Physical

science
the systematic study of the inorganic world,
as distinct from the study of the organic
world, which is the province of
biological science. Physical science is
ordinarily thought of as consisting of four
broad areas: astronomy, physics,chemistry,
and the Earth sciences. Each of these is in
turn divided into fields and subfields. This
article discusses the historical development
with due attention to the scope, principal
concerns, and methodsof the first three of
these areas. The Earth sciences are
discussed in a separate article.
Physics, in its modern sense, was founded in
the mid-19th century as a synthesis of
several older sciencesnamely, those
of mechanics, optics,acoustics, electricity, m
agnetism, heat, and the physical properties
ofmatter. The synthesis was based in large
part on the recognition that the different
forces of nature are related and are, in fact,
interconvertible because they are forms
of energy.
he boundary between physics and chemistry
is somewhat arbitrary. As it developed in the
20th century, physics is concerned with the
structure and behaviour of
individual atoms and their components,
while chemistry deals with the properties
and reactions of molecules. These latter
depend on energy, especially heat, as well as
on atoms; hence, there is a strong link
between physics and chemistry. Chemists
tend to be more interested in the specific
properties of
different elements and compounds, whereas
physicists are concerned with general
properties shared by all matter.
(See chemistry: The history of chemistry.)

FUSION?
Fusion is the process that powers the sun and the
stars. It is the reaction in which two atoms of
hydrogen combine together, or fuse, to form an atom
of helium. In the process some of the mass of the
hydrogen is converted into energy. The easiest fusion
reaction to make happen is combining deuterium (or
heavy hydrogen) with tritium (or heavy-heavy
hydrogen) to make helium and a neutron. Deuterium
is plentifully available in ordinary water. Tritium can be
produced by combining the fusion neutron with the
abundant light metal lithium. Thus fusion has the
potential to be an inexhaustible source of energy.
To make fusion happen, the atoms of hydrogen must
be heated to very high temperatures (100 million
degrees) so they are ionized (forming a plasma) and
have sufficient energy to fuse, and then be held
together i.e. confined, long enough for fusion to occur.
The sun and stars do this by gravity. More practical
approaches on earth are magnetic confinement,
where a strong magnetic field holds the ionized atoms
together while they are heated by microwaves or
other energy sources, and inertial confinement, where
a tiny pellet of frozen hydrogen is compressed and
heated by an intense energy beam, such as a laser,
so quickly that fusion occurs before the atoms can fly
apart.
Who cares? Scientists have sought to make fusion
work on earth for over 40 years. If we are successful,
we will have an energy source that is inexhaustible.
One out of every 6,500 atoms of hydrogen in ordinary
water is deuterium, giving a gallon of water the energy
content of 300 gallons of gasoline. In addition, fusion
would be environmentally friendly, producing no
combustion products or greenhouse gases. While
fusion is a nuclear process, the products of the fusion
reaction (helium and a neutron) are not radioactive,
and with proper design a fusion power plant would be
passively safe, and would produce no long-lived
radioactive waste. Design studies show that electricity
from fusion should be about the same cost as present
day sources.
Were getting close! While fusion sounds simple, the
details are difficult and exacting. Heating,
compressing and confining hydrogen plasmas at 100
million degrees is a significant challenge. It has taken
a lot of science and engineering research to get

fusion developments to where they are today. Both

magnetic and inertial fusion programs are conducting
experiments to develop a commercial application. If
all goes well, commercial application should be
possible by about 2020, providing humankind a safe,
clean, inexhaustible energy source for the future.

