79774_CH08_355-402.

indd Page 362 24/08/12 1:20 PM f-447

Exercises

8.1

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-16.

2 0
3 1
16. If A  4 1 and B  0
2 , find (a) A  B,
7 3
4 2
(b) B  A, (c) 2(A  B).

In Problems 16, state the size of the given matrix.

1
5

2
6

3
0

1
3. 0
0

2
7
0

1
2
5

1. a

9
b
1

5
4. (5

5. 7 10

2 3
1 6
b and B  a
b , find (a) AB,
5
4
3 2
(b) BA, (c) A2  AA, (d) B2  BB.

17. If A  a

15)

1
4
4
6 3
18. If A  5 10 and B  a
b,
1 3
2
8 12
find (a) AB, (b) BA.

1
5
6
0
6.

7
10
2
12

5 6
0
2 12
9
2 1

2
4
6

2. 8

1 2
6 3
0
b, B  a
b , and C  a
2
4
2 1
3
find (a) BC, (b) A(BC), (c) C(BA), (d) A(B  C).

19. If A  a

In Problems 710, determine whether the given matrices are

equal.
1
7. a
4
9. a

10. a

1
3
b , 3
6
5

2
5

"(2)2
2
1
8

1
5

"2

2
1
4 8. a
0
6

2 b ,a
8

b ,a

2
2

0.125
1.414

2
1
b ,a
1
2

0
b
1

1
y

12. a

x2
y

x
1
b ,a
3
3x 2 2
1
9
b ,a
5
4x

0.2
b
1

y22
b
3

1
b
5

2
3

1
2
4

1
2
1 , B  0
1
3

0
4
0

15. If A  a

6
b
3
5
0
7

4 5
2
6
b and B  a
b , find (a) A  B,
6 9
8 10

(b) B  A, (c) 2A  3B.

362

4
5
b and B  a
1
2

5 9
3
b and B  a
4 6
7
T
(b) 2A  B .

24. If A  a

1
4
b, B  a
0
1

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

5), find (a) ATA, (b) BT B,

1 2
2
b and B  a
2 4
5
(b) 2AT  BT, (c) AT (A  B).
3
8
(b) BTAT.

3
6

4
1 , find (a) AB, (b) BA, (c) (BA)C,
1

22. If A  a

23. If A  a

2
1

14. A  2

2
1
2

3
7), B  4 ,
1

21. If A 

In Problems 13 and 14, find the entries c23 and c12 for the matrix
C  2A  3B.
13. A  a

1
and C  0
3
(d) (AB)C.

6

4
8 and B  (2
10
(c) A  BT.

1b
4

In Problems 11 and 12, determine the values of x and y for

which the matrices are equal.
11. a

20. If A  (5

3
b , find (a) A  B T,
7

10
b , find (a) (AB)T,
5
11
b , find (a) AT  B,
2

In Problems 2528, write the given sum as a single-column

matrix.
1
2
2
25. 4 a
b 22a b 3a b
2
8
3
26. 3

27. a

2
1

2
b,
4

2
1
3
1  5 1 2 2 4
1
3
5
3 2
1
ba b 2 a
4
5
2

6 7
ba b
3
2

79774_CH08_355-402.indd Page 363 17/07/12 9:39 AM f-447

1
28. 2
0

3
5
4

4
3
1
2
1 2  1 2 8
2
1
4
6

In Problems 29 and 30, determine the size of the matrix A such

that the given product is defined.
0
5
2 1 3 3
29. a
b A 7
9 6 7 0
9
2
2
30. 3

1
9
0

3
0
6 Aa
7
1

1
b
4

2 4
4 10
b and B  a
b.
3 2
2
5
Verify the given property by computing the left and right members of the given equality.

In Problems 3134, suppose A  a

31. (AT)T  A
33. (AB)T  BTAT
35.

36.
37.

38.

32. (A  B)T  AT  BT
34. (6A)T  6AT

2 1
Suppose A  6 3 . Verify that the matrix B  AAT is
2 5
symmetric.
Show that if A is an m  n matrix, then AAT is symmetric.
In matrix theory, many of the familiar properties of the real
number system are not valid. If a and b are real numbers, then
ab  0 implies that a  0 or b  0. Find two matrices such
that AB  0 but A  0 and B  0.
If a, b, and c are real numbers and c  0, then ac  bc implies
a  b. For matrices, AC  BC, C  0, does not necessarily
imply A  B. Verify this for
2
A  3
1
and

1
2
3

4
5
1 , B  9
2
1

0
C  2
0

0
3
0

1
2
3

6
3 ,
7

0
4 .
0

In Problems 39 and 40, let A and B be n  n matrices. Explain

why, in general, the given formula is not valid.
39. (A  B)2  A2  2AB  B2
40. (A  B)(A  B)  A2  B2
a11 a12 x1
b1
41. Write a
b a b  a b without matrices.
a21 a22 x2
b2
42. Write the system of equations
2x1  6x2  x3  7
x1  2x2  x3  1
5x1  7x2  4x3  9
as a matrix equation AX  B, where X and B are column
vectors.

43. Verify that the quadratic form ax2  bxy  cy2 is the same

as
a
b
2

(xy) a 1

1
2b

x
b a b.
y

44. Verify that the curl of the vector field F  Pi  Qj  Rk can

be written
curl F 

0
0/0x
0/0y

0/0x
0
0/0x

0/0x
P
0/0x Q .
0
R

(Readers who are not familiar with the concept of the curl of
a vector field should see Section 9.7.)
45. As shown in FIGURE 8.1.1(a), a spacecraft can perform rotations called pitch, roll, and yaw about three distinct axes. To
describe the coordinates of a point P we use two coordinate
systems: a fixed three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system in which the coordinates of P are (x, y, z) and a spacecraft
coordinate system that moves with the particular rotation. In
Figure 8.1.1(b) we have illustrated a yawthat is, a rotation around the z-axis (which is perpendicular to the plane of
the paper). The coordinates (xY, yY, zY) of the point P in the
spacecraft system after the yaw are related to the coordinates
(x, y, z) of P in the fixed coordinate system by the equations
xY  x cos g  y sin g
yY  x sin g  y cos g
zY  z
where g is the angle of rotation.
(a) Verify that the foregoing system of equations can be written as the matrix equation
xY
x
yY  MY y
zY
z

where

cos g
M Y   sin g
0

sin g
cos g
0

0
0.
1

(b) When the spacecraft performs a pitch, roll, and yaw in

sequence through the angles a, b, and g, respectively, the final
coordinates of the point P in the spacecraft system (xS, yS, zS)
are obtained from the sequence of transformations
xR  xP cos b  zP sin b
xP  x
yP  y cos a  z sin a
yR  yP
zP  y sin a  z cos a; zR  xP sin b  zP cos b;
xS  xR cos g  yR sin g
yS  xR sin g  yR cos g
zS  zR.
Write this sequence of transformations as a matrix equation
xS
x
yS  MYMRMP y .
zS
z
The matrix MY is the same as in part (a). Identify the
matrices MR and MP.
8.1 Matrix Algebra

363

79774_CH08_355_402.indd Page 364 31/08/12 5:56 PM f-447

(c) Suppose the coordinates of a point are (1, 1, 1) in the fixed

coordinate system. Determine the coordinates of the point
in the spacecraft system if the spacecraft performs a pitch,
roll, and yaw in sequence through the angles a 30,
b 45, and g 60.
z

yaw

roll
x

3
4
0
7
3 2 1
2 4
1
A 1 6
3 1 5 ,B 4
2 1
0 4
6 2 3
2
5
can be written

pitch

A a

y
P(x, y, z) or P(xY, yY, zY)
xY

(b)

FIGURE 8.1.1 Spacecraft in Problem 45

364

For example the 3 5 and 5 2 matrices

y
(a)

yY

46. Project (a) A matrix A can be partitioned into submatrices.

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

A11
A21

A12
B
b ,B a 1 b ,
A22
B2

where A11 is the upper left-hand block, or submatrix, indicated

in blue in A, A12 is the upper right-hand block, and so on.
Compute the product AB using the partitioned matrices.
(b) Investigate how partitioned matrices can be useful when
using a computer to perform matrix calculations involving
large matrices.

79774_CH08_355-402.indd Page 375 24/08/12 1:20 PM f-447

8.2

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-16.

