CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1

INTRODUCTION

There isnt single country in the world-not one-where men and

women enjoy completely equal opportunity that is why we must
change attitudes and policies. The aim must be to give each and every
human being greater freedom to make choices about their own lives....
-Gro Harlem Brundtland
World Conference on Women, Beijing, 2006
When researcher select the topic, one should go through the studies
done in past. As such researches on the role of education on women
empowerment was not done before but there are few studies regarding
education & empowerment
2.2

IMPORTANTCE OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The study of referred literature on previously made studies or research

will give you correct direction to your study or research. The study helps in
planning your project.
As per Walter R. Brog.
The literature in any field form a foundation upon which all the future
work will be built
The study of referred literature provides scientific and logic support to
the study being undertaken. The study provides various bottleneck on the
subject on which the student can add and develops suitable means and
methodology and move further his work. The referred literature provides ideal
guidance to plan the study being carried out by the student.
2.3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.31 Studies on women empowerment
The empowerment of women is one of the central issues in the process
of development of countries all over the world. The International Womens
Day celebrated on 8th march every year has become a day of demonstration
for equal opportunity and solidarity. But the question arises how relevant is
celebration of Womens Day in view of the fact that their position in the society
has not changed much. They are still treated as the weaker sex who needs
to be protected entire life-be it by her father, husband or son. The New Age
Women and the Women of Substance in true terms are just words in books.
Women constitute about half of the total population of country but they
suffer from many disadvantages as compared to men in terms of literacy
rates, labour participation rates earnings. Social, economic and political
28

empowerment is the need of the day, as it is one only surest way of making
women equal partners in development. The process of women
empowerment is conceptualized in terms of personal assertions, self-esteem
and confidence, ability to protect themselves as women attaining sociopolitical participation and economic independence, ownership of productive
assets and provide leadership in women.
The Government has been implementing various schemes for the
socio-economic advancement and development of women in the country. The
National Policy for Empowerment of women was adopted in 2001 with the
objective of ensuring women their rightful place in society by empowering
them as agents of socio-economic change and development.
Empowerment of women, is therefore, an important approach adopted
in the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) for development of women. Two
important schemes in the areas of education viz Sarv- Shiksha Abhiyan and
Mahila Samakhya are being implemented by department of Elementary
Education and Literacy. A number of other schemes include Swyamsidhs,
Swashakti, Rashtriya Mahila Kosh, Swawalamban, and support to trainingcum-Employment Programme (STEP), Swadhar, and Hostel for working
women.
Women as a group of the human community their status, role and
problems have been an important issue of debates among the intellectuals
from pretty time.
Writers, thinkers, researchers and discoveries say that the first female
made the transition from an ape to a human erectus who stood on her Two
Feet and they named her Lucy and she is the first female. I understand
judeo, Christian and Islamic religions teach us that Adam and Eve the first
from whom we all emerged. It is said that women is the indispensable for
human being as air and water are essential for living on this earth. Then why
throughout history and in many societies including India gender inequality is
part and parcel of an accepted male dominated culture.
Women and men are different in four manners. They think and act
differently in some given conditions. Men are egoist, arrogant, assertive and
dominate. Men and women have their specific areas of strengths and
weaknesses but understanding is the mandatory. If they understand each
other they can have better relationship. But from the long time, the women on
this earth were treated as a sort of thing. Her place in this society was not like
other human being. She has no rights even she cannot move nor does
anything at her will. In Hindu Shastas, she has been branded just like
animals. Great poet of Hindi-Tulsi Das said in Ramayan Dhol, Ganwar,
Shudra, Pashu, Naari-Ye Sab Tadan Ke Adhikari, according to this
statement one can easily understand that what status has been granted to our
mothers. There is not only one example; we have many examples of this type.
Just see, another example of womens status-Mahabharata
Draupadi was reduced to the status of a bitch, as she was the wife of
29

Five Pandwas. She was not only the wife of Five Pandwas, she put at
stake in gambling by none else than the so-called Dharmraj
Yudhishthar!
One more example-in Manusmriti women were treated as animals and
slave. Such was the placement earmarked to our daughters, sisters, wives,
mothers and grandmothers that the heads of humanity bend upon down with
shame. As Swami Vivekananda said, There is no chance for the welfare of
the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is not possible for a
bird to fly on one wing.
Our society has never been reluctant to accept female politicians at the
power centre. India has respected women leaders like-Sarojini Naidu, Indira
Gandhi.Mamta Banerji, Sheila Dikshit, Jayalalitha, Sushma Swaraj to
name a few. The year 2020 will no doubt see more women politicians at the
helm of affairs and our experts are confident that women will make a better
administrator, and she will clean up the mess created by men.
2.32 Benefits of education for women:
Education as a means to promote development in social &
economic condition
According to Dreze and Sen, education has five intrinsic values for
improving social and economic conditions in Third World countries, both
benefits for communities and societies, as well as individual social benefits.
First of all education gives personal benefits for the individual in terms
of self-confidence leading to motivation and interests in society. Social
interactions are easier when persons are capable of reading a newspaper
about social and political issues in the community and the rest of the World.
Secondly, education gives access to a wider range of job opportunities
and in general enables persons to take advantage of economic opportunities
and to participate in local politics.
Thirdly, a higher literacy rate facilitates public debates and demands for
health care, social security and other needs. Public discussions enable people
to hold politicians accountable for their promises of improvements in the social
service sector. Information on ones society provides better possibilities for
utilizing the service system.
Fourthly, education indirectly prevents child labour, to the extent that
implementation of legislation of basic education for all children, force parents
to send their children to school which again gives less time for labour.
Entering school broadens horizons for young people. This means that
meeting other children and young people could result in new ideas of different
opportunities in the future.
The fifth effect of education and literacy enables oppressed groups in a
society to become politically organized. Being a larger group makes it easier
30

to insist on ones rights and demands concerning social and politically issues.
An organized group achieves visibility in the society and is harder to oppress.
The ability to resist operation not only concerns disadvantaged groups in
society, but education does also have positive effects within families when
girls are being educated (Dreze & Sen. 2002).
Political and economic spheres has been gender-blind, but in the late
1970s this respective changed. In 1979 Fertility and Education: What do we
really know? was published by Cochrane. A large number of studies and
research concerning this subject followed, and concluded the existence of a
high correlation between womens schooling level and a decline in infant
mortality and fertility rates. Women who had completed basic education were
able to make use of health facilities and service for their children and had a
higher interest in sending their children to school (Dighe 1998). 1990 was
proclaimed to be the international literacy year; by the UN. The focus on
education for women continued during the 1990s and results of different
researches showed that investment in this area gave the highest output
(compared to earlier development investments focusing primarily on
production and industrial growth) both at socio-economic, cultural and political
levels.
Before the mid 1970s people occupied with development issues has
paid little attributed from women (Fink 1992). Educating women also result in
economic benefits. In Africa, for example, 46% of the agricultural workforce is
female. Educating these women will increase productivity, enabling them to
contribute to the protection of the environment and preservation of water and
energy will increase economic growth markedly. Investment in education for
girls and women has, according to Shultz, been one of the factors why
Southeast Asia, East Asia and Latin America have a significant progress in
social and economic growth. Conversely, growth has for instance in Middle
East and North Africa been of limited scale which according to Schultz is one
of the consequences of a lacking investment in the education of girls and
women (Schultz 2001:2008) economic analysis on wage returns shows a
lower fertility rate and infant mortality and a higher GNP per capital and life
expectancy when a larger number of girls are enrolled in primary education.
Furthermore does a study of countries with equity of about 100% enrolment
rate at primary level, show higher GNP and lower fertility rates when more
girls are enrolled in secondary education. This indicates the necessity of
educating women at secondary level as well, since it not only gives a higher
personal freedom as Dreze and Sen Mention. But it also affects children, as
well as the rest of the society in a positive way.

