Nuevas Tendencias de La Museología
Nuevas Tendencias de La Museología
Nuevas Tendencias de La Museología
pe
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Anna Leshchenko
Suzanne Nash/Audrey Doyen
Mnica Risnicoff de Gorgas
Lynn Maranda
[email protected]
ISSN: 2309-1290 ICOFOM Study Series (Print)
ISSN: 2306-4161 ICOFOM Study Series (Online)
ISBN: 978-92-9012-414-6
International Committee for Museology of the International Council of Museums
(ICOM/UNESCO)
Published by ICOFOM, Paris
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Lynn Maranda Canada
Museum Ethics in the 21st Century: Museum Ethics
Transforming into another Dimension.................. 151
Snezana Mijailovic France, Gloria Romanello Spain
Nouvelles Tendances, Vieux Problmes? Le Cas de
la Rception des Parcours la Villa mditerrane
de Marseille ......................................................... 167
Nathalie Nol-Cadet, Cline Bonniol France
La cration contemporaine comme musologie
participative, le muse comme espace de spectacle
vivant .................................................................. 185
Sara Prez Lpez Espaa
El concepto de Interpatrimonios. Intercambio cultural
como resumen de la inclusin social en el patrimonio
para el colectivo sordo. La configuracin de espacios
comunes entre culturas en los espacios musesticos
............................................................................ 195
Gloria Romanello Espagne
Des Etudes de Publics pour Quoi Faire ? Lutilisation
des Outils de Connaissance des Publics dans la
Gestion des Muses et Centres dart Contemporain
en Espagne et en France .................................... 221
Martin R. Schrer Switzerland
Transmedia Story Telling and Alternate Reality
Games in Museums Promising Novelties or
Unsuitable Gimmicks?......................................... 241
Daniel Schmitt France
Apports et Perspectives du Cours dexprience
des Visiteurs dans les Muses ............................ 249
Kerstin Smeds Sweden
Metamorphosis of Value in the Battle: Between
Preservation and Allowing Decay ........................ 263
Case Studies Etudes de cas Estudios de caso
Marie-Aline Angillis - Belgique
Collecter et conserver les rcits de vie dans les
muses ............................................................... 282
Wan-Chen Chang Taiwan
The Use of Post-Modern Narrative Strategies in
Contemporary Hot-Topic Exhibitions ................... 291
Irina Chuvilova, Olga Shelegina Russia
The Museums Mission in the Modern Society and
Problems of Museum Communication (With a Focus
on Russia) ........................................................... 303
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Avant-Propos
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Foreword
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Prefacio
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globale intgrant lensemble des muses et des institutions qui lui
sont proches, ainsi que lensemble des fonctions musales
(prservation, recherche, communication). Cette approche, qui
trouve cho chez beaucoup de membres dICOFOM, nest pas suivie
par tous les chercheurs, tant sen faut. Nombre de contributions
prsentes lors du colloque et reprises ici insistent plus prcisment
sur certains aspects spcifiques du muse : linstitution comme
mdia, les expositions, la prservation, le rapport aux visiteurs, etc.
Ce parti-pris nous a permis de regrouper, dans un premier volume
(vol. 43a) les contributions visant essentiellement une approche
gnrale de linstitution ou de la musologie et de son volution,
tandis que nous avons tent de regrouper, dans le second volume
(vol. 43b) les contributions plus directement consacres lune des
approches du phnomne musal, quil sagisse du visiteur, des
fonctions musales ou des aspects thiques qui leur sont lies. Nous
nous rendons bien compte du caractre parfois factice de tels
regroupements, de mme quil nous a parfois t difficile de
distinguer les articles thoriques et les tudes de cas caractre
plus spcifique ou plus pratique : la frontire entre thorie et
pratique, on le sait, est loin dtre clairement tablie, lun se
nourrissant continuellement de lautre.
Le premier volume (vol. 43a) consacr aux communications du
colloque reprend donc un certain nombre de questionnements
gnraux sur le devenir du champ musal et de la musologie.
Demble, plusieurs contributions analysent les fondements ou
lhistoire de la discipline afin de mieux comprendre son volution
e
possible. Afin dexplorer la musologie au XXI sicle, Deloche
revient sur ses fondamentaux ; Guzin sinterroge galement sur lun
des thmes chers lICOFOM, la musologie de lEst , tandis que
Brulon Soares voque la Nouvelle musologie ; Menezes de
Carvalho et Scheiner interrogent la musologie partir de la la
notion bourdieusienne de champ ; de manire plus pratique,
Cardonna analyse les publications en musologie, tandis que Gachet
retrace lhistoire de la Lettre de lOCIM. Sur le plan de la formation,
Bergeron et Carter sinterrogent sur lvolution de la musologie et
ses rpercussions sur sa manire de lenseigner. Julio analyse le
concept dhistoricit dans ses liens avec le muse et Nomiku
sinterroge sur lintgrit de la musologie. La musologie se conoit
et senseigne, on le sait, de manire diffrente dans le monde.
Costa, dans cette perspective, voque le concept de musologie
du sud , tandis que de Melo, Menezes de Carvalho et de Moraes
analysent lide dune musologie amazonienne . Brulon Soares,
Menezes de Carvalho et de Vasconcelos interrogent enfin, de
manire plus pratique, les diffrents courants de la musologie au
Brsil, tandis que Sustar analyse les muses pdagogiques.
Deux lments particuliers ont eu une influence considrable sur la
manire de penser le futur de la musologie : lvolution du
numrique, dune part, celle des mcanismes conomiques de
lautre. On sait linfluence dInternet et des technologies de
linformation et de la communication sur le muse et la manire de
penser son volution. La cybermusologie constitue lune des
possibilits denvisager les nouveaux contours du champ musal, ce
quvoquent Langlois et, de manire plus pratique, Leshchenko.
Lvolution de la manire de concevoir les mcanismes
conomiques constitue galement une donne de premire
importance pour comprendre notamment les relations entre le muse
et le march de lart, ce que montre Doyen travers le patrimoine
ethnographique ; mais cest surtout la crise conomique et,
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paralllement, le dveloppement de logiques collaboratives et
participatives qui a le plus largement influenc la pense musale
contemporaine : les contributions dAgostino, de Moolhuisen et de
Radice, entre autre, tmoignent de limportance actuelle de ce mode
de fonctionnement particulier de linstitution.
Le second volume (vol. 43b) voque plus directement la musologie
partir des fonctions musales ou du point de vue de sa rception,
notamment partir de langle des tudes de visiteurs. La question du
fonctionnement du champ musal et particulirement celui du
muse, induit la rflexion thique, ce qui sinscrit entre autres au
cur du propos de Maranda et dAvila Mlendez. Lthique suppose
lexamen des fins et notamment la rflexion sur les publics ou les
utilisateurs (potentiels, actuels et futurs) du muse. Il nest gure
tonnant que la question des visiteurs et des publics constitue lune
des portes dentres les plus obliges en matire de recherches sur
le champ musal, notamment travers les tudes de publics, en
tmoignent les interventions de Harris, de Mijalovic et Romanello, de
Schmitt, de Romanallo, de Crenn et Roustan, ou encore de Jutant et
Lesaffre. La relation entre le muse et son public suppose, en
quelque sorte, le principe du muse comme systme de
communication, ce sur quoi reviennent, de manire plus pratique,
Chuvilova et Shelengina dune part, Roda de lautre. Ce lien
particulier entre linstitution musale et son public repose sur lune
des fonctions classiques du muse, rsume travers le principe
gnral de communication, mais plus gnralement voqu travers
les notions dducation ou, plus rcemment, de mdiation et
dinclusion. Cette perspective a t choisie par de nombreux auteurs,
quil sagisse de Cornlis et Jaminon, de Dufresne-Tass et ONeil,
insistant sur les best practice en matire dducation et de mdiation,
mais aussi de SantAnna de Godoy (pour les groupes de jeunes et
adultes et les programmes dalphabtisation), de Garcia Ceballos
(pour les groupes plus gs), de Fontal et Marin (pour les
programmes dinclusion) ou de Thvenot et al. (pour les digital
natives), tous tmoignent des spcificits de linstitution en regard
des groupes auxquels celle-ci sadresse.
Aprs lducation ou la mdiation, lanalyse des expositions constitue
galement une voie partir duquel le champ musal est
rgulirement investigu, quil sagisse de techniques ou
dexpriences particulires lies la mise en exposition, comme les
tudient Schrer, Nol-Cadet et Bonniol ou De Caro et, de manire
plus pratique, Chang et Shibata, ou de questionner la mise en
exposition de lexposition elle-mme, comme le propose Camart. La
question de la prservation (et plus spcifiquement celle de la
conservation), sujet pour le moins important, fait galement lobjet
danalyses spcifiques : la figure du conservateur est aborde par
Hoffman, Jones et Burns, tandis que Smeds et Angilis questionnent
dune part les questions de prservation laune de la question des
dchets, dautre part la prservation des patrimoines immatriels,
travers les rcits de vie. La question de lalination, enfin, est
voque travers une tude des muses finlandais par Robbins.
Comme on peut le constater, un grand nombre des thmes
prsents semblent sinscrire la suite de rflexions inities depuis
parfois plusieurs annes. Est-il, ce stade, possible de parler de
nouvelles tendances se dgageant de cet ensemble ? Il est vident
que ces dernires nmergeront dans la plupart des cas que de
thmatiques dj connues, mme si le got pour la nouveaut
radicale nous pousse au renouvellement des concepts, pour le
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meilleur et, parfois aussi, pour le pire. Par ailleurs, la diversit
dorigine des contributions, crites dans lune des trois langues de
travail de lICOM, tmoigne des diffrences importantes existant au
sein du monde de la musologie, tant pour ce qui concerne leur
stade de dveloppement que pour leur rapport au patrimoine ou aux
publics, mais aussi pour ce qui concerne les fondements mme de la
musologie. Cest sans doute ltude de cette diversit qui constitue
lessence du travail dICOFOM : rassembler, cartographier et
synthtiser lensemble des propos lis au champ musal. En ce
sens, la publication de ces actes ne fait quinitier le travail dtude
des tendances qui se dgagent de la musologie actuelle, travail
continu et forcment sans fin, mais qui participe pleinement dune
certaine ide de la recherche scientifique et du travail du chercheur.
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The International Committee for Museology chose the topic for its
37th symposium, held in Paris from 5 to 9 June 2014, with the idea of
opening new directions for thought about the future of museology.
Mentioning new trends in museology is to recognize that, over the
past decades, the world of museums has undergone substantial
change, not only because there are many more museums throughout
the world but also because they have radically changed, whether in
the methods of communication (the relation to the display or the
development of museums as media), or in the conversion of heritage,
in the relation to what is contemporary, or in the approach to the
public. The economic context (the expansion of neo-liberal concepts
and economic crises) has radically altered the way the museum
world thinks. It is not too daring to say that these changes will
continue and bring with them changes in the way of seeing the
st
museum field in the 21 century. The call for papers, launched at the
end of 2013, was made in this context, and was resolutely open to
collecting abstracts that were different enough to try to outline, on a
global scale, a panorama of the subjects now emerging in the field of
museology. Nine themes were proposed that would suggest a
number of lines of thought to the authors: geopolitics of museology
or the ways to think of the museum field throughout the world;
museology as a discipline and subject for teaching; the relation to
heritage and the issue of collections, education and communication;
the relation to what is current; the outlines of cyber-museology;
st
participatory museology; and museum ethics in the 21 century. The
number of proposals received (more than 200 abstracts) called for a
strict first selection 75 presentations were made at the Paris
symposium. This is still twice the number of the final selection, which
represents the papers edited in volumes 43a and 43b of ICOFOM
Study Series.
The profusion of subjects discussed in the different papers made it
very difficult to sort them into the two different volumes. Some
subjects were much more favoured than others, which required a
new thematic arrangement. Some trends stood out nevertheless,
leading us to sort the papers into two volumes, as well as separating
the theoretical papers and case studies, the latter being the second
part of each volume. We have kept alphabetical order within each
volume and section for easier consultation.
Since it was founded, ICOFOM has principally worked on theoretical
aspects of the museum field, starting from a global approach that
encompassed all museums and related institutions, as well as the
essential
museum
functions
(conservation,
research,
communication). This approach, adhered to by many ICOFOM
members, does not seem to be followed by other researchers. Many
papers presented at the symposium and reproduced here underline
certain specific aspects of the museum: the institution as a media,
exhibitions, conservation, relation to visitors, etc. These choices led
us to group in the first volume (no. 43a) those papers that essentially
discussed the institution in general, or museology and its evolution,
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while we tried to gather in the second volume (no. 43b) those papers
that were more precisely aimed at a particular aspect of the museum
phenomenon, whether visitors, museum functions, or the ethical
considerations that are linked to them. We realize that sorting in this
way can seem artificial, just as it is sometimes difficult to tell the
theoretical apart from the more specific or practical case studies: we
realize that the borders between theory and practice are far from
being clearly set, each one continually nurturing the other.
The first volume of papers from the symposium (no. 43a) addresses
a number of general issues on the future of the museum field and
museology. Right away, many papers examine the foundations or
history of the field in order to better understand how it may possibly
st
evolve. Deloche returns to its basics to explore 21 century
museology; Guzin also questions one of the themes dear to
ICOFOM, Museology of the East, while Brulon Soares probes the
Nouvelle Musologie; Menezes de Carvalho and Scheiner examine
museology following Pierre Bourdieus view of the field; in a more
practical manner, Cardonna analyses museology publications, while
Gachet traces the history of the Lettre de lOCIM. Studying training,
Bergeron and Carter look at the evolution of museology and its
impact on the way it is taught. Julio analyses museologys history
and its links with museums and Nomiku looks at museologys
integrity. We know that museology is conceived and taught differently
throughout the world. With this perspective, Costa develops
southern museology, while Melo, Menezes de Carvalho and de
Moraes examine the idea of an Amazonian museology. Bruno
Soares, Menezes de Carvalho and de Vasconcelos have a closer,
more practical look at the different currents of museology in Brazil,
while Sustar examines pedagogical museums.
Two distinct currents have had considerable impact on how the
future of museology is envisaged: the development of digital
technology on the one hand, and economic forces on the other. We
know what influence the internet and information technologies have
had on museums and on thinking about museums evolution.
Cybermuseology is one way to envisage the new outlines of the field
of museology, as examined by Langlois and by Leshchenko, in a
more practical approach. The evolution in ways of envisioning
economic mechanisms is another element of the utmost importance
in understanding the relations between museums and the art market,
which Doyen explains in ethnographic heritage. But it is essentially
the economic crisis, and with it the development of collaborative and
participative action, which has had the greatest influence on
contemporary museum thinking: the papers of Agostino, Moolhuisen
and Radice, among others, are witness to this current working
method, so specific to this institution.
The second volume of ISS (no. 43b) refers more directly to
museology through museum functions or from the point of view of
how they are experienced, in particular from the approach to visitor
studies. The issue of how the museum field functions, and in
particular the museum itself, raises ethical questions, which are at
the heart of the papers by Maranda and Avila Mlendez. Ethics
suppose a study of the finalities of museum work, especially in
thinking about the museum public or its users (potential, current and
future). It is hardly surprising that the issue of visitors and the public
is one of the essential avenues to research in the museum field, in
particular through studies of the public, as we see in the papers by
Harris, Mijalovic and Romanello, Schmitt, Romanello, Crenn and
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Roustan, and also by Jutant and Lesaffre. The relation between the
museum and its public assumes that, in some way, museums are a
communication system, which is a topic discussed by Chuvilova and
Shelengina on the one hand, and Roda on the other. This specific
link between the museum institution and its public is founded on one
of the traditional functions of museums, summed up under the
general principles of communication, but more broadly referred to in
the ideas of education and, more recently, interpretation and
inclusion. Several authors chose this view Cornlis and Janinon,
Dufresne-Tass, and ONeil, who emphasized best practices in
education and interpretation, and SantAnna de Godoy (describing
groups of teens and young adults in alphabetisation programmes),
de Garca Ceballos (writing about older groups) and Fontal and
Marin (programs for inclusion) or Thvenot et al. (discussing digital
natives). All describe specifics of the museum institution with regard
to the groups that are being cared for. After education and
interpretation, the analysis of exhibitions also constitutes a broad
avenue in the study of the museum field, whether exhibition
techniques or specific experiences linked to creating an exhibition, as
decribed by Schrer, Nol-Cadet and Bonniol, and De Caro and, in a
more practical vein, Chang and Shibata, or putting the exhibition
itself into question, as suggests Camart. The issue of preservation
(more specifically conservation), a subject no less important, is also
examined in detail: the image of the conservator is approached by
Hoffman, Jones and Burns, while Smeds and Angilis examine the
issues of preservation as measured by waste, and, on the other
hand, the protecting of intangible heritage through recording the
stories of peoples lives. Finally, the issue of deaccessioning and
restitution is examined by Robbins in a study of museums in Finland.
We can see that a large number of the themes presented seem to
follow lines of thought that were launched many years ago. Is it
possible that we can now talk about new trends that emerge from
these papers? It is obvious that these last themes will, in most cases,
only emerge from themes that are already known, even if the need
for radical innovation impels us to renew the concepts for better and,
sometimes, for worse. Moreover, the diverse origin of the papers,
written in one of the three working languages of ICOM, underlines
the big differences that exist within the world of museology, as much
for its stage of development, as for its relationship to heritage and the
public, and even for the basics of museology. Undoubtedly the study
of this diversity is at the heart of the work of ICOFOM: to gather, map
out and make a synthesis of all the ideas that are linked to the
museum field. In this sense, the publication of the presentations of
the Paris symposium only begins to study the trends that emerge
from current museology, an ongoing and necessarily endless task,
but which amply contributes to a certain idea of empirical research
and researchers.
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aspectos tericos del campo museal, a partir de una aproximacin
global integrando el conjunto de los museos y de las instituciones
que le son prximas, as como el conjunto de las funciones
museales (conservacin, investigacin, comunicacin). Esta
aproximacin, es seguida por muchos miembros de ICOFOM pero,
lejos de ello, no por todos los investigadores. Numerosas
contribuciones presentadas a lo largo del coloquio y retomadas aqu
insisten especialmente sobre ciertos aspectos especficos del
museo: la institucin como medio de comunicacin, las
exposiciones, la conservacin, los informes de visitantes, etc.
Esta seleccin nos ha permitido reagrupar, en el primer volumen
(vol. 43a) los artculos referidos esencialmente a un enfoque general
de la institucin, o de la museologa y de su evolucin, mientras que
hemos tratado de agrupar dentro del segundo volumen
(vol. 43b) los documentos ms directamente dedicados a uno de los
enfoques del fenmeno museal: aquel que trata del visitante, de las
funciones museales o de los aspectos ticos al que estn ligados.
Nos hemos dado cuenta del carcter a veces ficticio de tales
agrupamientos, as como otras veces ha sido difcil distinguir los
artculos tericos y los estudios de caso de tono ms especfico o
ms prctico: la frontera entre la teora y la prctica, lo sabemos,
est lejos de ser explcita y estable. La una se nutre continuamente
de la otra.
El primer volumen (vol. 43a) retoma un cierto nmero de
cuestionamientos generales sobre el devenir del campo museal y de
la museologa. Varios artculos analizan los fundamentos o la historia
de la disciplina a fin de comprender mejor su posible evolucin. Con
el objetivo de explorar la museologa del siglo XXI, Deloche vuelve
sobre los fundamentos; Guzin se interroga igualmente sobre uno de
los temas ms caros para el ICOFOM: la museologa del Este;
mientras que Brulon Soares evoca la Nueva Museologa; Menezes
de Carvalho y Scheiner examinan la museologa a partir de la nocin
de campo segn Bourdieu; de manera ms prctica, Cardonna
analiza las publicaciones museolgicas; mientras que Gachet rastrea
la historia de la Lettre de OCIM. En cuanto al plan de formacin,
Bergeron y Carter se cuestionan sobre la evolucin de la museologa
y sus repercusiones sobre la manera de ensearla. Julio analiza el
concepto de historicidad y sus vnculos con el museo; y Nomiku se
cuestiona sobre la integridad de la museologa. Sabemos que la
museologa se concibe y se ensea de diferentes maneras en
diferentes partes del mundo. Costa, desde esta perspectiva, evoca el
concepto de la museologa del sur; mientras que Melo, Menezes de
Carvalho y de Moraes analizan la idea de una museologa
amaznica. Brulon Soares, Menezes de Carvalho y de Vasconcelos
se preguntan finalmente, de manera ms prctica, sobre las
diferentes corrientes de la museologa del Brasil; mientras que
Sustar analiza los museos pedaggicos.
Dos elementos particulares han tenido una influencia especial sobre
la manera de pensar el futuro de la museologa: el desarrollo de la
tecnologa digital, por un lado, y los mecanismos econmicos, por el
otro. Conocemos la influencia de Internet y de las tecnologas de la
informacin y de la comunicacin sobre el museo y la manera de
pensar su evolucin. La cibermuseologa constituye una de las
posibilidades de considerar los nuevos contornos del campo museal,
aquellos que evocan Langlois y, de manera ms prctica,
Leshchenko. La evolucin en la manera de concebir los mecanismos
econmicos constituye tambin un dato de vital importancia para
comprender especialmente las relaciones entre el museo y el
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mercado del arte, aquel que Doyen explica a travs del patrimonio
etnogrfico; pero es sobre todo, la crisis econmica y paralelamente
el desarrollo de lgicas colaborativas y participativas lo que ms ha
influenciado el pensamiento museal contemporneo: las
contribuciones de Agostino, de Moolhuisen y de Radice, entre otras,
testimonian la importancia actual de este modo de funcionamiento
particular de la institucin.
El segundo volumen (vol. 43b) se refiere ms directamente a la
museologa a partir de las funciones museales o del punto de vista
de su recepcin, especialmente desde el ngulo de los estudios de
pblico. La cuestin sobre el funcionamiento del campo museal y
particularmente aquel del museo, nos conduce a la reflexin tica,
presente en las propuestas de Maranda y de Avila Mlendez. La
tica supone el examen de los fines, y especialmente la reflexin
sobre los pblicos y los usuarios (potenciales, actuales y futuros) del
museo. No sorprende que la pregunta acerca de los visitantes y de
los pblicos constituya todava una de las puertas de entrada
obligadas en el rea de los investigadores del campo museal,
especialmente a travs del estudio de pblicos, como lo podemos
comprobar en los documentos de Harris, de Mijalovic y Romanello,
de Schmitt, de Romanallo, de Crenn y Roustan, o an la de Jutant y
Lesaffre. La relacin entre el museo y su pblico supone, de alguna
manera, el principio del museo como sistema de comunicacin,
sobre el que vuelven, de manera prctica, Chuvilova y Shelengina
por un lado, y Roda por el otro. Este vnculo particular entre la
institucin museal y su pblico descansa sobre una de las funciones
clsicas del museo, resumida a travs del principio general de
comunicacin, pero tambin generalmente evocada a travs de las
nociones de educacin o, ms recientemente, de la mediacin y la
inclusin. Esta perspectiva ha sido elegida por numerosos autores,
tales como Cornlis y Jaminon, Dufresne-Tass y ONeil, enfatizando
sobre las mejores prcticas en materia de educacin y de mediacin,
pero tambin por SantAnna de Godoy (describiendo grupos de
jvenes y adultos, y los programas de alfabetizacin), Garca
Ceballos (por los grupos de adultos mayores), Fontal y Marin (por los
programas de inclusin) o Thvenot et al. (por los nativos digitales),
todos dan testimonio de las caractersticas especficas de la
institucin en relacin a los grupos a los que van dirigidas.