Stellar nucleosynthesis
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which the
natural abundances of the chemical elements within
stars change due to nuclear fusion reactions in the
cores and their overlying mantles. Stars are said to
evolve (age) with changes in the abundances of the
elements within. Core fusion increases the atomic
weight of elements and reduces the number of
particles, which would lead to a pressure loss except
that gravitation leads to contraction, an increase of
temperature, and a balance of forces.[1] A star loses
most of its mass when it is ejected late in the star's
stellar lifetimes, thereby increasing the abundance of
elements heavier than helium in the interstellar
medium. The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used
to describe the creation of elements during the
evolution and explosion of a presupernova star,
as Fred Hoyle advocated presciently in 1954.[2] A
stimulus to the development of the theory of
nucleosynthesis was the discovery of variations in
the abundances of elements found in the universe.
Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a
function of atomic number of the element, have a
jagged sawtooth shape that varies by factors of tens
of millions. This suggested a natural process other
than random. Such a graph of the abundances can be
seen at History of nucleosynthesis theory article. Of
the several processes of nucleosynthesis, stellar
nucleosynthesis is the dominating contributor to
elemental abundances in the universe.
A second stimulus to understanding the processes of
stellar nucleosynthesis occurred during the 20th
century, when it was realized that the energy released
from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the
longevity of the Sun as a source of heat and light.
[3]
The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial
hydrogen and helium abundance, provides it energy
and the synthesis of new nuclei is a byproduct of that
fusion process. This became clear during the decade
prior to World War II. The fusion-produced nuclei are
restricted to those only slightly heavier than the fusing
nuclei; thus they do not contribute heavily to the
natural abundances of the elements. Nonetheless,
this insight raised the plausibility of explaining all of

the natural abundances of elements in this way. The

prime energy producer in our Sun is
the fusion of hydrogen to form helium, which occurs at
a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin.

triple-alpha process is a
set of nuclear fusion reactions by which three helium4 nuclei (alpha particles) are transformed
Helium accumulates in the core of stars as a result of
the protonproton chain reaction and the carbon
nitrogenoxygen cycle. Further nuclear fusion
reactions of helium with hydrogen or another alpha
particle produce lithium-5 and beryllium8 respectively. Both products are highly unstable and
decay, almost instantly, back into smaller nuclei,
unless a third alpha particle fuses with a beryllium
before that time to produce a stable carbon12 nucleus.[3]
When a star runs out of hydrogen to fuse in its core, it
begins to collapse until the central temperature rises
to 108 K,[4] six times hotter than the sun's core. At this
temperature and density, alpha particles are able to
fuse rapidly enough (the half-life of 5Li
is 3.71022 s and that of 8Be is 6.71017 s) to
produce significant amounts of carbon and
restore thermodynamic equilibrium in the core
4
2He
+4
2He
8
4Be
8
4Be
+4
2He
12
6C

(91.8 keV)

(+7.367 MeV)

The net energy release of the process is 7.273

MeV (1.166 pJ).
As a side effect of the process, some carbon
nuclei fuse with additional helium to produce a
stable isotope of oxygen and energy:
12
6C
+4
2He
16
8O
+

(+7.162 MeV)

See alpha process for more details about

this reaction and further steps in the chain of
stellar nucleosynthesis.
This creates a situation in which stellar
nucleosynthesis produces large amounts of
carbon and oxygen but only a small fraction
of those elements are converted into neon
and heavier elements. Both oxygen and
carbon make up the 'ash' of helium-4
burning.
into carbon.[1][2] The triple alpha process is highly
dependent on carbon-12 and beryllium-8 having
resonances with slightly more energy than helium-4,
and before 1952, no such energy levels were known
for carbon. The astrophysicist Fred Hoyle used the
fact that carbon-12 is abundant in the universe as
evidence for the existence of a carbon-12 resonance.

Alpha Ladder :

is a simple

structure that uses thealphabet to organise and

record information, such as definitions, factors, people
or events. Update yourAlpha Ladder throughout your
studies. When assessment time comes around you
will have a pre-prepared and comprehensive resource
to study

CNO cycle:
Overview of the CNO-I Cycle
The CNO cycle (for carbonnitrogenoxygen) is one
of the two known sets of fusion reactions by
which stars converthydrogen to helium, the other
being the protonproton chain reaction. Unlike the
latter, the CNO cycle is a catalytic cycle. It is dominant
in stars that are more than 1.3 times as massive as
the Sun.[1]
In the CNO cycle, four protons fuse, using carbon,
nitrogen and oxygen isotopes as catalysts, to produce
one alpha particle, two positrons and two electron
neutrinos. Although there are various paths and
catalysts involved in the CNO cycles, all these cycles
have the same net result:
41
1H