2.33 Education and development of women

In order to awaken the people, it is the women who have to be
awakened. Once she is on the move, the household moves, the village moves
and the country moves: and through the women, its children are brought into
the picture and given the opportunity of a healthier life and better training.
Thus, through the children of today we build the India tomorrow.
31

-Pt. Nehru
Traditionally, women are more backward in every respect in our society
comparatively than men. Womens education is an instrument for liberation
not only of women but of the Indian society as whole. During the last three
decades, planning of the socially, educationally and economically
disadvantaged groups has been accelerated in India. It is only in the last
decade beginning with the International Womens Year in 1975 followed by
the attention of planners in India has been specially focused on women.
The history of mankind reveals that there was a time when it was not
essential for everyone to learn, or to read and write. The life was so simple
and the activities of a person were confined to his small village community
and that of women were limited to their respective families only. With the
passage of time, the complexity of life also increased. Now activity of the
people is no more confined to the boundaries of their communities/families but
has tremendously grown in the recent century. The scientific Knowledge and
technology have entered the sphere of our day-to-day life-and-culture. But in
this process women are backward. Very few of them are getting the minimum
fruits of present development of our country. But the major portion of the poor
section, both urban and rural areas, are completely deprived of it, more
particularly the women in rural areas, and though it is not denied that till now
our Indian society is completely male-dominated, women are exploited,
oppressed and deprived in every sphere of life whether socially, economically,
politically or culturally. But if we read the history of social change in India we
will observe that the position of women today is not as equal as with the
position of women in ancient period it was. Once it was time when the position
of women in our society was very high, especially in Vedic period the
educational status of women were almost equal to men. For example, we can
say about Gargi, Maitreyi, Lilavati, etc. Even if we go back little more we learn
that once it was time when women were the heads of the families. But in
course of time women became the prisoners of our walls in the little home
among their family members, especially to serve the men. But society cannot
stand for ever in a particular place. So again, women are coming out of their
small cottages to serve themselves for the greater interest of the society. Still
there are some obstacles regarding their coming out from home for the
society which prevents them to participate in Nations development.
1. Women and education
The lack of education is the main cause for which women are the
sufferer, more than men. The lack of education means the lack of selfreliance, self-confidence for which women are not able to come out of their
problems. So educating a woman means educating a family. Thats why our
great social scientist Swamiji said, Educate your women first and leave them
to themselves, then they will tell you what reforms are necessary for them.
As per one estimate, about 850 million people in the world are
illiterates. Out of these, about 50 percent are in India alone. But if we take
illiteracy rate among women the situation becomes more alarming. Four out of
five women in this country are illiterates that mean they are denied the
32

benefits of modern knowledge, improvement of functional skills and

behavioral changes towards modernization. No doubt that there has been a
tendency towards literacy in post- Independence era, but women to a large
extent have been ignored. Consequently, a considerable majority of the
women particularly from rural areas continue to be either illiterate or semiliterate. It means women are not given due opportunities in order to enable
them to take the benefit of the modern technology.
2. Women and law
Illiteracy creates a barrier to the realization of constitutional goals of
social justice and equality of status of opportunity between men and women.
After Independence various laws were enacted to ensure equality, social
justice and fraternity, enshrined in the preamble of the Constitution. Under
Indian Constitution every citizen enjoys safeguard against exploitation and
various measures have been taken to ensure the protection and equal
opportunity to women. But the noble ideals enshrined in the Constitution are
hardly followed in practice.
They are not aware about the various programmes of social-welfare
and development which is actually meant for their improvement. Policies to
extend educational opportunities (both formal and non-formal) to women have
failed to bridge the knowledge gap between men and women which was
emphasized as the main task by the National Committee on Womens
Education in 1958. So it is recognized that without education women cannot
make themselves liberated out of their problems and unless women are
developed in a country the nation cannot develop as a whole with men alone.
Different Development Programme for Women:
After Independence major emphasis was placed on different
development projects for rural and urban areas including special programmes
for women. So, many programmes for women have been planned and also
implemented such as Functional literacy for women. In Integrated child
development services programmes were lamented with the aims and
objectives to educate women as follows:
(1)
Making women more conscious of the right and responsibilities, the
implications of the laws governing womens status in society and developing
and understanding about the various manifest and concealed ways which
cause womens oppression:
(2)
Assisting women to achieve economic viability through acquisition of
literacy and other necessary skills and resources:
(3)
Providing women access to knowledge in areas like health, child care,
nutrition and family planning:
(4)
Assisting women to form their own groups for learning and productive
activity, and strengthening their participation in the developmental process.
To reach these aims and objectives, sufficient preparations have been
made such as human resource (who will work for them?) planning and
33

management (how will work?) need based curriculum (what kind of content
areas should be covered?), sufficient teaching, and learning materials,
appropriate methodology, proper training, monitoring and evaluation etc.
Well, all the ideas above-mentioned are very good. But what do the
result says after implementing those programmes up to this? What do the
statistics say? Not absolutely, but a very few number of participants are
getting the benefits of development and the rest major portion is out of it. Now
the question simply arises that- What are the obstacles in the way of womens
lives to get education for coming out of their problems? Various factors are
responsible for the low education development of women. These factors can
be grouped under the categories namely, economic, social and others.
3. Economic factors
Studies have revealed that Women carry two-thirds of the total work
load in the country and receive not more than 10% of the total wages, out of
which they probably do not get even 1% for their own use. An important
reason for the low participation of girls in education among the disadvantaged
sections of the population is that girls from a very early age begin to take care
of their younger siblings and to house-hold work to relieve their parents to go
out for work. Such girls indirectly generate income.
Again, although no school fees may be charged, certain items like
books, stationary and uniform entail costs which poor family would be
unwilling to incur for sending their daughters to school. If the girls can directly
earn some income, for example, as a domestic servant, the income forgone
by her, if she is sent to school, is an additional cost which the family may not
be prepared to meet. Further, when resources are limited and education has
to compete for resources with various other sectors of the economy, womens
education will find it even more difficult to get adequate resources and
attention from planners who are generally men with not very favorable attitude
forwards womens education.
Social factors: This plays an important role in inhibiting the
participation of women in education. Early marriage, frequent pregnancy,
affects the enrolment rates of girls in education. Most important, however, is
the attitude towards girls which is widely prevalent, especially among the poor
and in rural areas. The role of girls is restricted and considered to be useful
both by the parents and the community (amongst whom education has not
made much progress) and hence, the low participation of girls in education.
On the other hand, as boys are regarded as belonging to the world of work,
their education is encouraged. Again women are regarded to be passive and
pliant units in social system which confers on them a subordinate status
(unfortunately, women themselves accept such an attitude as being culturally
conditioned for it) and their education is feared as it may make the women
question such a system: hence, the negative attitude towards education of
women.
Due to our cultural and social heritage parents are often reluctant to
send their daughters to boys schools, especially for girls (though the
34

percentage of such institutions is very few in numbers) inhibit their

participation in education. The lack of women teacher and instructress
similarly hinders the progress and do not suit girls in rural areas as they are
required for work either at home or in rural areas as they required for work
higher at home or in fields at the same time: hence, their low participation in
school education. The unattractive school environment, especially in mixed
schools, lack of physical facilities for sitting in class and the discriminating
attitudes of teachers towards girls, etc., also adversely affect the participation
of girls in education. Where schools are located at a distance from the home,
especially also inhibits the participation of girls in education. There are some
more other factors for which women are not able to participate in education .If
we list, it would be a long history, but I do not want to go far, the abovementioned are enough. Any how these are the barriers for which most of the
women are not getting proper education and to their ignorance till now, after
40 years of Independence women are not independent. They are not free
from male domination. They are sufferers of social evils and prejudices like
cruel dowry system, caste system, etc. They have no economic
independence, - working a lot for the family (especially household work) and
getting nothing. Here it is also said that among poor unorganized sector
women are economically exploited more than men. In rural areas in the fields
for the same works female workers get fewer wages than male workers. Also
politically women are exploited. The equal right and protection for both men
and women already mentioned in our Constitution are not applicable in
practical life. And culturally, how they are not oppressed? There is only one
answer according to Paulo Freire, - The culture of silence- to have patience
to tolerate all the exploitations done by the others.
What should be the remedial measures to promote womens education
to come out of their problems: Suggestions for educational improvement of
women: The measures to promote womens education will have to take into
consideration the factors which inhibit the participation of women in the formal
education system. Many of these measures have already been adopted in
certain places, but in most cases partially have less impact. The measures
need to be adopted uniformly and in a big way. The measures being
suggested are as follows:

Education for girls up to the secondary stage should be made

free in all parts of the country. Besides, incentives like free
supply of books, stationery, uniforms, mid-day meals,
attendance- scholarships and stipends should be provided at
least to the 50% (instead of the mere 20% at present) of the girls
who hail from the poorer sections of society. Such measures
would reduce the economic constraints which stand in the way
of greater participation of girls in education.
Separate schools for girls should be established wherever there
is a demand for them. However, the same standards and
courses should be made available in such schools as in mixed
schools.
More women teachers should be employed and special facilities
should be provided to attract them especially to the rural areas,
35

for instance, they could be given free accommodation, special

allowance, etc. where women teachers are still not available, at
least school matrons should be appointed to look after the girls
students.
The school environment should be made more attractive so that
girls participation in the educational system is greater than at
present. Adequate physical facilities like proper seats in the
class, separate toilets, and suitable extra-curricular activities and
games should be made available, in the school for girls and
especially in mixed schools
The time schedule of the schools should be made flexible so
that girls can attend classes when they are free from domestic
chores.
The common and relevant curriculum for boys and girls should
be introduced to have equal educational opportunity and later
equal job opportunity.
Child care centers of Balwadis as part of the elementary
education system are necessary to keep the siblings (for whom
the girls are able to attend classes in the schools).
Schools for girls should be set up at easy walking distance from
their homes. Where this is not possible, adequate arrangements
for free or cheap hostel facilities for girls should be provided.
Special campaigns should be launched to change peoples
attitude in favor of girls education. Such attitudinal changes are
more likely if the benefits of education for girls are obvious, for
instance, schools can provide education which is relevant to
their homes better in later life or would help them to enhance
their income for women will have to be generated which is by no
means an easy task.
Impart vocational or employment related knowledge and skills.
Considering the inadequacy of the educational needs of women
the importance of non-formal programmes cannot be overemphasized. However, the non-formal programmes available at
present tend to be as ineffectively utilized by women as the
formal education opportunities and the socio-economic factors
acting as barriers in both the cases are the same. Social
constraints affect women as covertly as school-age girls and the
whole value complex attached to the norm of house-bound
women limit womens access to non-formal programmes. For
example, while women may work the whole day in the field, an
agricultural extension programmes would be directed only to
male farmers. Again, economic constraints loom large where
expenditure is involved or where paid leave facilities are not
provided to working women. Women with family responsibilities
are left with little time after the endless drudgery of household
chores to participate in educational programmes. Besides, there
are no infrastructural facilities like child care services and
domestic assistance to facilitate their participation.
While devising non-formal education programmes for women
care needs to be taken that these:
36

Enhance awareness:
Include literacy and numeracy as learning tools:
Offer general education related to knowledge and skill base
required for improving the quality of life:
And
For girls less than 15 years of age, essential general
education leading to the level reached after the completion of first cycle of the
formal system is required. They also need to be encouraged a great deal to
enter the formal education system. The content of education for such girls will
have to be derived directly from their real life situation and work activities so
that it is not divorced from reality as otherwise the non-formal system would
prove to be as ineffective as the unrealistic formal system.
For the age-group above 15 years, continuing education programmes
outside the formal system (e.g., literacy programmes, part-time secondary
and tertiary education, open universities, distance education through mass
media leading to certification and may offer an opportunity to reenter the
formal education system)need to be provided according to the educational
level already attained by them. Such women could complete their education
and to enter suitable occupations, or if already working, to advance in their
careers. The latter would also necessitate vocational training programmes,
those relating to health, family-life, nutrition, child care, home-management,
womens rights, civil responsibilities, generation of awareness of the role of
women, whether working or not.
Mention may be made of the factors which would help in effective
utilization of various non-formal programmes. Many of them are common to
the formal education system.
There are:

Access to greater number of non-formal programmes with multiple

alternatives for learners to choose from, and provisions of or
subsidized programmes:
Provision of more employment opportunities.
Motivation schemes like paid leave and facilities as child care centers
to enable women to participate in the programmes:
Time and labor saving devices to simplify household work:
Support within the home including the concept of shared
responsibilities:
Maximum utilization of existing infrastructure, e.g., formal school
buildings for providing non-formal education. Some of these factors
have far-reaching implications and are by no means easy to ensure. In
all non-formal education programmes special attention should be given
to the needs of rural women who are the most disadvantaged, both
socially and economically.

There is an urgent need to give top priority to womens education in the

coming years to ensure development with social justice in the country .The
problem of womens development, therefore, calls for sincere, dedicated allout efforts from the whole of society, from planners, administrators,
37

philanthropists and social and educational workers. A movement for womens

education in India will have to strike the very root of the parasitic system of
social inequalities in the country.
2.34 Need for empowerment of female
Of late the incidence of female headed households is on the increase.
In many developing countries vast changes are taking place at the elementary
level of family mainly because of economic hardship suffered. The causes for
the rising incidence of female headship are varied. While marital breakdown
and preference for the status of unmarried mother are the major reasons as
far as advanced countries are concerned, in the case of developing countries
widowhood and desertion are found to be the major reasons, the latter
especially among the low income group. Migration of men to urban areas in
search of wage employment is another important contributory phenomenon.
In the recent past autonomous movement of women in search of employment
is on the increase which causes female headship in urban areas. Based on
two different but complementary research perspectives viz. system oriented
perspective and the actor oriented perspective it is believed that increasing
number of women headed households is associated with economic
marginality.
The causes for concern on female headedness are many. Most female
heads live with severe financial constraints. Their work is often low paid and
menial. Most of them have no marketable skills because of poor education
and lack of training. They cannot be choosy in their employment but should
take up what they can procure which makes them vulnerable to exploitation
by their employers. The growing inequality between male headed and female
headed households is another cause for concern. The children who grow up
in such households suffer poverty from childhood which is unacceptable.
Hence the need for identification and empowerment of female heads of
households.
In order to remove the hardships suffered by the female heads the
government should come out with some realistic programmes. First of all
efforts should be made to identify female headed households. Once they are
identified the really deserving should be assisted with income generating
activities. Once again the sons of the female heads should not be offered jobs
since there is no guarantee that the widowed mothers will be taken care of
NGOs are already doing a good deal of service to the deserted women. But
the magnitude of the problem is so vast and so severe especially at the
destitute level that NGO activity alone will not suffice. Among the female
heads whoever are hale and healthy should be imparted some skill so as to
enable them to make a living out of it. But all above are easily said than done.
The financial requirements are quite heavy. But now the time has come for
identification of such female headed households in view of their increasing
number and the growing inequality between female and male headed
households. At least a bread through should be made by including some
relevant questions in the existing census/NSS schedules. One round of NSS
should be completely devoted to the identification of female headed
38

households which may help policy planners devise appropriate alleviation

measures.
At the community level one important strategy of empowerment of
female heads is promotion of self help group. Due to scarce resources and
the problem of identification of female heads the government may not be very
effective and in such a context the concerned target group should take care of
itself. In the intervention strategies of the voluntary sector self help has
emerged as a new paradigm. Two important elements of this approach are
building upon what the rural poor have rather than what they lack and
facilitating and promoting their organizations. The underlying assumption
behind self help promotion is by being reached the position of the poor is
weakened and not strengthened by merely being reached the poor tend to
become dependent on development agencies and they are being forced to
accept the development process which is not of their own making. It does not
mean that the development agencies have no role to play. Instead of playing
a supportive role they can play a directive role. Self help implies
development of the bargaining power of the poor to the extent that outside
agencies cannot unilaterally impose their conditions and regulations upon the
rural poor as passive recipients. Thus either the NGOs can mobilize the poor
female heads and promote group employment schemes and collective action
for their social economic needs or the female heads themselves to organize
plan and execute programmes for their welfare. Such self help promotion
strategies are likely to be more effective and realistic than the programmes
passed on by outside development agencies. Such self-help organizations
could also bring pressure on the government to identify appreciates the
problems and extends help to female heads of house household.
The government and voluntary organizations may at the most provide
employment opportunity to reduce the economic vulnerability of female heads.
But the attitudinal change has to come about in the minds of people towards
the treatment of widows/separated and this could be done only through
persistent education of people on this issue through press, visual media
meetings etc. The secondary status accorded to women should be done away
with both at the attitudinal and practical levels. Since women heads of
households are not one homogeneous group they should be classified as dejure and de-facto in each socio-economic category for evolving suitable policy
measures. In view of the rising incidence of female headed households
empowerment of such female heads is an urgent necessity warranting
immediate action by governmental and non-governmental organizations.