In Problems 120, use either Gaussian elimination or

GaussJordan elimination to solve the given system or show
that no solution exists.
1. x1  x2  11
2. 3x1  2x2  4
4x1  3x2  5
x1  x2  2
3. 9x1  3x2  5
4. 10x1  15x2  1
2x1  x2  1
3x1  2x2  1
5. x1  x2  x3  3
6. x1  2x2  x3  0
2x1  3x2  5x3  7
2x1  x2  2x3  9
x1  2x2  3x3  11
x1  x2  x3  3
7. x1  x2  x3  0
8. x1  2x2  4x3  9
x1  x2  3x3  0
5x1  x2  2x3  1
9. x1  x2  x3  8
10. 3x1  x2  4
x1  x2  x3  3
4x1  3x2  3
x1  x2  x3  4
2x1  x2  11
11.
2x1  2x2
0
12. x1  x2  2x3  0
2x1  x2  x3  0
2x1  4x2  5x3  0
3x1 
x3  0
6x1 
3x3  0
13. x1  2x2  2x3  2
14. x1  2x2  x3  2
x1  x2  x3  0
3x1  x2  2x3  5
x1  3x2  x3  0
2x1  x2  x3  1

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

x1  x2  x3  3
x1  x2  x3  1
3x1  x2  x3  5
x1  x2  2x3  1
3x1  2x2  x3  7
2x1  3x2  x3  8
x1 
x3  x4  1
2x2  x3  x4  3
x1  x2 
x4  1
x1  x2  x3  x4  2
2x1  x2  x3
3
3x1  x2  x3  x4  4
x1  2x2  2x3  3x4  3
4x1  5x2  2x3  x4  16
x2  x3  x4  4
x1  3x2  5x3  x4  1
x1  2x2  5x3  4x4  2
x1  4x2  6x3  2x4  6
x1  2x2 
x4  0
4x1  9x2  x3  12x4  0
3x1  9x2  6x3  21x4  0
x1  3x2  x3  9x4  0

8.2 Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations

375

79774_CH08_355_402.indd Page 376 31/08/12 5:57 PM f-447

In Problems 21 and 22, use a calculator to solve the given system.

21.
x1
x2
x3 4.280
0.2x1 0.1x2 0.5x3 1.978
4.1x1 0.3x2 0.12x3 1.686
22. 2.5x1 1.4x2 4.5x3 2.6170
1.35x1 0.95x2 1.2x3 0.7545
2.7x1 3.05x2 1.44x3 1.4292
In Problems 2328, use the procedures illustrated in Example 10
to balance the given chemical equation.
23. Na H2O S NaOH H2
24. KClO3 S KCl O2
25. Fe3O4 C S Fe CO
26. C5H8 O2 S CO2 H2O
27. Cu HNO3 S Cu(NO3)2 H2O NO
28. Ca3(PO4)2 H3PO4 S Ca(H2PO4)2
In Problems 29 and 30, set up and solve the system of equations
for the currents in the branches of the given network.
29.

10 V
+
i1

27 V
+

1
0
34.
0
0

0
0
1

0
35. 1
0

1
0
0

0
0 A
1

1
37. 0
0

0
1
c

0
0 A
1

1
0
0

0
1
0 0
1
0

0
1
c

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

1
0

0
1

If a matrix A is premultiplied by an elementary matrix E, the

product EA will be that matrix obtained from A by performing
the elementary row operation symbolized by E. In Problems
3538, compute the given product for an arbitrary 3 3
matrix A.

38. 1

i2

i3

1
33. 0
0

1
36. 0
0

0
1
c

0
1
0

0
0 A
c

0
0 A
1

Computer Lab Assignments

FIGURE 8.2.4 Network in Problem 29
30.
i1

52 V +

i2

i3

FIGURE 8.2.5 Network in Problem 30

An elementary matrix E is one obtained by performing a single

row operation on the identity matrix I. In Problems 3134,
verify that the given matrix is an elementary matrix.
0
31. 1

376

1
0
0

0
0
1

1
32. 0

0
1
0

0
0
c

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

In Problems 3942, use a CAS to solve the given system.

39. 1.567x1 3.48x2 5.22x3 1.045
3.56x1 4.118x2 1.57x3 1.625
40. x1 2x2 2x3 0
2x1 2x2 x3 0
3x1 6x2 4x3 0
4x1 14x2 13x3 0
41. 1.2x1 3.5x2 4.4x3 3.1x4 1.8
0.2x1 6.1x2 2.3x3 5.4x4 0.6
3.3x1 3.5x2 2.4x3 0.1x4 2.5
5.2x1 8.5x2 4.4x3 2.9x4 0
42. x1 x2 x3 2x4 x5 5
6x1 9x2 6x3 17x4 x5 40
2x1 x2 2x3 5x4 x5 12
x1 2x2 x3 3x4
7
x1 2x2 x3 3x4
1

79774_CH08_355_402.indd Page 380 31/08/12 5:57 PM f-447

8.3

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-17.

In Problems 110, use (iii) of Theorem 8.3.1 to find the rank of

the given matrix.
1. a

3 1
b
1
3

2. a

2 1 3
6 3 9
1 12 32

4. 1

3.

380

2 2
b
0
0
1 1 2
2 4
1 0 3
CHAPTER 8 Matrices

1 1 1
0 4
1 4 1

3 1 2 0
b
6
2 4 5

5. 1

6. a

1 2
3 6
7.

7 1
4
5

1 2 3 4
1
4 6 8
8.

0
1 0 0
2
5 6 8

79774_CH08_355-402.indd Page 381 17/07/12 11:34 AM f-447

0
4
9.
2
6

19. Suppose we wish to determine whether the set of column

2 4 2 2
1 0 5 1

1 23
3 13
6 6 12 0

1 2 1 8 1
0
0 1 3 1
10. 0
0 1 3 1
0
0 0 0
0
1 2 1 8 1

vectors

1 1 6
1 1 5
2 10 8
1 1 3
1 2 6

In Problems 1114, determine whether the given set of vectors

is linearly dependent or linearly independent.
11. u1 1, 2, 3, u2 1, 0, 1, u3 1, 1, 5
12. u1 2, 6, 3, u2 1, 1, 4, u3 3, 2, 1, u4 2, 5, 4
13. u1 1, 1, 3, 1, u2 1, 1, 4, 2, u3 1, 1, 5, 7
14. u1 2, 1, 1, 5, u2 2, 2, 1, 1, u3 3, 1, 6, 1,
u4 1, 1, 1, 1
15. Suppose the system AX B is consistent and A is a 5 8
matrix and rank(A) 3. How many parameters does the solution of the system have?
16. Let A be a nonzero 4 6 matrix.
(a) What is the maximum rank that A can have?
(b) If rank(AB) 2, then for what value(s) of rank(A) is the
system AX B, B 0, inconsistent? Consistent?
(c) If rank(A) 3, then how many parameters does the solution of the system AX 0 have?
17. Let v1, v2, and v3 be the first, second, and third column vectors,
respectively, of the matrix
2 1 7
A 1 0 2.
1 5 13
What can we conclude about rank(A) from the observation
2v1 3v2 v3 0? [Hint: Read the Remarks at the end of
this section.]

Discussion Problems
18. Suppose the system AX B is consistent and A is a 6 3

matrix. Suppose the maximum number of linearly independent

rows in A is 3. Discuss: Is the solution of the system unique?

4
1
1
3
2
1
,
v1 ,v2 ,v3
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
7
v4 ,v5

4
5
1
1
is linearly dependent or linearly independent. By Definition
7.6.3, if
c1v1 c2v2 c3v3 c4v4 c5v5 0

(4)

only for c1 0, c2 0, c3 0, c4 0, c5 0, then the set of

vectors is linearly independent; otherwise the set is linearly
dependent. But (4) is equivalent to the linear system
4c1 c2 c3 2c4 c5 0
3c1 2c2 c3 3c4 7c5 0
2c1 2c2 c3 4c4 5c5 0
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 0.
Without doing any further work, explain why we can now
conclude that the set of vectors is linearly dependent.

Computer Lab Assignment

20. A CAS can be used to row reduce a matrix to a row-echelon

form. Use a CAS to determine the ranks of the augmented

matrix (A|B) and the coefficient matrix A for
x1 2x2 6x3 x4 x5 x6 2
5x1 2x2 2x3 5x4 4x5 2x6 3
6x1 2x2 2x3 x4 x5 3x6 1
x1 2x2 3x3 x4 x5 6x6 0
9x1 7x2 2x3 x4 4x5

5.

Is the system consistent or inconsistent? If consistent, solve

the system.

8.4 Determinants

381

79774_CH08_355-402.indd Page 386 24/08/12 1:20 PM f-447

8.4

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-17.

In Problems 14, suppose

2
3 4
A  1 1 2 .
2
3 5

Evaluate the indicated minor determinant or cofactor.

5. M33
6. M41
7. C34
8. C23
In Problems 914, evaluate the determinant of the given matrix.
9. (7)
10. (2)
11. a

Evaluate the indicated minor determinant or cofactor.

1. M12
2. M32
3. C13
4. C22
In Problems 58, suppose
0
1
A
5
1
386

2
4
0
2 2
3
.
1
0 1
1
1
2
CHAPTER 8 Matrices

13. a

1
4

3 5
b
1 4
12l
2

12. a 1
3

3
b
22l

14. a

1
2
b
43

3 2 l
2

4
b
52l

In Problems 1528, evaluate the determinant of the given matrix

by cofactor expansion.
0 2 0
0 1
0 5 8

15. 3

0 0
3 0
0
0 2

16. 0

79774_CH08_355-402.indd Page 387 24/08/12 1:20 PM f-447

1 1 1
2 2
1
1
9

3 0 2
7 1
2 6 4

18. 2

4 5 3
19. 1 2 3
1 2 3

1
4
13
1
2

17. 2

2 1 4
6 1
3
4 8

20.