Despus de la educacin o la mediacin, el anlisis de las
exposiciones constituye tambin una mirada clsica a partir de la
cual el campo museal es investigado. Se trata de tcnicas o de
experiencias particulares vinculadas a la creacin de exposiciones,
como los estudian Schrer, Nol-Cadet y Bonniol o De Caro y, de
manera ms prctica, Chang y Shibata, o cuestionar la creacin de
la exposicin diferencindola de la exposicin en s misma, como
propone Camart. La cuestin de la preservacin (y ms
especficamente de la conservacin), tema no menos importante, fue
tambin objeto de anlisis especficos: la figura del conservador es
abordado por Hoffman, Jones y Burns, mientas que Smeds y Angilis
ponen en cuestin por un lado el tema de la preservacin como
1
problemtica de las colecciones y su continuidad ; y por otro la
conservacin del patrimonio inmaterial, a travs de la historia oral.
2
Finalmente el tema de la cesin de colecciones es evocado por
Robbins a travs de un estudio de museos finlandeses.
1
En francs: dchets.
En francs: alination.
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Como se puede constatar, un gran nmero de temas presentados
parece inscribirse como resultado de las reflexiones iniciadas desde
hace varios aos. Es posible, en esta instancia, hablar de nuevas
tendencias que emergen de estos documentos? Es evidente que
estas ltimas emergern en la mayora de los casos de temticas ya
bien conocidas, aun cuando el gusto por la innovacin radical nos
impulsa a renovar conceptos, a veces para mejor y otras veces,
tambin, para peor. Por otro lado, la diversidad de origen de las
contribuciones escritas en alguno de los tres idiomas de trabajo del
ICOM, testimonian las diferencias importantes que existen en el
seno del mundo de la museologa, tanto en lo que concierne a su
estado de desarrollo como en relacin al patrimonio o a los pblicos,
pero tambin por lo que concierne a los fundamentos mismos de la
museologa. Sin dudas es el estudio de esta diversidad lo que
constituye la esencia del trabajo del ICOFOM: reunir, ubicar
geogrficamente y sintetizar el conjunto de propuestas ligadas al
campo museal. En este sentido, la publicacin de estos artculos no
hace ms que iniciar el estudio de las tendencias que se desprenden
de la museologa actual, trabajo continuo y forzadamente inconcluso,
pero que participa plenamente de una cierta idea de la investigacin
cientfica y del trabajo del investigador.
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Papers
Articles
Artculos
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tica y Reflexividad
Experiencias Museolgicas Comunitarias en Mxico
Norma Anglica Avila Melndez
Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia Mxico
Introduccin
El texto examina la dimensin tica de las experiencias museolgicas
que ha impulsado el Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia
(INAH) en Mxico desde el enfoque de la Nueva Museologa, estos
proyectos plantearon una expansin de la idea del museo, definido
en la Mesa de Santiago de Chile como un acto pedaggico para el
ecodesarrollo (Lacouture, 1989).
Si bien estas experiencias reivindican los postulados de la Nueva
Museologa, es pertinente aclarar que presentan profundas
diferencias conceptuales y metodolgicas entre ellas, sus
genealogas no son lineales ni comparten la misma visin sobre los
alcances polticos de su praxis. En los aos setenta y ochenta del
siglo pasado se publicaron materiales de difusin y capacitacin de
proyectos como la Casa del Museo, los Museos Escolares y los
Museos Comunitarios; en la dcada de los noventa, varios
fundadores de estos proyectos publicaron artculos acadmicos y, en
los aos recientes, se han desarrollado investigaciones desde una
3
postura crtica .
Aunque reconocemos que es una tarea pendiente documentar a
fondo la historia de la Nueva Museologa en el pas, para los fines de
este texto, nos limitaremos a sealar, en el primer apartado, cuatro
ejes posibles para el anlisis de estas experiencias con el fin de
identificar algunas problemticas inherentes a la dimensin tica de
estas prcticas musesticas. En el segundo apartado se presenta la
muy reciente propuesta del Programa Nacional de Espacios
Comunitarios, programa adscrito a la Coordinacin Nacional de
Museos y Exposiciones del INAH en 2013, que incorpor la
dimensin tica como problemtica a discutir en todo proyecto de
museologa social.
Dicho programa propone la nocin de espacio comunitario como
posibilidad para acceder a una experiencia museolgica, colectiva y
horizontal, sin la figura del museo. La apuesta es generar
experiencias museolgicas a travs de exposiciones efmeras o
cclicas en calles, parques, sitios histricos, bodegas, huertos
comunitarios y otros lugares, sin que la comunidad deba
3
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tica y Reflexividad:
Experiencias Museolgicas Comunitarias en Mxico
Sobre las tendencias museolgicas en Mxico, ver Morales, 2007 y Prez Ruiz, 2008.
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tica y Reflexividad:
Experiencias Museolgicas Comunitarias en Mxico
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tica y Reflexividad:
Experiencias Museolgicas Comunitarias en Mxico
profesionales
Existe
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tica y Reflexividad:
Experiencias Museolgicas Comunitarias en Mxico
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tica y Reflexividad:
Experiencias Museolgicas Comunitarias en Mxico
Referencias
Burn Daz, M. (2012). Los museos comunitarios en el proceso de
renovacin museolgica, Revista de Indias, 254 (LXXXII), 177212.
Bauman, Z. (2009). Comunidad. En busca de seguridad en un mundo hostil.
Madrid, Siglo XXI.
Camarena Ocampo, C., Morales, T., & Valeriano, C. (1994). Pasos para crear
un museo comunitario. Mxico: CNCA/INAH/DGCP.
Deloche, B. (2003). El museo virtual. Hacia una nueva tica de las imgenes.
Gijn: Trea.
Galindo Cceres, L. J. (2003). Cibercultura de la investigacin.
Intersubjetividad y produccin de conocimiento. Recuperado de
http://www.ugr.es/u-veracruzana/comunicaciones _archivos/a3-mxGalindo%20UV-final.pdf
Desvalles, A., & Franois M. (Dirs.). (2009). ICOFOM Study Series:
Museology. Back to the Basics, 38.
INAH [Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia]. (1989). Departamento
de servicios educativos museos escolares y comunitarios. Memoria
1983- 1988. Mxico: CNME-INAH.
INAH [Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia] (2013a). Programa
Nacional de Espacios Comunitarios. Diagnstico documental de
museos comunitarios. Junio 2013. Mxico: CNME-INAH.
INAH [Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia] (2013b). Programa
Nacional de Espacios Comunitarios. Proyecto. Julio 2013. Mxico:
CNME-INAH.
INAH [Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia] (2014). Programa
Nacional de Espacios Comunitarios. Folleto.
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tica y Reflexividad:
Experiencias Museolgicas Comunitarias en Mxico
36
Resumen
Abstract
Ethics and Reflexivity
Community Museum Experiences in Mexico
This article examines the ethical dimensions of community museum
experiences within Mexicos National Institute of Anthropology and
History since the advent of New Museology. In it, three ideas are
explored. First I try to identify some of the inherent problems and
ethical dimensions of these experiences; then, in the second section,
I present the notion of community space as an entity in which it is
possible to foster community experiences within the logic of the
museum process (as proposed by Mexican museologist Felipe
Lacouture) and its ethical dimensions, but doing it outside of the
proper museum space. Finally it is proposed that secondary
research will aim to reveal ethical issues in the visitor object
relationships, across reflexivity exercises generated by second order
research.
Key words: Community Museology in Mxico; museum process;
ethical dimension, reflexivity
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Recrations ou rcrations ?
Bgaiements de lart moderne : reconstitutions,
reprises et imitations dexpositions (2010-2013)
Ccile Camart
Universit Sorbonne Nouvelle Paris 3
Lhistoire nest pas une donne, mais une conqute, renouvele dans
le temps et dans lespace par une connaissance approfondie, sans
cesse reprise, sans cesse complte. () Au-del de lhistoire, lhistoire
7
ne saccommode jamais du narcissisme rtrospectif .
Pontus Hultn, 1979.
Pontus Hultn, dans Les Cahiers du Muse national dart moderne, cit par Nathalie
Leleu (2005), note 38.
8
Cf. George Maciunas (1973), Ward Shelley, Addendum to Alfred Barr, 2009 (huile et
encre sur film Mylar) ; ibid., Who Invented the Avant Garde, 2009, Pierogi Gallery, New
York.
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39
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Dont le muse Van Gogh dAmsterdam, le muse Munch dOslo, les muses dtat
de Berlin, lArt Institute de Chicago, la National Gallery de Washington, le MoMA, la
National Gallery de Londres ou le muse dOrsay.
12
A linitiative de lAssociation of American Painters and Sculptors, cf. Walt Kuhn
(1938). En 1913, lexposition a voyag Chicago (Art Institute, 180 000 visiteurs) et
Boston (Copley Hall, 14 000 visiteurs).
13
Le catalogue porte un titre diffrent la nuance entre Modern Art et
Modernism reste discuter (Kushner et al., 2013).
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41
14
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Jean-Max Colard (2010, pp. 74-88). Lauteur cite les expositions How Latitudes
Become Forms. Art in a Global Space (Walker Art Center, 2003), Quand les
attitudes... (Printemps de Septembre Toulouse, 2009), When Lives Become Form
- Contemporary Brazilian Art: 1960-present (Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo,
2008-2009), Alter ego - Quand les relations deviennent formes (Chartreuse de
Mlan, 2008).
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Ccile Camart
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choix des commissaires stait port sur les espaces des collections
permanentes du Muse national dart moderne, plutt que sur une
reconstruction sur mesure de pices aux dimensions exactes, dans
les espaces dvolus, au Centre Pompidou, aux expositions
temporaires. Indpendamment des contraintes conomiques et
calendaires, cette solution donnait loccasion dinverser le procd
habituellement usit : la surprise des visiteurs, au dtour de leur
parcours dans les collections contemporaines, ces salles muettes et
immacules avaient t littralement vides de leur contenu. Les
uvres de la collection une fois remises dans les rserves, elles
demeuraient cependant dans le souvenir des habitus et se
superposaient en filigrane aux interventions radicales des artistes
prsents, qui leur tour renvoyaient par adhrence symbolique (et
non physique), et distance, dautres espaces fantmes (la galerie
Iris Clert, tel muse repeint par Laurie Parsons), et qui avaient subi
eux aussi cette radication de lobjet. Tel un clin dil Szeemann,
ces Vides voyagrent la Kunsthalle de Berne, manire de
redoubler lhommage lhommage et dinsrer lvnement dans un
continuum historique dsormais irrmdiablement rattach aux
expriences suisses riges en archtypes.
Pour conclure
Dans la plupart des cas de figure ltude ici, le muse ne
reconstitue pas une uvre, mais une exposition entire compose de
plusieurs salles, qui sest elle-mme droule dans un autre muse :
peut-on alors parler de continuit du rcit historique, de narration du
muse sur lui-mme, puisque lunit de temps et despace est alors
par deux fois rompue ? O se trouve le genius loci, ce gnie du lieu
invoqu par la mnmotechnique ? Peut-on se souvenir dun
vnement historique que lon na pas vcu dans un lieu qui nest pas
celui o lon se situe physiquement ? Reesa Greenberg (2009)
identifie ces dispositifs des remembering exhibitions , que lon
pourrait traduire par expositions se souvenir - autant dhistoires
lire debout. Cest donc radiquer les reliques, autant que le
dcorum des palais vnitiens, ou faire du dcorum son uvre, en
tant quartiste et en tant que commissaire. Or la question du
dcor , jadis commente par Brian ODoherty (2008), est centrale
et forme mme lobjet du dbat esthtique initi au milieu des annes
1960. Dans un texte quil consacre deux expositions de Buren au
Muse des arts dcoratifs de Paris et au Nouveau Muse de
Villeurbanne, Poinsot souligne lvolution des partis pris
musographiques chez lartiste, qui fait repeindre les cimaises en
rouge Pompi, et contre lesquelles il dpose ses chssis, mme le
sol :
lartiste (en loccurrence le peintre) a la capacit de penser
des champs multiples avec les moyens de la prsentation
(scnographie) et non plus ceux de la reprsentation. En
dautres termes, il donne comprendre que la prsentation
nest pas moins complexe, articule et dialectique que la
reprsentation. (Poinsot, 1997, p. 20)
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Rfrences
Abramovic, M. (2010). The Artist is Present. New York: Museum of
Modern Art.
Altshuler, B. (1994). The Avant-guarde in Exhibition : New Art in the
th
20 Century. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Altshuler, B. (Ed.) (2008). Salon to Biennial : exhibitions that made art
history, vol. 1, 1863-1959. London: Phaidon.
Altshuler, B. (Ed.) (2013). Biennials and Beyond : exhibitions that
made art history, vol. 2, 1962-2002. London: Phaidon.
17
Cf. Jean Davallon (1992) : lauteur y distingue les expositions dobjets soumises
ladmiration et au jugement esthtique des visiteurs, les expositions dides dont
la finalit est de communiquer des contenus informatifs et les expositions de points
de vue (que Serge Chaumier qualifie dexpositions spectacle ), qui crent une
ambiance, une immersion dans un environnement. Voir galement Davallon, Jean
(1999)..
18
Serge Chaumier (2012, p. 43) ; voir aussi le chapitre que lauteur consacre aux
styles et aux stratgies taxinomiques , stituationnelles et narratives des
expositions (2012, pp. 81-99).
19
Une histoire art, architecture et design des annes 1980 nos jours , nouvel
accrochage des collections contemporaines, niveau 4 du Muse national dart
moderne, Paris, Centre Pompidou, du 2 juillet 2014 au 7 mars 2016 (commissaire :
Christine Macel).
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Rsum
De nouveaux paradigmes modifient considrablement les dispositifs
expographiques au sein des muses dart moderne et
contemporain, la faveur de la relecture autocritique et dynamique
que ces derniers font de leurs collections et dune histoire de lart du
vingtime sicle dont ils ont nagure fix et fig des jalons
aujourdhui largement remis en cause. Des reconstitutions et
reprises dexpositions se multiplient, explorant des voies diffrentes :
plusieurs cas de figures peuvent tre distingus. Le registre de
lautoclbration, loccasion de centenaires (du Sonderbund de
Cologne lArmory Show de New York) ou de biennales (Venise),
fait varier le bgaiement de lhistoire uvres absentes,
documentes, salles gigognes dmembres ou dplaces,
accrochages lidentique permettant de mesurer la persistance des
critres de lart. La mtaphore de la reprise est vivace, selon que le
muse reconstitue une salle (Van Abbemuseum, Centre Pompidou)
ou laisse des sosies, des copies duvres coloniser sa collection
permanente pour mieux rvler ses lacunes (Muse dart moderne
de la Ville de Paris). Une fois les critres dauthenticit, doriginalit,
dunicit balays et dplacs, le rpertoire de limitation assume est
sans doute le plus perturbant, chez les groupes dartistes anonymes
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Abstract
Recreations or Re-creations? Stammering of Modern Art:
Reconstructions, Repeat Performances, and Imitations
New paradigms have considerably changed concepts of exhibit
design in modern and contemporary art museums, favouring a selfcritical and dynamic rereading by these museums of their
collections, and of twentieth century art history in general. The
previous widely accepted views are now being challenged. Former
exhibitions are being repeated and reconstructed, and different
patterns can be observed when exploring different tracks. The range
of celebratory exhibitions on the occasion of centennials (the
Sonderbund in Cologne, the Armory Show in New York, or
Biennales in Venice) can also diverge from the stammering of
history: missing documented works, exhibition halls that have been
nested, or taken apart or displaced, identical hanging of works to
measure the persistence of the criteria of art. The metaphor of the
repeat performance, whereby the museum reconstructs a room (Van
Abbemuseum, Centre Pompidou), or leaves duplicates, copies of
works that have occupied its permanent collection to better reveal
what is lacking (Museum of Modern Art of the City of Paris). Once
the criteria of authenticity, originality, and uniqueness are put aside,
the repertory of assumed imitation is undoubtedly the most
disturbing, as seen in groups of anonymous artists working as
fictional museums.
Key words: museums of modern art, modern art, exhibit design, art
history
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The subject of narrative space was addressed at the conference by the same name
at the University of Leicester, 19th-22nd of April 2010.
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It is not surprising that forms are more often the focus of our
attention than space or movement in space. Space is
typically thought of as a void or as the absence of solid, and
movement thought of as a domain separate from its
existence in space (Bloomer & Moore, 1977, pp. 57-58).
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The case-study
Rare are the exhibition projects that, even today, take full advantage
of this growing body of literature. The tight programme schedules of
most museum institutions, the budget cuts for development and
investment, the long-term calendar of travelling exhibitions may all,
undoubtedly, play their role. However, to conclude this incursion on
the subject of embodied and bodily forms of engagement, one
exhibition, chosen among the case studies of a more extensive piece
of research, was chosen here to show one of the varied ways in
which curatorial and design teams can invite visitors to find their place
within spatial narrative. It constitutes a case solidly grounded in
embodied and multisensory visitor experience, a model of best
practice, both in the use of media-intensive environments and soundbased forms of storytelling.
Fare gli Italiani (The Making of Italians), was a year-long exhibition
th
part of the nation-wide celebrations of the 150 Anniversary of Italian
Unification in 2011. As one of the three most-visited exhibitions in
21
Italy for nine consecutive months, reaching a total of 362,000 visits ,
Fare gli Italiani was hosted in Turin, in one of the naves of the Officine
22
Grandi Riparazioni (OGR) , a 200m-long open space characterised
by cast-iron columns and rail tracks, left mostly in their original state.
As Design Director Paolo Rosa explained, the task was a challenging
one. In tight collaboration with Walter Barberis and Giovanni De Luna,
historians and curators responsible for the project, the team worked
around the core questions: How have these 150 years of national
history brought Italians together? Have they been successful in
achieving the process of Unification? (W. Barberis, personal
communication, November 21, 2011).
Space and content, Barberis explains, influenced each other from the
outset, for this piece of industrial archeology suggested special kinds
of solutions, different from those of a traditional exhibition of objects.
The exhibition was defined to have a media-rich articulation, which
called for the participation of Studio Azzurro, one of Italys most
renowned art collectives and design teams, founded by Paolo Rosa
and his partners in 1982 with a mission to explore polysensory
environments and connections between physical space and the
electronic image. Studio Azzurros early experimentation in video
environments, theatre and performance sharply impacted their recent
collaborations with the museum world. Maintaining focus on the
interaction between the individual and the virtual space of video
projections, this encounter led to the more recent development of
narrative habitats: a special form of sensitive environment that reacts
to the presence of the individual in seemingly natural ways, without
the use of hands-on interactives, thus blending technology, narrative
and space in an embodied, immersive whole (Cirifino, 2011).
The 10,000m exhibition space of Fare gli Italiani was transformed in
a journey across the morphology of Italy: against a dark backdrop,
visitors are confronted with a theatrical landscape of bright thematic
islands, connected by chronological self-lit panels, or currents.
Making use of heights and offering viewing platforms, or belvedere
(Rosa, 2011) across the exhibition space, visitor are presented with
the thematic variety of the Italian territory, an open, visible scenario
made possible by the OGR space, where one can move around
21
22
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Jersey, UK: Prentice Hall.
Toon, R. (2005) Black box science in black box science centres. In Macleod,
S. (Ed.) Reshaping Museum Space. Architecture, design,
exhibitions. (pp.26-38). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Weil, S. (2002). Making Museums Matter. Washington, USA: Smithsonian
Institution.
Witcomb, A. (2003). Re-imagining the museum: beyond the mausoleum.
Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Abstract
The present paper is an enquiry on the contribution of bodily and
sensory forms of engagement in the museum experience. While the
latter has been often researched from cognitive and social
perspectives, the more recent surge in interactive displays,
immersive environments and dynamic architectural forms has
triggered attention and need for a greater understanding of the
physical, multisensory dimension of the museum visit. This can be
explored in terms of hands-on displays and engagement with
objects, but also as a multifaceted enveloping experience, involving
the range of physical elements of the visit within a wide multisensory
complex. From this perspective, the museum is understood as a
three-dimensional narrative environment, a medium in itself, that
makes use of an interconnected set of media, but whose specificity
is given by its sensory and spatial dimension. In Part I, the role of
this body-space component is framed within communication and
learning theories and is explored through a review of publications in
multiple fields. In Part II, the topic is subject of a direct field enquiry.
One case-study of the original research is chosen for the purpose of
this paper.
Key words: Body, senses, narrative, space
Rsum
Cette prsentation rend compte dune recherche sur la contribution
corporelle et les formes sensorielles dengagement au sein de
lexprience musale. Si cette dernire a t plutt observe du
point de vue social et cognitif, les pratiques contemporaines utilisant
des prsentations interactives, des environnements immersifs, aussi
bien que des espaces architecturaux dynamiques, nous incitent
une meilleure comprhension de la dimension physique et multisensorielle de la visite musale. Celle-ci peut tre considre pas
seulement en terme, par exemple, dcrans tactiles, mais au
contraire comme une exprience ample, complexe et enveloppante,
qui implique une varit dinteractions physiques et perceptives.
Dans la premire partie, la dimension corporelle-spatiale est
confronte avec les thories de la communication et de
lapprentissage, et retrace dans des publications multidisciplinaires.
Dans la deuxime partie, le thme est explor en prenant comme
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Les entretiens auprs des visiteurs ne sont pas mobiliss dans ce texte. Pour une
analyse compare des rceptions de lexposition Paris et Qubec (Gagn &
Roustan, 2014).
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25
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Pour ce faire, litinrance est envisage pour un temps assez long, soit un minimum
de quinze mois de circulation pour les expositions de Wellington, Paris et Qubec
(muse Te Papa Tongarewa, document Concept).
27
Identity and interconnectedness (titre de section dans le catalogue et dans les textes
dexposition, version originale anglaise).
28
Empowerment and leadership.
29
Protection and sustainability; guardianship; stewardship.
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Le mme dispositif est observable pour le portail dans le hall daccueil du muse Te
Papa Tongarewa.
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rvlateurs
des
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Conclusion
Que ce soit dans le choix des objets, leur mise en scne ou les
mtadiscours institutionnels ports par les muses qui accueillent
lexposition, se rvle une volont consciente de mobiliser la notion
dart pour porter un message politique.