2.35 Empowerment of women on going Approaches and strategies

Women empowerment is fast emerging as an important slogan for the
1990s. This slogan is gradually being integrated with that of participation,
advanced so vociferously by many in the late 1970s and 1980s, with the
accent of development progress becoming people centred and equitably
distributed. As a result, womens subordinate position has been recognized
and the need to improve their status beyond the traditional sphere became a
39

significant step forward in the rhetoric of international development. It was

also recognized that there is a need for equal participation of women and men
in every sphere of national life for the purpose of national development and
also for the better standard of living.
Gender equality represented by fairer opportunities for women and
better access to education, childcare, credit and employment contribute to
their development. It is also recognized that investing in womens capabilities
and empowering them to achieve their choices is the surest way to contribute
to economic growth and overact development of the nation. The goals and
commitments of the recent series of global summits provide a powerful new
framework and many concrete specifics for concerted action. The Cairo
Conference was a challenge to the world to accept that if we are to deal with
population issues in a truly serious and meaningful way, it requires the
emancipation and empowerment of women.
As a result, in India, women were recognized as a separate target
group after 1980, and the government began to direct its effort towards
mainstreaming of women into the national developmental process. Their
major approaches were adopted one after the other by the government
towards the development of women viz., the welfare approach, the antipoverty approach and the equity/equality approach. While the welfares
approach laid stress on the importance of womens pates as wives and
mothers and careers of family welfare the anti-poverty approach was built on
two strategies need for recognizing womens participation to family income
paid and unpaid works. There was full effort to mobilize poor women and give
them economic support through income generating projects and co-operative
functioning. The equity/equality approach focuses on womens actual
productive contribution rather than looking at it from the traditional role as
wives and mothers. The aim in this approach is to ensure womens rightful
and equal position in society through direct programmes that would enhance
womens activities in both the household as well as market spheres. Thus
began the strategy for the empowerment of women in India.
Some
as follows:

of the empowerment mechanisms in India could be identified

Literacy and higher education;
Better health care for herself and her children;
Higher age at marriage;
Greater work participation in modernized sector;
Necessary financial and service support for self-employment;
Opportunities for higher positions of power;
Complete knowledge of her rights; and above all
Self-reliance, self-respect and dignity of being a woman.

The Constitution of India made a deliberate radical departure from the

inherited social system, by granting to women equal social and political status.
Constitutional equal status meant that every adult female, whatever her social
position, or accomplishments had the opportunity to function as a citizen and
individual partner in the task of nation building. With the exception of cultural
40

empowerment of women, the following aspects of women empowerment are

given importance such as, full participation of women in democracy (political
empowerment); the education of girls (social empowerment); the eradication
of gender barriers in employment (economic empowerment); and land rights
and legal machinery (legal empowerment). Let us now analyze each aspect of
empowerment of women in detail.
2.36 Studies on Political empowerment of women
The political empowerment of women is one of the most important
aspects in the overall empowerment of women for it gives women the capacity
to influence the decision-making process. The political empowerment of
women in India has made considerable strides with only 4.4 percent women
being represented in the first Parliament of 1952-57 to 7.4 percent in the
election of 1996. Womens representation in the Rajya-Sabha has however,
shown greater improvement, having increased from 7.7 percent in 1952 to
15.5 percent in 1991. Besides the 33 percent reservation of seats for women
in the Panchayati Raj institutions is certainly a revolutionary step towards
empowerment of rural women. The Seventy-third and Seventy-fourth
Constitutional Amendments paved the way for the emergence of about one
million women as leaders and decision-makers in the rural and urban elected
bodies. Of these, 75000 will be Chairpersons in rural areas. This will really
empower women politically at the grass-roots level in a revolutionary fashion
and it will enable them to take interest at the local level to energize and
improve the situation of women in areas like health, education and
employment, which essential to their basic existence, This will also train them
for further political assertions in the form of Members of State Legislatures
and Parliament. As a result of the system of periodical elections, woman even
in remote rural areas of the country are now familiar with the elections though
not with their mystique.
Despite their vast numerical strength, women occupy a marginalized
position in society because of several socio-economic constraints. This has
inhibited effective participation of women in political processes and the
institutional structure of democracy. Even after five decades of the grant of
political equality, statistics have over the years revealed that while there is an
acceptable visible manifestation of gender quality at the voter level, gender
visibility within the power structures show cause for woman concern.
According to the document on Womens Development (1985), womens role in
political structure had virtually remained unchanged, despite the rapid growth
of informal political activity by them.
In general the women candidates have to cross three hurdles before
they could aspire to enter the formal political structures - (a) they should be
willing to stand for elections, (b) they should be judged suitable by the party
electorate which is the gate-keeper of power and (c) they have to be voter
friendly. Besides, broad-based political participation of women has been
severely limited due to the nexus of traditional factors such as considerations
of caste religion and feudal and family status. Farther, the political parties do
not favour the nomination of women candidates, although the political parties
41

do have a Womens wing, few women have access to the inner ring of the
party. This is the core of the power structure. This is true of the Indian political
system as well. Majority of the women; are illiterate not politically conscious
due to the lack of information and political awareness and they make their
choice on the basis of suggestions from male members of the family. As a
result, women were left on the periphery of political process.
However, with the Panchayati Raj institutions getting Constitutional
status by way of the Seventy-third Amendment Act, it is hoped that the
women will have greater participation in the political process and decisionmaking capacity as the Act made such a role mandatory and universal in the
whole of India. But, it must be remembered that a change cannot be brought
about overnight. Women have been subjected to exploitation forages and this
cannot break free of all the shackles of illiteracy, poverty and tradition at one
stroke. Even today, most of the women are uneducated, have little or no
property and Live in a tradition-bound society. In such a case, the politically
powerful can make them contest elections for their own political gains.
Another problem is that women, especially in rural areas, would not come
forward to fight the elections. In case, they do come forward, it would be along
the patriarchal whip, under the command and guidance of the males, as
proxies and signing or stamping on the dotted lines. But it is a fact that a
breakthrough has been made.
Gender as a political ideology view, women a basically
different from men-psychologically, physiologically and often intellectually.
Womens perception of life is a web. Mans is that of a ladder. Women
emphasize stress attachment, affiliation, empathy and interdependence. Men
emphasize competition, independence, separation and formal rights.
Combined with the first-past the winning post-theory, an inherent weakness of
the democratic electoral process, the visibility issue gets further compounded
(Shanti, K2006)
Gender empowerment strategies under these circumstances require
structural systemic change and basic attitudinal and value change. The real
empowerment of women requires a thorough going renewal of the political
process on a democratic basis. Unless women are equipped with the
necessary skill in political decision-making, their increased representation in
the local bodies may not alter the existing set up. It is, therefore necessary to
sensitize the women in the womens perspective, not in the narrow feminist
sense, but in the sense of honourable co-existence with men for this will
enable women to exercise their will and advance towards their complete
emancipation. This, of course, requires sensitizing men as well, as they are
currently the holders of power. Besides the success of the Panchayati Raj
institutions largely depends on the collective participation, they are at a take
off point, where the basic indicators are positive and the women who will be
elected in the election have a challenging and an operas task ahead. And,
thus there is a need to extend greater affirmative action from the Panchayati
level, to the state and national level and political conscious raising and
supportive action by womens organization at the voter level to enhance selfpotency and political efficacy. If these measures are followed, political
42

participation of women will open up new vistas of development, which will

automatically result in the real political empowerment of women in the society.
2.37 Studies on Social Empowerment of women
We are convinced that womens empowerment and their full
participation on the basic of equality in all spheres of society, including
participation in the decision-making process and access to power, are
fundamental for the achievement of equality, development and peace.
- Beijing Declaration, 2006
In this section an attempt is made to analyses the wise scope for
women empowerment. Empowerment of women has relevance in all the
walks of line. The areas of women empowerment can be demarcated
conveniently into political, social, economic, cultural and psychological. Social
empowerment deals with empowerment at the level of family, community and
at personal level which includes psychological and physical health of women.
Other areas include religion, literature, arts, media, history, legislation, human
rights and social movements.
1. Social Empowerment of women at the level of family
Family is the first agency to create discrimination and gender injustice.
Domestic empowerment is concerned with freedom and autonomy of women
in the family or in the households; both at parental as well as in in-laws
houses. There are several traditions and customs related to dressing up, food
habits, space for movements etc. that are discriminatory. And domestic
empowerment envisages ensuring equality for women in domestic life.
Empowerment in the domestic field deals with socialization at home,
succession, inheritance, the issue of domestic and social space, mobility,
status and role at home, and so on.
Social space for women is very restricted in Indian context. The
friendship circle of girls especially in rural areas is very limited. Mobility and
social interactions of rural women are governed by culture and traditions.
Seemanthini Niranjana (2006) remark that there is a relative lack of
theorization on the spatial basis of social life in the domains of sociology and
anthropology and a reluctance to conceptualist the body more fully in gender
studies. Seeking to rectify these tendencies, she provides accounts of the
domains and activities of women; describes cultural perceptions and
experiences of the female body; explores gender in the ritual realm; and
provides suggestions for formulating a basis for female agency within a
space-body matrix.
The physical space of the domestic world where women reside
provides an important clue to an understanding of their socio-economic
position in India. Space at the household which women usually occupy is very
limited and secluded. Even when they take up the yoke of the domestic
responsibilities, they are rather invisible at their households. The expansion of
physical space of the household for women is an important concern of her
domestic empowerment. She is no longer the subdued daughter in law,
43