+ 2
e
4
2He
+ 2
e+
+ 2
e
+ 2

e + 3

+ 24.7 MeV 4
2He
+ 2

e + 3

+ 26.7 MeV
The positrons will almost instantly annihilate with
electrons, releasing energy in the form of gamma
rays. The neutrinos escape from the star carrying
away some energy. One nucleus goes to
become carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes
through a number of transformations in an
endless loop.
Theoretical models suggest that the CNO cycle
is the dominant source of energy in stars whose
mass is greater than about 1.3 times that of
the Sun.[1] The protonproton chain is more
important in stars the mass of the Sun or less.
This difference stems from temperature
dependency differences between the two
reactions; pp-chain reactions starts at
temperatures around 4106 K[2] (4 megakelvins),
making it the dominant energy source in smaller
stars. A self-maintaining CNO chain starts at
approximately 15106 K, but its energy output
rises much more rapidly with increasing
temperatures.[1] At approximately 17106 K, the
CNO cycle starts becoming the dominant source
of energy.[3] The Sun has a core temperature of
around 15.7106 K, and only 1.7% of 4
He
nuclei produced in the Sun are born in the CNO
cycle. The CNO-I process was independently
proposed by Carl von Weizscker[4] and Hans
Bethe[5] in 1938 and 1939, respectively.
Contents
[hide]

1Cold CNO cycles

o

1.1CNO-I

1.2CNO-II

1.3CNO-III

1.4CNO-IV

2Hot CNO cycles

o

2.1HCNO-I

2.2HCNO-II

2.3HCNO-III

3Use in astronomy

4See also

5References

6Further reading

Main sequence: stars

fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in
their cores. About 90 percent of the stars in
the universe, including the sun, are main
sequence stars. These stars can range from
about a tenth of the mass of the sun to up to
200 times as massive.
Stars start their lives as clouds of dust and
gas. Gravity draws these clouds together. A
small protostar forms, powered by the
collapsing material. Protostars often form in
densely packed clouds of gas and can be
challenging to detect.
"Nature doesn't form stars in isolation," Mark
Morris, of the University of California at Los
Angeles (UCLS), said in a statement. "It
forms them in clusters, out of natal clouds
that collapse under their own gravity."

Advertisement

Red giant:

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the type of star. For the

racehorse, see Red Giant (horse). For the
software company, see Red Giant Software.
For the comic book publisher, see Red Giant
Entertainment.

HertzsprungRussell diagram

Spectral type

Brown dwarfs

White dwarfs

Red dwarfs

Subdwarfs

Main sequence
("dwarfs")

Subgiants

Giants

Bright giants

Supergiants

Hypergiants

absolute
magnitude
(MV)
A red giant is a luminous giant star of low or
intermediate mass (roughly 0.38 solar
masses (M)) in a late phase ofstellar
evolution. The outer atmosphere is inflated
and tenuous, making the radius large and
the surface temperature as low as 5,000 K
and lower. The appearance of the red giant
is from yellow-orange to red, including
the spectral types K and M, but also class S
stars and most carbon stars.
The most common red giants are stars on
the red-giant branch (RGB) that are
still fusing hydrogen into helium in a shell
surrounding an inert helium core. Other red
giants are the red-clump stars in the cool half
of the horizontal branch, fusing helium into
carbon in their cores via the triple-alpha
process; and the asymptotic-giantbranch (AGB) stars with a helium burning
shell outside a degenerate carbonoxygen
core, and a hydrogen burning shell just
beyond that.

Supernova explosion:
The brilliant point of light is the explosion of a
star that has reached the end of its life, otherwise
known as asupernova. Supernovas can briefly
outshine entire galaxies and radiate more energy
than our sun will in its entire lifetime. They're also

the primary source of heavy elements in the

universe.Jan 27, 2014

faster rate of neutron capture of more than one

neutron before beta-decay takes place.

