matrix. It represents one observation interval--a snapshot of all benchmark returns. Suppose we multiply each row by a normally distributed random variate, and add the rows. The
result is a vector of Monte Carlo returns that have the correct variance and correlations. In other words,
Monte Carlo returns are simply the sum of random multiples of the benchmark snapshots.
We now show how to perform Monte Carlo with the RTS that avoids any volatility and correlation calculations.
Let = { 1, 2, ...., T } be a T 1 vector of independent, N(0,1) random variates. Then we are
T
interested in simulating a 1 n vector of correlated returns, R . Consider the ith component,
T
T
ri = r i . Note that R is just a sum of independent, normally distributed random variables (all with
mean zero, and standard deviation vector r i ). So the mean of the sum is the sum of the means which
are zero. And the variance is the sum of the variances, which is the variance of r i . So the mean and
variance of ri is the same as that of r i . Unlike r i , ri is truly normally distributed.
What about the correlation of ri with other simulated returns? Consider another simulated return, rj .
The correlation is = cov ri, rj i j . Since ri and rj have mean zero,
ij

cov ( r i, r j ) = E [ r i r j ]
T

= E t = 1 t r i, t t = 1 t r j, t

[9]

= E t = 1 t r i, t r j, t + 2 t = 1 s = t + 1 ( t s r i, t r j, t )
Because the i are independent, the cross terms have zero expected value. Since the expectation of the
sum equals the sum of the expectation, the right-hand side becomes
[10]

E t = 1 t r i, t r j, t

= t = 1 r i, t r j, t E t = t = 1 r i, t r j, t = cov ( r i, r j )

Hence, covariance and correlations are also preserved. In general, we can show that the covariance maT
T
trix of the 1 x n vector of random variables y= R is C= R R . This follows immediately from the definition of the variance of y where the mean of y is zero. Letting E(x) denote the mathematical
expectation of x, we can write the variance of y as follows:

The correlation matrix cannot be PD if there are more benchmarks (columns of R) than there are observations in each
benchmark (rows of R). In fact, due to roundoff errors, even PSD is rarely satisfied. These problems can be dealt with by
tweaking the correlation matrix to become PSD (which introduces other errors), or by increasing the number of observations in each benchmark (which bloats the dataset without adding significant information, and may require data that is
unavailable, or outside the sample of interest). The RTS dataset allows analysis with fewer observations. Of course, one
must still be careful that the chosen dataset is sufficiently representative of the relationships between benchmarks.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 23

[11]

T
T T
Variance ( y ) = E y y = E R R
T
T
= R E R
= C

Now, certainly Monte Carlo with a covariance matrix represents a performance improvement in terms
of pre-processing (i.e. in decomposing a correlation matrix), since we do not need any pre-processing.
However, is it a fast way to generate deviates? Once the T independent normal deviates are generated,
simulating each benchmark uses T multiples. This compares with k (where k is the rank of R) multiplications when using a Cholesky or SVD decomposition.
However, we can make return generation still faster. By randomly sampling the observation vectors
(i.e. using only a subset), we can still preserve correlations and variances. In fact, we can generate our
Monte Carlo returns with just one random normal deviate per trial, and one multiply per benchmark.
Details are left for future discussion.

3. Other applications
The RTS dataset also allows more powerful tools for marginal analysis, and ad hoc manipulation of the
benchmark returns. The Monte Carlo sampling technique discussed above, as well as marginal analysis
techniques based on RTS, are employed by CreditManager (J.P. Morgans credit risk calculator) for
Monte Carlo simulation of credit portfolios. Details of these methods may be covered in a subsequent
note.

4. Conclusions
As the number of benchmarks grows relative to the effective number of observations per benchmark,
it becomes more efficient to use the RTS dataset. Moreover, using the RTS dataset provides a number
of benefits over VCV-based approaches in terms of flexibility. In particular, weve shown that it provides an intuitively appealing technique for generating Monte Carlo samples.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Secpmd Quarter 1997
page 24

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 25

Previous editions of the RiskMetrics Monitor

1st Quarter 1997: March 14, 1997
On Measuring credit exposure
The effect of EMU on risk management
Streamlining the market risk measurement process

4th Quarter 1996: December 19, 1996

Testing RiskMetrics volatility forecasts on emerging markets data.
When is non-normality a problem? The case of 15 time series from emerging markets.

3rd Quarter 1996: September 16, 1996

Accounting for pull to par and roll down for RiskMetrics cash flows.
How accurate is the delta-gamma methodology.
VaR for basket currencies.

2nd Quarter 1996: June 11, 1996

An improved RiskMetrics methodology to help risk managers avoid underestimating VaR.
A Value-at-Risk analysis of foreign exchange flows exposed to OECD and emerging market
currencies, most of which are not yet covered by the RiskMetrics data sets.
Estimating index tracking error for equity portfolios in the context of principal variables that
influence the process of portfolio diversification.