seldom heard or seen, but a more vocal and visible wife and mother with
greater share in decision making in the family.
In an extended family, daughter-in-law occupies relatively low status
compared to other women of the household. Her appearance, mobility,
freedom, and communication are restricted at in laws house. The status of a
daughter-in-law does not become better until she becomes a mother-in-law.
Only with the attainment of the position of mother-in-low did women attain a
position of respect in the joint family. The joint family discouraged public
participation of women because the greater authority of older women
prevented younger women from breaking out of traditionally approved female
behavior patterns. Divorce is considered a taboo in our society and a divorced
woman looked upon with displeasure and disapproval.
The socio-economic empowerment of women in the family in reality is
the urgent need of hour. This seems to be the best way to stop the
degeneration of the society and to bring real harmony, happiness, progress,
prosperity and peace in the world. It is a very complex phenomenon and
needs multi-dimensional, multi-pronged and multi-disciplined handling. What
women do and are expected to do vary, of course, with economy, climate,
political or religious ideologies and cultures, but there is throughout the world
a core of common tasks which women everywhere are required to perform.
These include housework like, cooking, cleaning and sweeping, care of small
children and so on. In addition providing these services, a rural woman is also
responsible for the household production of food, care of herds, etc. Moreover
often rural women spend her time fetching water and fuel. Division of labor by
gender is most often evident. More than any other concept, the concept of
equal sharing of household and family work is universal goal of the womens
movement. (Balasubramahnyam, 2005)
Chirita Benerji (2007) weaves a warm, evocative tapestry out of
memories of food, ritual and womens lives in Bengal. She writes about
growing up from girlhood to womanhood in her native land, food and ritual
become intimate experiences, which definitively shape day-to-day life for the
women of that culture. Food and cuisine are nothing simple to Bengal; they
are essential to the Indian mental and cultural landscape. Like in agricultural
communities the world over, food and ritual, food and social custom, food and
culture, are deeply imprecated. Womens lives are closely associated with the
production and preparation of food. Certain foods are forbidden which Indian
windows cannot eat. Association of food with status is clear.
Education: Equal access to education for women and girls will be
ensured. Special measures will be taken to eliminate discrimination,
universalize education, eradicate illiteracy, create a gender-sensitive
educational system, increase enrolment and retention rates of girls and
improve the quality of education to facilitate life-long learning as well as
development of occupation/vocation/technical skills by women. Reducing the
gender gap in secondary and higher education would be a focus area.
Sectoral time targets in existing policies will be achieved, with a special focus
on girls and women, particularly those belonging to weaker sections including
44

the Scheduled Castes/Minorities. Gender sensitive curricula would be

developed at all levels of educational system in order to address sex
stereotyping as one of the causes of gender discrimination.
Health: A holistic approach to womens health which includes both
nutrition and health services will be adopted and special attention will be given
to the needs of women and the girl at all stages of the life cycle. The reduction
of infant mortality and maternal mortality, which are sensitive indicators of
human development, is a priority concern. This policy reiterates the national
demographic goals for Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Maternal Mortality Rate
(MMR) set out in the National Population policy 2004.
Nutrition: In view of the high risk of malnutrition and disease that women
face at all the three critical stages VIZ., infancy and childhood, adolescent and
reproductive phase, focused attention would be paid to meeting the nutritional
needs of women at all stages of the life cycle. This is also important in view of
the critical link between the health of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating
women with the health of infant and young children. Special efforts will be
made to tackle the problem of macro and micro nutrient deficiencies
especially amongst pregnant lactating women as it leads to various diseases
and disabilities.
Science and Technology: Programs will be strengthened to bring about a
greater involvement of women in science and technology. These will include
measures to motivate girls to take up science and technology for higher
education and also ensure that development projects with scientific and
technical inputs involve women fully. Efforts to develop a scientific temper and
awareness will also be stepped up. Special measures would be taken for their
training in areas where they have special skills like communication and
information technology. Effort to develop appropriate technologies suited to
womens needs as well as to reduce their drudgery will be given a special
focus too.
Violence against women: All forms of violence against women, physical
and mental, at domestic or societal levels, including those arising from
customs, traditions or accepted practices shall be dealt with effectively with a
view to eliminate its incidence. Institutions and mechanisms/schemes for
assistance will be created and strengthened for prevention of such violence,
including sexual harassment at work place and customs like dowry; for the
rehabilitation of the victims of violence and for taking effective action against
the perpetrators of such violence. A special emphasis will also be laid on
programmes and measures to deal with trafficking in women and girls.
It is often argued that education is powerful tool in the emancipation and
empowerment of women indeed the different co members of the United
Nations (e.g. UNICEF) and experts in womens development argue for
womens education as the basic status in womens quality. It has been
reported as a crucial factor for development of women as it not only helps
women to gain knowledge which is the necessary courage an inner strength
to face the challenges. It will also enable them to procure a job and supreme
45

the income of the family and achieve social status. Education, especially of
women, has a major impact on health and nutrition, and is the key of
developing a sustainable strategy for population control. Moreover, educated
women could play an equally important role as men in nation building. Thus
there is no denying the fact that education empowers women.
One of the recommendations of the National policy on Education
(1986) by the Government of India is to promote empowerment of women
through the agency of education and it is considered to be a landmark in the
approach to womens education. The national Literacy Mission is another step
towards eradication of illiteracy in the age group of 15 35 years by the year
1995. Womens education has assumed special significance in the content of
planed development as education was included in the Sixth Five Year Plan as
a major programme for the development of women. The internalization of
elementary education, enrolment and retention of girls in the schools,
promotion of Balwadis and crches, increasing the number of girls hostels,
womens polytechnics and multipurpose institutions and adult education
programmes were some of the steps taken to boost womens education. This
is being done with the hope that once illiteracy is removed, other avenues of
development get opened automatically.
In spite of these appreciable momentums much headway has not been
made till date and womens education has always been an enigma in India for
several reasons. In the year 1901, the status of womens education was
deplorable since it was less than 1 percent. In 1981, womens literacy was
24.83 percent. The 2001 Census report indicates that literacy among women
is 54 percent. Almost a century has gone and in spite of best efforts India had
achieved only 50 percent literacy among women. There are better educational
facilities for women in big cities and towns. But the growth of womens
education in rural areas is very slow. In general, majority of the women is still
illiterate, weak, backward and exploited.
Education for a long time was dissociated from the idea of nation
building. Its main aim was considered to be transmission of the accumulated
wealth of knowledge, impart classical values and to build the character of the
individual. It was not viewed as a contributory factor to the development of the
nation as we understand it today. Though the aim of education has changed,
the perception of womens education is still backward. A girl child from her
childhood is socialized to be a good sister, good wife and good mother and
not for a challenging career. She is constantly reminded that her role is limited
to home and home management. Even in those families where girl children
are given higher education they are encouraged to take up humanities and
social sciences and not sciences, medicine or engineering. Though the trend
is changing it is very slow.
It is indisputable that education enables a woman to gain more
knowledge about the world outside of her hearth and home, helps her to get
status, positive self-confidence. Even so, these attributes will remain personal
to her and cannot be transferred to her sex. The fact that education by itself
will not contribute to social status of women has been shown by the
46