Au cours de litinrance internationale de lexposition E T Ake ,
les valeurs accordes au patrimoine ont t construites, ngocies et
contestes entre les muses parties prenantes. Le cahier des
charges du muse Te Papa Tongarewa imposait un mode de
traitement (rituel) des collections, qui entrait en confrontation avec les
normes professionnelles en cours dans les muses-htes. Mais si
lexposition porte le message dune affirmation culturelle et politique
dun peuple autochtone qui a choisi de parler pour lui-mme, elle
sapproprie nanmoins la notion dart sous ses diffrentes formes et
choisit de recourir linstance musale pour la valoriser. Lexposition
joue sur le croisement des regards internes et externes ( la culture
Maori) sur la notion dart, pour sassurer une validation multiple de la
valeur des taonga. Elle sinscrit ainsi dans une double perspective
patrimoniale, la fois locale et globale : son discours dfend lide
dune culture vivante, apprhender avec des concepts autochtones
(rapports au pass, au territoire, la cosmogonie), tout en se
dployant dans les sphres artistiques et musales internationales
(conservation du patrimoine, scne de lart contemporain).
Cette exprience invite lanalyse musologique elle-mme se
ds-occidentaliser afin de comprendre les transformations
culturelles du patrimoine luvre dans un monde musal devenu
cosmopolite. Elle engage plaider pour un ralisme
ethnographique et historique, qui reconnat la contestation des
notions dhistoire et de ralit, linventivit de leur traduction dans des
lieux tels que les tribunaux, les muses ou les universits (Clifford,
2013, p. 7, notre traduction). Elle contribue sinterroger sur la
circulation des collections lies aux minorits, sur les usages
politiques du patrimoine et sur le rle de linstitution musale dans la
mise en uvre dune interculturalit sud/nord.
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Rfrences
Bennett, T. (1998). Culture: a Reformers Science. London: Routledge.
Bennett, T. (2006). Exhibition, Difference, and the Logic of Culture. Dans
I. Karp, C. A. Kratz, L. Szwaja & T. Ybarra-Frausto (Eds.), Museum
Frictions. Public Cultures/ global Transformations (pp. 46-69).
Durham: Duke University Press.
Clifford, J. (1997). Routes, Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth
Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Clifford, J. (2013). Returns. Becoming indigenous in the Twenty-First century.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Crenn, G. (2003). Rhtorique de la transparence et lgitimit musale :
propos de trois expositions dethnologie. Quaderni, n52, 93-103.
Crenn, G. (2012). Lexposition de la musique populaire au Powerhouse
Museum de Sydney. Logiques de production. Questions de
communication, n22, 159-180.
Davallon, J. (2011). Le pouvoir smiotique de l'espace. Vers une nouvelle
conception de l'exposition ? Herms, vol. 3, n61, 38-44.
Debary, O., & Roustan, M. (2012). (prface de J. Clifford). Voyage au muse
du quai Branly. Une anthropologie de la visite du Plateau des
collections. Paris: La Documentation franaise (Muses-Mondes).
Gagn, N., & Roustan, M. (2014). Accompagner les taonga travers le
monde : une exposition mori Paris et Qubec (note de
recherche). Anthropologie et Socits, vol. 38, n3, 79-93.
Kreps, C. (2003). Liberating Culture: Cross-Cultural Perspective on
Museums, Curation, and Heritage Preservation. London: Routledge.
Kreps, C. (2011). Non-Western Models of Museums and Curation in CrossCultural Perspective. In Macdonald, S., (Ed.). A Companion to
Museum Studies (pp. 457-472). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
McCarthy, C. (2011). Museums and Mori. Heritage Professionals,
Indigenous Collections, Current Practice. Wellington: Te Papa
Press.
Onciul, B. (2012). Rethinking Heritage Community Engagement: Current
limitations to power sharing and thoughts for the future. The
Re/theorisation of Heritage Studies Conference, Gteborg, Sude,
5-8 juin 2012.
Peers, L., & Brown, A. (Ed.). (2003). Museums and Source Communities.
London: Routledge.
Roustan, M. (2014a). De ltude des publics la recherche sur les muses.
Rcit dexpriences. Dans L. Daignault & B. Schiele (Dir.) Les
muses et leurs publics. Savoirs et enjeux. Qubec : Les Presses
universitaires de Qubec.
Roustan, M. (2014b). De ladieu aux choses au retour des anctres. La
remise par la France des ttes mori la Nouvelle-Zlande.
Socio-anthropologie, n30, pp. 183-198.
Smith, H. (2011a). E T Ake. Mori Standing Strong. Wellington: Te Papa
Press.
Smith, H. (2011b). Mori Leurs trsors ont une me. Paris : Somogy
Muse du quai Branly.
Witcomb, A. (2003). Re-imagining the Museum. Beyond the Mausoleum.
London : Routledge.
Rsum
Lexposition E T Ake (Standing Strong) consacre aux trsors
culturels et aux revendications daffirmation politique des Maori a t
prsente au muse Te Papa Tongarewa (Wellington, NouvelleZlande, 2011), au Muse du Quai Branly (Paris, 2011-2012) et au
Muse de la Civilisation du Qubec (Qubec, 2012-2013). Au cours
de litinrance internationale de lexposition, dans des contextes
culturels divers, les valeurs accordes au patrimoine ont t
construites, ngocies et contestes entre les muses parties
prenantes. Suivant le principe nonc par James Clifford pour le
muse, cest lexposition temporaire itinrante qui devient ici zone
de contact (Clifford, 1997). A partir de lanalyse des mises en
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Abstract
The E T Ake (Standing Strong) exhibition in Wellington,
Paris and Qubec. Cultural assertion and heritage policy
The "E T Ake (Standing Strong)" exhibition is dedicated to the
cultural treasures and the claims of political assertion of the Mori. It
was presented at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
(Wellington, New Zealand, 2011), the Muse du Quai Branly (Paris,
2011-2012) and the Muse de la Civilisation in Quebec (Quebec,
2012-2013). During the international tour in various cultural contexts,
the values of heritage were built, negotiated and contested between
the different museum stakeholders. Following the principle stated by
James Clifford for the museum, it is the traveling exhibition which
here becomes a "contact zone" (Clifford, 1997). Through analysis of
the exhibition and interviews with museum professionals, this article
shows how the exhibition plays on how internal and external viewing
of art (from a Mori point of view) cross over to confirm many times
over the value of the taonga (treasure/cultural heritage) and enter it
in a heritage perspective that is both local and global. It defends the
idea of a living culture, understanding it with indigenous concepts,
while deploying this culture in international art and museum spheres.
This experience calls upon the museum to analyze itself and "deWesternize" in order to understand the transformations of cultural
heritage at work in todays cosmopolitan museum world.
Key words: ethnographic museums, cultural heritage, New Zealand
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dans le cas des sites web et une douzaine dans celui des
publications-papier. Ils livreront lorigine des best practices et leur
volution, leurs caractristiques principales, des faons de les
slectionner, un ensemble de sous-catgories de pratiques, ainsi que
les avantages et les problmes que pose leur utilisation. Le texte qui
suit aborde chacun de ces sujets et se termine par une rflexion sur
lintrt pour les Comits internationaux de lICOM dorientation
professionnelle marque de recueillir et de diffuser des best
practices.
Remarques
1. Comme laccoutume, toutes les publications utilises sont
listes la fin de cet article sous la rubrique rfrences .
Toutefois, elles ne sont pas nommment cites dans le corps de
larticle parce quelles sont la plupart du temps fort nombreuses
venir en appui un aspect trait. De plus, elles se rptent
constamment, de sorte quelles risquaient de couper le fil de la
lecture sans apporter en contrepartie une information substantielle.
2. Lquivalent espagnol de best practices est buenas
practicas , alors que lquivalent franais est pratiques
exemplaires . Cest cette dernire expression qui sera dornavant
employe.
Origine et volution des pratiques exemplaires
Les pratiques exemplaires semblent originaires du domaine de la
gestion et atteindre un haut niveau de reconnaissance dans les
annes 1990. Cest lpoque o un grand nombre de domaines
comme le droit, lingnierie, la psychologie, le service social, le
nursing, la mdecine ou lenvironnement les peroivent comme
importantes et en diffusent un grand nombre. Mais dans plusieurs
secteurs, on devient sceptique quand on dcouvre quune pratique,
mme de trs haute qualit, peut poser des problmes de transfert
du site o elle a t produite un autre. Il sensuit une priode de
relatif dsenchantement qui persiste encore, mais qui voit tout de
mme de nouveaux domaines, comme la gouvernance locale,
lintervention sociale ou lagriculture, rejoindre les rangs des
diffuseurs de pratiques exemplaires. Par ailleurs, lun des modes de
slection de ces pratiques, le benchmarking, connat actuellement
une vogue exceptionnelle comme outil de gestion des entreprises et
mme des institutions.
Caractristiques communes
Une pratique exemplaire est soit une faon de procder, soit une
production. Une faon de procder peut prendre la forme dune
technique, dune procdure, dune mthode ou mme dune stratgie.
En musologie, ce pourrait tre : une technique de restauration, une
manire de prparer un scnario dexposition, une stratgie de
dveloppement de collection ou de public. Par ailleurs, on peut
considrer comme une production un produit tangible ou une action,
en dautres termes une intervention susceptible de prendre plusieurs
formes, comme le feraient en musologie une visite guide, un
programme culturel, une exposition ou un catalogue.
Pour obtenir lappellation exemplaire, une pratique faon de
procder ou production doit possder les quatre caractristiques
suivantes :
1) tre efficace : ses effets doivent tre vidents, stables et
persistants. Ils ne peuvent bien entendu ltre que si la
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33
Lavis des praticiens est utilis surtout dans les domaines de la mdecine et du
nursing.
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c.
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Synthse
Les pratiques exemplaires, une constellation protiforme
lissue de la prsentation que lon vient de lire, les pratiques
exemplaires apparaissent comme un genre dtermin par quatre
caractristiques, quatre qualits centrales : lefficacit, la
transfrabilit, la nouveaut et la capacit dvoluer. Ce genre
constitue en ralit une constellation tout fait protiforme de
pratiques
que
lon
peut
classer
dans
de
multiples
catgories dtermines
par
le
jeu
des
facteurs
de
diffrenciation suivants :
- La nature mme des activits professionnelles considres :
faon de faire versus production ;
- Leur type : meilleure pratique, pratique la plus approprie,
pratique la plus gnralement accepte ;
- Les juges - experts ou pairs - le mode dvaluation quils
privilgient et limportance relative quils accordent chacune
des caractristiques centrales (utilit, nouveaut, transfrabilit,
flexibilit) et aux caractristiques priphriques (rigueur, actualit
scientifique, respect de valeurs ou de chartes, etc.).
En somme, on se trouve devant une nbuleuse de pratiques qui
diffrent de multiples faons, y compris dans leur niveau
dexcellence. Il nest donc probablement pas exagr de dire quil y a
pratique exemplaire et pratique exemplaire, et de sinterroger sur la
signification du terme exemplaire dans un tel contexte.
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Voir par exemple : Bruno, 2008, 2010 ; Bruno & Didier, 2013.
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b.
c.
d.
e.
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Rsum
Une tude des publications anglaises, franaises et espagnoles sur les best
practices a montr quelles ne constituent pas un genre, mais une multitude
de types de pratiques dont les caractristiques et la valeur varient
grandement. En consquence, le dveloppement et la diffusion de best
practices sont peu susceptibles daider les Comits internationaux de lICOM
amliorer profondment leurs productions. Un ensemble dautres moyens
semble plus appropri.
Mots cl : Best practices, excellence professionnelle
Abstract
Best Practices : The Treasure of Troy or the Treasure of Black Beard?
A review of the English, French and Spanish literature on best practices has
shown that these are not one but many types of practices, varying greatly in
their characteristics and values. So it does not seem that developing and
disseminating best practices would really help the ICOM International
Committees with strong professional objectives to seriously improve their
production. A set of other means seem more relevant.
Key words: Best Practices, professional excellence
Resumen
Los Best Practices : tesoro de Troya o tesoro del pirata Barbarroja?
Estudiando las publicaciones en espaol, francs y ingles sobre las buenas
practicas, aquellas aparecieron no como un tipo, sino como numerosos tipos
de practicas con varias caractersticas y niveles de excelencia. Entonces a
los Comits internacionales del ICOM que poseen una fuerte orientacin
profesional, el desarrollo y la difusin de buenas practicas no ayudara elevar
el nivel de su produccin. Otros medios parecen mas adecuados.
Palabras clave: buenas practicas, excelencia profesional
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In affect analysis, there is no gap between the world and lived human
experience, hence no gap between the museum visitor and the
exhibition.
Having given the briefest of surveys on space and viewing, I look now
at the ICOM definition of a museum in light of the problematization of
the human body in the museum space. This revised version of Article
Three of the ICOM Statutes was adopted in Vienna in 2007 at the
ICOM Triennial.
A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the
service of society and its development, open to the public,
which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and
exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and
its environment for the purposes of education, study and
enjoyment.
(International Council of Museum, ICOM Statutes, (2007)
Retrieved from http://archives.icom.museum/definition.html/
2014/04/03)
Walking
I now turn to the issue of walking in museums as one aspect of
embodiment that can be used to rethink the definition of a museum.
The origin of this paper was in 2013 in the royal palace in Petrpolis
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The linking of body, mind and vision is crucial for museum analysis,
which has proceeded usually with an assumption of the disembodied
eye carrying the gaze of the disinterested viewer (Leahy, 2012, p.
4). If we re-conceptualise the visitor as a full corporeal creature, in
which mind, body and vision work together, then, to date, almost all
assumptions about visitors in exhibition spaces appear far from reality
and suggest the misrecognition of the identities of both visitors and
institutions. Merleau-Ponty (1968) and later writers on affect have
philosophized an unshakeable connection between bodies and the
world, in fact interconnectedness. The inner world of the visitor can
be seen to merge with the outer world, the energising quality of
walking giving rise to what Leahy (2012, p. 79) describes as an
intense feeling of self-presence. Forgione alerts us to the long
history of thinking about walkings ability to produce us as beings
integrated with, rather than separate from, our environment.
Walkings ability to integrate inner and outer worlds is a
consistent theme in the literature on the subject, which holds
the process to operate in this way: the physical motions of
ambulation activate the walkers inner, thinking self and
thereby bring that self into contact with the external world,
an encounter that gives rise to a reciprocal exchange or
oscillating flow between inward and outward attention. That
account of how walking actually works in experience
emerged with increasing clarity during the nineteenth
century. (Forgione, 2005, p. 669)
There are signs that, even in the context of opening up to visitors, the
most progressive of curators still move to restrict or incorporate the
reality of visitors bodies in exhibition halls. Falk and Dierking take it
as a standard fact that there is high predictability in museum
behaviour because they are
behavior settings which elicit common suites of behaviors.
Many of the people entering the museum have learned what
to expect and how they and others should behave to insure
that correct and appropriate behaviors for a place such
as this are followed. (Falk & Dierking, 2012, p. 144)
The restrictions are not so much corporeal as they were, say, thirty
years ago; today the restriction is often more fundamental, denying
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Conclusion
In recognising the embodied presence of visitors in museum spaces,
we are left with questions, but very few answers. This paper has
argued that the ICOM definition of a museum is now outmoded
because it does not incorporate an understanding of the textually
embodied presence of visitors. This paper has also suggested that
even the most progressive of museums, such as Tate Modern, are
likely to have difficulties in managing or responding to chaotic
generations of meaning.
Should museums attempt routinely to capture the plethora of
meanings that become available via visitors? This is a difficult
question to answer and has been floating around ever since
commentators in the field began to realise that the producer (or artist
or curator) and the product (or exhibition or art work) were only two
parts of a triangle of meaning. Would we all be interested in hearing
about the meanings of others? Do we prefer to encounter the product
or artwork in solitude? Various critics have collected multiple
meanings, very often in order to mount arguments concerning
widespread resistance to control of meaning. The meanings that were
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References
Ahmed, S. (2004). The Cultural Politics of Emotion. New York: Routledge.
Arnold-de Simine, S.
(2012). Memory museum and museum text:
Intermediality in Daniel Libeskinds Jewish Museum and
W.G.Sebalds Austerlitz. Theory Culture and Society, 29(14), 14-35.
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Maria
Purissima.
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December
4)
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from
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Bachelard, G. (1964). The Poetics of Space. Boston: Beacon Press.
Belova, O. (2012). The event of seeing: A phenomenological perspective on
visual sense-making. In Dudley, S. (Ed.). Museum Objects:
Experiencing the properties of things (pp.) Hoboken, Taylor and
Francis, 117-133.
Bourdieu, P., & Johnson, R. (Ed.). (1993). The Field of Cultural Production.,
Cambridge: Polity Press.
Carr, D. (2001). A museum is an open work. International Journal of Heritage
Studies, 7(2) 173-183.
de Certeau, M. (1984). The Practice of Everyday Life. Berkeley, Los Angeles,
London: University of California Press.
Classen, C. (2005). Touch in the museum. In Classen, C. (Ed.). The Book of
Touch. Oxford and New York: Berg.
Coverley, M. (2006). Psychogeography. Happendale, Herts: Pocket
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Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1987). A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and
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Descartes, R. trans. Anscombe, E. and Geach, P.T. (1637-1701 / 1954).
Philosophical Writings. Edinburgh: Nelson.
Descartes, R. trans. Cottingham, J., Stoothoff, R. and Murdoch D. (16371701 / 1985), Philosophical Writings. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Falk, J., & Dierking, L. (2012). Museum Experience Revisited. Walnut Creek:
Left Coast Press.
Fiske, J. (1982). Introduction to Communication Studies. London and New
York: Methuen.
Forgione, N. (2005). Everyday life in motion: The art of walking in latenineteenth-century Paris. The Art Bulletin, 87(4), 664-687.
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Abstract
Challenges to museum curatorial control of meaning, combined with
interest in the reading positions of visitors, have led to the growth of
interactive interpretation strategies. Such strategies, however, often
privilege curatorial pre-determined responses and presuppose that
visitors are disembodied, that actual bodies moving through
exhibition spaces are not, in fact, the palpable reality of a museum
experience. Visitors have a kind of textual invisibility. Consideration
of visitor performativity and embodiment in museums poses an
exhilarating museological challenge. Museums need to come to
terms with the bodily aspects of a museum visit, understanding that
visitors enact their narrations of the museum as they walk through it.
This paper argues that, by textually denying the corporeal presence
of visitors, museums continually misrecognise their own institutional
identity as they theorize themselves as separate from the visitor.
Examination of the walking visitor shows that a museum is not
separate from the visitor, but comes into being through her or his
walking presence. What impact does this have on the definition of a
museum?
Rsum
Incarnation des visiteurs au muse. Qu'est-ce qu'un muse ?
Les dfis au contrle du sens par le conservateur, combins avec
l'intrt port aux positions de lecture des visiteurs ont conduit au
dveloppement
de
stratgies
d'interprtation
interactives.
Nanmoins, de telles stratgies privilgient souvent des rponses
prdtermines par le conservateur et prsupposent que les
visiteurs sont dsincarns, que les corps qui se dplacent dans
l'espace de l'exposition ne constituent pas en fait la ralit de
l'exprience du muse. Les visiteurs ont de fait une invisibilit
textuelle. La prise en considration de la performativit et de
l'incarnation du visiteur dans un muse reprsente un dfi pour la
musologie. Les muses doivent admettre la physicalit d'une visite
au muse, acceptant le fait que les visiteurs mettent en scne leurs
rcits alors qu'ils se dplacent. Cet article soutient qu'en niant la
prsence corporelle des visiteurs, les muses s'illusionnent
continuellement sur leur propre identit, se percevant comme une
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Jennifer Harris
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Introduction
The museum curatorial profession in the United States is in peril. At
best it has stagnated in the face of radical economic, social and
technological changes. At worst it is increasingly considered irrelevant
(Adair, Filene, & Koloski, 2011) vis--vis post-structuralist attitudes
towards the devaluation of expertise
(Bauman, 1987),
democratization of the institution (Cameron, 2010; Simon, 2010) an
over-emphasis on education programs to take advantage of funding
opportunities instead of the educational nature of the entire institution,
and the US penchant for reliance on populism and statistics. These
combined forces have caused the very nature of and need for the
curatorial role to be questioned by many working in museums in the
United States who would rather see curatorial functions shared by
museum personnel, who wish the public to have an equal voice in
exhibition and collection development, and who thereby deny the
need for formal training. The cult of the amateur (Keen, 2007) reigns,
conflating information with knowledge, opinion with fact, algorithm
with theory, aggregation with curating, and democracy with
accessibility, while museums are forced to rely on commercialization
and attendance as arbiters of value.
Underscoring and compounding these problems is the fact that even
the American Alliance of Museums (AAM), the national representative
body of museums, has failed to define or recognize the curatorial role
as a contributing factor to museum success. Instead, curatorial issues
are parceled out to other museum functions as is evidenced within
the context of the AAMs standards and best practices for
37
accreditation and the presentation categories allowed at the AAM
38
annual meeting . This has effectively diluted the curatorial voice in
37
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CurCom Survey
First, it should be reiterated that the presentation of the survey in this
context is by no means an attempt to give full empirical treatment to
the lengthy and data-rich results of the CurCom survey. Presenting it
in juxtaposition with the creation of the Core Competencies requires
the authors to adhere to a more summarized, purposeful and
therefore subjective approach to the data. Therefore, those results
that have informed the creation of the Curators Core Competencies
are presented to enrich the discussion which follows this section.
The survey was initiated by the Board of CurCom, and created by the
members of its Ethics subcommittee, with input by staff members of
the AAM. The initial questions were scripted to query members of
CurCom about their professional needs, but these were later
augmented and refined to better ascertain the demographics and
education of the membership of CurCom. The final survey included
twenty-five questions and was first submitted to 1376 members of
CurCom on January 10, 2014. Though the survey was initially
targeted at members and practicing curators, because the survey was
40
circulated online this target population could not remain strictly
enforced. The survey closed on February 28, 2014 with 246
responses189 from CurComs membershiprepresenting an
estimated 13% response rate from CurCom members. The initial
questions of the survey reveal a more nuanced understanding of
these demographics.
The survey was broken into three parts. The first section assembled
demographic data about the respondents and corresponded to
information collected by other AAM surveys. The second section
gathered information on the educational background and
competencies of respondents to provide insight into the formative
experience of curators. The third section reveals specific areas of
interests and needs in the continuing education of curators, ultimately
helping both CurCom and AAM design programs to respond.
Specifically, the Curator Core Competencies were informed by the
latter parts ofthis survey.
Demographics (Questions 1-8)
An overview of the data results of the first section reveals that of the
vast majority of individuals who completed the survey, 89%, are
currently members of the AAM; 68% are members of CurCom, and
most, 52%, have been members for one to six years. The 31% who
preferred not to answer the question on length of CurCom
membership correspond precisely to the 31% who indicated that they
are not members of CurCom. The vast majority, 45%, of respondents
41
work in history museums or similar institutions. Art Museums, at
15%, were the second most represented. According to the AAM staff,
this is consistent with responses from across the special interest
42
group surveys. Most respondents, 69% , define their primary role as
40
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curator. Nearly three-quarters, 73% have been in their current jobs for
less than 10 years, yet in the field for more than 10 years (64%).