6 0
8 0
9 0
3

5 1
2 5
7 4 10

21. 3

22. 1

1 1 1
23. x y z
2 3 4

1
1
1
24. x
y
z
2x 3y 4z

1
1 3 0
1
5
3 2
25.

1 2
1 0
4
8
0 0

2
1 2 1
0
5
0 4
26.

1
6
1 0
5 1
1 1

3 2 0
1 1
2 2 0
0 2
0
1
4
2
3
1
1
6
0
5
27. 0
0
2 1
1 28. 1
0
2 1 1
0
0
0
4
3
2
0
1 2
3
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
1
In Problems 29 and 30, find the values of l that satisfy the given
equation.
12l
0
1
3 2 l
10
29. 2
2  0 30. 3 1
2 2 l 1 3  0
2
52l
3
3
l

8.5 Properties of Determinants

387

79774_CH08_355-402.indd Page 392 24/08/12 1:20 PM f-447

8.5

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-17.

In Problems 110, state the appropriate theorem(s) in this

section that justifies the given equality. Do not expand the
determinants by cofactors.
1 2
3 4
1 2
1 2
1. 2
2  2
2
2. 2
22
2
3 4
1 2
3 4
4 6
1 0 0
1 0 0
4. 3 0 0 2 3  2 3 0 1 0 3
0 1 0
0 0 1

5
6
1
6
3. 2
22
2
2 8
6 8

1 2
3
1 2
1
5. 3 4 2
18 3  6 3 2 1
33
5 9 12
5 9 4
1 2

3
4 2
18
18 3  3 5 9 12 3
5 9 12
1 2
3
5
1
2
6

0
6
0
8
4 0
0 9
0
4

8.

3
2
1
32
6
33  0
5 8 4

0
2
0
0

0
0
3
0

0
0 0
0
0 0
4  4
0
0 3
4
4 0

a1
b1
c1 2 a1

and

2
1 5
B  4
3 8 .
0 1 0

where A2  AA. Show that det A  1.

23. Consider the matrix

Without expanding, evaluate det A.

1
1
1
A
x
y
z .
yz xz xy

2a1 a2 a3
12. B  6b1 3b2 3b3
2c1 c2 c3
a2
b2
c2 2 a2

a a1 a2
A  b b  1 b  2 .
c c1 c2
24. Consider the matrix

a3
b3
c3 2 a3

a1 b1 c1
14. D  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
392

In Problems 19 and 20, verify that det A  det AT for the given
matrix A.
1 2
1
2 3
4
19. A  4 1 1
20. A  1 0
5
1 2 1
7 2 1
21. Consider the matrices

22. Suppose A is an n  n matrix such that A 2  I,

1
0
4
0
0

a1 a2 a3
3 b1 b2 b3 3  5.
c1 c2 c3

13. C 

0 7
0
18. D  4 0
0
0 0 2

Verify that det AB  det A  det B.

0
2
0
0

In Problems 1114, evaluate the determinant of the given matrix

using the result

a3 a2 a1
11. A  b3 b2 b1
c3 c2 c1

0 0 a13
16. B  0 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

2 1
1
A  3
1 1
0
2
2

1 2 3
1 4 7
9. 3 4 5 6 3  3 2 5 8 3
7 8 9
3 6 9
1
0
10. 4
0
0

6 1
8 10
2
0 3
7
2
15. A 

0 0 4
9
0 0
0 5

5 0 0
17. C  0 7 0
0 0 3

6. 3 4 2

0
2
7. 4
0
0

In Problems 1518, evaluate the determinant of the given matrix

without expanding by cofactors.

Without expanding, show that det A  0.

In Problems 2532, use the procedure illustrated in Example 6
to evaluate the determinant of the given matrix.
1

1 5
3 6
0 1 1

2 4

25. 4

26. 4 2

1
2
3
4 5 2
9 9
6

28.

27.

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

5
0
8 7 2
2
2 6
5
0
1
1 2
2

79774_CH08_355-402.indd Page 393 24/08/12 1:20 PM f-447

1 2
2 1
2
1 2 3
29.

3
4 8 1
3 11 12 2

0
2
30.
1
3

1
5
2
1

4
0
2
3

5
1

0
2

1
1
31.
2
1

2
1
32.
0
3

9
3
1
1

1
7
6
4

8
4

5
2

2
3
3
5

3 4
5 7

6 7
8 20

33. By proceeding as in Example 6, show that

1 1 1
3 a b c 3  (b  a)(c  a)(c  b).
a2 b 2 c 2
1
a
34. Evaluate 4 2
a
a3

1
b
b2
b3

1 1
c d
4 . [Hint: See Problem 33.]
c2 d 2
c3 d 3

In Problems 35 and 36, verify Theorem 8.5.9 by evaluating

a21C11  a22C12  a23C13 and a13C12  a23C22  a33C32 for the
given matrix.
1

1 2
2 1
4 2 1

35. A  1

3 0

36. A  2 3 1

2 2 3

3 4
7
4
b and B  a
b . Verify that
1
2
1 5
det(A  B) det A  det B.
38. Suppose A is a 5  5 matrix for which det A  7. What is
the value of det(2A)?
39. An n  n matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if AT  A.
If A is a 5  5 skew-symmetric matrix, show that det A  0.
40. It takes about n! multiplications to evaluate the determinant
of an n  n matrix using expansion by cofactors, whereas it
takes about n3/3 arithmetic operations using the row-reduction
method. Compare the number of operations for both methods
using a 25  25 matrix.
37. Let A  a

8.6 Inverse of a Matrix

393

79774_CH08_355-402.indd Page 401 24/08/12 1:20 PM f-447

8.6
8.6.1

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-17.

Finding the Inverse

In Problems 1 and 2, verify that the matrix B is the inverse of

the matrix A.
1 12
3 1
1. A  a
b
3 b,B  a
2 2
4
2
1 1 0
2 1
2
2. A  3
0 2 ,B  1 1
2
1
1 1
3
2 3
In Problems 314, use Theorem 8.6.3 to determine whether the
given matrix is singular or nonsingular. If it is nonsingular, use
Theorem 8.6.2 to find the inverse.
5 1
3. a
b
4
1
6 0
5. a
b
3 2
1
3 5
7. 2
4 4
1 1 1
1
2 3
9. 0 4 2
1
5 1
3 0
0
11. 0 6
0
0 0 2
0 1
1 4
3
2 2 1
13.

0
4
0 1
1
0 1 1

4.
6.

8.

10.

12.

1
a
b
4
3
2p p
a
b
p
p
2 3 0
0 11 14
1 4 7
2 1
5
3
0 2
1
4
0
0 2 0
0 0 1
8 0 0
1
3

1
0
14.
3
1

2
0
1
1

1
3
2
1

1
0

0
0

In Problems 1526, use Theorem 8.6.4 to find the inverse of the

given matrix or show that no inverse exists.
6 2
b
0
4
1 3
17. a
b
5 3
15. a

8 0
b
0 12
2 3
18. a
b
2
4
16. a

1 2 3
19. 4 5 6
7 8 9
4
2 3
21. 2
1 0
1 2 0
1
3 0
23. 1 2 1
0
1 2
1 2
3
1 0
2
25.
2 1 3
1 1
2

20.

22.

24.

1
1

0
1

26.

1
0
2
2
4
8
1
0
0
1
0

0
0

0 1
2
1
1
3
4 2
2 2
10 6
2 3
1 4
0 8
0 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 1
1 0 0

In Problems 27 and 28, use the given matrices to find (AB)1.

27. A1  a

1
2
12

52

3 b,B
2

1

 a

2
3
13

4
3
5b
2

1
3 15
1 1
0
0 1
5 , B 1  2 0
0
1 2
11
1 1 2
4
3
If A1  a
b , what is A?
3 2
If A is nonsingular, then (AT)1  (A1)T. Verify this for
1 4
A a
b.
2 10
4 3
Find a value of x such that the matrix A  a
b is its
x 4
own inverse.
sin u cos u
Find the inverse of A  a
b.
 cos u sin u
A nonsingular matrix A is said to be orthogonal if A1  AT.
(a) Verify that the matrix in Problem 32 is orthogonal.

28. A1 

29.
30.

31.
32.
33.

0 2> "6
1> "3
1> "2
1> "6 is an
(b) Verify that A  1> "3
1> "3 1> "2
1> "6
orthogonal matrix.
34. Show that if A is an orthogonal matrix (see Problem 33), then
det A  1.
8.6 Inverse of a Matrix

401

79774_CH08_355_402.indd Page 402 31/08/12 5:58 PM f-447

35. If A and B are nonsingular n  n matrices, use Theorem 8.6.3

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.

to show that AB is nonsingular.

Suppose A and B are n  n matrices. Show that if either A or
B is singular, then AB is singular.
Show that if A is a nonsingular matrix, then det A1  1/det A.
Show that if A2  A, then either A  I or A is singular.
Suppose A and B are n  n matrices and A is nonsingular.
Show that if AB  0, then B  0.
Suppose A and B are n  n matrices and A is nonsingular.
Show that if AB  AC, then B  C.
If A and B are nonsingular n  n matrices, is A  B
necessarily nonsingular?
Consider the 3  3 diagonal matrix
a11
0
0
A  0 a22
0 .
0
0 a33
Determine conditions such that A is nonsingular. If A is nonsingular, find A1. Generalize your results to an n  n diagonal
matrix.