Supernova
nucleosynthesis:

r-process
a nucleosynthesis process that occurs in core-

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

collapse supernovae (see also supernova

nucleosynthesis) and is responsible for the creation of
approximately half of the neutron-rich atomic
nuclei heavier than iron. The process entails a
succession of rapid neutron captures (hence the
name r-process) by heavy seed nuclei, typically56Fe or
other more neutron-rich heavy isotopes.

Supernova nucleosynthesis is a theory of the

production of many different chemical
elements in supernova explosions, first advanced
by Fred Hoyle in 1954.[1] Thenucleosynthesis, or
fusion of lighter elements into heavier ones,
occurs during explosive oxygen burning and
silicon burning.[2] Those fusion reactions create
the
elements silicon,sulfur, chlorine, argon, sodium, p
otassium, calcium, scandium, titanium and iron
peak elements: vanadium, chromium, manganese,
iron, cobalt, and nickel. These are called "primary
elements", in that they can be fused from pure
hydrogen and helium in massive stars. As a result
of their ejection from supernovae, their
abundances increase within the interstellar
medium. Elements heavier than nickel are created
primarily by a rapid capture of neutrons in a
process called the r-process. However, these are
much less abundant than the primary chemical
elements. Other processes thought to be
responsible for some of the nucleosynthesis of
underabundant heavy elements, notably
a proton capture process known as the rpprocess and a photodisintegration process known
as the gamma (or p) process. The latter
synthesizes the lightest, most neutron-poor,
isotopes of the heavy elements.

The other predominant mechanism for the production

of heavy elements in the universe (and in the Solar
System) is the s-process, which is nucleosynthesis by
means of slowcaptures of neutrons, primarily
occurring in AGB stars. The s-process is secondary,
meaning that it requires preexisting heavy isotopes as
seed nuclei to be converted into other heavy nuclei.
Taken together, these two processes account for a
majority of galactic chemical evolution of elements
heavier than iron.
The r-process occurs to a slight extent
in thermonuclear weapon explosions, and was
responsible for the historical discovery of the
elements einsteinium (element 99)
andfermium (element 100).

s-process:
The s-process or slow-neutron-capture-process is
a nucleosynthesis process that occurs at relatively
low neutron density and intermediate temperature
conditions in stars. Under these conditions heavier
nuclei are created by neutron capture, increasing the
atomic mass of the nucleus by one. A neutron in the
new nucleus decays by beta-minus decay to a proton,
creating a nucleus of higher atomic number. The rate
of neutron capture by atomic nuclei is slow relative to
the rate of radioactive beta-minus decay, hence the
name. Thus if beta decay can occur at all, it almost
always occurs before another neutron can be
captured. This process produces stable isotopes by
moving along the valley ofbeta-decay stable
isobars in the chart of isotopes. The s-process
produces approximately half of the isotopes of the
elements heavier than iron, and therefore plays an
important role in the galactic chemical evolution. The
more rapid r-process differs from the s-process by its

Contents
[hide]

1History

2Nuclear physics

3Astrophysical sites

4References
History[edit]
The need for some kind of rapid capture of neutrons
was seen from the relative abundances of isotopes of
heavy elements given in a newly published table
of abundances byHans Suess and Harold Urey in
1956. Radioactive isotopes must capture another
neutron faster than they can undergo beta decay in