Most respondents, 38%, come from medium to large institutions
43
(budgets ranging from US $250,000 to US $4M . The pool of other
respondents come equally, 17% each, from big museums (budgets
larger than $4M) and those from small museums (budgets smaller
than $250,000 annually). Again, these figures correspond to AAMs
general membership demographics. Presented here, they help to
contextualize the findings below.
44
Education (Questions 9- 14 )
A small percentage, 16% of respondents, hold Ph.D.s; 13% of
45
respondents had Ph.D.s related to their institutions collections .
46
Most respondents, 68% , have attained a Masters degree, yet 28%
of these degrees are unrelated to the institutional collections.
Respondents were asked to indicate if they had earned degrees in
Museum Studies and at what level. Only four respondents claimed a
Ph.D. in Museum Studies or Museology, and 119, or 43% of all
respondents, indicated they had earned a Masters degree. From this
survey, there is no way of knowing which Museum Studies degrees
were indicated in the previous question as being related or
unrelated to institutional collections, though, strictly speaking, a
Museum Studies degree does not convey a collection specific
expertise.
Of the respondents having Masters degrees in Museums Studies,
61% were required to write a thesis. Of the 165 respondents having
formal Museums Studies backgrounds, 81% were required to have an
internship before graduating, 95% had direct collection experience,
90% attained experience in exhibition planning, and 57% gained
experience using collections software. By extrapolation, around half
of the total survey respondents possibly had no internship (52%),
collections experience (43%), exhibition planning experience (47%),
47
or collections software training (67%) as part of their formational
studies. The commentary fields are interesting for this question; one
respondent observed, My degrees are not in Museum Studies. I'm
too old, implying that she was older than Museum Studies as a
degree field. As the landscape for US curators shifts, understanding
the evolving dynamic between museology and curating will be
important. The number of respondents to this survey make these
findings on education statistically insignificant; however they do
provide direction for future inquiries and a starting point for
comparison to future data.
Experience and Competencies (Questions 16-25)
Question 16 asked about experience in common curatorial areas,
revealing that most respondents have significant and frequent
experience in collections research and planning, exhibitions
development, project management and interpretation of objects.
Closer inspection of the relative high frequency (frequently or
daily), versus general rarity (rarely or never), can be
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Figure 1
Common articles and prepositions were removed from this list in addition: curator
(102), one (14), including (8), well (7), may (5), and/or (10), many (7), also
(14), his/her (3), often( 3), -related (12), based (4), and etc. (8). Modifications to
word variations were made to unify the appearance of words appearing in plural,
singular, gerund and other forms, specifically replacing the following: Collections (86)
and collections (3) with collection; managing, oversee and manage with
management (53); cares with care (42); someone with person (34); museums
and museums with museum (52); interprets (16) and interpret (9) with
interpretation; responsibility with responsible (4); create with creates(5);
exhibit with exhibition (8); exhibits with exhibition (29); exhibitions with exhibition
(59); interpreter with interpretation (31).
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Preservation
Preservation of a collection goes beyond the physical well-being of
the objects under a curators care. Preservation encompasses the
assurance of a well-balanced collection and development of a
strategic collecting plan that acknowledges an institutions ethical
obligation to preserve the material culture of a society for posterity as
well as the knowledge, information, and data regarding those objects.
If the power of an object is its story or meaning, the research and
communication domains are equally as important to preservation. The
following three core competencies are specific to this domain:
Collection Planning
Curators have the responsibility to plan for and establish a collection
that is meaningful as a source of information for scholars and laymen,
whether it is via public exhibition or academic study, and which
supports the mission of the museum. This requires the ability to
objectively survey a museum collection and use expertise to identify
its gaps, duplications or excess. The expansion or reduction of the
size, significance and complexity of a collection is a corollary of
scholarly research (v. infra).
Planning also requires the ability to develop and implement a
statement on scope of collections, which is essential for long-term
viability of the collection, inhibits the duplication of objects, and helps
keep the collection focused. Strategic or long-term planning is an
institutional prerogative and the collection plan must adhere to
institutional policy, mission statement, and current established best
practices.
Collecting
The ability to plan a balanced collection is the prerequisite
competency for expanding the collection. Collecting proactively
requires seeking objects that fill the gaps in the collection and building
networks of potential donors and vendors to aid this process. It
requires curators to develop public relations skills, signaling a notable
departure from traditional academic preparation, and includes making
connections with persons or organizations that can contribute items to
the collections or arrange for gifts, donations, or bequests. Fieldwork
or the actual physical collection of artifacts or specimens, traditional
methods for many curators (particularly in anthropological or natural
history museums), remain a valuable methodology. Locating and
authenticating objects, negotiating the purchase of objects, and
corresponding with other curators are all paramount applied skills for
curators. Additionally, familiarity with the Curators Code of Ethics and
museum accession and deaccession procedures reinforces the
curators commitment to integrity and high standards.
Collections Care
Although it is the collections managers and registrars who typically
oversee the day-to-day maintenance of collections, curators are
ultimately responsible for its care and preservation. Nevertheless,
curators must know the fundamental requirements of object
preservation and best practices of documentation and collections
record management. Curators must have a working knowledge of
handling, storing, and caring for objects in order to ensure compliance
with current best practices. Furthermore, curators must have the
ability to recognize objects in need of professional conservation and
to coordinate those efforts. Lending and borrowing objects with other
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Research
Scholarly research is at the very core of what a curator is, yet it is only
one of three types of research curators must master. Object and
applied research are also core competencies within the domain of
research.
Scholarly Research
Scholarly research is the study and investigation that contributes to
the sum of knowledge. In museums, this type of research is
traditionally performed by the curatorial staff and aligns with the
museum mission (ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums, 7). It requires
empirical and original research and writing, using accepted scholarly
methodology aligning with the curators academic discipline. It
requires writing for peer-reviewed journals or other scholarly
publications.
For museum professionals other than curators, the scholarly research
core competency may be the most undervalued aspect of the
curatorial role, yet it is one of the most important. The scholarly
prestige and credibility of the museum is dependent upon the
reputation of the curatorial staff as subject matter experts (M.
Anderson, 2004). A strong command of the use and citation of
primary and secondary sources coupled with a professional, scholarly
writing style is necessary when publishing original research. Equally
as important are the abilities to recognize subjective and objective
viewpoints. Synthesizing information and data into an orderly
narrative or thesis that is supported by empirical evidence gathered
through the use of learned research methods is a necessary skill for
curators. Curators must use their broad, substantive knowledge in
their particular academic disciplines and specialized knowledge in
their fields when called upon as the subject matter expert of the
institution they serve.
Object Research
ICOMs Code of Ethics for Museums charges museums to establish
the full history of [objects] since discovery or production (ICOM Code
of Ethics for Museums, 3). Curators are the natural persons
responsible for this activity. Categorizing, classifying, documenting,
establishing or expanding taxonomic systems for collected
specimens, artifacts, or works of art are curatorial core competencies
that apply to object research. This type of research is essential for
gaining intellectual understanding of a museum collection. Curators
are not normally expected to know everything about each object in
the collection; rather this competency involves connoisseurship and
the ability to conduct research to determine the authenticity,
importance, and quality of an object, artwork, specimen, or relic.
Emphasis on connoisseurship and subject-matter expertise within the
context of museum collections in in decline. Museum function and
vocational skill have begun to overshadow this basic tenant of
curatorial work. This ability must be re-prioritized in recognition of the
demand for more information. Researching and documenting objects
is at the root of providing information on the collection and fulfilling the
museums educational mandate.
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Applied Research
Curators investigate, interpret, collect, and arrange information and
objects necessary to support the educational and public service
responsibilities of museums through exhibitions or targeted
educational programs. Rather than directly adding to a body of
knowledge, this competency involves synthesizing and interpreting
facts and scholarly research (of their own or other scholars) for public
inquiry and disseminating information and ideas to many minds, most
often through exhibitions. Furthermore, the information gathered by
curators through this form of research and distributed through
exhibitions must be well-founded, accurate, and gives appropriate
consideration to represented groups or beliefs (ICOM Code of Ethics
for Museums, 8). Acting as an information broker, curators must be
able to compile data from a multitude of sources, distinguish between
good information and bad, and develop a narrative - be it through
explanatory material or exhibit label text - relevant to the public the
museum serves. Applied research requires the curator to write
interpretively. Due to the collaborative nature of this competency,
curators must be able to work with others inside and outside the
museum to compile information.
Communication
Curators communicate with peers, museum administrators,
colleagues, other scholars, and the public through exhibits, outreach
and advocacy, and educational programs. This domain involves the
ability to communicate effectively with a variety of people from
different backgrounds. No longer relegated to offices, libraries and
archives, curators navigate public venues, the digital landscape, and
other institutions to gather and disseminate data that aids in the
curatorial process.
Interpersonal skills are vital, particularly verbal communication and
personal observation. Already a part of the planning core
competency, written professional and scholarly communication is also
an applied skill of curators within the communication core
competency. Increasingly, curators must develop a digital literacy that
exceeds the basic use of ICTs for professional communication. They
must also begin adopting a more profound understanding of ICTs and
keep up with their evolution. Curators do not need to write code, but
they need to understand how to use ICTs for different types of
communication, visual or textual, and not rely on non-curatorial
personnel to make decisions about curatorial content, especially in
online spaces.
Exhibitions
According to ICOM, museums have an important duty to develop
their educational role and attract wider audiences from the
community, locality, or group they serve (ICOM Code of Ethics for
Museums, 8). Accordingly, as the most visible of the curatorial
functions, exhibition development has become increasingly complex
and collaborative. While some institutions have exhibition designers
on staff or contract with design/fabrication companies, the judgments
regarding what stories to tell, what artifacts to use to illustrate those
narratives, the most effective method of delivering the message, or
the use of space falls on curators, particularly in smaller institutions.
More and more, curators are being asked to serve - sometimes lead
or manage - on exhibition planning groups. As a member of an
exhibition team where collaboration with museum staff from other
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Conclusion
Curating is an art form. It is a creative process that is the sum of
rigorous scholarly preparation, continuously deepened expertise, and
carefully applied skill. For this reason, and like art itself, curating and
the curator have proven historically difficult to define. It is also for this
reason that those who do not grasp the fullness of the job beyond its
function, have also failed to understand its critical importance to the
legacy of museums and indeed our cultural heritage. Within this
paper, we have merely been able to glance at that nature through
statistical mining and extrapolation in the CurCom survey. And we
have paid homage its past and future through the Core Competencies
initiative. Preservation, Research and Communication are the core of
museum field and indeed the curatorial profession, highlighting the
complexity of curatorship, not just practical function, but also applied
theory, philosophy, and experience.
Yet, we recognize that the profession, technology, and the
expectations of museum-goers evolve, and the curatorial role will
subsequently broaden or contract. The goal is to advance the
practice, evolving the scholarly formation and continued education of
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Abstract
Alternately reviled and revered, curators retain an iconic role at the
heart of museum activities. But what have they to do with
museology? Curators are the intellectual, authoritative center of a
traditional model whose very foundations have been destabilized by
economic, technological and social change. The role of the curator is
challenged by the reductive, linear thinking that has accompanied
the rise in computer technology (Doueihi, 2011; Marty, 2008), the
dependence on attendance and popularity that now determines
user-centric operations (Janes, 2009; Mairesse, 2005; Tobelem,
2010), and a general post-structuralist, anti-intellectual attitude
(Bauman, 1987; Cameron, 2010; Mason, 2006). Are curators then
the last bastion of old-guard Enlightenment intellectuals, or a stopgap for the dissolution of culture in the face of radical egalitarianism
in the Digital Age? To elucidate realities of the evolving role of
curators and their relationship with museology, this paper will
summarize and juxtapose two major projects of CurCom, the US
National Curators Committee. In tandem, these projects a survey
of the education, experience and training needs of CurCom
members, and the elaboration of Curators Core Competencies
illustrate the expanding and significant challenges, functions, and
duties faced by US curators and the applied skills that they must all
possess to be successful. Though museologists are not curators,
many of the crucial questions that arise within the field are strongly
related to curatorial activity. If museology is to be more than just
irrelevant theory and more adequately address the theoretical and
practical elements that have destabilized the traditional models (Gob
& Drouguet, 2010), we must evolve how it contributes to its
adherents and practitioners. When crucial museum issues rest at the
heart of curatorial activity, and there is little intersection of curators
with museology, what is the hope for evolving the museum? The
summary of these national projects in this international forum is
intended to invite comparison and provoke conversation.
Rsum
Tantt rcuss, tantt vnrs, les conservateurs jouent encore et
toujours un rle emblmatique au cur des activits musales. Mais
quel est leur rapport avec la musologie ? Les conservateurs
reprsentent le centre intellectuel, autoritaire, dun modle
traditionnel dont les fondements mmes ont subi les
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Introduction
Depuis 2009, le muse du Louvre met en uvre une programmation
artistique et culturelle destine aux personnes dtenues en
collaboration avec des centres pnitentiaires en le-de-France. Si, en
tant que monument, le muse du Louvre affirme par son existence le
projet politique dassigner un lieu la Culture, par ce type de
programmation, il dplace la mise en exposition des uvres et des
savoirs hors de son lieu et raffirme le fait que le patrimoine culturel
est un bien qui mrite dtre commun (Jeanneret, 2011). Il associe
ces projets un dispositif dtude et de recherche-action (Muse du
Louvre-Service tudes et recherche 2010, 2013 ; Rostaing & Touraut,
2012) pour comprendre quels sont les bnfices, mais aussi les
difficults et les ambivalences, produits par ce type de projet en
milieu carcral. De cette faon, il participe la fois lintervention
culturelle en prison et questionner la complexit de cette
intervention culturelle (Soulier, 1985), dj souleve par dautres
tudes (Salle, 2011 ; Benguigui, 2011 ; Chauvenet, Rostaing & Orlic,
2008 ; Chauvenet, 2006 ; Andrieu, 2011 ; Frize, 2004).
Le muse du Louvre nest, ainsi, pas le seul stre engag sur le
terrain de laction culturelle en prison. Comme le rappellent Rostaing
et Touraut (2012), trois protocoles ont t signs depuis 1986 entre le
ministre de la Justice et celui de la Culture afin daffirmer leur
dtermination garantir aux dtenus un accs la culture, et une
centaine de partenariats entre des institutions culturelles et des
tablissements pnitentiaires ont t tablis. Toutefois, la particularit
de lintervention culturelle ralise par le muse du Louvre travers
deux projets mis en place la maison centrale de Poissy tient la
valorisation par les acteurs du projet, contrairement ce que Siganos
(2008) indique avoir observ de manire gnrale dans le milieu
carcral, du moins jusquen 2007.
Il est clair que le statut prestigieux du muse du Louvre joue un rle
dans la valorisation des projets quil propose par les personnes
dtenues, mais aussi par lAdministration pnitentiaire (AP), et
notamment par les conseillers pnitentiaires dinsertion et de
probation (CPIP) qui ne manquent pas de souligner le caractre
exceptionnel du partenariat avec le Louvre . La proximit instaure
avec linstitution culturelle via son prsident directeur, alors Henri
Loyrette, et lexpertise reconnue aux artistes intervenants, clairement
identifis en tant quartistes et non en tant quanimateurs, influencent
aussi la perception qui est celle de laction culturelle initie par le
Louvre en partenariat avec lAdministration pnitentiaire.
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138
50
Cet espace est dfini par Winnicott comme un lieu de repos, pour lindividu engag
dans cette tche humaine interminable qui consiste maintenir la fois spares et
relies lune et lautre, ralit intrieure et ralit extrieure , cit par Jean-Pierre
Lehmann (2009).
51
Units de vie familiale. Les UVF sont des appartements de 2 ou 3 pices dans
lesquels la personne dtenue (prvenue ou condamne) peut recevoir sa famille et ses
proches.
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La Rgie Industrielle des Etablissement Pnitentiaire (RIEP) est gre par le SEP,
Service de l'Emploi Pnitentiaire, un service comptence nationale du ministre de la
Justice en charge, dans le cadre de sa mission de rinsertion, de dvelopper des
activits de travail et de formation au sein des tablissements pnitentiaires. Le SEP RIEP regroupe 48 ateliers rpartis dans 24 tablissements offrant des savoir-faire dans
une dizaine de mtiers : travail du mtal, du bois, du cuir, confection, imprimerie,
reliure, informatique, traitement du son et de l'image, faonnage et agriculture.
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estim par les auditeurs, alors que dans les ateliers les intervenants
sont jugs sur leur professionnalisme et leurs comptences, et plus
spcifiquement pour leur passion, cest--dire leur enthousiasme et
lamour de leur mtier, pour leur gnrosit ou encore pour leur
expertise :
Je ressens a de (lintervenante de latelier vido), quelle a envie de
55
le faire, quelle sinvestit ! (Dtenu participant 3)
Il est sculpteur lui (lintervenant de latelier sculpture) ; il est artiste.
Donc il sy connat quand mme. (Dtenu participant 7)
Les verbatims cits sont extraits des entretiens avec les diffrents acteurs ayant
accept de tmoigner de leur exprience. Ils sont anonyms.
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Conclusion
En suscitant des situations dinteraction entre les participants issus
de lextrieur ou de la maison centrale durant plusieurs mois, en
rendant possible un acte de cration, en rendant visible la prsence
du Louvre et de lart par lexposition des deux moulages de sculpture,
le projet a bien permis de faire merger un sentiment commun de la
valeur de ce qui a t produit collectivement dans les ateliers, mais
aussi de ce qui a t collectivement mis en valeur travers le respect
et la considration des moulages et lors de la restitution des crations
face un public, crant ainsi des espaces dintrt gnral, certes
fugaces et rendus possibles, semble-t-il, parce quils rappelaient
lexistence du monde extrieur. Enfin, titre individuel, se sentir autre
que dtenu, et faire les choses dans son propre intrt, ntait sans
doute pas possible pour tous, nanmoins, le projet du Louvre, en
crant les conditions dchanges dsintresss et dexpression de
soi, a permis certains de se reconnatre eux-mmes une certaine
valeur.
Rfrences
Andrieu, M. (2011). Ralits musicales en prison : Dun panorama gnral
lanalyse dune activit. Dans Benguigui, G. & Guilbaud, F. &
Malochet, G. (Ed.). La prison sous tension. (pp. 306-335). Nmes :
Champ social.
Becker, H. (1988). Les Mondes de lart. Paris : Flammarion.
Benguigui, G. (2011). La paranoa pnitentiaire. Dans G. Benguigui & F.
Guilbaud & G. Malochet (Ed.). La prison sous tension. (pp. 57-87).
Nmes : Champ social.
Chauvenet, A., Rostaing, C., & Orlic, F. (Ed.). (2008). La Violence carcrale
en question. Paris : Presses Universitaires de France.
Chauvenet, A. (2006). Privation de libert et violence : Le despotisme
ordinaire en prison. Dviance et socit, 30, 3, (pp. 373-388).
Frize, N. (2004). Le Sens de la peine. Paris : Lignes / Lo Scheer.
Jeanneret, Y. (2011). Where is Mona Lisa ? Et autres lieux de la culture.
Paris : Le Cavalier bleu.
Lehmann, J.-P. (2009). Comprendre Winnicott. Paris : Armand Colin.
Muse du Louvre-Service Etudes et Recherche (2010). valuer un dispositif
artistique et culturel en milieu pnitentiaire. Un partenariat entre le
muse du Louvre, le Service pnitentiaire dinsertion et de probation
de Paris et la Maison darrt de la Sant, rapport denqute
qualitative. [Non publi]
Muse du Louvre-Service Etudes et Recherche (2013). valuer un dispositif
artistique et culturel en milieu pnitentiaire. Au-del des murs, du
Louvre la Maison centrale de Poissy, rapport denqute qualitative.
[Non publi]
Rostaing, C., & Touraut, C. (2012). Processus de cration culturelle en
prison : Une innovation ordinaire ? Socio-logos : Revue de
l'association franaise de sociologie, 7. Consult partir de
http://socio-logos.revues.org/2658.
Salle, G. (2011). 1975 : Une date marquante dans lhistoire de la prison ?
Petit essai de mise en perspective. Dans Benguigui, G. &
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Guilbaud, F. & Malochet, G. (Ed.) La prison sous tension. (pp. 2056). Nmes : Champ social.
Siganos, F. (2008). LAction culturelle en prison. Paris : Ed. de lHarmattan.
Soulier, G. (1985). La Culture en prison, quels enjeux ? Actes du colloque de
Reims. Paris : La Documentation franaise.
Winnicott, D. W., (1975 [1971]). Jeu et Ralit : Lespace potentiel. Paris :
Gallimard.
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Rsum
Cet article analyse les effets des projets culturels en contexte
pnitentiaire. Il sappuie sur les rsultats dune enqute par
entretiens et observations auprs des acteurs du projet des
sculptures men par le muse du Louvre la maison centrale de
Poissy entre septembre 2012 et mai 2013. Ce projet sarticulait
autour de linstallation de deux moulages de sculptures du muse et
de la programmation de quatre ateliers de cration ainsi que dun
cycle de confrences. Cet article interroge le rpertoire de valeurs
qui peut merger de ces activits selon les personnes dtenues.
Lanalyse des rsultats de lenqute montre que ce rpertoire se
dploie lchelle individuelle mais aussi, diffremment, lchelle
collective. Les espaces de valeur individuelle sont ceux de la
relation avec les intervenants et ceux de la dmarche artistique et
crative. Les espaces de valeur collective sont le fruit de dbats et
dchanges entre personnes dtenues loccasion, dune part, de
lintroduction des sculptures dans la maison centrale et, dautre part,
des dynamiques collectives des ateliers de cration.
Mots cl : projets culturels, prisons, tude du public, Muse du
Louvre
Abstract
Creating value in a penitentiary context: the artistic and cultural
project of the Louvre Museum in the penitentiary at Poissy
This article analyses the effects of cultural projects in the context of
a prison. It examines the results of interviews and observations from
detainees participating in the sculpture project led by the Louvre in
the Poissy between September 2012 and May 2013. This project
was built around the installation of two casts of sculptures from the
museum, four creative workshops, along with a series of lectures.
This article examines the value that these activities brought
according to the detainees. Interviews and observations show that
these events were felt at both the individual and the collective level,
although differently. Individual value was experienced throughout the
relationship with the artists in charge of the workshops, and in the
process of the artistic and creative workshop. Collective value was
the result of discussions and exchanges among the detainees due
to, on the one hand, the introduction of sculptures into the prison,
and, on the other hand, the collective dynamics of the workshops.