8.6.2

Using the Inverse to Solve Systems

In Problems 4350, use an inverse matrix to solve the given

system of equations.
43. x1  x2  4
44. x1  x2  2
2x1  x2  14
2x1  4x2  5
45. 4x1  6x2  6
46. x1  2x2  4
2x1  x2  1
3x1  4x2  3
47. x1 
x3  4
48. x1  x2  x3  1
x1  x 2  x 3  0
2x1  x2  2x3  2
5x1  x2
6
3x1  2x2  x3  3
49. x1  2x2  2x3  1
50.
x1 
x3
2
x1  2x2  2x3  3
x2  x3
1
3x1  x2  5x3  7
x1  x2  2x3  x4  5
x3  x4  3
In Problems 51 and 52, write the system in the form AX  B.
Use X  A1B to solve the system for each matrix B.
51. 7x1  2x2  b1
3x1  2x2  b2,
5
10
0
B  a b,B  a b,B  a
b
4
50
20
52.
x1  2x2  5x3  b1
2x1  3x2  8x3  b2
x1  x2  2x3  b3,
1
3
0
B  4 ,B  3 ,B  5
6
3
4
In Problems 5356, without solving, determine whether the
given homogeneous system of equations has only the trivial
solution or a nontrivial solution.
53. x1  2x2  x3  0
54.
x1  x2  x3  0
4x1  x2  x3  0
x1  2x2  x3  0
5x1  x2  2x3  0
2x1  x2  2x3  0
55. x1  x2  x3  x4  0 56. x1  x2  x3  x4  0
5x2 
2x4  0
x1  x2  x3  x4  0
x1 
x3  x4  0
2x2  x3  x4  0
3x1  2x2  x3  x4  0
x2  x 3  x 4  0
402

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

57. The system of equations for the currents i1, i2, and i3 in the
network shown in FIGURE 8.6.1 is

i1  i2  i3  0
R1i1  R2i2
 E2  E1
R2i2  R3i3  E3  E2
where Rk and Ek, k  1, 2, 3, are constants.
(a) Express the system as a matrix equation AX  B.
(b) Show that the coefficient matrix A is nonsingular.
(c) Use X  A1B to solve for the currents.
E1

E3

E2

i1

i2

i3

R1

R2

R3

FIGURE 8.6.1 Network in Problem 57

58. Consider the square plate shown in FIGURE 8.6.2, with the tem-

peratures as indicated on each side. Under some circumstances

it can be shown that the approximate temperatures u1, u2, u3, and
u4 at the points P1, P2, P3, and P4, respectively, are given by
u1 

u2  u4  100  100
4

u2 

200  u3  u1  100
4

u3 

200  100  u4  u2
4

u3  100  100  u1
.
4
(a) Show that the above system can be written as the matrix
equation
u4 

4
1
0
1
u1
200
1 4
1
0
u
300

2 
.
0
1 4
1
u3
300
1
0
1 4
u4
200
(b) Solve the system in part (a) by finding the inverse of the
coefficient matrix.
u = 200

u = 100

P2

P3

P1

P4

u = 100

u = 100

FIGURE 8.6.2 Plate in Problem 58

79774_CH08_403_439.indd Page 405 31/08/12 6:09 PM f-447

8.7

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-17.

In Problems 110, solve the given system of equations by

Cramers rule.
1. 3x1  x2  3
2. x1  x2  4
2x1  4x2  6
2x1  x2  2
3. 0.1x1  0.4x2  0.13
4. 0.21x1  0.57x2  0.369
x1  x2  0.4
0.1x1  0.2 x2  0.135
5. 2x  y  1
6. 5r  4s  1
3x  2y  2
10r  6s  5
7. x1  2x2  3x3  3
8.
x1  x2  6x3  2
x1  x2  x3  5
x1  2x2  4x3  9
3x1  2x2
 4
2x1  3x2  x3  12
9. u  2v  w  8
10. 4x  3y  2z  8
2u  2v  2w  7
x 
2z  12
u  4v  3w  1
3x  2y  z  3
11. Use Cramers rule to determine the solution of the system
(2  k)x1 

Use Cramers rule to solve for T1 and T2.

T1

T2
15

25
300 lb

FIGURE 8.7.1 Support wires in Problem 13

14. The 400-lb block shown in FIGURE 8.7.2 is kept from sliding down

the inclined plane by friction and a force of smallest magnitude F.

If the coefficient of friction between the block and the inclined plane
is 0.5, then the magnitude of the frictional force is 0.5N, where N is
the magnitude of the normal force exerted on the block by the plane.
Use the fact that the system is in equilibrium to set up a system of
equations for F and N. Use Cramers rule to solve for F and N.

kx2  4

400 lb

kx1  (3  k)x2  3.
For what value(s) of k is the system inconsistent?
F

12. Consider the system

x1  x 2  1

0.5 N

30

60

x1  ex2  2.
FIGURE 8.7.2 Inclined plane in Problem 14

When e is close to 1, the lines that make up the system are

almost parallel.
(a) Use Cramers rule to show that a solution of the system is
1
1
x1  1 
, x2 
.
e21
e21
(b) The system is said to be ill-conditioned since small changes
in the input data (for example, the coefficients) causes a
significant or large change in the output or solution. Verify
this by finding the solution of the system for e  1.01 and
then for e  0.99.
13. The magnitudes T1 and T2 of the tensions in the support wires
shown in FIGURE 8.7.1 satisfy the equations
(cos 25)T1  (cos 15)T2  0
(sin 25)T1  (sin 15)T2  300.

15. As shown in FIGURE 8.7.3, a circuit consists of two batteries

with internal resistances r1 and r2 connected in parallel with a

resistor. Use Cramers rule to show that the current i through
the resistor is given by
i
E1

r1

E2

r2

r1E2  r2E1
.
r1R  r2R  r1r2

FIGURE 8.7.3 Circuit in Problem 15

8.7 Cramers Rule

405

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 412 24/08/12 2:18 PM f-447

8.8

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-17.

In Problems 16, determine which of the indicated column

vectors are eigenvectors of the given matrix A. Give the
corresponding eigenvalue.
4 2
5
2
1. A  a
b;K 1  a b,K 2  a b,
5 1
2
5
K3  a
2. A  a

2
2

K2  a
3. A  a

2
b
5
1
1
b;K 1  a
b,
2
2 2 "2

2  "2
"2
b ,K 3  a
b
2
"2

6
2

3
3
b ;K 1  a b ,
1
2

1
5
K 2  a b ,K 3  a b
0
10
412

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

2
8
0
b ;K 1  a b ,
1 2
0
2  2i
2  2i
b ,K 3  a
b
K2  a
1
1
1 2
2
0
5. A  2
1 2 ;K 1  1 ,
2
2
1
1
4
1
K 2  4 ,K 3  1
0
1
1 1
0
1
6. A  1 2
1 ;K 1  4 ,
0 3 1
3
1
3
K 2  4 ,K 3  1
3
4
4. A  a

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 413 24/08/12 2:18 PM f-447

In Problems 722, find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of

the given matrix. Using Theorem 8.8.2 or (6), state whether
the matrix is singular or nonsingular.
1 2
b
7 8
8 1
a
b
16
0
1 2
a
b
5 1
4
8
a
b
0 5
5 1 0
0 5 9
5 1 0
0
4
0
1 4
0
0
0 2
0 0 1
1 0
0
1 1 1
1 2
3
0 5
6
0 0 7

7. a
9.
11.
13.

15.

17.

19.

21.

8. a

2
2
1

10. a 1
4

12.
14.

16.

18.

20.

22.

1
a
1
7
a
0
3
0
4
1
0
0
2
5
0
0
0
0

1
b
1
1
b
1
1
b
1
0
b
13
0 0
2 0
0 1
6 0
2 1
1 2
1 0
2 4
1 2
0 0
0 0
0 1

det(A 2 lI)  (l1 2 l)(l2 2 l)(l3 2 l) p (ln 2 l).

(a) Use the foregoing result to show that det A is the product
of the eigenvalues, that is,
det A  l1l2l3 p ln.
(b) How does the result in part (a) give an alternative proof
of Theorem 8.8.2?
30. Suppose l is an eigenvalue with corresponding eigenvector
K of an n n matrix A.
(a) If A2  AA, then show that A2K  l2K. Explain the
meaning of the last equation.
(b) Verify the result obtained in part (a) for the matrix
2 3
A a
b.
5 4

Computer Lab Assignment

31. An n n matrix A is said to be a stochastic matrix if all

its entries are nonnegative and the sum of the entries in each
row (or the sum of the entries in each column) add up to 1.
Stochastic matrices are important in probability theory.
(a) Verify that

In Problems 2326, find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the

given nonsingular matrix A. Then without finding A1, find its
eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors.
5 1
4
2
23. A  a
b
24. A  a
b
1 5
7 1
4
25. A  0
0

2
3
0

1
2
5

1
26. A  1
4

2
0
4

counting multiplicities and complex numbers, must have n

roots l1, l2, l3, p, ln. By the Factor Theorem of algebra,
the characteristic polynomial det(A  lI) can then be written

1
1
5

For Discussion
27. Review the definitions of upper triangular, lower triangular,

and diagonal matrices on pages 360361. Explain why the

eigenvalues for those matrices are the main diagonal entries.
28. True or false: If l is an eigenvalue of an n n matrix A, then
the matrix A  lI is singular. Justify your answer.
29. If A is an n n matrix, then the characteristic equation
det(A  lI)  0 is an nth degree polynomial equation which,

A a

and

p
q

12p
b,0 # p # 1, 0 # q # 1,
12q

A

1
2
13
1
6

1
4
1
3
1
3

1
4
1
3
1
2

are stochastic matrices.