order to create abundance peaks

atgermanium, xenon, and platinum. According to
the nuclear shell model, radioactive nuclei that would
decay into isotopes of these elements have closed
neutron shells near theneutron drip line, where more
neutrons cannot be added. Those abundance peaks
created by rapid neutron capture implied that other
nuclei could be accounted for by such a process. That
process of rapid neutron capture in neutron-rich
isotopes is called the r-process. A table apportioning
the heavy isotopes phenomenologically between sprocess and r-process was published in the
famous B2FH review paper in 1957,[1] which named
that process and outlined the physics that guides it.
B2FH also elaborated the theory ofstellar
nucleosynthesis and set substantial frame-work for
contemporary nuclear astrophysics.
The r-process described by the B2FH paper was first
computed time-dependently at Caltech by Phillip
Seeger, William A. Fowler and Donald D. Clayton,
[2]
who achieved the first successful characterization of
the r-process abundances and showed its evolution in
time. They were also able using theoretical production
calculations to construct more quantitative
apportionment between s-process and r-process of
the abundance table of heavy isotopes, thereby
establishing a more reliable abundance curve for the
r-process isotopes than B2FH had been able to
define. Today, the r-process abundances are
determined using their technique of subtracting the
more reliable s-process isotopic abundances from the
total isotopic abundances and attributing the
remainder to the r-process nucleosynthesis. That rprocess abundance curve (vs. atomic weight)
gratifyingly resembles computations of abundances
synthesized by the physical process.
Most neutron-rich isotopes of elements heavier than
nickel are produced, either exclusively or in part, by
the beta decay of very radioactive matter synthesized
during the r-process by rapid absorption, one after
another, of free neutrons created during the
explosions. The creation of free neutrons by electron
capture during the rapid collapse to high density of
the supernova core along with assembly of some
neutron-rich seed nuclei makes the r-process
a primary process; namely, one that can occur even in
a star of pure H and He, in contrast to the B2FH
designation as a secondary process building on
preexisting iron.
Observational evidence of the r-process enrichment
of stars, as applied to the abundance evolution of the

galaxy of stars, was laid out by Truran in 1981.[3] He

and many subsequent astronomers showed that the
pattern of heavy-element abundances in the earliest
metal-poor stars matched that of the shape of the
solar r-process curve, as if the s-process component
were missing. This was consistent with the hypothesis
that the s-process had not yet begun in these young
stars, for it requires about 100 million years of galactic
history to get started. These stars were born earlier
than that, showing that the r-process emerges
immediately from quickly-evolving massive stars that
become supernovae. The primary nature of the r-

Different state of
matter
There are five known phases,
or states, of matter: solids, liquids,
gases, plasma and Bose-Einstein
condensates. The main difference in
the structures of each state is in the
densities of the particles.Apr 11, 2016

Characteristics
of state of matter
Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed
volume and shape, with component particles
(atoms,molecules or ions) close together and
fixed into place. Matter in the liquid state
maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable
shape that adapts to fit its container. Its
particles are still close together but move
freely. Matter in the gaseous state has both
variable volume and shape, adapting both to
fit its container. Its particles are neither close
together nor fixed in place. Matter in the
plasma state has variable volume and shape,
but as well as neutral atoms, it contains a
significant number of ions and electrons, both
of which can move around freely. Plasma is

the most common form of visible matter in the

universe.[1]
Types of Graphic Organizers
Definition and Types
A graphic organizer is a visual and graphic
display that depicts the relationships
between facts, terms, and or ideas within
a learning task. Graphic organizers are
also sometimes referred to as knowledge
maps, concept maps, story maps,
cognitive organizers, advance organizers,
or concept diagrams.
Types of Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers come in many different
forms, each one best suited to organizing
a particular type of information. The
following examples are merely a sampling
of the different types and uses of graphic
organizers.

A Descriptive or Thematic Map works well

for mapping generic information, but
particularly well for mapping hierarchical
relationships.

Graphic organizer
A graphic organizer, also known as
a knowledge map, concept map, story
map (or storymap), cognitive
organizer, advance organizer, or concept
diagram, is acommunication tool that uses
visual symbols to express knowledge, concepts,
thoughts, or ideas, and the relationships
between them.[1] The main purpose of a graphic
organizer is to provide a visual aid to facilitate
learning and instruction

Organizing
a
hierarchical
set
of
information, reflecting superordinate or
subordinate elements, is made easier by
constructing a Network Tree.

When the information relating to a main

idea or theme does not fit into a hierarchy,
a Spider Map can help with organization.

A Sequential Episodic Map is useful for

mapping cause and effect.

When cause-effect relationships are

complex and non-redundant a Fishbone
Map may be particularly useful.

When information contains cause and

effect problems and solutions, a Problem
and Solution Map can be useful for
organizing.

A Comparative and Contrastive Map can

help students to compare and contrast
two concepts according to their features.
A Problem-Solution Outline helps students
to compare different solutions to a
problem.