population Crisis Committees (USA) data sheet, which shows that many
countries which have high scores on education of women are low on social
status of women (HDR,1990). In Kerala, the very high rate of female literacy
has not increased the social status of its women commensurately, True, there
have been a general all-round development in Kerala women, especially in
their quality of life, level of white collar employment, expectation of life,
maternal rates control of birth but, in other fields, the women of Kerala are
more insecure today than before. Wife burning, dowry death and crimes
against women which, were unheard of a few decades ago have now
become a general feature like in the rest of India.21 Certainly, by itself
education will not be able to deliver the goods unless it fosters new values
values which expose the inequities against women and which espouse
gender justice.
There is a need for encouraging more women to participate in
vocational, technical and professional education. Womens education should
be treated as a special priority in all Programmes of development. The
government can open more places in schools for girls, lessen the financial
burdens of education for women, reform curricula and education system, in
order to encourage girls to formulate non-traditional career goals and
centralize the educational system to greater equivalence of educational
experiences for girls. Education for women must be practical and well adapted
in their needs, especially in relation to health nutrition and legal right.
2.38 Studies on Economic Empowerment of women
Poverty Eradication: Since women comprise the majority of the
population below the poverty line and are very often in situations of extreme
poverty, given the harsh realities of intra-household and social discrimination,
macroeconomic policies and poverty eradication programmes will specifically
address the needs and problems of such women. There will be improved
implementation of programmes which are already women oriented with
special targets for women. Steps will be taken for mobilization of poor women
and convergence of services, by offering them a range of economic and social
options, along with necessary support measures to enhance their capabilities
Women and Economy: Womens perspectives will be included in
designing and implementing macro-economic and social policies by
institutionalizing their participation in such processes. Their contribution to
socio-economic development as producers and workers will be recognized in
the formal and informal sectors (including home based workers) and
appropriate policies relating to employment and to her working conditions will
drawn up. Such measures could include:
Reinterpretation and redefinition of conventional concepts of work
wherever necessary is needed e.g. in the Census records, to reflect womens
contribution as producers and workers. Preparation of satellite and national
accounts Development of appropriate methodologies for undertaking both.
Women and Agriculture: In view of the critical role of women in the
agriculture and allied sectors, as producers, concentrated efforts will be made
47

to ensure that benefits of training, various extension programmes will reach

them in proportion to their numbers. The programmes for training women in
soil conservations, social forestry, dairy development and other occupations
allied to agriculture like horticulture, livestock including small animal
husbandry, poultry, fisheries etc. will be expanded to benefit women workers
in the agriculture sector.
Women and Industry: The important role played by women in
electronics, information technology and food processing and agro industry
and textiles has been crucial to the development of these sectors. They would
be given comprehensive support in terms of labor legislation, social security
and other support services to participate in various industrial sectors.
Women at present cannot work in night shift in factories even if they
wish to. Suitable measures will be taken to enable women to work on the
night shift in factories. This will be accompanied with support services for
security, transportation etc.
Economic and Social development of a country can only be meaningful
when women are in the main stream of progress. It is possible through
economic empowerment of women. The main objectives to empower women
are to create large scale awareness with the active participation of women.
Empowerment of women in any society may be judged through parameters
like employment scenario, education, womens liberation and women law.
Economic empowerment of women by enabling institutionalisation
through organisation of self Help Groups, Mahila Mandals, focussing on credit
and thrift activities, related to meeting social financial needs and investments
for initiating micro enterprises. While facilitating financial and institutional
development for initiating economic activities, capacity building for income
generation through training in various skills and trades identified as suitable
and with potential for sustainability in the project area would be initiated. The
concept of economic empowerment does not only address poverty alleviation
as it also reaches out to the empowerment of women by bringing incomes in
the hands of women. There by promoting decision making independent of
men in incurring expenditures.
BUSINESS TODAY in its special issue March 12, 2008 list 25 most
powerful women in Indian Business Companies are monitoring the gender
equation and proactively hiring women.
Figher-2.1 Showing Type of Work

48

Business Today, March-2008

BlueCollar, 26

Nonworking,
52
White
Collar, 22

Source: Business Today, March 12, 2008

The 25 most powerful women in Indian Business2007 2008
1. Vineeta Bali
CEO, Britannia Industries
2. Vedika Bhandarkar MD, J.P. Morgan INDIA
3. Shobhna Bhartia
Vice Chairman, HT media
4. Elaben Bhatt
Founder, SEWA
5. Neelam Dhavan
M.D. Microsoft, India
6. Manish Girotra
M.D.UBS Securities
7. Lalita Gupte
Jt. M.D. ICICI Bank
8. Ekta Kapoor
Creative Officer Balaji Telefilms
9. Renu S. Karnad
Executive Director, HDFC
10. Chanda Kochhar
E.D. ICICI Bank
11. Naina Lal Kidwai
Deputy C.E.O., HSBC
12. Punita Lal
E.D. (Marketing) PEPSI
13. Kiran M. Shaw
M.D.Biocon
14. Zia Mody
Partner AZB Partners
15. Kalpna Morparia
DMD ICICI BANK
16. Falguni Nayar
MD, Kotak Mahindra Cap.
17. Amrita Patel
Chairperson NODB
18. Swati Piramal
Direc. Strategic Alliances and Comm.
19. Madhabi P.Buch
Sr.Gen. Mgr. ICICI BANK
20. Reunuka Ramnath CEO, ICICI Venture
21. Radhika Roy
M.D. NDTV
22. Preeta Reddy
M.D. Apollo Hospital Group
23. Shikha Sharma
CEO, ICICI P.Life Insurance
24. Malika Srinivasan
Direc. Tractors & Farm-Equipments
25. Preeti Vyas Gianetti CEO, Vyas Gianetti - Creative
Indian women have contributed a lot in the field of business. There has
been a rapid growth of women entrepreneurs in other field like in the world of
fashion designers are women with their own labels.2/3 women entrepreneurs
are concern with health science, media and entertainment and banking.

Figure 2.2 Showing Field of Work

49

2007-2008

Finance Banking

Media

Health Science

Auto

IT

NGO's

All Figures in %
Instead of this progress, if we go through a cursory glance on the
socio-economic status of INDIAN RURAL WOMEN we find they are on the
same place from where they are not getting their rights. The Socio-economic
status of rural women is poor. She however busy in household/ domestic
work. They are struggling for survival. She is powerless, malnutrited, poor in
health, uneducated, unskilled. She has no right to live her life in her own way.
While women are guaranteed equality under the constitution, legal
protection has little effect in the face of prevailing patriarchal traditions.
Women lack power to decide who they will marry and are often married off as
children. Legal loopholes are used to deny women inheritance right.
We naturally require a change in mindset to allow economic partitions of
women in equal footing with men in society. Women need to move away to a
certain extent from the traditional roles of home-makers and child rearing to
more progressive roles where their economic contribution to society is
regarded in a positive light.
Approaches to economic Disempowerment of women
After the end of Second World War, welfare programmes to reconstruct
the European economy, was specifically targeted at the vulnerable groups.
They identified women as the main beneficiaries of these welfare
programmes. This development assistance effort had two approaches (1)
financial aid for economic growth, and (2) relief aid for socially deprived
groups. Now we are marching from welfare approach to women development
and empowerment approach. Our vocabulary is also changing along with our
approach.
There have been three approaches that seek to integrate women in
development process. They are Women in Development (WID), Women and
Development (WAD) and Gender and Development (GAD). There are five
factors in the WID approach. They are Welfare, Equity, Anti-poverty efforts,
Efficiency and Empowerment.
50

The Welfare approach is based on three assumptions. They are (1)

women are passive recipients of development, (2) motherhood is the most
important role for women in society, and (3) Child bearing is her significant
responsibility.
In the second half of 1970s, the Women and Development (WAD)
approach emerged as a critique of modernisation theory and WID approach. It
has its close base in the dependency theory. The focus was that women have
always been a part of the development process: therefore, integrating women
in development is a myth. It highlights the relationship between women and
development processes. The approach accepts women as important
economic actors in their societies. Womens work in the public and private
domain is central to the maintenance of their social structures. It looks at the
nature of integration of women in development which sustains existing
international structures of inequality.
The Equity approach was introduced in the UN Decade for women. This
approach sees women as active participants in the development process who
through both their productive and reproductive role provide a critical
contribution to economic growth. This approach aims at reducing inequalities
between men and women in the division of labour. It acknowledges that
women must be brought into the development process through access to
employment and the market place. Anti-poverty programmes aim at
increasing productivity of poor women. It recognises the productive role of
women and their practical need to earn an income particularly through smallscale income generating projects. It meets the practical gender needs while
recognising her triple roles: reproductive, productive and community
management.
Gender and Development (GAD) came into existence in an alternative
to WID approach. It has a holistic approach by looking at all aspects of
womens lives. It challenges the basic of assigning specific gender roles to
different sexes. It recognises womens contribution inside and outside the
household non-commodity production. It rejects the public/private dichotomy.
It gives special attention to oppression to women in the family by entering the
so called Private sphere of the household. It emphasises the states duty to
provide social services in promoting womens emancipation, Women have
been seen as agents of change rather than as passive recipients of
development assistance. This approach stresses the need for women to
organise themselves for more effective political voice and recognise that
patriarchy operates within and across classes to oppress women. It focuses
on strengthening womens legal rights. It shows how necessary it is to
understand the ways in which unequal relationship between men and women
contribute to the exclusion of women in the development process.
GAD approach sees gender as a cross-cutting issue with relevance for
influencing all economic, social and political process. It aims to identify both
the practical gender needs of women such as healthcare, water supply,
education labour saving technologies and the strategic gender needs
51