(b) Use a CAS or linear algebra software to find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the the 3 3 matrix A in part (a).
Make up at least six more stochastic matrices of various
sizes, 2 2, 3 3, 4 4, and 5 5. Find the eigenvalues
and eigenvectors of each matrix. If you discern a pattern,
form a conjecture and then try to prove it.
(c) For the 3 3 matrix A in part (a), use the software to
find A2, A3, A4, . . . . Repeat for the matrices that you
constructed in part (b). If you discern a pattern, form a
conjecture and then try to prove it.

8.9 Powers of Matrices

413

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 416 24/08/12 2:18 PM f-447

Exercises

8.9

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-18.

In Problems 1 and 2, verify that the given matrix satisfies its

own characteristic equation.
0 1 2
1 2
1. A  a
b
2. A  1 0 3
4
5
0 1 1

to form a system for determining the coefficients ci. Use

the derivative (with respect to l) of each of these equations
evaluated at l1 as the extra needed equation to form a system.
Compute Am and use this result to compute the indicated power
of the matrix A.

In Problems 310, use the method of this section to compute Am.

Use this result to compute the indicated power of the matrix A.

11. A  a

1 3
b ;m  3 4. A 
2 4
8 5
a
b ;m  5
6. A 
4 0
1 1 1
0 1 2 ;m  10
0 1 0
0
1 1
0 1 1 ;m  6
1
1 0
2 2 0
4 0 0 ;m  10
1 2 1
0 12
0
1
1
0 ;m  8
2
2 12 2

3. A  a
5. A 
7. A 

8. A 

9. A 

10. A 

5 3
b ;m  4
3
5
1
2
a
b ;m  6
0 3

2
2 1
2
1 2 ;m  5
3 6
0
13. Show that l  0 is an eigenvalue of each matrix. In this
case, the coefficient c0 in the characteristic equation (1) is 0.
Compute Am in each case. In parts (a) and (b), explain why
we do not have to solve any system for the coefficients ci in
determining Am.
12. A 

(a) A  a

1 1
b
3 3

(b) A  a

1 1
b
1 1

2 1
1
(c) A  1 0 2
1 1
3
14. In his work Liber Abbaci, published in 1202, Leonardo Fibonacci
of Pisa, Italy, speculated on the reproduction of rabbits:

In Problems 11 and 12, show that the given matrix has an

eigenvalue l1 of multiplicity two. As a consequence, the
equations lm  c0  c1l (Problem 11) and lm  c0  c1l  c2l2
(Problem 12) do not yield enough independent equations
416

7 3
b;m  6
3 1

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

How many pairs of rabbits will be produced in a year beginning with a single pair, if every month each pair bears a new
pair which become productive from the second month on?
The answer to his question is contained in a sequence known
as a Fibonacci sequence.

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 417 24/08/12 2:18 PM f-447

After Each Month

Start n 

Adult pairs
Baby pairs
Total pairs

1
0
1

1
1
2

2
1
3

3
2
5

5 8 13 21 . . .
3 5 8 13 . . .
8 13 21 34 . . .

8 9 10 11 12

Each of the three rows describing rabbit pairs is a Fibonacci

sequence and can be defined recursively by a second-order
difference equation xn  xn2  xn1, n  2, 3, . . . , where
x0 and x1 depend on the row. For example, for the first row
designating adult pairs of rabbits, x0  1, x1  1.
(a) If we let yn1  xn2, then yn  xn1, and the difference
equation can be written as a system of first-order difference equations
xn  xn1  yn1
yn  xn1.
Write this system in the matrix form X n  AX n1,
n  2, 3, . . . .
(b) Show that
l2lm1 2 l1lm2  lm2 2 lm1
l2 2 l1
Am 
lm2 2 lm1
l2 2 l1
or
Am 

lm2
l2
l2lm1
l2

(1  "5)m 1 2 (1 2 "5)m 1
m
m
2m 1 "5 2(1  "5) 2 2(1 2 "5)
1

2
2
2
2

lm1
l1

l1lm2
l1

where l1  12 (1  "5) and l2  12 (1  "5) are the

distinct eigenvalues of A.
(c) Use the result in part (a) to show Xn  An1X1. Use the last
result and the result in part (b) to find the number of adult pairs,
baby pairs, and total pairs of rabbits after the twelfth month.
In Problems 15 and 16, use the procedure illustrated in (9) to
find A1.
1 1 2
2 4
15. A  a
b
16. A  1 2
1
1
3
0 1 1
17. A nonzero n n matrix A is said to be nilpotent of index m
if m is the smallest positive integer for which Am  0. Which
of the following matrices are nilpotent? If nilpotent, what is
its index?
1 0
2
2
(a) a
b
(b) a
b
1 0
2 2
0 0 0
0 0 5
(c) 1 0 0
(d) 0 0 0
2 3 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
(e)

(f )

0 1 0 1
3 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
2 2 1 0
18. (a) Explain why any nilpotent matrix A is singular. [Hint:
Review Section 8.5.] (b) Show that all the eigenvalues of a
nilpotent matrix A are 0. [Hint: Use (1) of Section 8.8.]

2(1  "5)m 2 2(1 2 "5)m

b,
(1  "5)(1 2 "5)m 2 (1 2 "5)(1  "5)m

8.10 Orthogonal Matrices

417

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 423 24/08/12 2:18 PM f-447

8.10

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-18.

In Problems 1 4, (a) verify that the indicated column vectors

are eigenvectors of the given symmetric matrix, (b) identify
the corresponding eigenvalues, and (c) verify that the column
vectors are orthogonal.
1.

1 1 1
2
0
1
2. 1
1 1 ; 1 , 1 , 1
1 1
1
1
1
1

0
0 4
0
4
1
0 4
0 ; 1 , 0 , 0
4
0 15
0
1
4
8.10 Orthogonal Matrices

423

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 424 17/07/12 9:42 AM f-447

5 13
0
5
0;
0 0 8
"2
"3
"6
2
3
6
"2
"3
"6

,
,

2
3
6
0
"3
"6

3
3
3 2 2
2
1
2
4. 2 2 0 ; 2 , 2 , 1
2 0 4
1
2
2
3. 13

In Problems 510, determine whether the given matrix is orthogonal.

1
1
0 1 0
0
2
2
5. 1 0 0
6. 0 1
0
1
0 0 1
0 12
2
0 0 1
0 0 0
5
12
7. 13 13 0
8. 0 0 0
5
12
0
0 0 0
13
13
0 178 0 15
17
1 1
1
0 0 1
0
9. 1 1 1
10.

1 0 0
0
1
2
0
8
0 15
0
17
17
In Problems 1118, proceed as in Example 3 to construct an
orthogonal matrix from the eigenvectors of the given symmetric
matrix. (The answers are not unique.)
1 9
b
9 1
1 3
13. a
b
3 9
1 0 1
15. 0 1 0
1 0 1
8 5 4
17. 5 3 1
4 1 0
11. a

424

7
0
1
14. a
1
0
16. 1
1

0
b
4
1
b
0
1 1
1 1
1 0
2
8 2
18. 8 4
10
2
10 7
12. a

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

In Problems 19 and 20, use Theorem 8.10.3 to find values of a

and b so that the given matrix is orthogonal.
3
5

19. a 4
5

a
b
b

20. a

1> "5
a

b
b
1> "5

In Problems 21 and 22, (a) verify that the indicated column

vectors are eigenvectors of the given symmetric matrix and
(b) identify the corresponding eigenvalues. (c) Proceed as in
Example 4 and use the GramSchmidt process to construct an
orthogonal matrix P from the eigenvectors.
0
21. A  2
2

2 2
1
0 2 ;K 1  1 ,
2 0
0
1
1
K 2  0 ,K 3  1
1
1
1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
0
22. A 
;K 1 
,
1 1 1 1
0
1 1 1 1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
K2 
,K 3 
,K 4 
1
0
1
0
0
1
23. In Example 4, use the equation k1   14 k2  14 k3 and choose
two different sets of values for k2 and k3 so that the corresponding eigenvectors K1 and K2 are orthogonal.
24. Construct an orthogonal matrix from the eigenvectors of
1
2
A
0
0

2
1
0
0

0
0
1
2

0
0
.
2
1

25. Show that if A and B are n  n orthogonal matrices, then

AB is orthogonal.

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 430 24/08/12 2:19 PM f-447

8.11

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-18.