Key words: cultural projects, prisons, visitor studies, Louvre
Museum
Resumen
Creacin de Valor en Contexto de una Penitenciara : El
Proyecto Artstico y Cultural del Museo del Louvre en la Casa
Central de Poissy
En este artculo se analizan los efectos de los proyectos culturales
en el contexto penitenciario. Se basa en los resultados de una
encuesta (entrevistas y observaciones) con los participantes al
proyecto de las esculturas, llevado a cabo por el Louvre en la
crcel de Poissy, entre septiembre de 2012 y mayo de 2013. Este
proyecto se estructura en torno a la instalacin de dos moldes de
esculturas del museo y la programacin de cuatro talleres creativos
y una serie de conferencias. Este artculo examina el repertorio de
valores que pueden surgir de estas actividades de acuerdo con los
detenidos. Anlisis de los resultados de la encuesta muestran que
este repertorio se despliega a nivel individual, y tambin a nivel
colectivo. Los espacios de valor individual son los de la relacin con
los responsables de los talleres, y los de la actividad artstica y
creativa. Los espacios de valor colectivo son el resultado de las
discusiones y los debates entre las personas detenidas a raz de la
introduccin de las esculturas en la crcel y, por otro lado, de las
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Narratives
In the last days of January 2014, the Press reported that the directors
of two well-known American museums, the Seattle Art Museum and
the Denver Art Museum, had made a wager on the outcome of the
U.S. National Football Leagues annual Super Bowl game that pitted
the Seattle Seahawks against the Denver Broncos. The wager was a
three-month loan of an object from the museums collection of the
losing team to the museum of the winning team. Sounds all right so
far? No problem here just a lighthearted cultural exchange
between museums (Drews, 2014, p. A2)! The Denver Art Museum
put up an iconographic sculpture known as The Bronco Buster,
created by Frederic Remington and dating from 1895. On its part, the
Seattle Art Museum selected a circa 1880s Nuxalk First Nations
ceremonial raven forehead mask. The peoples of the Nuxalk First
Nation are located on the central west coast of Canada in and around
Bella Coola, British Columbia. The Press also reported that this wager
was the idea of the Seattle Art Museums director and CEO, and that,
evidently, wagers of this kind between art museums have been made
on the outcome of previous Super Bowl games (Griffen, 2014, p. A4).
It should be of no surprise that the Nuxalk First Nations community
leaders, who heard of the wager through social media and news
outlets, took justifiable umbrage at this action and voiced their strong
disapproval. The Seattle Art Museum has acknowledged its mistake,
apologized, and offered to travel to Bella Coola with the mask to
deliver its regrets in person (Drews, 2014, p. A2). While the action
taken by two museums in respect of any wager on the outcome of an
American football game (or any other sporting competition, for that
matter) might seem to be of questionable distinction, the choice of the
object to be wagered by the Seattle Art Museum was not only
extremely thoughtless and in very bad taste, but also highly
disrespectful to Aboriginal peoples, whether Canadian First Nations
or U.S. Native Americans, with whom museums, especially those
holding materials originating from these communities, are attempting
to connect in a responsibly societal manner. To make matters even
worse, the choice of Raven over Hawk to represent the Seattle team
would only serve to add further insult to the injury already
perpetrated. In the aftermath of its initial ill-conceived enthusiasm, the
Seattle Art Museum opted to wager Sound of Waves, a six-panelled
screen created in 1901 by Japanese artist Tsuji Kako, featuring a
Seahawk-like raptorial bird (Hopper, 2014), also described as
depicting a powerful eagle with outstretched wings (Drews, 2014, p.
A2). It is not known how Japanese Americans felt about this.
In a similar vein, in February 2014, the Winnipeg Art Gallery decided
to host its annual Art and Soul fundraiser under a Big in Japan
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Much of the information contained in this paper is from the authors personal firsthand knowledge and communications garnered over 44 years as a museum
professional (anthropology curator).
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Lynn Maranda
Issues
st
The primary issues that I believe will dog museums in the 21 century
in respect of an ethical stance will relate to: (a) the relationship
museums will have with aboriginal and other minority populations;
and, (b) the museums place in and interaction with the marketplace.
How the museum ethos chooses to perform in these two broad
categories will define the development, or lack thereof, of the ethical
principles that will govern behaviour by museum governance
structures and personnel in years to come.
Museums and Aboriginal peoples (and other minority
populations)
The four examples described above illustrate ill-thought-out actions,
and each, in its own way, resulted in creating offence to aboriginal
peoples or minority populations. The selection of a First Nations mask
for a football wager, a yellowface Japan theme-based fundraiser,
the acceptance of a sizeable grant from a corporation with which a
First Nations group was locked in a loss of lifeways and land claim
dispute, and the refusal to remove insulting materials from an
exhibition all created situations that have served to paint museums in
a poor light, especially since all these circumstances were entirely
avoidable. The actions taken by the Seattle Art Museum, the
Winnipeg Art Gallery, and the Glenbow Museum are errors in
judgement that could have been prevented. While Into the Heart of
Africa was intended to be provocative, the organizers obviously
thought that [it] would be seen as a critical portrait of colonial
collecting and museum ethics, but rather it was perceived by many
people as a glorification of colonialism (Schildkrout, 1991, p. 16).
Thus, as a consequence, the subtlety of the message and the
absence of a clear coalition with Africans in Toronto (Cruikshank,
1992, p. 6) is precisely what lay at the root whereby the exhibition
was labeled as being racist. In this case, the Royal Ontario Museum
also refused to relinquish its intellectual prerogative and authoritative
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because the quid pro quo factors are unknown at the onset (except
where tax receipts for such gifts can be issued) and can strain ethical
precepts under which museums operate. Also to be considered in this
mix is the activity in which museums all too often engage, whereby
they undertake, for whatever reason, to cull objects from their
collections, offering them for sale on the open market. Money in
exchange for selected museum holdings is all too tempting and many
museums have been severely criticized for proceeding along this
path. One such example is a fairly recent incident involving the
Croydon Museum (Steel, 2013). The Arts Council England and the
Museums Association warned the Croydon that it could lose its
Accredited Museum status (on which it relies to secure loans) if it
proceeded to sell 24 pieces from its antique Chinese ceramics
collection. The chance of securing good monies by whatever means
to fund important projects may, in the end, override the necessary
caution required, and those responsible for museum governance
need to exercise prudence in how far they are prepared to go in such
an endeavour.
Corporate funding may eventually be the way to go for many
museums, and this may pose significant problems. As reported in the
Vancouver Sun newspaper on 11 March 2014 (Sherlock, 2014, p. A1
and A7), a debate has arisen amongst the various Vancouver
(Canada) area school boards, all of which have seen governmental
funding for education decline drastically in past years. The Chevron
Canada oil corporation has initiated a Fuel Your School programme,
which provides $1.00 for every person who buys 30 litres or more of
gas in the participating school district, run at arms-length through a
registered Canadian charity named MyClassNeeds to cover costs for
everything from playground equipment to computers to breakfast
programmes. Such a gas-for-education relationship, especially when
sustainability and students walking or biking to school is encouraged,
is causing ethical challenges for the school districts. There is here,
however, a cautionary tale for the museum, as there is a very fine line
between needing the resources to succeed in its endeavours and the
tempting availability of corporate funding to assist in this happening.
Another easy step would be that museums become part of a moneymaking enterprise, thus shedding their not-for-profit status to sustain
their programmes. Such a jump to corporate player would mark the
end of museums as we know them today. Interestingly, the corporate
ethos has already infiltrated many museums, with Directors now
being known as CEOs (Chief Executive Officers) and the rebranding
of the museums image becoming all too commonplace.
Another concern museums have that impacts their role in the
marketplace involves private collections. While there has been, in the
past, a tacit understanding that a museum ought not to exhibit private
collections, such borrowing still occurs regularly. There is no doubt
that the public exhibition of privately-owned materials enhances both
their monetary value and pedigree, and a quick glance through any
Sothebys or Christies auction catalogue confirms this fact. Exhibition
in a primary cultural institution such as a museum garners prestige
and consequently greatly increases both the collectible value and
monetary worth of these items. Consequently, the display in museum
= increased value pattern has become a given, and museums have
become firmly entrenched in fostering the wealth of private holdings.
A recent example of this activity occurred throughout 2013 when the
Canadian Museum of Civilization held a special exhibition entitled
Vodou, which was comprised almost entirely of materials from the
collection of Marianne Lehmann, a Haitian citizen of Swiss origin. The
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References
Ames, M. (1992). Cannibal Tours and Glass Boxes: The Anthropology of
Museums. Vancouver, Canada: University of British Columbia Press.
Assembly of First Nations and the Canadian Museums Association (1992).
Task Force on Museums and First Peoples: Turning the Page:
Forging New Partnerships Between Museums and First Peoples.
Ottawa, Canada.
Besterman, T. (2011). Museum Ethics. In Macdonald, S. (Ed.). (2011). A
Companion to Museum Studies (pp. 431-441). Chichester, UK:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Boyd, W. (1991). Museum Accountability: Laws, Rules, Ethics, and
Accreditation. In Anderson, G. (Ed.). (2004). Reinventing the
Museum: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on the
Paradigm Shift (pp. 351-362). Lanham, Maryland, USA: AltaMira.
Brodie, N. (2005). Illicit antiquities: The theft of culture. In Corsane, G. (Ed.).
(2005). Heritage, Museums and Galleries: An Introductory Reader
(pp. 122-140). London and New York: Routledge.
Butler, S. (2011). Contested Representations: Revisiting Into the Heart of
Africa. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
Cannizzo, J. (1990). Exhibiting Cultures. Culture, X(2), 121-123.
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Wills, J. (2014, February 12). WAG and the peril of yellowface. Winnipeg
Free Press. Retrieved from http://www.winnipegfreepress.com
/opinion/analysis/wag-and-the-peril-of-yellowface-245138681.html
Abstract
This paper examines, on the one hand, museum ethics as a set of
behavioural principles, and on the other, morals as individual values
of right and wrong. It suggests a juxtaposition of the two concepts
(ethics and morality) and looks at the conflicts that are increasingly
being set up between the two when ethical precepts border on moral
deeds and transform into issues of conscience. In other words, it
treats ethics and morals as two different dimensions whereby ethics
are seen to have parameters that are firmly prescribed and those of
moral behaviour being variable and subject to change, thus reaching
outside and beyond ethical precepts. To underscore this position,
several narratives illustrating some of the problems facing museums
today are presented, and primary issues that currently and that will
continue to afflict museums in respect of ethics are discussed.
Museums as science, as steward, and as societal advocate and the
conflicts between these various roles are advanced with a view to
laying the groundwork for new trends in the development of museum
st
ethics in the 21 century.
Key words: museum ethics, morality, conscience, minorities,
marketplace, transformation
Rsum
Lthique du muse au XXIme sicle : Lorsque lthique prend
une autre dimension
Cette intervention examine, dune part, lthique du muse en tant
quensemble de principes du comportement et, de lautre, la moralit
en tant que valeurs individuelles qui dfinissent le bien et le mal. Elle
propose une juxtaposition des deux concepts (thique et moralit) et
se penche sur les conflits qui se dressent entre les deux quand les
principes de lthique chevauchent les actes moraux et deviennent
des enjeux de la conscience. En dautres mots, cet essai traite de
lthique et de la moralit comme deux dimensions selon lesquelles
lthique semble avoir des paramtres fermement proscrits et des
paramtres du comportement moral variables et sujets aux
changements, se trouvant ainsi au-del des prceptes thiques. Afin
de souligner cette approche, cette intervention prsente plusieurs
rcits qui illustrent les problmes auxquels les muses font face, et
examine les enjeux primaires en ce qui concerne lthique, enjeux
qui affligent les muses actuellement et vont les affliger galement
lavenir. Le muse en tant que science, en tant que grant et en tant
que partisan de la socit, ainsi que les conflits entre ces rles
divers sont prsents dans le but de jeter les bases des nouvelles
tendances dans le dveloppement de lthique des muses au
XXIme sicle.
Mots cl : thique au muse, morale, conscience, minorits,
march, transformation
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Il est culturel, parce que loffre culturelle propose est base sur la
62
cration de parcours dexposition, soit permanents soit temporaires,
ainsi que sur une intense programmation artistique et culturelle le
63
soir . Les objectifs
stratgiques de cette nouvelle institution
citoyenne et culturelle sont explicits dans le dossier de prsentation.
Il sagit de :
semparer des grands enjeux de la Mditerrane
contemporaine, y aborder les questions actuelles et de
prospectives, telle est lambition de la Villa Mditerrane.
conomie, environnement, urbanisme, (r)volutions
politiques [] Ce territoire entretient depuis longtemps les
prjugs et les ides toutes faites. La Villa Mditerrane
sest donne pour mission aussi exigeante que
passionnante de les dpasser (Dossier de prsentation,
2013).
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frquemment abords dans le dbat. Ces quelques citations ldesous trs parlantes et parfois provocatrices en tmoignent :
un chantier 70 millions deuros. Le plus onreux des
quipements btis dans le sillage de Marseille-Provence
2013 est aussi celui dont lutilit est la plus conteste
(Piscopo-Reguieg, 2013) ;
voici la villa la plus chre de la rgion Provence-AlpesCte-DAzur : 70 millions pays rubis sur longle par les
gentils contribuables (Oberson, 2013) ;
ct de lincontestable russite du MuCEM, il y a la
conteste Villa Mditerrane. Dont larchitecte est en
67
procs pour plagiat , qui se fait allumer dans la presse
pour son cot, son esthtique, son "absence de projet".
Tout cela est fort peu mesur : initie et finance dans un
temps o le MuCEM tait en panne, la Villa Mditerrane a
su trouver des complmentarits culturelles (Freschel,
2013).
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70
70
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Les propos sur ce glissement terminologique sont recueillis durant les entretiens avec
les chargs de productions et des publics et avec les agents d'accueil.
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Nous avons recueilli ces propos lors de la prsentation du parcours Plus loin que
lhorizon par Bruno Ulmer aux agents daccueil.
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73
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Prescripteurs
Passifs
Dtracteurs
100
200
300
400
500
600
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Architecture et ambiance
Il est vident, et ctait prvisible, que cet aspect de la visite ne passe
pas inaperu. Apprcie ou dteste, la relevance de larchitecture
suscite un dbat trs vif aussi dans les pages du Livre dor et sur les
post-it et mrite une mention part. Dpassant les limites de la
satisfaction en positif ou en ngatif, la prsence physique et concrte
de la Villa Mditerrane gagne sa place de protagoniste, mme
quand cest le rapport contenus/contenant, voire le vide, qui retient le
plus lattention des visiteurs : Le btiment est superbe, mais, hlas,
un beau squelette .
En conclusion, trs apprcis ou extrmement critiqus, les
parcours ainsi que la globalit de ltablissement de la Villa, ne
laissent pas indiffrent. Au contraire, ils provoquent une prise de
position clatante, souvent vive, qui laisse peu ou pas de place aux
positions moyennes et qui semble tre une consquence directe de
la participation motionnelle et de lengagement personnel des
acteurs que la visite implique. Les stratgies mises en place par
linstitution sont donc loin de recevoir une apprciation unanime,
unilatrale ; pourtant, elles se rvlent habiles capturer leurs
audiences par le biais des motions frappantes, mme si cest avec
de larges zones dombre, comme le dmontre la prsence marque
dun public de dtracteurs.
77
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78
Cette phrase prononce par Michel Vauzelle est recueillie par le journaliste lors de
linauguration officielle.
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Un autre lment peut ici prolonger les avis mitigs ; il concerne les
visiteurs qui sattendent voir des peintures et des sculptures. Si lon
prend en compte le fait que la plupart des visiteurs venus la Villa ne
savaient pas ce quelle tait, on peut se demander dans quelle
mesure ces attentes sont dues ce voisinage avec le MuCEM. Un
point frappant qui est observable est lvidente confusion entre les
deux btiments. En effet, il y a des visiteurs dont les commentaires
dans le Livre dor ou sur des post-it laissent croire quils pensaient
tre au MuCEM. Cette confusion semble tre due labsence de
signaltique sur le J4 et pendant des mois sur le btiment de la Villa
galement. En tmoigne cet extrait de lentretien avec un agent
daccueil :
Dj, il y a un grand souci je pense sur lextrieur pour
lorientation. Sur la Villa, sur le MuCEM, sur le Fort St. Jean
il y a rien qui est indiqu, les gens arrivent ils sont toujours
nervs [] On ne peut pas grer quand il y a lOffice de
tourisme qui leur donne de mauvaises informations et ils
viennent tous ici et ils nous demandent : Par o on
passe ? On prend les escalateurs pour passer la
passerelle ? , Non, la passerelle cest au MuCEM. ,
Ah, mais on est pas au MuCEM ? .
Conclusions
Lanalyse de lexprience de visite nous oblige reconnatre de
larges zones dombre dans le procs dvaluation et dinterprtation
de la part des publics et, dans un mme temps, elle nous parle de la
perception globale, des fonctions et de lidentit complexe de cette
nouvelle offre culturelle marseillaise qui semble ne pas tre si
insensible et si mancipe par rapport lvidente proximit, la fois
spatiale et thmatique, avec le MuCEM.
Concernant la relation (une relation complexe, vrai dire) avec ses
publics, il nous semble vident que les glissements terminologiques
nont pas produit de changements significatifs sur le plan des
politiques daccueil ou des services aux publics, en restant le thme
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des outils de mdiation, pour nen citer quun, un parmi les plus
touchs par les critiques des visiteurs. Ce qui semble vritablement
faire trait dunion entre la Villa Mditerrane et ses publics, cest cette
sorte dappel lengagement que suscitent les parcours . En ce
sens, ce sont de vritables voies daccs aux motions des
visiteurs : les parcours se montrent ainsi capables de toucher
leurs valeurs et de les amener vers un voyage destination des
grands enjeux de la Mditerrane contemporaine (Dossier de
prsentation, 2013), tel quon lenvisage depuis le discours
institutionnel.
A partir de ce constat, la dfinition de la mission et des fonctions de la
Villa demeure un champ dlicat. Dun ct, la multiplication des
fonctions na pas facilit le travail de communication, dont
linsuffisance, voir labsence, semble tre lorigine de toutes sortes
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de malentendus avec les visiteurs appels recourir leurs
bagages dexprience de frquentation et habitus culturels pour
combler ce vide. De lautre ct, le positionnement de ltablissement
de la Villa Mditerrane dans la ville de Marseille en relation avec les
autres quipements culturels marseillais (principalement le MuCEM)
dans le contexte des politiques culturelles locales na pas encore
80
trouv de solution . Il convient de voir si ce nest pas dans la
redfinition des ambitions institutionnelles que lidentit venir de la
Villa Mditerrane doit se (re)construire.
Remerciements
Nous tenons remercier tous les professionnels de la Villa
Mditerrane qui, par leur disponibilit et leur engagement, ont
accept de participer cette recherche en mettant notre disposition
la documentation, mais surtout leur temps et leurs expriences. Enfin,
nous remercions tout particulirement Sylvia Girel pour son soutien et
ses conseils sans lesquels ce travail naurait jamais vu le jour.
Rfrences
Ball, C., & Poulot, D. (1995). Les Politiques de public dans les muses
europens. Publics et Muses, 8 (1), 124-131.
Bra, M.-P., & Paris, E. (2007). Usages et enjeux de lanalyse des livres
d'or pour les stratgies culturelles d'tablissement. Dans
Eidelman, J., Roustan, M. & Goldstein, B. (Eds.). (2007). La place
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Buslacchi, M.-E., Girel, S., & Maisetti, N. (2015). Le Muse des Civilisations
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Eidelman, M. Roustan, & B. Goldstein (Eds.). (2007). La place des
79
Les changements introduits dans la gestion du lieu et, notamment, avec lextension
de lentre libre tous les parcours, laffichage de la programmation de faon trs
visible sur les baies vitres du btiment, indiquent pourtant que les dolances des
publics ne sont pas restes sans auditoire.
80
Au moment o nous rendons cet article, le statut de la Villa change et vient poser de
nouvelles questions sur son avenir. En effet, lanne 2015 signale le passage au statut
de GIP AViTeM (Groupement dintrt public Agence des villes et territoires durables
mditerranens), http://www.villa-mediterranee.org/fr/enjeux-et-projets-2015
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btiment".
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Girel, S. (2013). Marseille Provence 2013 - Publics et pratiques culturelles
dans une capitale europenne de la culture. Un programme de
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Larchitecture. La Villa Mditerrane un btiment entre ciel et mer. (s.d.).
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Rsum
La Villa Mditerrane de Marseille a t ouverte au public en juin
2013 avec linauguration de deux parcours dexposition. Depuis
sa gense, leffort de ce nouvel quipement culturel semble tre
marqu par une volont rformatrice et pionnire, soit dans le
domaine des contenus proposs, soit dans la faon dont ces
contenus sont amens tre communiqus aux publics : dj dans
le discours institutionnel lexposition se fait parcours , le
commissaire narrateur , le visiteur acteur . Quelles sont alors
les consquences de ce glissement terminologique dans
lexprience quotidienne de linstitution ? travers lusage combin
des entretiens semi-directifs, dune observation participante et de
linterprtation du Livre dOr, cette tude vise dpasser les limites
des dfinitions fermes au service dune perspective critique qui
observe la relation entre les attentes institutionnelles et lvidence
de la rception des parcours . Lanalyse de lexprience de visite
nous amne reconnatre des zones dombre dans le procs
dvaluation et dinterprtation de la part des publics et, dans un
mme temps, elle nous parle de la perception globale de la Villa
Mditerrane qui semble ne pas tre si insensible quil y parat
lvidente proximit, la fois spatiale et thmatique, avec le Muse
des Civilisations de lEurope et de la Mditerrane (MuCEM).
Mots cl : parcours des visiteurs, tude des visiteurs, muse des
civilisations
Abstract
New trends, old problems? The case for reception of the
pathway at the Ville Mditerrane in Marseille
The Villa Mditerrane in Marseille opened to visitors in June 2013
with the inauguration of two exhibitions. Since the beginning, this
new cultural institution resolutely points toward a new way of
constructing and communicating exhibits. Exhibits become
pathways, curators become storytellers, visitors are actors.
What are the practical and theoretical consequences of this shift in
terminology? Through the use of both semi-structured interviews and
notes in the visitors book, this study aims to cross the boundaries of
standard definitions and find the relation between institutional
expectations and visitors actual experiences. Visitors reactions
allowed us to recognize some blind areas in the evaluation process
and interpretation of institutional proposals and, at the same time,
they made us aware of some characteristics of the Villa
Mditerrane. For example, the physical and thematic proximity of
the Muse des Civilisations de lEurope et de la Mediterrane
(MuCEM) appears to influence the visit in the Villa Mditerrane.
Key words: visitor route, visitor studies, museums of civilizations
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Resumen
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Introduction
La construction de dispositifs lis au spectacle vivant et de projets de
cration contemporaine pour proposer un clairage diffrent sur une
collection ou sur un lieu de patrimoine est une situation de plus en
plus frquente. A titre dexemple, aprs Tony Cragg et Wim Delvoye,
cest Loris Graud qui investit cette anne le muse du Louvre. Autre
haut lieu du patrimoine franais, le chteau de Versailles invite depuis
plusieurs annes un artiste contemporain exposer dans ses murs et
ses jardins. La cration contemporaine, quelle relve des arts
plastiques et visuels ou du spectacle vivant devient, dans certains
cas un objet hybride, au carrefour entre mdiation et cration.