ensuring increase in benefits and help to overcome structural constraints. The

strategic needs of women include the right to land ownership, access to loan
or active participation in decision making bodies. The World Bank in 1994
revised its earlier WID policy that tended to treat women as a special target
group of beneficiaries in projects and programmes and replaced it with a new
GAD policy which is based on the recognition that investing in women is
central to sustainable development and refers to its own studies indicating
strong economic arguments for investing in women. Today gender budgeting
and having gender friendly project is internal part of all development
programme.
The Empowerment approach, while recognising the fact that womens
subordination lies in the family, emphasises the fact that women experience
oppression differently according to their race, class, colonial history and
current positions in international economic order. So women have to
challenge oppression at different levels simultaneously. This approach is well
articulated in the Development Alternatives for Women in India, which was a
formation of individual women and womens groups that came into existence
before the 1999 Nairobi Conference. DAWN takes into account long term and
short-term strategies. Long term strategies are needed to break down the
structures of inequality between gender, classes and nations. The short-term
strategies are identified as necessary to provide ways of responding to the
current cries. The empowerment approach recognised the triple role of
women. It seeks through grassroots women organisation, to raise their
consciousness to challenge their subordination. Women activists reflect the
beneficiary for women. They prefer to use participants for them.
Another set three approaches to womens empowerment is
presented by Savitri Bisnath (2001), VIZ; (1) integrated development; (2)
economic development; and (3) consciousness raising and organising among
women. These are not mutually exclusive categories, but they are useful for
distinguishing between the various causes of womens powerlessness and
among the different interventions thought to lead to empowerment.
1. The integrated development approach interprets womens
powerlessness to be a result of their greater poverty and lower access to
health care, education, and survival resources. Strategies deployed under this
approach aim to enhance womens economic status through the provision of
services. This approach improves womens everyday realities by assisting
them in meeting their survival and livelihood needs, i.e., their practical needs.
2. The economic development approach situates womens economic
vulnerability at the centre of their powerlessness, and assumes that economic
empowerment positively impacts various aspects of womens position as
workers through organising and providing them with access to support
services. Though this approach improves womens economic position, she
notes that it is unclear that this change necessarily empowers them in other
dimensions of their lives.
3. The consciousness-raising and organising empowerment approach is
based on a complex understanding of gender relations and womens status.
This method ascribes womens powerlessness to the ideology and practice of
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patriarchy and socio-economic inequality. Strategies focus on organising

women to recognise and challenge gender-and class-based discrimination in
all aspects of their lives. However, she posits that though successful in
enabling. Women to address their strategic needs, this approach may not be
as effective in assisting them to meet their immediate or practical needs
(www.unifem.org.).
In the practical field, the Economic development Approach can be further
classified into three approaches:
1. The financial self-sustainability paradigm (also called the financial
systems approach and the sustainability approach) has been promoted since
the mid-nineties by international institution such as DFID-UK, USAID, UNDP
and the World Bank. The justifications for targeting women are in terms of
efficiency; Women are better re-payers and are an underutilised resource for
development. This strategy aims to enable poor people to achieve financial
self-sustainability through access to micro-finance services with the
assumption that there will be accompanying poverty reduction and
empowerment effect. Empowerment is defined in individualist terms, such as
the expansion of individual choice and capabilities for self-reliance.
2. The poverty alleviation is part of an integrated poverty-targeted
community development programme. Its main focus is to develop sustainable
livelihoods and increase well-being through integrated livelihood interventions
and social provision, including literacy and health care. In terms of
empowerment, the underlying assumption is that addressing womens
practical needs will enable them to address underlying inequalities.
3. The feminist empowerment paradigm situates micro-finance as an
important way to respond to the immediate practical needs of poor informal
sector women workers, and as part of a strategy for wider social and political
empowerment of women. Gender subordination is seen as a complex, multidimensional and all-pervasive process, affecting all aspects of womens lives
and embedded at many different mutually reinforcing levels: individual
consciousness, the household, work, legislation, state structures and
international economic and political systems. Support is provided for individual
women, and challenging inequalities at the macro-level (www. Unifem. org.).
Economic independence of access self-generated income is
considered to be the major means of empowerment of women and, the
contribution of employment to the empowerment of womens position is
largely contributed by the education and they enable women to move out of
their homes to an ideas, exchange their problems and evaluated their position
against men in many areas of social life. This would grow their position in
society and an urge to do something better employment of a women assures
her a better rewarding life and human relationship. The government has there
certain positive steps in full employment of women and payment of equal
remuneration to them. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (India) was a major
step towards protective legislation and establishing the principles of equality,
as it provides for equal remuneration for women workers and prevention of
discrimination against women in the matter of employment. In addition to
enabling women on their own legs, the Government of India introduced a
number of women-oriented generations the recognition of national

53

responsibility the economic empowerment of women cannot be anything but

to the advantage of women.
But there seems to be a little link between the level of economic
development and womens economic opportunities. There are some major
factors, which hinder gainful utilization of female labour force such as, general
antipathy towards womens employment, responsibilities at home, traditional
forms of job discrimination, high male unemployment, womens work and
earning being treated as subsidiary to that of mans absence of facilities such
as cheap eating facility, childcare centre and safe transport. In India, the
labour force participation of women is very law. As per 1991 Census, the
percentage of women in the labour force was 22 against 52 percent for men.
Though women engage in a wider variety of occupations, they are
concentrated usually in the unorganized sector, at the lowest rung of the
ladder. Contribution through work in the domestic sectors remains
unrecorded.
The plight of working women has drawn attention of many welfare
institutions and womens organization in the recent years. The panel
Document22 adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women stated: In
order to ensure women the right to work it is especially necessary to eliminate
unemployment and all forms of discrimination, enable them to have access to
every profession, ensure them to general and vocational training and to
eliminate illiteracy through the establishment of functional literacy. This
statement is quite valid as we cannot view womens economic participation is
related to a variety of variables, cultural values relating to the sexual division
of labour, womens access to education and availability of jobs to women
should be taken care.
One of the major hurdles to the development of employment
opportunities for women is the lack of adequate training. Women should have
access to productive resources such as land, building, credit, housing and
skill training. Supporting service provisions would make women more
functional and productive by reducing their drudgery and provide them with
more time for employment. Programmes for women, consisting of skill
building and skill upgrading can be more fruitful for enhancing their economic
status, and make them to have a superior bargaining power as far as
employment is concerned. Therefore, it is crucial for raising the female
earning power to increase the effective demand for education, health and
family planning services, which are necessary for improving the status of
women to a great extent.
2.39 Studies on Legal Empowerment of women
Laws empower women. They provide legal redressed in cases where
conciliation fails. And, it is important machinery at all levels, as it has an ability
to sensitize women to fulfil their needs. The concept of gender equality was
accepted in principle by the great Indian political leaders of the twentieth
century. With the adoption of the Constitution in India, there has been a spate
of legislation to protect women and to give them an equal status, The
54

following legislations23 have been enacted which are women-specific and

women-related to protect women against social evils like child marriage Act of
1955, the Special Marriage Act of 1954, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956,
the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956, the Child Marriage
Restraint (Amendment) Act of 1976, the Factories Act of 1948, the Maternity
Benefits Act of 1961, the Equal Remuneration Act of 1976, the Medical
Termination of Pregnancy Act of 1971, the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961, the
Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act of 1986, the establishment of family Courts in
1984 and the Amendments to Criminal Law in 1983. The Indecent
Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act of 1986 and the Commission of
Sati (Prevention) Act of 1987 have also been passed to protect the dignity of
women and prevent violence against them as well as their exploitation. The
State also imposes a fundamental duty on every citizen to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women.
Legal rights of women in India are of very high order and in certain
respects more than what is available for women in other countries. But
seldom are these laws followed. Violations are the order of the day than
adherence to these laws. For instance, the Immoral Traffic Prevention Act
instead of protecting the women penalize her, the others serve to strengthen
the state by wasting more and more power with the enforcement machinery.
For many of the laws, which reinforce equality between men and women,
social acceptance is yet to come. Personal Laws are the laws, which govern
marriage, divorce, inheritance, succession and adoption. Personal Laws do
vary based on the religion practiced. The personal laws governing Hindus has
been codified and amended from time to time making it progressive and
comprehensive but not the Mohammedan Law. This has become a legal
problem for women of different religions as they are put to differential
treatment. As long as there are disparities in the law administered, based on
religion, Article 44 of the Constitution which states that the state shall
endeavour to secure the citizen a Uniform Civil Code remains a dead letter.
The law, which grants a decree for divorce must also secure for
women a measure of economic independence. The cruel treatment of women
in the hands of their husbands and their families is because of her total
dependence on man, be it father, husband of son. If things go well then there
is no problem but for those who are not so fortunate there must be a way out,
other than ending life. Moreover, if dowry harassment, wife battering and child
abuse took place in a non-domestic setting it would definitely give rise to legal
action of complaint but when set in the domestic arena even law enforcement
agencies are reluctant to interfere. Women lack the courage to start
proceedings especially when they want the marriage tie to continue. Besides,
family is the prime plays an important role in solving family disputes but their
coverage is inadequate. In spite of the fact that legal remedies are available
for women, many affected women do not resort to them in view of the time,
cost and social image constraints.
Another important area where law could be an important tool of
safeguard against exploitation of women is the law relating to wages for
workers in the informal sector. Women constitute 90 percent of the total
55