To the Instructor/Student: A calculator with matrix capabilities

or a CAS would be useful in the following problems.
Each matrix in Problems 110 has a dominant eigenvalue.
In Problems 1 and 2, use the power method as illustrated in
Example 3 to find the dominant eigenvalue and a corresponding
dominant eigenvector of the given matrix.
1
1. a
2
430

1
b
0

7
2. a
8

2
b
1
CHAPTER 8 Matrices

In Problems 36, use the power method with scaling to find the
dominant eigenvalue and a corresponding eigenvector of the
given matrix.
3. a

2
3

5
5. 4
2

4
b
13
4
5
2

4. a

2
2
2

1
2

3
6. 0
0

2
b
7
1
1
0

1
1
2

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 431 25/08/12 3:42 PM f-447

In Problems 710, use the method of deflation to find the eigenvalues of the given matrix.
7. a

3
2

2
b
6

8. a

3 1
0
2 1
0 1
3

9. 1

1
3

10.

3
b
9

0
0 4
0 4
0
4
0 15

In Problems 11 and 12, use the inverse power method to find the
eigenvalue of least magnitude for the given matrix.
1 1
0.2
0.3
b
12. a
b
3 4
0.4 0.1
13. In Example 4 of Section 3.9 we saw that the deflection curve
of a thin column under an applied load P was defined by the
boundary-value problem
d 2y
EI 2  Py  0, y(0)  0, y(L)  0.
dx
In this problem we show how to apply matrix techniques to
compute the smallest critical load.
Let the interval [0, L] be divided into n subintervals of length
h  L/n, and let xi  ih, i  0, 1, . . . , n. For small values of h
it follows from (6) of Section 6.5 that
11. a

yi  1 2 2yi  yi2 1
d 2y
<
,
dx 2
h2
where yi  y(xi).
(a) Show that the differential equation can be replaced by the
difference equation
EI( yi1  2yi  yi1)  Ph2yi  0, i  1, 2, . . . , n  1.
(b) Show that for n  4 the difference equation in part (a)
yields the system of linear equations
2
1
0

1
2
1

0
y1
y1
PL2
1 y2 
y2 .
16EI
2
y3
y3

Note that this system has the form of the eigenvalue problem AY  lY, where l  PL2 /16EI.
(c) Find A1.
(d) Use the inverse power method to find, to two decimal
places, the eigenvalue of A of least magnitude.
(e) Use the result of part (d) to compute the approximate
smallest critical load. Compare your answer with that
given in Section 3.9.
14. Suppose the column in Problem 13 is tapered so that the
moment of inertia of a cross-section I varies linearly from
I(0)  I0  0.002 to I(L)  IL  0.001.
(a) Use the difference equation in part (a) of Problem 13 with
n  4 to set up a system of equations analogous to that
given in part (b).
(b) Proceed as in Problem 13 to find an approximation to the
smallest critical load.

Computer Lab Assignment

15. In Section 8.9 we saw how to compute a power Am for an n  n

matrix A. Consult the documentation for the CAS you have on

hand for the command to compute the power Am. (In Mathematica
the command is MatrixPower[A, m].) The matrix
5
A  2
0

2
3
1

0
1
1

possesses a dominant eigenvalue.

(a) Use a CAS to compute A10.
(b) Now use (2), Xm  AmX0, with m  10 and
1
X0  0 , to compute X10. In the same manner compute
0
X12. Then proceed as in (9) to find the approximate dominant eigenvector K.
(c) If K is an eigenvector of A, then AK  lK. Use this
definition and the result in part (b) to find the dominant
eigenvalue.

8.12 Diagonalization

431

79774_CH08_403_439.indd Page 438 31/08/12 6:10 PM f-447

8.12

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-18.

In Problems 120, determine whether the given matrix A is

diagonalizable. If so, find the matrix P that diagonalizes A and
the diagonal matrix D such that D P1AP.
2 3
b
1 4
0 1
3. a
b
1 2
9 13
5. a
b
2 6
1. a

1
2

7. a 1
6

438

1
6
1b
2

4 5
b
8 10
0 5
4. a
b
1 0
5 3
6. a
b
5 11
2. a

8. a

2 1
b
1 4
CHAPTER 8 Matrices

0
1
1
11. 0
0
1
13. 0
1
1
15. 0
0
9. a

1
b
0
0 1
1 3
0 2
1 1
1 0
1 1
3 1
2
4
0
1

1 2
b
12 1
1 2
2
12. 2 3 2
5 3
8
0 9 0
14. 1
0 0
0
0 1
1 1 0
16. 0 2 0
0 0 3
10. a

79774_CH08_403-439.indd Page 439 17/07/12 9:42 AM f-447

2 0
1 0
0
0 1

17. 2

35. Find a 2  2 matrix A that has eigenvalues l1  2 and l2  3

0 0
1
0 3
0 1
3

and corresponding eigenvectors

18. 1

1
K1  a b
2

8 10
7 9
0
2
0
0
19.

9 9
8 9
1
1 1
2
4
0
20.
1
0

l2  3, and l3  5 and corresponding eigenvectors

1
1
1
K1  1 , K2  0 , and K3  2 .
1
1
1
37. If A is an n  n diagonalizable matrix, then D  P1AP, where

In Problems 2130, the given matrix A is symmetric. Find an

orthogonal matrix P that diagonalizes A and the diagonal matrix
D such that D  PTAP.
1 1
b
1 1

23. a

5
"10

"10
b
8

22. a

3 2
b
2 0

24. a

1 2
b
2
1

0 1 0
25. 1 0 0
0 0 1

1 2
2
26. 2
1 2
2 2
1

5 2
0
27. 2
6 2
0 2
7

3 0 1
28. 0 1 0
1 0 1

1
29. 0
7

0
1
30.
0
1

0
1
0

7
0
1

1
K2  a b .
1

36. Find a 3  3 symmetric matrix that has eigenvalues l1  1,

2 1 4
2
0 0

3
2 1
0
0 2

21. a

and

D is a diagonal matrix. Show that if m is a positive integer,

then Am  PDmP1.
38. The mth power of a diagonal matrix

is

a11
0
D
(
0

0
a22

p
p

a m11
0
Dm 
(
0

0
a m22

p
p

0
0

(
ann
0
0
.
(
a mnn

Use this result to compute

1
0
1
0

0
1
0
1

1
0

1
0

In Problems 3134, use the procedure illustrated in Example 6

to identify the given conic section. Graph.
31. 5x2  2xy  5y2  24
32. 13x2  10xy  13y2  288
33. 3x2  8xy  3y2  20
34. 16x2  24xy  9y2  3x  4y  0

2
0

0
0

0
3
0
0

0
0
1
0

0 4
0
.
0
5

In Problems 39 and 40, use the results of Problems 37 and 38 to

find the indicated power of the given matrix.
39. A  a

1
2

1
b , A5
0

8.13 LU-Factorization

40. A  a

6
3

10
b , A10
5

439

79774_CH08_440-463.indd Page 445 24/08/12 4:38 PM f-447

8.13

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-19.

In Problems 110, use the procedure illustrated in Example 2 to

find the LU-factorization of the given matrix.
1. a

2
1

4
5. 4
12

2
b
2
2
1
1

2. a

6
4

1
2
3

2
b
1

3. a

1
2

3
6. 9
3

4
b
2
2
3
1

4. a

5
15

1
2
1

4
b
2

1
7. 2

7
1
9. 0
2

2
5
6
2
1
6

7
6
4
1
2
1

8.13 LU-Factorization

8.

4
4
6

1
10. 1
1

2
1
6
0
9
0

10
4
8
1
1
1

445

79774_CH08_440-463.indd Page 446 24/08/12 4:38 PM f-447

In Problems 1120, use the procedure illustrated in Examples 3

and 4 to find the LU-factorization of the given matrix.
2
1
0.2
14. a
0.8

3
9
b
1 11
4 2
13. a
b
1 3
11. a

12. a

1
1
1

15. 3

1
4
17. 2
12
1
2
19.
1
5

1
2
1
2
12
26 4
4
56
2
1
3 2
2
4
1 1

10
b
4
0.3
b
3.5

1
2 4
2 5
10
3
1
6
16 4 20
18. 4 5
3
20 3 29
1 1
3
2
3 5
19
3
20.

2 2
3
10
1
5 5 2
16.