Notre communication souhaite prsenter ce processus dans le
contexte dveloppement culturel que connat La Runion depuis
quelques annes (Magdelaine-Andrianjafitrimo, 2011). Malgr une
situation de crise qui handicape les compagnies et les artistes et voit
les budgets de subventions diminuer, loffre artistique et culturelle sur
le territoire runionnais a significativement augment ces dernires
annes. Des quipements culturels ont vu le jour, dautres sont en
devenir, les programmations stoffent. La Runion est pourvue de
diffrents outils pour le dveloppement de lart contemporain sur son
territoire : une cole dart proposant le cursus complet et formant
chaque anne une nouvelle vague de jeunes plasticiens, un FRAC,
une intressante collection dart moderne et contemporain au muse
Lon Dierx, une Artothque, un petit rseau actif de structures
associatives. Si lle souffre dun manque de lieux de diffusion pour la
cration plastique et visuelle, les acteurs du paysage culturel
runionnais inventent des alternatives afin de rendre possible la
rencontre entre la cration et les publics : investissement de lespace
public, cration dvnements, ouverture des espaces culturels non
ddis la cration contemporaine aux propositions des artistes
actuels. Des projets ambitieux sont en cours comme la cration dun
Centre dart dans le Sud de lle, et dune Cit des arts dote
dateliers dartistes dans le Nord.
Dans ce contexte de dveloppement, de quelle manire les
dispositifs de mdiation sont-ils conus pour rendre la musologie
vivante ? Quel est le rle de laction culturelle et de la cration
contemporaine dans la construction de nouvelles expriences
musales ? Quels sont les modes de connexion entre diffrents
champs : muse dhistoire et art contemporain, espace musal et
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La sollicitation par
contemporain vient-il
participative ?
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avait un nouveau rle. Il tait mis au travail parfois dans ces formes
expressives les plus violentes
DaDa interpelle le public, provoque sa raction dans les
performances. Les dadastes parviennent modifier
lattitude passive des regardeurs en autorisant les cris, les
injonctions, les lancers de projectiles au cours de leurs
pices de thtre. Ce premier pas met mal la distance
sparant lartiste et la cration, de celui qui observe et
admire. Il sera accompagn de plusieurs gestes de
dsacralisation de luvre dart (Viollet, 2011, p. 76).
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http://www.cheminements.org/napl-def.html
http://www.cheminements.org/napl-def.html
83
http://www.cheminements.org/
82
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Extrait dun entretien avec lartiste Myriam Omar Awadi, avril 2014.
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Conclusion
Lart contemporain joue avec les codes, y compris ceux de la
musologie. En construisant de nouveaux modes de production, les
uvres contemporaines deviennent des processus mdiatiques ;
elles proposent de nouvelles expriences musales. Comme le
montrent les exemples slectionns pour ltude, lart contemporain
en intgrant des espaces musaux apporte une nouvelle approche
de lhistoire habituelle rapporte par des visites guides. Ces
nouvelles formes nonciatives, allant de la performance aux
installations, amnent une lecture diffrente de la musologie
traditionnelle o le visiteur devient acteur de la construction du sens.
Ainsi, luvre dart contemporain offre aussi un espace de libert
dexpression pour les espaces musaux intgrant le concept de
musologie participative ancr dans les logiques du spectacle
vivant. Ce sont la mise en scne et la mise en espace dune parole
qui sont au centre de cette musologie participative . Ici, la forme
de revendication parfois politique accorde une part plus importante
la libert laisse au public de construire lui-mme son propre
discours. Comme lindique Jolle Le Marec, la musologie
participative est un enjeu pour les muses pour revendiquer leur rle
social dans lintgration du visiteur dans la logique de linstitution,
mais cette dernire sest bien souvent dveloppe :
dans un contexte idologique dune explosion de la
communication dans une socit daprs-guerre
conquise par la communication , avec la monte en
puissance des mdias et la multiplication des mtiers de le
communication () La publicit faite aux innovations la
fois organisationnelles et techniques en matire de
dmocratie participative est la mesure de la discrtion qui
entoure le contenu des dbats ainsi mens. (Le Marec,
2006, p. 266).
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Rfrences
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Viollet, M. (2011). Les comportements des spectateurs comme enjeux de lart
contemporain. Thse de doctorat en art plastique, (sdr) Clvenot D.
& Buinet, C. Toulouse : Universit Toulouse 2.
Rsum
La problmatique de musologie participative sest longtemps
dfinie depuis les annes 70 travers les enjeux sociopolitiques et
identitaires de reconnaissance de communauts de publics .
Sexprimant dans une mise en exposition laissant une large place
aux logiques communicationnelles des dispositifs mdiatiques, au
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Abstract
Contemporary creativity as participatory museology: the
museum as a space for living exhibitions
The issue of participatory museology has been defined since the
early 1970s in relation to the socio-political and identity challenges of
recognizing community audiences. Expressing itself through
exhibitions that allowed a broad range of communication
approaches in media settings, at the expense of artistic mediation,
this concept was scarcely influenced by the relational esthetic
developed in the 60s by contemporary art. This paper proposes a
new approach to participative museology with an eye on
contemporary creations whose exhibitions loosely follow the
approaches of the performing arts, and play on the visitor-audienceproducer relationship.
Key words:
exhibitions
participatory
museology,
communication,
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living
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86
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Trmino empleado por Barthes (1992) para referirse a las punzadas que una
imagen genera en el espectador y llaman su atencin especialmente. Definimos el
punctum del patrimonio como aquellas punzadas que hacen que un elemento
patrimonial sea patrimonializado a travs del establecimiento de vnculos. Mientras que
el studium del patrimonio se correspondera con los valores atribuidos socialmente, el
punctum tiene ms que ver con un aspecto individual.
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recorrer.
No podemos olvidar que emocin y cognicin van de la mano, por lo
que su manejo y trabajo es no slo necesario, sino beneficioso para
emisor y receptor del acto educativo. Adems, la emocin logra
acercar el abismo que se puede encontrar entre docentes/museos y
discentes/sordos, puesto que permite trabajar desde el mbito
personal, humano, de igual a igual, como sujetos que sienten.
Acta por tanto como un elemento ecualizador que ajusta las
diferencias preconcebidas entre los sujetos participantes. Esta
igualdad se convierte en inclusin, puesto que la emocin es innata
al ser humano. La emocin es consustancial al hombre,
independientemente de la formacin, nivel cultural, social, sexo o
nacionalidad, por lo que trabajar desde la esencia humana, desde
sus rasgos definitorios, permite dejar de lado toda etiqueta impuesta
socialmente.
Vnculos
Individualizacin
Bien
Con
Desde
Imagen 1. Inclusin en el trabajo patrimonial. Fuente propia
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CONTEXTO
MENSAJE
Visual
Fomenta sus
talentos
Educacin
patrimonial
DOCENTE
Dotado de
estrategias
especializadas
Emptico
Favorece el
aprendizaje
Beneficios de la
Educacin no Formal
EDUCANDO
Fomenta la
socializacin
Favorece la
experiencia
Contexto
El contexto no formal en el que nos situamos, aporta en s mismo un
gran nmero de beneficios para el trabajo con el colectivo sordo
desde la educacin patrimonial. En primer lugar se sitan en un
escenario en el que cuanto les rodea, tanto continente como
contenido, cuentan diferentes historias, se comunican entre s y dan
lugar a dilogos entre pocas, estilos, personalidades y pblicos. Ello
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Docente
El docente se muestra como experto, no slo en patrimonio, sino en la
complejidad que encierra el trabajo con el colectivo sordo. Ha de
dotarse de estrategias capaces de llamar su atencin, vincularle a su
discurso y extraer sus talentos en detrimento de sus carencias. Se
anan en este factor, a modo de crisol, los requisitos necesarios para
realizar una educacin hacia los sordos de calidad, aludiendo a la
emocin, con unos contenidos slidos, y unas estrategias capaces
de convertir el aprendizaje en significativo.
Mensaje
ste se da de la forma ms ptima para el trabajo con sordos, a
travs de elementos visuales. El patrimonio, ya sea material o
inmaterial, se muestra generalmente -aunque no siempre- a travs
de elementos perceptibles visualmente, lo que permite desarrollar
estrategias mejor adaptadas a las necesidades especiales que
presentan, a travs de apoyos fotogrficos, esquemticos o
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Nueva
Identidad
Compartida
Apropiacin
Patrimo
nio
Individu
al
Vnculo
s
Patrimo
nio
compart
ido
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Contenidos
Identificacin
Identizacin
Interculturacin Patrimonial
Individualizacin
Socializacin
Actitudinal
Emotiva o esttico-afectiva
Intelectual
Social
Identitarios
Actitudinales
Escucha
Apertura
Receptibilidad
Respeto
Intercambio
Procedimentales
Percibir
Conocer
Comprender
Respetar
Valorar
Cuidar
Disfrutar
Transmitir
Artsticos
Histricos
Culturales
Identitarios
Conceptuales
Procesos
Si hablamos de Procesos, entendidos estos como un conjunto de
fases desarrolladas bien de modo consecutivo, bien en paralelo,
solapadas o yuxtapuestas, y teniendo presente el trabajo educativo
que puede desarrollarse en los museos de arte, con el colectivo
sordo, podemos hablar de los siguientes procesos:
Percepcin
Es el origen de cuanto ocurre en el museo. Permite la relacin entre
el mundo interior personal de cada sujeto, con el exterior sensorial a
travs de los sentidos. Se compone de varias fases, compuestas de:
- Recepcin de la informacin.
- Transformacin de la informacin en cdigos comprensibles
para nuestros mecanismos cerebrales.
- Asociacin/ clasificacin de perceptos a travs de los
conceptos ya asumidos.
- Generacin de ideas gracias al encadenamiento de tomos
de pensamiento.
- Implicacin de la emocin.
- Conducta o respuesta a los estmulos recibidos.
Destacamos en este proceso, descrito ya el en captulo II,
especialmente la quinta fase, la emocin.
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Educacin Patrimonial
Dimensiones
Percepcin
Reflexin
Patrimonializacin
Perspectivaeducativa
Procesos
213
Este punto es fundamental en todo proceso de enseanzaaprendizaje, puesto que, como hemos podido apuntar en estas
pginas:
Las emociones () son la base ms importante sobre la
que se sustentan todos los procesos de aprendizaje y
memoria. () las emociones sirven, entre otras muchas
funciones, y de forma destacada, para almacenar y evocar
memorias de una manera ms efectiva (Mora, 2013, p. 66).
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Dimensiones
La educacin patrimonial atiende a diferentes dimensiones
educativas, las cuales, en su conjunto, aluden al ser humano como
ser complejo y multidimensional. As pues se trabajan tanto la
dimensin actitudinal, como la emotiva, intelectual o social.
Dimensin actitudinal.
Se promueven actitudes de respeto, cuidado, conservacin y
transmisin de los bienes patrimoniales a travs de los procesos
educativos centrados en la patrimonializacin.
() las actitudes, valores y normas, han de conllevar,
desde nuestra perspectiva, la construccin por parte de los
alumnos de su propia autonoma moral, as como el
reconocimiento y respeto de la diversidad cultural e
individual y a la negociacin democrtica e, igualmente, la
defensa de la diversidad cultural, la biodiversidad y de un
medioambiente saludable. Todo ello implica el desarrollo de
capacidades cognitivas, como la del pensamiento crtico, la
autonoma intelectual, la empata, la cooperacin, la
solidaridad, formando un pensamiento regido por criterios
de justicia, dignidad personal y autorregulacin. As,
partiendo de elementos patrimoniales, puede potenciarse el
conocimiento y la interpretacin de los referentes
identitarios y simblicos de la sociedad en la que se
desenvuelve el alumnado, al tiempo que se desarrollan
criterios de tolerancia y respeto hacia otras formas de vida
pretritas o actuales, bsicamente a travs de la empata
cultural, valorando la interculturalidad como condicin
imprescindible para un mundo mejor (Estepa, Domnguez y
Cuenca, 1998, en Cuenca, Estepa y Martn, 2011, p.47).
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Dimensin intelectual
Como parte de un proceso de enseanza-aprendizaje la educacin
patrimonial pretende implementar los conocimientos, lo que da lugar
al desarrollo intelectual del sujeto a travs del aporte de nuevas
miradas y datos. El cmo se lleva a cabo es lo que marca la
diferencia respecto a otros enfoques educativos.
El patrimonio cultural puede ser un recurso de gran
potencialidad para favorecer la formacin democrtica del
alumnado, ya que ofrece un campo de anlisis que facilita
la comprensin del pasado, la historicidad del presente y
permite pensar en el futuro en funcin de unos criterios.
() el patrimonio cultural puede ser uno de los muchos
recursos que existen y que pueden favorecer el desarrollo
de las capacidades necesarias para aprender a formularse
preguntas, informarse y contrastar planteamientos, explicar
las causas y las consecuencias, buscar las justificaciones y
las intencionalidades, interpretar y posicionarse a nivel
individual, y ser capaz de tomar decisiones para intervenir
de manera activa, responsable, crtica y justa en la
construccin de un futuro mejor (Gonzlez, 2011, p. 59).
Contenidos
La educacin patrimonial fundamenta su tarea en torno a cuatro ejes
de contenidos: identitarios, actitudinales, procedimentales y
conceptuales.
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Contenidos identitarios
La identidad es trabajada continuamente no slo como parte de los
procesos de apropiacin y patrimonializacin, sino como contenido
en s mismo. El patrimonio, como elemento configurado en relacin a
procesos de identidad producidos sobre una seleccin cultural,
intrnsecamente habla de identidades. La toma de conciencia en este
punto hace que se desarrolle una forma de trabajo desde la identidad
propia, incidiendo en la elaboracin de la misma as como en la
reflexin sobre las identidades colectivas de dan valor al patrimonio.
Contenidos Actitudinales
Puesto que la forma de trabajo desencadena el establecimiento de
vnculos entre los agentes implicados en la educacin, se da lugar al
despliegue de actitudes fundamentales que se desarrollan y utilizan
en la vida diaria. As, la escucha ayuda para interiorizar cuanto se
est experimentando. Entendemos aqu escucha no en sentido
literal, sino como forma de recibir datos, como receptibilidad ante
quien tiene algo que aportar.
Esta escucha se realiza desde un estado receptivo, abierto, cualidad
necesaria para alcanzar el respeto por cuanto no se conoce y, puede,
llegue a compartirse o no. Por lo tanto la apertura es otra actitud en
la que se incide en el trabajo desde la educacin patrimonial.
El respeto, se constituye en elemento fundamental, al que se llega
tras la comprensin y valoracin de cuanto se transmite.
Igualmente el intercambio, la generosidad de pensamiento a la que
da lugar el dilogo ecunime, de igual a igual que fomenta la
transferencia intercultural, enriquece a cuantos participan del acto
educativo.
Estas actitudes trabajadas a travs de la educacin patrimonial
sirven a los discentes no slo para su intervencin educativa, sino en
su cotidianeidad, donde trasladan la riqueza adquirida a partir de su
participacin activa en el proceso.
Contenidos Procedimentales
Percibir, conocer, comprender, respetar, valorar, cuidar, disfrutar y
transmitir. Verbos que forman parte de la secuencia significativa de la
patrimonializacin, y cuya insistencia es totalmente necesaria para la
consecucin de los objetivos educativos prefijados: la adquisicin
significativa y la apropiacin del potencial patrimonio para su
transformacin en patrimonio. Para ello, es necesaria una
estructuracin en la que la argumentacin y reflexin se configuren
como estrategias fundamentales para el proceso de enseanzaaprendizaje dirigido por el educador.
Cuenca, Estepa y Cceres, reflexionan al respecto, exponiendo:
Es evidente la potencialidad que presenta el patrimonio
para el trabajo de contenidos de carcter procedimental, en
funcin a procesos de anlisis e interpretacin que
permiten describir y explicar el funcionamiento y su
organizacin de las sociedades (Cuenca, Estepa y Martn,
2011, p.47).
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Conclusiones
Los museos se constituyen en los escenarios idneos para el trabajo
con el colectivo sordo. El potencial que contiene entre sus muros,
tanto por sus obras, como por cuanto un museo significa y
representa, le confieren un halo de idoneidad incomparable.
Actualmente los museos viven un momento de concienciacin social
imbuidos en una corriente de museologa social cuya influencia es
visible a travs de la gran cantidad de acciones que las diferentes
instituciones del mundo desarrollan para colectivos antes olvidados.
Sin embargo, el colectivo sordo sigue siendo quizs el ms olvidado
de todos ellos. Tras analizar los modelos ms utilizados en Espaa
para el trabajo con sordos en museos de arte, encontramos como en
un alto porcentaje de instituciones reduce sus actuaciones a la
implementacin de sus espacios con signoguas, bucles magnticos
o emisoras FM, hecho que, aunque s puede aportar una autonoma
hasta ahora no conocida para los sordos, no incide en los aspectos
cognitivos, culturales y sociales que desencadenan los mayores
problemas en el colectivo sordo. Para un trabajo eficaz con ellos es
fundamental subrayar la faceta humana, implicar al personal del
museo mediante formacin especializada en el complejo mundo
sordo para, de este modo, lograr atender las verdaderas necesidades
del sordo. Por ello, adems de una formacin especfica, vemos
fundamental la implicacin de los propios sordos en las acciones, a
travs de su participacin activa en el diseo de actividades, de tal
modo que puedan aportar una visin propia, desconocida en muchos
casos, de cules son sus verdaderas necesidades, gustos y
potencialidades.
As, estamos en un momento idneo para el trabajo con y desde las
personas, a travs de un modelo personalista que incida en la
esencia humana, que utilice la tecnologa no como excusa o nica
va, sino como acompaamiento, pero teniendo siempre presente a
la persona, su individualidad, vivencias y creencias. De este modo, el
trabajo que desarrollemos con ellos se tornar en normalizador,
desencadenando inercias de apertura, inter conocimiento cultural a
travs de un modelo basado en la educacin patrimonial y los
vnculos que nos unen como personas, lo que promueve una
integracin en la sociedad hasta ahora no lograda totalmente. Para
ello los museos son espacios privilegiados, ya que cuentan con
recursos, experiencia, y aceptacin social, siendo por tanto
escenarios idneos para mover este cambio social.
Referencias
Arnheim, R. (1998). El pensamiento visual. Barcelona: Paids esttica.
Bohannan, P. (1992). Para raros, nosotros. Introduccin a la antropologa
cultural. Mstoles: Akal.
Calaf Masachs, M. R. (1998). El dilogo objeto-artista-observador. Una
propuesta didctica. Aspectos didcticos de Ciencias Sociales
(Arte), 12, 11-50.
Calb i Angrill, M., Juanola i Terradellas, R. y Valls i Villanueva, J. (2011).
Visiones interdisciplinarias en educacin del patrimonio: Artes,
Culturas, Ambiente. Girona: Documenta Universitaria.
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Resumen
El presente texto reflexiona sobre parte del pensamiento
desarrollado en nuestra tesis doctoral titulada Educacin artstica y
patrimonial para la percepcin, comprensin y reflexin del colectivo
sordo en el mbito museal, en la que se presenta a los museos
como espacios idneos para el trabajo con diferentes capacidades.
stos, contienen y se configuran a travs de varios ingredientes
capaces de incidir en algunas de las carencias que, colectivos como
el sordo, presentan: Arte, Educacin no formal, Patrimonio y
Educacin Patrimonial constituyen cuatro pilares que consideramos
clave para el trabajo con el colectivo sordo. El arte entendido como
instrumento mental capaz de potenciar y ampliar las capacidades
humanas; La educacin no formal como va para alcanzar cotas que
la educacin formal tiene vetadas; Patrimonio como contenido
musestico capaz de vincular experiencias, personas y culturas; y
Educacin Patrimonial como foco educativo capaz de aunar cuanto
el museo ofrece y las necesidades del colectivo sordo. La visin del
museo desde la ptica educativa, entendindolo desde una
museologa social cuyo servicio a la sociedad se convierte en
obligacin, permite ofrecer una reflexin sobre sus posibilidades
respecto al colectivo sordo.
Palabras clave: Museo, sordera, educacin, educacin patrimonial,
arte
Abstract
The interheritage concept: social inclusion in heritage for the
deaf community and configuration of common museum spaces
between cultures
This paper explores some of the concepts developed in my doctoral
thesis entitled Artistic and heritage education for perception,
understanding and reflection of the deaf community in the museum
field, in which we show museums to be perfect places to work with
different abilities. Museums contain and configure ingredients that
can influence some shortcomings for groups such as the deaf: Arts,
Non-formal education, Heritage, and Heritage education are four key
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Les rsultats prsents dans cet article font partie du dveloppement de notre thse
de doctorat en voie dachvement lUniversit de Barcelone dans le cadre du
Doctorat en Gestion de la Culture et du Patrimoine.
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Cit par Philippe Urfalino (2011), le dcret fondateur du Ministre des Affaires
culturelles en France attribuait la nouvelle administration la mission de rendre
accessibles les oeuvres capitales de lhumanit, et dabord de la France, au plus
grand nombre possible de Franais : assurer la plus vaste audience notre patrimoine
culturel et favoriser la cration doeuvres de lart et de lesprit qui lenrichissent.
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223
Comme le faisait remarquer Jacques Rigaud dans son oeuvre Libre culture (1990,
p.553), cite par Jean Davallon (1992).
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224
toujours plus importante quon accorde aux publics, quil faut diriger
lobservation pour comprendre lvolution des muses.
Somme toute, les outils dtude des publics se sont ainsi faits
linterprte dun questionnement qui renvoie la fois au paradigme
des politiques daction auprs des publics (essentiellement
dmocratiser laccs la culture contemporaine), mais qui renvoie
galement aux investissements de lapproche marketing, dans la
volont de positionner linstitution muse sur le march de la culture
et du tourisme (Tobelem, 2003 ; Mairesse, 2010). Dans ce contexte,
il nous semble donc lgitime de nous interroger sur le poids que
dtiennent aujourdhui les publics dans le domaine de la culture. Estil possible, dans un cadre dvaluation des tendances musales
observes jusqu prsent, de considrer limplication des publics et
leur relle considration dans la gestion des institutions ? Quel rle
peut-on leur attribuer ? Comment les connat-on ? Dans quels
contextes utilise-t-on ces connaissances ? Quels sont, finalement,
les degrs de sensibilisation et de confiance des professionnels de la
culture par rapport au dveloppement des services des publics dans
le secteur des muses ?
Pour complter ces premiers lments gnraux, il faut aussi
prciser que la variabilit dans lapproche de la connaissance des
publics nest comparable qu lhtrognit qui caractrise les
institutions musales elles-mmes, due des facteurs aussi divers
94
que leur type de thmatique, leur taille , leur gouvernance, leurs
choix stratgiques, ainsi que la formation du personnel, etc. Il sagit
dune variabilit physiologique qui engendre son tour un
nombre important de consquences, y compris dans les choix relatifs
aux publics, aux actions et aux services les concernant, et, en
dfinitive, dans le degr dintrt pour la production de
connaissances sur lesdits publics et dinvestissement en ce domaine.