marginal workers. Despite having ratified Imitational Conventions as are

embodied by International Labour Organization (ILO) and having laws such as
the Minimum Wages Act, the Contract Labour Act, the Equal Remuneration
Act, etc. Poor implementation and enforcement has prevented women from
benefiting from these legal safeguards. Laws to protect women against
violence are proved inadequate as new forms of violence are coming to light
which point out that a totally new approach is needed to deal with the
situation. Therefore, there has to be a greater emphasis on creating
awareness amongst the law enforcement machinery on issues related to
human rights and social justice, which have been guaranteed by the Indian
Constitution in Indian women.
From the foregoing it is clear that legislation is an important instrument
towards social change, but experience has shown that statutory change alone
is not adequate. Moreover, legislation in itself has only a limited impact and
cannot be carried out in isolation. A change in social attitude is a must. Legal
equality without social or economic equality is meaningless and women have
been socially, morally, economically and physically exploited in the name of
tradition, religion or by social sanctions. This should come to an end. Women
have been defined by the sex and until this social attitude changes there will
be no change in the status of women. Besides awareness and knowledge of
womens rights to equality has to be created not only among women but also
in the society at large. Moreover, women should become aware of their legal
rights and demand their unbiased implementation. In addition, women must
themselves be involved in a much bigger way in the judicial and the law
enforcement process as judicial officers, lawyers or police. The constitutional
vision of gender justice can be realized only by a set of multiple strategies
which include more affirmative action. Womens movement therefore could
play a vital role in such a context and perhaps that could be the most effective
instrument in achieving the legal empowerment of women.
2.40 Studies on Cultural empowerment of women
The most basic factor which inhibited women from being empowered
till recently was the attitude of society towards a womens role and her place
in society. These social values and attitudes get reflected in the education and
socialization of girls, and in the institutional arrangement of society.
Traditionally, a womens reproductive role was considered as her primary role
and her role as producer secondary, unless as in the low-income classes,
economic necessity forced a women to support the family. Coupled with this
was the idealized image of the woman as the one who subordinated self to
the family.
Women were socialized into accepting these role definitions, and
expectations through stories from mythology, epics and folklore, which
glorified women who conformed to the ideal image. Thus, women were
conditioned to sacrifice their own goals and ambitions, deny themselves their
legitimate space and surrender any resources, which might have contributed
to their independence. They were told to always adjust, accept and
accommodate. This was hardly conducive to the development of self56

confidence, self-image and initiative or willingness

characteristics absolutely essential for empowerment.

to

take

risks,

These values and attitudes also meant that girls were often given less
education than boys, and even when girls were educated up to school or
beyond, the aspirations of the parents and even of the girls, themselves were
lower both as to educational attainments and future prospects. For a young
girl marriage and children were considered the only lifelong activity or to
secure a better husband, since husbands preferred educated wives.
These attitudes reflected too on the courses and curricula offered to
women, these were not designed to equip girls with specialized training for a
job or career. If employment was at all considered for a woman, it was seen
merely as a temporary occupation till marriage. This conditioned not only
womens own aspirations but also judgment of their capacities, choice of
occupations and training. It also coloured the attitudes of all such as parents,
teachers, heads of schools and training institutions, employers and policy
makers.
From the foregoing it is clear that it is not enough if women empower
themselves through education, employment and participation in decisionmaking. There should be cultural empowerment of women. To make this a
reality, there should be social recognition, which requires attitudinal change.
Freedom is necessary for women. It does not mean breaking away from home
and tradition, but it means searching for ones own identity and making the
people around her to accept her as a human person. Moreover, there is a
necessity of conscious raising of awareness creation for the achievement
of cultural empowerment of women. This can be done through powerful
means of communication, mobilization and organization of both men and
women by helping them to think about themselves, identify the oppressive
forces working against their improvement and enjoy a feeling of oneness
and identification with the rest of the members of their group. The mobilization
process could be successfully carried out by the non-governmental
organizations working for the development of women.
Thus creating awareness among women about their freedom is
invaluable. In addition, unless patriarchal values die and principles of justice
are enshrined in the minds of every individual in the society, it is impossible to
reap the fruits of empowerment of women.
2.41 Studies on Psychological Empowerment of women
Disaster Turned Opportunity
Women in Latur Rebuild Their Lives Although women here remain
as economically marginalised as they were before the disaster, these ten
years after the quake have seen a significant change in their collective
perception of themselves and their role as members of the community. This
psychological change can be counted as the most positive fall-out of the postquake projects, notwithstanding the many short comings in planning and
implementing resettlement work by the community, by donor agencies like
57

the World Bank, by NGOs and by the government. It is a measure of the

assertiveness these women have developed that, during the tenth anniversary
observance at Latur on September 30,2003, one of the women felt
emboldened enough to question a State Minister in the middle of a public
meeting, demanding to know what the Government was doing about closing
liquor shops (because drunkenness leads to domestic violence). Ten years
ago, none of these women would have dared to question a minister.
Psychological empowerment, while essential and welcome, does not translate
into better availability of basic services an example of this is the poor access
to health centres in the interior regions.
The special attention paid on the education of women and girls in
development policies, activities and projects arise out of the knowledge that
ensuring basic education for all, especially the education of women and girls
and achieving gender equality are important elements in promoting
development and advancement in people's life quality as well as a means to
empowering women themselves. Empowerment as the expansion of freedom
of choice and action is identified by the World Bank as one of the key
elements of poverty reduction and a primary development goal. The
promotion of women's empowerment as a development goal is based on a
dual argument: that gender equality is a crucial aspect of human welfare and
intrinsically worth pursuing and a means to other ends such as the promotion
of growth, reduction of poverty and promotion of better governance.
Home science aims at educating individuals in the art and science of
family living, improving services and goods and helping individuals and family
to meet the challenges of the process of modernization. The discipline of
home science is an applied science and drawn its principles from the basic
discipline of arts and science. The committee of American Home economics
Association (1959) has clarified this as: Home economics synthesis
knowledge drawn from its own researches, from the physical, Biological and
social sciences and the arts and applies this knowledge to improve the lives of
families and individuals. Still there are variations in the ideologies.
Home science is education for home living. The home and family are
the measuring yardsticks of any nation. They reflect the progress of the
country by catering to the physical, spiritual and emotional needs of life and
suitable environment for the growth of children and culture to citizens. It builds
characters, ensures happiness and influences the individual and the
community for better living citizenship, respect for others, contentment, health,
character, efficiency in work are all obtained through sound home making.
Since home science affects the very foundation of an individuals life, home
science is education for living.
Home science is concerned and interested in effecting improvements
in home and family living. It influences the growth and development of family
members, through the knowledge of the environment in which they live. It
uses scientific method in solving daily problems. It is concerned with the
happenings in the world, and how they affect the family.

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Home science in addition to giving education for home living, also

trains students for careers the greatest career is of course, home making and
bringing up happy families, there are other careers in the communities, such
as; teachers, extension workers, dieticians, and nursery school teachers.
However, it can be safely said that home science education focuses at
coordinating the scientific and practical knowledge drawn from different fields
to utilize it in a suitable way for the development welfare and happiness of
individual, family, community and nation at large.
So this study was undertaken to compare how home science, art &
commerce education is effective imparting empowerment to women. Though
empowerment is wide word & has so many dimension but if it can impart
nutrition, health, social, educational, management & house hold knowledge to
the students it could be helpful to them to become self confident & can lead to
empowerment.

59