Another way to compare concepts'

attributes is to construct a CompareContrast Matrix.

A Human Interaction Outline is effective

for organizing events in terms of a chain of
action and reaction (useful in social
sciences and humanities)

TopicOutline:

Continuum Scale is effective for organizing

information along a dimension such as
less to more, low to high, and few to many.

Several aspects must be considered in writing a

topic outline.

Recall that all headings and subheadings

must be words or phrases, not sentences.

Also, the wording within each division must

be parallel.

Finally, as in any outline, remember that a

division or subdivision cannot be divided into one
part; therefore, if there is an "A" there must be a
"B," and if there is a "1" there must be a "2."
I. Family Problems
A. Custodial: Non-custodial Conflicts
B. Extended Family
C. Adolescent's Age
II. Economic Problems
A. Child Support
B. Women's Job Training
C. Lower Standard of Living
D. Possible Relocation
1. Poorer Neighborhood
2. New School
III. Peer Problems
A. Loss of Friends
B. Relationships with Dates

A Series of Events Chain can help students

organize information according to various
steps or stages.

SentenceOutline:
Several aspects must be considered in writing a
sentence outline.

A Cycle Map is useful for organizing

information that is circular or cyclical, with
no absolute beginning or ending.

If you have chosen to write a sentence

outline, all headings and sub-headings must be in
sentence form.

As in any outline, remember that a division

or sudivision can not be divided into one part;
therefore, if there is an "A" there must be a "B,"
and if there is a "1" there must be a "2."

Negative Effects of Divorce on Adolescents

I. When family conflicts arise as a result of divorce,
adolescents suffer.
A. During the first year, these young people may
be depressed due to conflicts between the custodial
and non-custodial parents.
B. Grandparents, aunts, and uncles are often
restricted by visitation provisions.
C. Almost without exception, adolescents find
divorce very painful, but they react in differing
degrees depending on their age.
II. Some of the most negative effects on adolescents
may be associated with economic problems.
A. The family will most probably experience a
lower standard of living due to the cost of maintaining
two households.
B. Some female custodial parents have poor job
skills and must train before entering the job market.
C. The lower standard of living may result in
misunderstanding and conflicts within the family.
D. The decreased standard of living, particularly
for an untrained female custodial parent, often causes
relocation.
1. The family may have to move to a poorer
neighborhood in order to cut costs.
2. As a result, the adolescent may have to attend
a different school.
III. Adolescents from divorced families often

opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables and

generalize results from a larger sample population.
Quantitative Research uses measurable data to
formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.
Quantitative data collection methods are much more
structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
Quantitative data collection methods include various
forms of surveys online surveys, paper
surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-toface interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal
studies, website interceptors, online polls, and
systematic

Cold Smoke:flavours the product

dependant on the type of wood used, but will
not cook the product. Smoking is usually
carried out between 10 and 29 degrees C (50F
and 85F). As you will discover Cold Smoking
temperatures are dependant on the outside

Qualitative Research:

temperature, and when temperatures are low,

it is possible to smoke your products

is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an

successfully, provided you are prepared to

understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and

spend more time on the process. When

motivations. It provides insights into the problem or

helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential

ambient temperatures are high, the smoke

quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also

temperatures are to be kept as low as

used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and

possible to avoid cooking the product

dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data

collection methods vary using unstructured or semistructured techniques. Some common methods
include focus groups (group discussions), individual

and also causing the fish to disintegrate.

Hot

Smoking exposes the foods to smoke

interviews, and participation/observations. The

and heat in a controlled environment. Like Cold

sample size is typically small, and respondents are

Smoking, the item is hung first to develop a

selected to fulfill a given quota.