Or, dans cet article, nous allons justement questionner les institutions
musales en fonction des comportements mis en place dans la
production de donnes sur et auprs de leurs publics. Est-il possible
de dcrire et de comprendre la variabilit observe dans ces
comportements en lien avec les caractristiques propres des
institutions ? Est-il possible de reconnatre et de comprendre cette
variabilit dans le cadre des critres adopts par les politiques
publiques nationales ? De l, lhypothse comparative que nous
avons adopte lchelle nationale : est-il possible de reconduire
cette variabilit dapproche de la connaissance des publics
lchelle du dveloppement national de lintrt envers les publics, et
si cela savre possible, selon quelles modalits?
Prcisons toutefois que, pour des raisons techniques, dans le cadre de cet article, il
ne nous a pas t possible de considrer vritablement cette variable.
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99
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Choix mthodologiques
recherche
et
possibles
227
limites
de
la
103
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229
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60,00%
50,00%
40,00%
30,00%
20,00%
10,00%
0,00%
ai
s
De
te
m
ps
Ju
Ja
m
st
e
un
ps
te
m
en
fo
is
Un
e
Ha
bi
tu
el
le
m
pa
ra
en
FR
ES
tablissements espagnoles
Ges on prive
d
m
Ges on publique
og
ra
Fr
ph
q
iq
ue
ue
s
nt
a
In
on
t
r
e
ts
t
et
M
go
o
t
fs
s
de
la
vis
ite
Sa
Pr
sfa
ob
c
l
on
m
es
et
pl
ai
nt
s
25,0%
20,0%
15,0%
10,0%
5,0%
0,0%
So
c io
Fr
q
So
c io
d
m
og
ra
ph
iq
ue
ue
s
nt
a
In
on
t
r
et
ts
et
M
go
o
t
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s
de
la
vis
ite
Sa
Pr
sfa
ob
c
l
on
m
es
et
pl
ai
nt
s
25,0%
20,0%
15,0%
10,0%
5,0%
0,0%
tablissements franais
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Ges on prive
Ges on publique
Gloria Romanello
231
106
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232
s/o
Une universit
Un bureau priv d'tude de march
Un tudiant / un stagiare
FR
ES
Parmi ceux qui dclarent avoir jou un rle actif dans le processus
dcisionnel de mise en uvre denqutes sur les publics , on relve
une certaine divergence dopinion concernant le degr de difficults
rencontr au cours de ce processus : les rpondants qui dclarent
avoir rencontr le plus de rsistances et dobstacles sont ceux du
secteur ducatif espagnol (44,1%, contre 22% de leurs quivalents
franais). A linverse, ceux pour lesquels tout semble avoir t facile,
voire trs facile, sont les chargs de la communication franais
(62,5%).
Les causes des difficults rencontres semblent tre principalement
de deux ordres : labsence daccord entre les parties concernes
quant lutilit relle de mener ltude ainsi que sur les modalits
techniques adopter (en rapport 3 : 1).
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233
Dans la communica on
ES
Cf. Front-end evaluation et formative evaluation (Bitgood & Shettel, 1994, 1996;
Loomis, 1987). Pour une plus rcente analyse de cette perspective dans la ralit
franaise, cf. Chaumier, 2007.
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s/o
Insa sfaisantes
Peu sa sfaisantes
FR
ES
Sa sfaisantes
Trs sa sfaisantes
0,00% 10,00%
20,00%
30,00% 40,00%
50,00% 60,00%
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235
s/o
Aucune rpercussion
Peu de rpercussion
ES
FR
40,0%
50,0%
60,0%
57,6%
G. Publique
54,1%
32,2%
27,0%
8,5% 13,5%
5,4%
d'un
d'un ou l de
engagement
marke ng
avec la
socit
d'une
obliga on
publique
1,7%
s/o
tablissements franais
G. Prive
G. Publique
58,2%
25,0%
37,5%19,4%
22,4%
37,5%
G. Publique
d'un engagement
avec la socit
G. Prive
d'un ou l de
marke ng
d'une obliga on
publique
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45,0%
40,0%
35,0%
30,0%
25,0%
20,0%
15,0%
10,0%
5,0%
0,0%
FR
ES
Bon / Excellent
Rgulier
Insuffisant /
Trs insuffisant
valuation finale des efforts faits par linstitution lgard des publics.
Source : lauteure.
Conclusion
A partir des donnes que nous avons recueillies et analyses cidessus, la manire, ou plutt les manires, dont les tablissements
culturels ici retenus, des muses et centres dart contemporain,
connaissent leurs publics tmoigne dune ralit en mouvement, loin
de faire laccord entre les diffrents groupes professionnels (mais
aussi entre les divers types dinstitutions, notamment publiques ou
prives). Les critiques recueillies et les limites dtectes peuvent tre
interprtes comme le reflet dune tension en cours, lexpression des
insatisfactions et des dceptions semblant constituer une
consquence comprhensible dune frustration ne du dcalage de
plus en plus peru entre le rve et la ralit.
En fait, comme lindiquent les rsultats de notre enqute, la
production de connaissance sur les publics est en relation avec le
cadre dvaluation des politiques culturelles publiques, dans
lexpression du principe de dveloppement des publics : lusage des
tudes de publics, mme dans ses paradoxes et malgr ses
ingalits (comme on lobserve lors de la comparaison des deux
panoramas nationaux espagnol et franais) devient ainsi la raction
empirique aux contraintes idales dictes par les politiques
publiques, au nom de la dmocratisation de la culture. Du reste, il est
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237
Remerciements
Je tiens remercier toutes les personnes des institutions - muses et
centres dart franais et espagnols - qui, par leur disponibilit et leur
engagement, ont accept de participer cette recherche en
rpondant lenqute. La liste des institutions participantes ainsi que
le dtail des rsultats denqute sont disponibles sur simple
demande en contactant lauteure de cet article, lanonymat des
participants tant toutefois prserv. Enfin, mes remerciements vont
aussi Alain Quemin, dont la lecture attentive a beaucoup apport
mon travail.
Bibliographie
Alarcn, R. (2007). Sociologa y estudios de pblico en los museos
espaoles. Museo: Revista de La Asociacin Profesional de
Muselogos de Espaa, 12, 233-246.
Ario Villarroya, A. (2011). Las prcticas culturales en Espaa.
Panorama Social, 14, 21-33.
Asensio Brouard, M., & Pol Mndez, E. (1996). Cuando la mente va al
museo: un enfoque cognitivo-receptivo de los estudios de pblico.
Dans IX Jornadas estatales Deac-museos, 83-134
108
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238
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239
Rsum
Dans le cadre dune tude comparative mene en 2013 en France
et en Espagne, cet article sinterroge sur les effets du processus de
dveloppement des outils de connaissance des publics dans le
secteur de la culture dans les muses et centres dart
contemporain. Il existe aujourdhui un vaste dbat autour de la
politique des publics et des responsabilits des institutions
culturelles envers leurs publics (Davallon, 1992 ; Caillet, 2007 ;
Donnat, 2010 ; Tobelem, 2013), mais quel est rellement le rle
accord ces publics ? Comment les connat-on ? Comment
utilise-t-on les donnes produites leur sujet ? Pour apporter une
contribution ce dbat, nous avons dvelopp un programme de
recherche comparative franco-espagnole - dont la finalit consiste
analyser la production de connaissances sur les publics des
muses et centres dart contemporain ainsi que lusage qui en fait.
Les mthodes dtude de publics expriment un questionnement qui
renvoie non seulement la politique publique daction sociale
auprs des divers publics - notamment lobjectif de dmocratiser
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240
Abstract
Visitor research, what for? Producing knowledge about visitors
in the management of French and Spanish contemporary art
museums and centers
As part of a study conducted in 2013 in France and Spain, this
article examines the effects of the development process of visitor
studies in the cultural sector. Today, there is much debate about
audience-oriented policies and the responsibilities of cultural
institutions towards their public (Davallon, 1992; Caillet, 2007;
Donnat, 2010; Tobelem, 2013); What role do the visitors really play
and what attention is really given to them? What do we know about
them? How are visitor research data used? We have developed a
French-Spanish comparative research program whose purpose is to
analyse the consequences of visitor studies to produce knowledge
in contemporary art museums and centers. Conducting visitor
studies becomes a way to approach public policies focusing on
social aims - including democratizing access to contemporary
culture - but also defining the strategic planning of each cultural
institution from an economic and tourism perspective.
Key words: visitor studies, contemporary
management, research, France, Spain
art
museums,
Resumen
Estudios de pblico, para qu? El conocimiento del pblico en
la gestin de los museos y centros de arte contemporaneo en
Francia y en Espaa.
En el marco de un estudio realizado en 2013 entre Francia y
Espaa, este artculo pretende examinar los efectos del proceso de
desarrollo de las herramientas de conocimiento del pblico en acto
en el sector cultural. Hoy en da existe un gran debate sobre las
polticas de pblico y las responsabilidades de las instituciones
culturales respeto a sus pblicos (Davallon, 1992; Caillet, 2007;
Donnat, 2010; Tobelem, 2013), pero cual es en realidad el papel
del pblico? Cmo alcanzamos conocerle? Cmo se utiliza el
conocimiento
producido?
En
lnea
con
este
debate,
hemos desarrollado un programa de investigacin comparativa
cuya finalidad es la de analizar la produccin de conocimiento
sobre los pblicos en los museos y centros de arte contemporneo.
Los estudios de visitantes apuntan as a un cuestionamiento de las
polticas publicas incluso hacia la democratizacin del acceso a la
cultura pero tambin a los aspectos econmicos de los ltimos
desarrollos gerenciales de las instituciones culturales, cada vez
ms en relacin con el mercado de la cultura y del turismo.
Palabras-clave: estudio de visitantes, gestin, museos de arte
contempranos, Francia, Espaa
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The specific fictional reality refers to the state where things are
musealized and re-contextualized, that is, they are physically and/or
intellectually removed from the primary context of the real reality.
Fictional refers to an arrangement other than the primary context,
although the location can be identical, as, for instance, with a restored
Old Town. Of course, visitors will nonetheless experience this
secondary reality as real (hence the term). It does not just refer to
the museum as an institution (a part of the social real reality), but to
the process of musealization in general.
Fictional reality is created through personal imagination that is
through a personal reality and it in turn creates new personal realities.
The museum visitor constantly measures the fictional reality found in
the museum against the real world and the personal world.
The specific personal reality refers to the state where, based on
individual biographies and social environments, people have a
personal and unique relationship to objects which have been
physically and/or intellectually removed from the primary (real reality)
and secondary (fictional reality) context; ideal (especially emotional)
values dominate.
The creation of a personal reality can be the result of a
communication process (denotation) with objects as sign or, more
often, a connotation outside the intended communication process, a
kind of inner dialogue. The experience factor while visiting an
exhibition is important in this regard.
Things can spark emotions (pleasure, worry, etc.,), awaken
memories, evoke knowledge and provoke thought; in doing so, they
acquire a new dimension.
This refers to the individual and cultural/biographical aspect of the
man-thing relationship; that is, what objects can do to people (move,
activate) and what they cannot do, and not what they embody and
communicate to people something they could not achieve as mute,
material entities.
The personal reality is the most open of the three realities as a
person can act outside of all conventional rules; this reality therefore
contains the most creative potential.
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The goal was to get people talking about the museum, to bring new
audiences to it, and to encourage discovery.
The premise is that some of the artworks in the Luce Center
collection have become haunted. Players have to find out
who the ghosts are, which artworks are infected, and how to
thwart the undead scourge and save the collection. Along
the way, players will influence the story itself (Smithsonian,
2014).
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Theme
Concerning the theme, it is absolutely crucial to chose one that is
closely linked with the museum and its mission. The main goal of
ARN must be the promotion of the museum and its objects. I argue
that it would not be adequate just to organize a game as attractive
(and serious) as it may be that is not linked with the museum or at
least with the local/regional museums world in a common activity. I
defend the idea that it should not be possible to use ARN separately
from the museum and that a museum visit must always be integrated.
If well done, ARN are much more than a vogue; they can really
contribute to a better promotion of the museum and its duties.
Cybernetics dont threaten the museum if they are adopted and
integrated with intelligence, that means they should be exclusively in
its service and never dominate it by gathering momentum.
How can ARN be interpreted museologically?
It is a new way to attract visitors, especially the younger generation. Is
it really so different from older activities exporting the museum, too?
There are many out-of-the-museum activities: Any museum
publication allows strolling through the exhibitions at home; any film
on an exhibition presents it at any time outside the museum; any
virtual visit on the web offers direct access to the exhibition halls
wherever you are, in real time, but also when the museum is closed.
What is then really new with ARN?
First, the story may go far beyond the usual information level in an
exhibition. In this context, it is important to repeat what I just said
before: The story should never become autonomous and separated
from the museums topics. Second, the very active role of participants
who integrate much more than when just reading a book or watching
a film or when using the web just as a consumer. Third, the open
ended action. Since visitors participate actively, nobody can foresee
the evolution of the event. Every participant adds new elements
influencing the ongoing story that is linear. Fourth, everything
happens in real time only. Hence it is not possible to go back or to
correct an issue.
And fifth certainly the most important new issue the complete
blending of reality and fiction. It is simply no more possible to
distinguish the two elements sharply. Participants/visitors are real
persons acting in real time on a fictitious story happening in a real
museum with invented actors and so on!
Are reality and fiction really so clearly separated in a traditional
museum?
At this point, an interesting (and provoking) question may arise: Are
reality and fiction really so clearly separated in a traditional museum?
Does it show any past reality? I think a majority of museum visitors
believe so, since the objects are real; hence the story must be real,
too! But it isnt! The exhibition presents a fictitious world invented by
the curator. I dont neglect the importance of historical research at all,
but nobody can prove the ultimate truth of its findings. Thats not a
pity at all! It allows interesting discussions and controversial
exhibitions.
And finally: Why not communicate such facts to our visitors? Alternate
Reality Narratives could offer an excellent opportunity to do so!
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247
References
Bath Goodlander, Georgina. (2009). Fictional press release and fake
artefacts: How the Smithsonian American Art Museum is letting
game players redefine the rules (2014, March 19). Retrieved from
www.archimuse.com/mv2009/papers/goodlander.html
Davallon, Jean. (1999). Lexposition luvre. Stratgies de communication
et mdiation symbolique. Paris: LHarmattan
Falk Anderson, Eike & al. (2010). Developing serious games for cultural
heritage: A state-of-the-art review. Virtual Reality, 14,4, 255-275
Jenkins, Henry. (2006). Convergence culture. When old and new media
collide. New York/London: NY University Press
Phillips, Andrea. (2012). A creators guide to transmedia storytelling. How to
captivate and engage audience across multiple platforms. New York:
Mc Graw Hill
Russo, Angelina & Watkins, Jerry. (2007). Digital culture communication:
Audience and mediation. In Cameron, Fiona & Kenderdine, Sarah.
(Eds.), Theorizing digital culture heritage, a critical discourse
(pp.149-164). Cambridge/London: MIT Press
Schrer, Martin R. (2003). Die Ausstellung Theorie und Exempel. Mnchen:
Mller-Straten
Websites
Acwarproject. (2014, March 19). Retrieved from
https://acwarproject.wordpress.com
Ghosts of a chance. (2014, February 8). Retrieved from
www.ghostsofachance.com
Ghosts report. (2014, February 8). Retrieved from
http://www.museumtwo.com/publications/Ghosts_Report.pdf
Jewel of the valleys. (2014, February 14). Retrieved from
http://jewelofthevalleys.wikispaces.com
Smithsonian. (2014, February 8). Retrieved from
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/get-your-game-on-11173079
Abstract
Alternate Reality Games try to combine the real and the virtual world
by interactive Transmedia Story Telling/Transmedia Narrative taking
place in real-time and evolve according to the participants
responses. Traditionally, there is only online information on an
exhibition in the real museum world or a completely virtual
exhibition on the screen only. Alternate Reality Narratives (ARN)
shift between the two realities. Since 2008 several projects have
been launched in museums. Before the appearance of a virtual
cyber world, it could be said that our lives took place in three
different realities: the primary real everyday one, the secondary
fictitious one recombining elements (mainly physically) from the
former (for instance in a museum), and the secondary personal
recombining elements (intellectually or physically) from the two
others. We constantly move between those realities. If we consider
that the real and fictitious realities are both physical (things, people)
and that the personal reality is virtual, we could, by adding the cyber
reality, create a dichotomy physical/virtual. Alternate Reality
Narratives use our permanent and very often unconscious shift
between the two realities to augment the museum experience. We
discuss the title question in a museological context including
theoretical considerations as well as practical aspects.
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248
Rsum
Alternate Reality Games (des jeux alternant les ralits) combinent
le monde rel et le monde virtuel par des narrations interactives
utilisant diffrents mdias. Ils se situent en temps rel et voluent
selon les rponses des participants. Traditionnellement il nexiste
que des informations en ligne sur des expositions dans le monde
rel des muses ou des expositions compltement virtuelles sur
lcran. Alternate Reality Narratives (ARN) bougent entre les deux
ralits. Depuis 2008 plusieurs projets furent lancs dans des
muses. Avant larrive du cybermonde virtuel, on pouvait dire que
la vie se passait dans trois ralits diffrentes : la ralit primaire
quotidienne, la deuxime fictive recombinant des lments
essentiellement physiques de la premire (par exemple dans un
muse), et la troisime, personnelle, recombinant intellectuellement
ou physiquement des lments des deux autres. Nous bougeons
constamment entre ces ralits. Considrant que les ralits relle
et fictive sont physiques (objets, personnes) et que la ralit
personnelle est virtuelle nous pourrions crer, en ajoutant la cyberralit, une dichotomie physique/virtuelle. ARN utilisent notre va-etvient permanent et trs souvent inconscient entre les deux ralits
pour augmenter lexprience musale. Nous discutons la question
du titre dans un contexte musologique incluant des considrations
thoriques aussi bien que des aspects pratiques.
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Figure 1. Les entretiens raliss en re-situ subjectif (1) Les visiteurs sont quips dune
camra miniature puis laisss leur visite. (2) Ils sont ensuite invits dcrire leur
exprience partir de lenregistrement vido de leur perspective visuelle tandis quune
camra place derrire eux filme lcran vido, avec cette fois leurs commentaires et
leurs gestes.
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Daniel Schmitt
251
109
Composante du signe
Identification de la composante
Representamen
Engagement
Anticipation
Rfrentiel
Interprtant
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Daniel Schmitt
253
Figure 4. Influence de lenvironnement sur les savoirs mobiliss. (1) La salle au premier
plan est peinte en noir. (2) La salle a t repeinte en blanc. Selon la couleur de la salle,
les savoirs mobiliss ne sont pas les mmes.
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Figure 5. Sens imagin et sens construit. Du point de vue de linstitution, les visiteurs
devraient pouvoir percevoir les uvres comme des originaux et des uvres majeures,
retrouver leur emplacement dorigine sur la cathdrale et remarquer les diffrences
stylistiques dans les trois sections spares par des arches.
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Daniel Schmitt
255
Figure 6. Le sens construit par les visiteurs. Genny : des tres en suspension
comme au cinoche dans les films de danse . Gwenn : j'aime vraiment bien la
prsentation des femmes, des Vierges . Fanny russit identifier les instruments de
musique et trouve que c'est une salle impressionnante (photogrammes extraits
des perspectives subjectives en rapport avec les verbalisations des visiteurs).
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Figure 8. Le jeu Trier les Dchets. (1) Le tri des dchets est fait partir dun cran
tactile sur lequel dfilent des bouteilles en plastique transparent ou opaque (2) Lcran
principal indique les tapes raliser en activant un levier, une manivelle et un volant
(3) La transformation des dchets en nouveaux objets.
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Daniel Schmitt
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Daniel Schmitt
259
Conclusion
La collection des cours dexprience des visiteurs dans un muse
permet danalyser finement lactivit de ceux-ci en situation naturelle
et en autonomie. Cette mthode permet notamment de cartographier
ce qui est peru et saisi par les visiteurs, leurs attentes et les savoirs
quils mobilisent pour rsoudre les intrigues de lexposition et
construire ainsi du sens. Nous pouvons galement comparer les
construits de sens imagins par les concepteurs avec ceux construits
par les visiteurs, valuer des situations, des outils et des dispositifs
de mdiation. Le cours dexprience complte les mthodes actuelles
danalyse des publics tandis que la stabilit des registres lictionnels
des visiteurs laisse entrevoir des possibilits relles de mdiation
dynamique, une mdiation qui tient compte du visiteur et du contexte.
Il parat vraisemblable que lon tentera sous peu de dvelopper des
dispositifs mobiles pour personnaliser la visite en mettant en uvre
des technologies de golocalisation et de reconnaissance dobjets
associes des ressources issues du Big Data (gestion
d'informations en volume) afin de proposer des contenus en relation
avec les proccupations des visiteurs et celles des institutions
musales. Lidentification des registres lictionnels laisse aussi
entrevoir des applications commerciales, par exemple sous la forme
vous avez plutt regard ceci, vous aimerez probablement cela, et
cela se trouve dans la boutique tel endroit . Il me parat
important de prendre collectivement conscience de ce nouveau
champ dapplication des technologies numriques dans la mdiation,
dont les contenus sont devenus manipulables. Il sagit pour les
muses dinvestir, dexprimenter et dexplorer avec les praticiens les
usages de ces technologies pour rpondre de faon pertinente
lenjeu essentiel de la parole dite par linstitution.
Rfrences
Annis, S. (1986). The Museum as a Staging Ground for Symbolic Action.
Museum, n151, 168-171.
Chaumier, S., & Mairesse, F. (2014). La mdiation culturelle. Paris : Armand
Colin.
Davallon, J., Gottesdiener, H., & Poli, M.-S. (2000). Le concept de visiteur
expert , Museum International, vol. 52, n208, 60-64.
Dufresne-Tass, C., Sauv, M., Weltzl-Fairchild, A., Banna, N., Lepage, Y.,
Dassa, C. (1998). Pour des expositions musales plus ducatives,
accder l'exprience du visiteur adulte. Dveloppement d'une
approche. Revue canadienne de l'ducation , 23 (3), 302-315.
Eidelman, J., Gottesdiener, H., & Marec, J. le (2013). Visiter les muses :
exprience, appropriation, participation. Dans H. Gottesdiener, &
J. Davallon (Dir.), Culture et Muses (La musologie : 20 ans de
recherche) (pp. 73-113). Hors-Srie, Arles : ditions Actes Sud.
Leleu-Merviel, S. (2005). La structure du Aha : de la fulgurance comme une
percolation. Dans I. Saleh I. et J. Clment. Hypertextes,
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260
Rsum
Dans les muses, le programme de recherche cours
dexprience vise saisir, dcrire et comprendre comment les
visiteurs construisent du sens et des connaissances au cours dune
visite en situation naturelle et autonome (sans guide ou enseignant).
La mthode denqute sappuie sur la reviviscence de lexprience
des visiteurs. Nous rappelons les principes de cette mthode puis
nous prsentons des rsultats et des perspectives dapplication.
Cette approche pistmique et mthodologique originale ouvre des
pistes prometteuses pour enrichir lexprience des visiteurs.