0
1

3
1

In Problems 2130, proceed as in Example 5 and use the

corresponding LU-factorization from Problems 110 to
solve the given linear system of equations.
21. a

2
1

23. a

1
2

2 x1
1
ba b  a b
2 x2
2

22. a

6
4

4 x1
15
ba b  a b
2 x2
5

24. a

5
15

4
25. 4
12

2
1
1

3
26. 9
3

2
3
1

1
27. 2
7
4
28. 4
6

446

2 x1
12
ba b  a b
1 x2
2
4 x1
1
ba b  a b
2 x2
7

1
x1
7
2 x2  7
3
x3
28
1
x1
15
2 x2  3
1
x3
24

7
x1
109
6 x2  109
4
x3
218

2
5
6
2
1
6

10
x1
20
4 x2  14
8
x3
18

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

1
29. 0

2
1
30. 1

2
1
6

1
x1
14
2 x2  42
1
x3
7
1
x1
18
1 x2  27
1
x3
12

0
9
0

In Problems 3134, use the given LU-factorization

1
A  1
1

1
2
2

1
1
2  1
3
1

0
1
1

0
1
0 0
1
0

1
1
0

1
1
1

to solve the linear system AX  B i for the given column matrix

B i, i  1, 2, 3, 4.
2
31. B 1  4
1
1
2
3
4

33. B 3 


1
2

4
32. B 2  7
10
30

34. B 4  42

18

In Problems 3540, proceed as in Example 6 and use an

LU-factorization to evaluate the determinant det A of the
indicated matrix A.
35. A is the matrix in Problem 15
36. A is the matrix in Problem 16
37. A is the matrix in Problem 17
38. A is the matrix in Problem 18
39. A is the matrix in Problem 19
40. A is the matrix in Problem 20
In Problems 41 and 42, use Crouts method discussed in (iv) of the
Remarks to obtain an LU-factorization of the indicated matrix A.
41. A is the matrix in Problem 15
42. A is the matrix in Problem 16
In Problems 43 and 44, use Choleskys method discussed in (v)
of the Remarks to obtain an LU-factorization of the indicated
symmetric matrix A.
43. A is the matrix in Problem 17
44. A is the matrix in Problem 18

79774_CH08_440-463.indd Page 449 25/08/12 3:08 PM f-447

8.14

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-19.

In Problems 16, use the matrix A and the correspondence (1)

to encode the given message. Verify your work by decoding the
encoded message.
1 2
1. A a
b ; SEND HELP
1 1
2. A a
3. A a

3
1

5
b ; THE MONEY IS HERE
2

3
2

5
b ; PHONE HOME
3

1
4. A 1
0

2
1
1

2
5. A 1
1
5
6. A 4
5

3
2 ; MADAME X HAS THE PLANS
2
1
1
1

3
3
2

1
1 ; GO NORTH ON MAIN ST
0
0
1 ; DR JOHN IS THE SPY
2

In Problems 710, use the matrix A and the correspondence (1)

to decode the given message.
8 3
152 184 171 86 212
7. A a
b ;B a
b
5 2
95 116 107 56 133
8. A a

B a

2 1
b;
1 1

46 7 13 22 18
1 10
b
23 15 14 2 18 12 5
1 0 1

9. A 0 1 0 ;

1 0 0
31 21 21 22 20 9
B 19 0 9 13 16 15
13 1 20 8 0 9
2 1

message by a 2 2 matrix:

17 16 18
5 34 0 34 20
9 5 25
b
30 31 32 10 59 0 54 35 13 6 50

Decode the message if its first two letters are DA and its last
two letters are AY.
12. (a) Using the correspondence
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
j k l n m s t u w x g h i o p q r v y z a b c d e f space

find the numerical equivalent of the message

BUY ALL AVAILABLE STOCK AT MARKET.
(b) Encode the message by postmultiplying the message
matrix M by
1
A 1
1

1
0
1

0
1.
1

(c) Verify your work by decoding the encoded message in

part (b).
13. Consider the matrices A and B defined in (4) and (5),
respectively.
(a) Rewrite B as B using integers modulo 27.*
(b) Verify that the encoded message to be sent in letters is
OVTHWFUVJVRWYBWYCZZNWPZL.
(c) Decode the encoded message by computing A1B and
rewriting the result using integers modulo 27.

10. A 0 0 1 ;

1 1

11. Using the correspondence (1), we encoded the following

36 32
28 61
26
56 10 12
B 9 2 18 1 18 25 0 0
23 27
23 41
26
43 5 12

*For integers a and b, we write a b (mod 27) if b is the remainder

(0 b 27) when a is divided by 27. For example, 33 6 (mod
27), 28 1 (mod 27), and so on. Negative integers are handled in the
following manner: If 27 0 (mod 27), then, for example, 25 2 0
(mod 27) so that 25 2 (mod 27) and 2 25 (mod 27). Also, 30
24 (mod 27), since 30 24 ( 54) 0 (mod 27).

8.14 Cryptography

449

79774_CH08_440-463.indd Page 454 24/08/12 4:38 PM f-447

8.15

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-20.

In Problems 16, encode the given word using the parity check
code.
1. (0 1 1)
2. (1 1 1)
3. (0 0 0 1)
4. (1 0 1 0)
5. (1 0 1 0 1 0 0)
6. (0 1 1 0 1 0 1)

In Problems 1928, determine whether the given message

is a code word in the Hamming (7, 4) code. If it is, decode it.
If it is not, correct the single error and decode the corrected
message.
19. (0 0 0 0 0 0 0)

20. (1 1 0 0 0 0 0)

In Problems 712, decode the given message using the parity

check code.
7. (1 0 0 1)
8. (0 0 1 1)
9. (1 1 1 0 0)
10. (1 0 1 0 0 )
11. (1 0 0 1 1 1)
12. (1 0 0 1 0 1)

21. (1 1 0 1 1 0 1)

22. (0 1 0 1 0 1 0)

23. (1 1 1 1 1 1 1)

24. (1 1 0 0 1 1 0)

25. (0 1 1 1 0 0 1)

26. (1 0 0 1 0 0 1)

27. (1 0 1 1 0 1 1)

28. (0 0 1 0 0 1 1)

In Problems 1318, encode the given word using the Hamming

(7, 4) code.
13. (1 1 1 0)
14. (0 0 1 1)
15. (0 1 0 1)
16. (0 0 0 1)
17. (0 1 1 0)
18. (1 1 0 0)
454

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

29. (a) Determine the total number of 7-tuples with binary

entries.
(b) How many 7-tuple code words are there in the Hamming
(7, 4) code?
(c) List all code words in the Hamming (7, 4) code.

79774_CH08_440_463.indd Page 455 31/08/12 6:20 PM f-447

30. (a) In the Hamming (8, 4) code a word

W (w1 w2 w3 w4)
of length four is transformed into a code word of length
eight:
C (c1 c2 c3 w1 c4 w2 w3 w4),
where the parity check equations are
c4 w2 w3 w4 0
c3 w 1 w 3 w 4 0
c2 w 1 w 2 w 4 0
c1 c2 c3 w1 c4 w2 w3 w4 0.

Encode the word (0 1 1 0).

(b) From the system in part (a), determine the parity check
matrix H.
(c) Using the matrix H from part (b), compute the syndrome
S of the received message
R (0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0).

8.16 Method of Least Squares

455

79774_CH08_440_463.indd Page 457 31/08/12 6:20 PM f-447

8.16

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-20.

In Problems 16, find the least squares line for the given data.
1. (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3), (5, 2)
2. (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7)
3. (1, 1), (2, 1.5), (3, 3), (4, 4.5), (5, 5)

4. (0, 0), (2, 1.5), (3, 3), (4, 4.5), (5, 5)

5. (0, 2), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 9), (5, 8), (6, 10)
6. (1, 2), (2, 2.5), (3, 1), (4, 1.5), (5, 2), (6, 3.2), (7, 5)

8.16 Method of Least Squares

457

79774_CH08_440_463.indd Page 458 31/08/12 6:20 PM f-447

7. In an experiment, the following correspondence was found

8. In an experiment the following correspondence was found

between temperature T (in C) and kinematic viscosity v (in

Centistokes) of an oil with a certain additive:

between temperature T (in C) and electrical resistance R (in

M):

20

40

60

80

100

120

400

450

500

550

600

650

220

200

180

170

150

135

0.47

0.90

2.0

3.7

7.5

15

Find the least squares line v aT b. Use this line to estimate

the viscosity of the oil at T 140 and T 160.

458

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

Find the least squares line R aT b. Use this line to estimate

the resistance at T 700.

79774_CH08_440_463.indd Page 461 31/08/12 6:21 PM f-447

8.17

Exercises

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-20.

1. (a) Use the data in the compartmental diagram in FIGURE 8.17.5

to determine the appropriate transfer matrix T and the

initial state of the system X0.
(b) Find the state of the system after 1 day. After 2 days.
(c) Eventually, the system will reach an equilibrium state
X
. Find X
. [Hint: x1  x2
 a x1 b that satisfies TX
X
x2
 150.]
1

0.2/day

90

2
60

but the small shrubs can take over an area only if preceded
by the grasses. In FIGURE 8.17.8, the transfer coefficient of 0.3
indicates that, by the end of the summer, 30% of the prior bare
space in the field becomes occupied by grasses.
(a) Find the transfer matrix T.
10
(b) Suppose X  0 and that area is measured in acres.
0
Use the recursion formula Xn1  TXn, along with a
calculator or a CAS, to determine the ground cover in
each of the next 6 years.