1st Quarter 1996: January 23, 1996

Basel Committee revises market risk supplement to 1988 Capital Accord.

A look at two methodologies that use a basic delta-gamma parametric VaR precept but achieve
results similar to simulation.

4th Quarter 1995: October 12, 1995

Exploring alternative volatility forecasting methods for the standard RiskMetrics monthly
horizon.
How accurate are the risk estimates in portfolios that contain Treasury bills proxied by LIBOR
data.
A solution to the standard cash flow mapping algorithm, which sometimes leads to imaginary
roots.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Fourth quarter 1996
page 26

3rd Quarter 1995: July 5, 1995

Mapping and estimating VaR for interest rate swaps
Adjusting correlations obtained from nonsynchronous data.

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second Quarter 1997
page 27

RiskMetrics Monitor
Second quarter 1997
page 28

RiskMetrics products

Worldwide RiskMetrics contacts

Introduction to RiskMetrics: An eight-page document that

broadly describes the RiskMetrics methodology for measuring
market risks.

For more information about RiskMetrics, please contact the

authors or any other person listed below.

RiskMetrics Directory: Available exclusively on-line, a list

of consulting practices and software products that incorporate
the RiskMetrics methodology and data sets.

New York

Peter Zangari (1-212) 648-8641

[email protected]

Chicago

Michael Moore (1-312) 541-3511

[email protected]

Mexico

Jose Maria de la Torre (52-5) 540-1769

[email protected]

San Francisco

Paul Schoffelen (1-415) 954-3240

[email protected]

Toronto

Dawn Desjardins (1-416) 981-9264

[email protected]

RiskMetricsTechnical Document: A manual describing

the RiskMetrics methodology for estimating market risks. It
specifies how financial instruments should be mapped and
describes how volatilities and correlations are estimated in
order to compute market risks for trading and investment
horizons. The manual also describes the format of the volatility
and correlation data and the sources from which daily updates
can be downloaded. Available in printed form as well as Adobe
pdf format.
RiskMetrics Monitor: A quarterly publication that discusses
broad market risk management issues and statistical questions
as well as new software products built by third-party vendors to
support RiskMetrics.
RiskMetrics data sets: Two sets of daily estimates of future
volatilities and correlations of approximately 480 rates and
prices, with each data set totaling115,000+ data points. One set
is for computing short-term trading risks, the other for mediumterm investment risks. The data sets currently cover foreign
exchange, government bond, swap, and equity markets in up to
31 currencies. Eleven commodities are also included.
A RiskMetrics Regulatory data set, which incorporates the
latest recommendations from the Basel Committee on the use
of internal models to measure market risk, is also available.

North America

Europe
London

Guy Coughlan (44-71) 325-5384

[email protected]

Brussels

Laurent Fransolet (32-2) 508-8517

[email protected]

Paris

Guilliame Saloman (33-1) 4015 4245

[email protected]

Frankfurt

Robert Bierich (49-69) 712-4331

[email protected]

Milan

Roberto Fumagalli (39-2) 774-4230

[email protected]

Madrid

Jose Antonio Carretero (34-1) 577-1299

[email protected]

Zurich

Viktor Tschirky (41-1) 206-8686

[email protected]

Asia
Singapore

Michael Wilson (65) 326-9901

[email protected]

Tokyo

Yuri Nagai (81-3) 5573-1168

[email protected]

Hong Kong

Martin Matsui (85-2) 973-5480

[email protected]

Australia

Debra Robertson (61-2) 551-6200

[email protected]

RiskMetrics is based on, but differs significantly from, the market risk management systems developed by J.P. Morgan for its own use. J.P. Morgan does not warrant any results
obtained from use of the RiskMetrics data, methodology, documentation or any information derived from the data (collectively the Data) and does not guarantee its sequence,
timeliness, accuracy, completeness or continued availability. The Data is calculated on the basis of historical observations and should not be relied upon to predict future market
movements. The Data is meant to be used with systems developed by third parties. J.P. Morgan does not guarantee the accuracy or quality of such systems.
Additional information is available upon request. Information herein is believed to be reliable, but J.P. Morgan does not warrant its completeness or accuracy. Opinions and estimates constitute our judgement and are
subject to change without notice. Past performance is not indicative of future results. This material is not intended as an offer or solicitation for the purchase or sale of any financial instrument. J.P. Morgan may hold a
position or act as market maker in the financial instruments of any issuer discussed herein or act as advisor or lender to such issuer. Morgan Guaranty Trust Company is a member of FDIC and SFA. Copyright 1996 J.P.
Morgan & Co. Incorporated. Clients should contact analysts at and execute transactions through a J.P. Morgan entity in their home jurisdiction unless governing law permits otherwise.