Quantitative Research:

pellicle, and then smoked. Although foods that

have been hot smoked are often reheated or
cooked, they are typically safe to eat without

is used to quantify the problem by way of generating

further cooking. Hot Smoking occurs within the

numerical data or data that can be transformed into

range of 52 to 82 C. Within this temperature

useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes,

range foods are fully cooked, moist, and

through a connecting pipe or opening into the cooking

chamber.

flavourfu
Upright drum smoker[edit]

Types of
Smokehouses
Charcoal Grill:
One of the least expensive methods to smoke small
amounts of meats and sausages is on your covered
charcoal grill. This will require an oven thermometer
to monitor the temperature. You can fill the bottom of
your grill with briquettes and burn them until gray
ash appears.

ertical Water and

Electrical Smokers:
A vertical water smoker is built with a bottom fire pan
that holds charcoal briquettes and generally has two
cooking racks near the top.

Barrel Smoker:
A clean, non-contaminated 50-gallon metal barrel,
with both ends removed, can be used as a smoker for
small quantities of meat, fowl, and fish. Set the openended barrel on the upper end of a shallow, sloping,
covered
trench
or
10-to12-foot
stovepipe.

A diagram of a typical upright drum smoker

The upright drum smoker (also referred to as an ugly
drum smoker or UDS) is exactly what its name
suggests; an upright steel drum that has been
modified for the purpose of pseudo-indirect hot
smoking. There are many ways to accomplish this,
but the basics include the use of a complete steel
drum, a basket to hold charcoal near the bottom, and
cooking rack (or racks) near the top; all covered by a
vented lid of some sort.
Vertical water smoker[edit]

A typical vertical water smoker

A vertical water smoker (also referred to as a bullet
smoker because of its shape)[9] is a variation of the
upright drum smoker. It uses charcoal or wood to
generate smoke and heat, and contains a water bowl
between the fire and the cooking grates
Propane smoker[edit]

A diagram of a propane smoker, loaded with country

style ribs and pork loin in foil.

Dig a pit at the lower end for the fire. Smoke rises
naturally, so having the fire lower than the barrel will

Offset smokers[edit]
An example of a common offset smoker.
The main characteristics of the offset smoker are that
the cooking chamber is usually cylindrical in shape,
with a shorter, smaller diameter cylinder attached to
the bottom of one end for a firebox. To cook the meat,
a small fire is lit in the firebox, where airflow is tightly
controlled. The heat and smoke from the fire is drawn

A propane smoker is designed to allow the smoking of

meat in a somewhat more controlled environment.
The primary differences are the sources of heat and
of the smoke. In a propane smoker, the heat is
generated by a gas burner directly under a steel or
iron box containing the wood or charcoal that provides
the smoke. The steel box has few vent holes, on the
top of the box only. By starving the heated wood of
oxygen, it smokes instead of burning. Any
combination of woods and charcoal may used. This
method uses less wood.

Smoke box method[edit]

This more traditional method uses a two-box system:
a fire box and a food box. The fire box is typically
adjacent or under the cooking box, and can be
controlled to a finer degree. The heat and smoke from
the fire box exhausts into the food box, where it is
used to cook and smoke the meat. These may be as
simple as an electric heating element with a pan of
wood chips placed on it, although more advanced
models have finer temperature controls.

properties:moke emission is one of the

basic elements for characterizing a fire
environment. The combustion conditions under
which smoke is produced-flaming, pyrolysis,
and smoldering-affect the amount and
character of the smoke. The smoke emission
from a flame represents a balance between
growth processes in the fuel-rich portion of the
flame and burnout with oxygen. While it is not
possible at the present time to predict the
smoke emission as a function of fuel chemistry
and combustion conditions, it is known that an

aromatic polymer, such as polystyrene,

produces more smoke than hydrocarbons with
single
carbon-carbon
bonds,
such
as
polypropylene. The smoke produced in flaming
combustion tends to have

oftwoods
Softwoods can be identified by their leaf
shape as well theyre typically needles.
Pine trees, firs, spruces, and most other
general evergreens fall into this category.
Typically, this type of wood has less
potential BTU energy than hardwood. It also
tends to smoke more than hardwood, which
might be useful for the aforementioned
purpose of meat smoking. The one true
advantage that softwood has, though, is that
it lights very quickly due to its lighter density.
For this reason, softwoods make excellent
kindling for any fire, even ones with
hardwood log