0.4/day
1
Bare Space

FIGURE 8.17.5 Compartments for Problem 1

2. (a) Use the data in the compartmental diagram in FIGURE 8.17.6

to determine the appropriate transfer matrix T and the

initial state of the system X0.
(b) Find the state of the system after 1 day. After 2 days.
x1

(c) Find the equilibrium state X  x2 that satisfies

x3
X
. [Hint: What is the analogue of the hint in part (c)
TX
of Problem 1?]
1

0.3/day

100

0.2/year

Small
Shrubs

FIGURE 8.17.8 Compartments for Problem 4

Discussion Problem
in part (c) of Problems 13 in terms
5. Characterize the vector X

6. Radioisotopes (such as phosphorous-32 and carbon-14) have

3
150

FIGURE 8.17.6 Compartments for Problem 2

3. (a) Use the data in the compartmental diagram in FIGURE 8.17.7

to determine the appropriate transfer matrix T and the

initial state of the system X0.
(b) Find the state of the system after 1 day. After 2 days.
x1

(c) Find the equilibrium state X  x2 that satisfies

x3
TX  X .
0.3/day

100

2
Grasses

0.15/year
(death)

Computer Lab Assignment

0.2/day

0.05/year
(death)

of one of the principal concepts in Section 8.8.

200

0.5/day

0.3/year

been used to study the transfer of nutrients in food chains.

FIGURE 8.17.9 is a compartmental representation of a simple
aquatic food chain. One hundred units (for example, microcuries) of tracer are dissolved in the water of an aquarium
containing a species of phytoplankton and a species of zooplankton.
(a) Find the transfer matrix T and the initial state of the
system X0.
(b) Instead of the recursion formula, use Xn  TnX0, n  1,
2, , 12, to predict the state of the system for the next
12 hours. Use a CAS and the command to compute powers
of matrices (in Mathematica it is MatrixPower[T, n]) to
find T2, T3, . . . , T12.

0
0.5/day
0.06/hr
(respiration)

0.4/day
0.5/day

3
0

FIGURE 8.17.7 Compartments for Problem 3

4. A field has been completely devastated by fire. Two types of

vegetation, grasses, and small shrubs will first begin to grow,

1
Phytoplankton

0.06/hr
(grazing)

0.02/hr
(uptake of dissolved tracer)
0.01/hr
2
3
Water
Zooplankton
0.05/hr
(excretion)

FIGURE 8.17.9 Aquatic food chain in Problem 6

8.17 Discrete Compartmental Models

461

79774_CH08_440-463.indd Page 462 24/08/12 4:38 PM f-447

Chapter in Review

Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-20.

In Problems 120, fill in the blanks or answer true/false.

1. A matrix A  (aij)43 such that aij  i  j is given by _____.
2. If A is a 4  7 matrix and B is a 7  3 matrix, then the size
of AB is _____.
1
3. If A  a b and B  (3 4), then AB  _____ and BA 
_____. 2

23. An n  n matrix A is said to be nilpotent if, for some positive

1 2
b , then A1  _____.
3 4
If A and B are n  n nonsingular matrices, then A  B
is necessarily nonsingular. _____
If A is a nonsingular matrix for which AB  AC, then B  C.
_____
If A is a 3  3 matrix such that det A  5, then det( 12 A) 
_____ and det(AT) _____.
If det A  6 and det B  2, then det AB1  _____.
If A and B are n  n matrices whose corresponding entries
in the third column are the same, then det(A  B)  _____.
Suppose A is a 3  3 matrix such that det A  2. If B  10A
and C  B1, then det C  _____.
Let A be an n  n matrix. The eigenvalues of A are the nonzero
solutions of det(A  lI)  0. _____
A nonzero scalar multiple of an eigenvector is also an eigenvector corresponding to the same eigenvalue. _____
An n  1 column vector K with all zero entries is never an
eigenvector of an n  n matrix A. _____
Let A be an n  n matrix with real entries. If l is a complex
eigenvalue, then l is also an eigenvalue of A. _____
An n  n matrix A always possesses n linearly independent
eigenvectors.

where i2  1, anticommutes with the others. Pauli spin

matrices are used in quantum mechanics.

4. If A  a
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

1 1 1 2
16. The augmented matrix 0 1 0 3 3 is in reduced rowechelon form. _____
0 0 0 0
17. If a 3  3 matrix A is diagonalizable, then it possesses three

linearly independent eigenvectors. _____

18. The only matrices that are orthogonally diagonalizable are
symmetric matrices. _____
19. The symmetric matrix A  a

_____

1 1
b is orthogonal.
1
1

20. The eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix with real entries are

always real numbers. _____

21. An n  n matrix B is symmetric if BT  B, and an n  n
matrix C is skew-symmetric if CT  C. By noting the identity 2A  A  AT  A  AT, show that any n  n matrix A
can be written as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a skewsymmetric matrix.
22. Show that there exists no 2  2 matrix with real entries such
0 1
b.
that A2  a
1 0
462

CHAPTER 8 Matrices

integer m, Am  0. Find a 2  2 nilpotent matrix A  0.

24. (a) Two n  n matrices A and B are said to anticommute if
AB  BA. Show that each of the Pauli spin matrices
sx  a

0 1
0 i
1
0
bsy  a
bsz  a
b
1 0
i
0
0 1

(b) The matrix C  AB  BA is said to be the commutator of the n  n matrices A and B. Find the commutators of sx and sy, sy and sz, and sz and sx.
In Problems 25 and 26, solve the given system of equations by
GaussJordan elimination.
5 1 1
9
25. 2
4 0 X  27 26. x1  x2  x3  6
1
1 5
9
x1  2x2  3x3  2
2x1 

3x3  3

1 1 1
1 1 1
4  0.
27. Without expanding, show that 4
a b c
bc ac ab
y x2
2 1
28. Show that 4
3 4
5 9

x
1
2
3

1
1
4  0 is the equation of a parabola
1
1

passing through the three points (1, 2), (2, 3), and (3, 5).
In Problems 29 and 30, evaluate the determinant of the given
matrix by inspection.
4
0 0
0 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 0
0
0 3
0 0 0
29.

0
0 0 1 0 0
0
0 0
0 2 0
0
0 0
0 0 5

3
4
30.
1
6

0
6
3
4

0
0
9
2

0
0

0
1

In Problems 31 and 32, without solving, state whether the given

homogeneous system has only the trivial solution or has infinitely many solutions.
31. x1  x2  x3  0
32. x1  x2  x3  0
5x1  x2  x3  0
5x1  x2  x3  0
x1  2x2  x3  0
x1  2x2  x3  0
In Problems 33 and 34, use GaussJordan elimination to balance
the given chemical equation.
33. I2  HNO3 S HIO3  NO2  H2O
34. Ca  H3PO4 S Ca3P2O8  H2

79774_CH08_440_463.indd Page 463 03/09/12 2:58 PM f-447

In Problems 35 and 36, solve the given system of equations by

Cramers rule.
35. x1  2x2  3x3  2
36. x1 
x3  4
2x1  4x2  3x3  0
2x1  3x2  4x3  5
4x2  6x3  5
x1  4x2  5x3  0
37. Use Cramers rule to solve the system

47. Supply a first column so that the matrix is orthogonal:

i1
E

i2

i3

i4

R1

R2

R3

"2

"3
1

X  x cos u  y sin u
Y  x sin u  y cos u
for x and y.
38. (a) Set up the system of equations for the currents in the
branches of the network given in FIGURE 8.R.1.

"3
1

"2

"3

1 0 2
0 0
0 .
2 0
4
(a) Find matrices P and P1 that orthogonally diagonalize
the matrix A.
(b) Find the diagonal matrix D by actually carrying out the
multiplication P1AP.
49. Identify the conic section x2  3xy  y2  1.
50. Consider the following population data:

48. Consider the symmetric matrix A 

FIGURE 8.R.1 Network in Problem 38

Year
(b) Use Cramers rule to show that
i1  E a

1
1
1

 b.
R1
R2
R3

39. Solve the system

2x1  3x2  x3  6
x1  2x2
 3
2x1 
x3  9
by writing it as a matrix equation and finding the inverse of the
coefficient matrix.
40. Use the inverse of the matrix A to solve the system AX  B,
where
1 2 3
A  2 3 0
0 1 2
1
2
and the vector B is given by (a) 1 (b) 1 .
1
3
In Problems 4146, find the eigenvalues and corresponding
eigenvectors of the given matrix.
1 2
0 0
41. a
b
42. a
b
4 3
4 0
3 2 4
7 2 0
43. 2 0 2
44. 2
6 2
4 2 3
0
2 5
2
2 3
45. 2
1 6
1 2
0

0 0 0
46. 0 0 1
2 2 1

Population (in millions)

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930

63

76

92

106

123

The actual population in 1940 was 132 million. Compare this

amount with the population predicted from the least squares
line for the given data.
10 1
b to encode
9 1
the given message. Use the correspondence (1) of Section 8.14.
In Problems 51 and 52, use the matrix A  a

51. SATELLITE LAUNCHED ON FRI

52. SEC AGNT ARRVS TUES AM

0
1 0
In Problems 53 and 54, use the matrix A  1
1 1
1 1 2
to decode the given message. Use the correspondence (1) in
Section 8.14.
19 0 15 14 0 20
53. B  35 10 27 53 1 54
5 15 3 48 2 39
5 2 21
54. B  27 17 40
21 13 2
55. Decode the following messages using the parity check code.
(a) (1 1 0 0 1 1)
(b) (0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0)
56. Encode the word (1 0 0 1) using the Hamming (7, 4) code.
In Problems 57 and 58, solve the given system of equations
using LU-Factorization.
57. The system in Problem 26
58. The system in Problem 36

CHAPTER 8 in Review

463