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Daniel Schmitt
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Abstract
Contributions and prospects of the visitors course of
experience in museums
In museums, the course of experience research programme aims to
identify, describe, and understand how visitors construct meaning and
knowledge during a museum visit under natural and autonomous
conditions (without a guide or teacher). The survey method is based
on the revival of the visitors experience. This paper recalls the
principles of this method of inquiry before presenting the results and
possibilities for its application. This innovative epistemological and
methodological approach opens up promising avenues to enrich the
visitor experience.
Key words: experience of the visit, course of experience, subjective
re-situ interview, knowledge, evaluation, liction
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The setting is a dark future where the world has begun to fall apart.
We are witnessing the end of civilization. Earth is inhabited by two
sorts of creatures. One is the small good-hearted, human-like Eloi
who live in small communities within large and futuristic, yet slowly
deteriorating buildings, doing no work. The other is the pale and cruel
Morlocks who live in dark caves and tunnels underground. Every now
and then, the Morlocks will appear above ground, only to harass and
chase the Eloi, then simply to eat them up. At the interface of these
two worlds stands a ruined huge building called the Palace of Green
Porcelain, containing heaps of oddities: a decomposing skeleton of a
brontosaurus, remains of stuffed unknown animals, rusty metal
objects and gadgets, a dump of ancient machines and technical
apparatuses. Everywhere you see piles of trash, indefinable
remnants, long since deteriorated.
Where are we? This mausoleum in decomposition is, says the author,
the ancient monument of an intellectual era", long ago vanished in
the mists of Time. And the ruin itself is nothing but the remnants of
the Museum of Natural History in London. The book, The Time
Machine by H.G. Wells, was published in 1895. Wells is dealing with
one of the crucial and most agonizing phenomena, or existential
fundaments, of Western culture, which I would prefer to call a culture
110
of disappearance . This stands for our preoccupation with the
dissolution of time, life and materiality, along with our desperate urge
to cling to it all. With this example by Wells, I want to draw attention to
the fact that what we today esteem as highly valuable and worthwhile
to save, tomorrow could be considered incomprehensible and
superfluous trash, and that the concept of value is continually
changing over time. Today trash, tomorrow of museum value; or
the other way round. My other point is that we, on the one hand, are
preserving too much, and on the other do not take enough
responsibility for what we believe we have got rid of, but which is
preserved nevertheless trash/garbage.
Museum and heritage professionals seem to believe that their job to
collect and preserve objects as well as heritagization of places and
environments somehow is an intrinsic value, which is rarely
questioned or disputed. Museums and heritage institutions should
start questioning their own doings. We need a deeper understanding
and an overall view on the consequences of our production,
collection, consuming and disposal of goods and commodities. A
continued indefinite expansion of museum collections is not a realistic
option for a sustainable future. A continued and indefinite expansion
of production and disposal of commodities is not an option for a
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This I partly borrowed from the title of a book: Die Gesellschaft des Verschwindens
by Stefan Breuer.
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and the dump, are situated at the core of this problem of order and
disorder, inclusion and exclusion, in our inexorable entanglement with
commodities. They are antipodes to one another; two sides of the
same coin, as I will argue below.
Ever since the first preservation law and the Archives nationales in
112
France were formed in 1790 , the archivization and musealization of
our lived life and of things has been going on. The new rgime would
see to it that documents of history were rescued. French revolutionary
authorities were also concerned about the unrestrained destruction of
material heritage in the surge and aftermath of the Revolution. The
old regime was crushed all right, but when demolition threatened
more and more ancient buildings and monuments, authorities felt an
obligation to save testimonies of the ancien rgime. In 1793, the
Comission des arts was founded for the purpose of protecting
historical monuments. Soon thereafter, as a result of the
expropriations of the Revolution, the Muse des monuments francais
was created to publicly exhibit fragments from the vandalized city
(Arrhenius, 2003, p. 27). Fragments remnants were as good as
the whole object as far as testimonial properties were concerned. This
th
was also the case in the new 19 century museums and their
collections, especially for archaeological museums of course. From
the start, through preservation and conservation, modernity
incorporated the past in the new as a broken wholeness in which
the ancient monument (or object), displaced from the present,
became the site of either nostalgia or utopia (Arrhenius, 2003, p. 27).
The same year as the inauguration of the Commission, the Louvre
instead of being demolished, as some had rightly feared, was opened
to the public. From now on, heritage and museums belonged to the
people.
An imaginary
view of The
Grande Galerie
of the Louvre in
Ruins, by Hubert
Robert 1796
only three years
after the Louvres
opening for the
public.
(Courtesy Muse
du Louvre, Paris).
112
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At the same time, the archive is a phenomenon that springs from our
agony about our own finitude and the limits of time. The archive is
made possible by death, aggression and destruction. Derrida goes
on: //beyond finitude as limit, there is // this properly in-finite
movement of radical destruction without which no archive desire or
fever could happen. Archives and museums came into being as
establishments for salvation of cultural residue in the eternal
processes of human neglect and destruction (Fayet, 2012, p. 226). In
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Trash
In his interesting investigation of the ontology or being of trash, Greg
Kennedy notes that a number of themes in fact are historically
combined to the phenomenon of trash in our modern society:
rationalization, disembodiment, convenience, denial of mortality,
dismissal of finitude, and violence (Kennedy, 2007, p. 121). Kennedy
maintains that the enormous amounts of consumer trash that we
produce signify in a way our failure at being human. Voluntarily, we
produce commodities that do not demand our maintenance or careful
attention, thus maximizing their disposability. This relative freedom of
taking care of any objects supposedly saves the consumer time.
Carefreeness is the real promise of technology, and its real
fulfilment is trash. Kennedy refers here to Heidegger and his concept
of Being-in-the-world, who distinguished between care [Sorge],
and taking care of [Besorgen]. Care is a more profound and
existential concept of being human, of being-in-the-world. Thus the
consumption of care-free commodities in fact conspires against our
own essential being as care meaning care as our relation to the
world; care of the environmental, social and other preconditions of
human existence (Kennedy, p. 122f). Kennedy is pessimistic: he
finishes his book with a chapter with the headline Human extinction.
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270
they will not make a single move any more, nor will they ever see
daylight again.
Value is not something that is attached to any object per se. Value
is never fixed. Value is in the eye of the beholder. There is a constant
battle of values going on in our encounter with objects, in which the
question of authenticity, time and age is involved, in which status and
personal or institutional identity is involved, as well as memory,
history and lots and lots of other parameters.
Meaning and value are incessantly created, processed, maintained
and changed, and are linked to the cultural capital (Bourdieu) of the
person or collective who estimates the value. Meaning and value are
not qualities in the object, nor are they something independently
going on in the head of those who entangle with the object, but lie in
the entanglement itself. This is part of the specific relation to reality I
am examining. Value is created by many different parameters
operating both from inside (person) and outside (society), dependent
on social, economic, etc. circumstances. Value and valuation is the
very fundament of classification. From there categorization and
classification starts. And value also governs our entanglement with
objects.
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This map was published as a first version in Swedish some years ago in the
academic journal Nordisk Museologi [Museology in the North] but at the time it was
only briefly explained (see Smeds, 2002).
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institutions have two things in common. They are both deposits for
things, taken out of their practical everyday use, and they both
preserve things very well, for eternity so to speak however, the
first by care, the other by neglect.
THE MUSEUM /to PRESERVE
to own (to have, with direction)
Memory
Symbolizes a We, Us, is wanted
Temple
Control
Order, classification
Domestication
Truth
Anxiety
Time,
Linearity
Extension of ourselves into eternity
Promise
Value
Process,
Progress
Sacred,
Holy
Richness
Extrovert,
Movement
Integration, Belonging
Communication,
Narration
Representation
First, let us note the headlines of the two antipodes of social life and
meaning of objects, collected and highly valued versus non-collected,
non-valued. The museum is all about having, owning, saving and
preserving in the name of science but very often for an unknown
purpose. A collector would say, I have this, therefore I am. If a
museum could speak, it would say so too. This is the sphere where
the rational (and technological) mind takes a grip over body and
matter and uses it to its own convenience; in a world where moneyvalue and knowledge-production rules. The other sphere is not at all
connected to ownership, but simply represents an I am here at this
spot in time and space, just because you have left me here,
neglected, without care (Fromm, 1976).
The first sphere (museum) is heading forward; all undertakings in a
museum have a purpose and direction, moving from a past towards a
future. The museum posits itself in a linear chain of being in history,
gathering memorabilia and material evidence of past lives, whereas
the other, the dump, is posited entirely out of time. A dump/landfill or
trash deposit is per definition non-linear, non-chronological, nonprogressive, non-evolutionary as far as time and history are
concerned. In a dump, all possible times (items from different
historical periods) could peacefully coexist within one square meter.
Whereas the museum is memory, the dump is forgetfulness and
oblivion. The question of memory is complex though, since the dump
might also contain memories even too many hidden memories.
However, museums represent the memories we wanted to save,
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Kerstin Smeds
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while the dump represents memories we would rather not have. The
museum represents memory in neat order, whereas in the dump,
memory resides in its natural state actually in the same manner as it
does in the mind of a person: ALL memories are acutely present, in
no order at all until we start narrating them.
A museum and the collections in a museum, taxonomically ordered
as they are, stand for control. The ontological and epistemological
idea of a museum is to gain control of reality and time by structuring it
scientifically. In some ways, time in a museum, particularly in the
repositories of collections, is similar to that of a dump; time is frozen,
stopped. But as soon as something is done with the collections, e.g.
displayed and ordered within a narrative in an exhibition, time is given
a direction, it moves ahead, but only subordinated to our will, to
decisions and trajectories. In the dump, time never moves; all layers
of times are just there, in a big mess.
Due to its scientific origins and purposes, the museum of course also
represents truth. The knowledge aggregated in a museum is (or was)
thought to be objective truth - at least until hermeneutics intruded into
and disturbed the image. A museum would say, We are telling you
the truth about reality and history. Because we know. This is the
whole point of being a museum. Rarely does (or did) a museum take
into account the circumstance that the narration (be it national,
regional, scientific or what) in which it is subsumed, de facto only
exhibited fragments and fractions of the past and as a matter of fact
the same kind of fragments that are found in a dump.
What story does a classic dump then tell? I am not saying that a
dump or landfill tells the whole truth about the past; but for sure, it
tells a truer story of our lives than ever a museum could do. Since the
dump is in a state of creative chaos, following no linear lines of time
or history, the truths and narrations do the same; multiple stories of
our everyday life are buried in a dump. If a museum, with respect to
the collected and preserved objects, could be conceived as an
extension of our lives into eternity, the dump represents our thrownaway lives, losses and perhaps sorrows for what we have lost. But it
also represents everything that we have not wanted to save for
coming generations, things that were worn out and had no value, or
things that we did not want anybody to see or to know that they had
anything to do with us. There might be shame attached to these
remains. Grief attached to a loved ones dumped things. A dump is a
sort of symphony or requiem over passed modern life, a painful
rsum of a civilization that got out of hand. A dump/landfill or
garbage heap is crowded with secrets, dreams and hopes, or crushed
dreams and hopes. In this respect, compared to the museum, the
dump is telling the real truth about our lives.
On the internet, a pseudonym Celeste has summed up:
Socially unacceptable, marginalized and culturally dismissed,
junk is not a graveyard of our past but the gateway to our
unconscious desires and imagined futures..also a symbol
of our hidden lives. If Hemingway is right and human stories
are like an iceberg with nine tenths hidden, then junk offers
115
a bridge so we can communicate across the divide.
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of all those mutations and othernesses that do not fit into the
taxonomic system. In the same manner, we would say that a museum
represents a domesticated reality; reality turned into social
representations, symbols and meaning in a way, disarmed reality.
We know exactly what we have and for what purpose, it can never be
threatening because we control it. This is not the case with dumps
and landfills, which, when they occasionally pop up in our
consciousness, indeed are considered threatening morally,
sanitarily and socially. A dump is where the other is tucked away
and resides; representing all that is foreign and even disgusting to
us including the outcasts and lowest ranked people in a society.
A dump is all but domesticated and controlled, as far as contents are
concerned. Thus, trash represents wilderness, which is located
outside the territory of our ordered everyday life and our socially
reliable community. Not only is it a site where we have gathered all
wild things that we do not want to see any more in our home; dumps
and landfills are usually also located in places far out in real
wilderness, preferably in some no-mans-land, wastelands with no
economic potential. Hence rubbish/trash, originally made out of raw
material from Mother Nature, returns to her in the dumps and landfills,
buried in her embrace.
Nobody wants their waste close to their habitat be it an individual
person, family or community. The NIMBY effect, Not-in-my-backyard,
pushes around waste and disposals, preferably to the other side of a
fence, or a border, or to other (remote) countries. But it always ends
up somewhere. Regularly, industrialized societies ship their trash and
disposals particularly problematic technology or poisonous trash
to the so-called developing countries, to poor regions. One of the
most crucial contradictory features of the museum versus the dump is
this: the museum represents not only us but also our treasures, it
is all about integration, inclusion. The dump, on the other hand, is a
site of alienation, reserved for the other, the marginalized people
(poor) who have been excluded from the community, who have
gained no place or identification with us. They are defined as
throwaways, treated as trash, equivalent to our trashed objects and
spoiled things, and are therefore forgotten. This is what Patricia
Yaeger would call environmental racism a concept very well fitted
to describe our treatment of trash (Yaeger, 2003, p. 109). All over the
world, there are hundreds of thousands of people literally living on,
and of, dumps. Here we encounter images of environmental racism
[my italics], of racial sacrifice zones and toxic dumping sites that can
be located anywhere but in the white suburbs, Yaeger notes.
Out of sight, out of mind! Western rationality and technology has
cleaned it all out, taking no responsibility for the consequences.
Deposition as sacrifice
Both institutions the museum and the dump collect things for
either preservation or destruction and can be identified as man-made
deposits of goods and commodities. We people move constantly
between them whether we are aware of it or not. The problem is
that we usually recognize only one of them (the museum); the other,
we would prefer to have out of sight, out of memory, out of our lives
altogether. Nonetheless, our discards will not disappear easily; they
keep popping up, if not in my backyard, then in yours, or someone
elses. We have to face our rituals and secrets connected to objects
and our consumption of them.
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Kerstin Smeds
275
Jean Baudrillard in his book The Consumer Society notes that waste
need not always be considered a negative matter. Though the
essence of waste contains loss and negation, there is at the same
time a positive side to it. Waste has a kind of ritualistic properties
perhaps similar to the museum. // all societies have always
wasted, expended and consumed beyond what is strictly necessary
for the simple reason that it is in the consumption of a surplus, a
superfluity that the individual and society feel // that they are
alive, says Baudrillard, cited by Greg Kennedy (Kennedy, 2007, p.
10). We own things; this proves that we are alive. Waste could be
seen as ritual of sacrifice, says Greg Kennedy echoing Baudrillard:
the ritual of sacrifice performs a kind of dialectic exchange by
offering back what has been received. Strictly speaking, the
sacrifice is not a giving, but a returning.// In sacrificing, a
person places something of utility outside the sphere of
possible human use. Thus, the sacrificed object gains value
to the extent that it escapes its use-function. With respect to
utility, its value corresponds inversely to its use-function.
(Kennedy, 2007, p. 14)
Here again, the parallel between museum and dump is easy to draw;
to the dump we sacrifice things out of the sphere of human use on the
altar of modernity, but we do this to the museum, too. From a moral
point of view, it is a highly esteemed act to donate something to a
museum; at the same time, you donate a bit of yourself and your
name. Analogically it is our moral duty every now and then to tidy up
our wardrobes and cupboards to get rid of our surplus. In both cases,
the object is taxonomically selected, valued, taken out of place
from its natural habitat and transferred to one of the stations of
further existence: the transients, rubbish or durables. Ironically, as I
have noted, both means of sacrifice are bound to be well preserved
for the amazement and lionizing of future generations.
In the context of the arts, too, trash has long been seen as a rich
aesthetic resource. For decades, if not centuries, artists have made
the connection between trash and existential philosophy,
consumerism and heritage; Marcel Duchamp, Andy Warhol, Robert
Rauschenberg and Ilja Kabakov just to mention a few and then the
great trash philosopher Leonid Sejka (Urgesic, 2000, p. 55).
Moreover, under the influence of anthropology, archaeology and
environmentalism, trash has frequently been explored as material
culture that articulates identity construction in the modern society
(Pye, 2010). Precisely as the museums are considered to do, I would
add.
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276
http://www.crra.org/pages/Garbage_Museum.htm;
coach.com/blog/2010/07/08/the-fun-green-museum-trash/
and
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http://www.eco-
Kerstin Smeds
277
In the same spirit but almost 200 years later, the pseudonym Celeste
wrote poetically about garbage dumps on a website many years ago:
We can wail in the wind and our voices will be held as
tremulous ghosts in the discarded remains. Fragments, small
parts, brief windows, junk offers tiny constellations in the
human cosmos. Junk writes our lives into being by becoming
more that its material parts, straining against its definition as
the detritus of existence. Junk is a spiritual elegy to survival,
a testimony to a life lived and, for those whose mortgages fall
apart, whose pensions never happen, whose families turn
away, it is a proud way of life. Junk offers a dream world of
new beginnings. Junk is a touchstone, a clairvoyant, a
gatekeeper and a guardian bearing to our unconscious
118
lives.
Conclusion
This paper is just a beginning, a short preludium; an attempt to
discuss and formulate a problem and a perspective of museological
research hitherto overseen but which really could make a
difference as far as our relation to the material world,
consumption/collection of objects, and the social and political role of
museums of the future is concerned. It is to this end I have tried to
enlarge the scope of museum activities, musealization and
conservation as phenomena of modernity. My aim is to draw attention
to our actions and preferences in relation to things, consumption,
collecting and preservation. What are museums actually up to and
why would they not at all care about the relation to the dark side of
our encounter with things the dump? Museums would have a
reason to question and scrutinize their own business not only as a
deposits of things highly valued, but also in relation to the reality of
non-valued things out there. Museums should beware; is their
purpose to contribute to the ever-growing obsession and preservation
of objects, or should they, with all their accumulated knowledge about
human history, intervene in the ever increasing production and
118
September 1, 2005 on a blog: www.peteashton.com/05/08/21/wasteland.html which today is unfortunately closed. I used this quotation in one of my own articles in
2007.
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278
References
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Modernity. School of Architecture KTH, Stockholm.
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Boivin, N. (2008). Material Cultures, Material Minds. Cambridge University
Press.
Derrida, J. (1996). Archive Fever. A Freudian Impression. University of
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Davies, P. (Ed.) (2011). Museums and the Disposals Debate. A Collection of
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Eco, U. (2009). The Infinity of Lists. An Illustrated Essay. Muse du
Louvre/Rizzoli, New York.
Engler, M. (2004). Designing Americas Waste Landscapes. John Hopkins
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Fayet, R. (2010). Der Abfall und das Museum: Anselm Wagner (Hg.):
Abfallmoderne. Zu den Schmutzrndern der Kultur, LIT Verlag,
Stuttgart.
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Hauser, S. (2001). Metamorphosen des Abfalls. Konzepte fr alte
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Hawkins, G., & Muecke, S. (Ed.). (2003). Culture and Waste. The Creation
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Hewison, R. (1987). Heritage Industry. Britain in a Climate of Decline.
Routledge, London.
Kennedy, G. (2007). An Ontology of Trash. The Disposable and its
Problematic Nature. State University of New York Press.
Kolhaas, R. (2004). Preservation is Overtaking Us: Future Anterior:1.
Lbbe, H. (2004). Der Fortschritt von Gestern. ber Musealisierung als
Modernisierung. In U. Borsdorf, et al. (Hg.). Die Aneignung der
Vergangenheit. Musealisierung und Geschichte. Bielefeld 2004.
Mairesse, F. (1999). La rlation specifique. ICOFOM Study Series, ISS 31.
Retrieved
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pdf/ISS%2031%20(1999).pdf%20.pdf
van Mensch, P. (1992).Towards a Methodology of Museology. University of
Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy, Doctoral Thesis.
Nietzsche, F. (1874). Vom Nutzen und Nachteil der Historie fr das Leben.
Wien.
Parson, L. (2008). Thompsons Rubbish Theory. Exploring the Practices of
Value Creation: European Advances in Consumer Research,
Volume 8.
Pye, G. (2010). Trash Culture. Objects and Obsolescence in Cultural
Perspective. Cultural Interactions: Studies in the Relationship
Between the Arts. Peter Lang International Academic Publishers
(June 16).
Rathje, W., & Murphy, C. (2001). Rubbish! The Arachaeology of Garbage.
University of Arizona Press.
Rogers, H. (2005). Gone Tomorrow. The Hidden Life of Garbage. The New
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Royte, E. (2005). Garbage Land. On the Secret Trail of Trash. Little, Brown
and Company, New York, Boston.
Smeds, K. (1996). Helsingfors-Paris. Finlands utveckling till nation p
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Kerstin Smeds
279
Abstract
It seems that nothing that occurs in our society today may pass
untouched by the hand of preservation, which treats every
happening as a past in becoming. If preservation is a product of
modernity, as I will argue, so is our multifaceted relationship to
objects. Museums are bulging under the pressure of their enormous
collections. Experts together with politicians governed by economic
rationalities, battle with the issue of what to preserve, and what to let
go. At the same time, in another realm of reality, we are producing
billions of tons of trash and refuse every year material stuff, of
which a large part ends up in the oceans, or in enormous landfills all
over the world, tightly packed and, without question, very well
preserved for coming generations of archaeologists to dig up.
Museology is supposed to study mans specific relation to reality,
particularly the material reality, and to offer guidance in how to cope
with heritage in the future. This paper presents a post-humanist
approach to museums and preservation at the one end and our
everyday material discards and destruction of value at the other.
Key words: Material Culture, consumption, heritage, preservation,
museum, dump
Rsum
Mtamorphose des valeurs dans la bataille entre prservation
et laisser-aller
Il semble que rien de ce qui se produit dans notre socit
d'aujourd'hui ne peut tre laiss sans passer par la prservation ,
envisageant chaque vnement comme un pass en devenir. Si la
prservation est un produit de la modernit, comme je le soutiendrai,
il en va de mme de notre relation multifacettes avec les objets. Les
muses sont pleins craquer sous la pression de leurs normes
collections. Experts et politiciens, rgis par la rationalit
conomique, bataillent avec la question de ce qu'il faut conserver et
ce qu'il faut laisser aller. Dans le mme temps, dans un autre
domaine de la ralit, nous produisons des milliards de tonnes de
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patrimoine,
Case Studies
Etudes de cas
Estudios de caso
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Introduction
Si lentre du tmoignage oral au sein des
sciences sociales remonte aux annes 1920, il
faut
attendre
de
nombreux
dbats
mthodologiques - partir de 1970 - et la
dmocratisation des appareils denregistrement
pour que se dveloppe une vritable pratique
de lentretien. Ds lors, des archives orales
sont constitues pour collecter et conserver
ces sources (Descamps, 2005). Certaines
institutions musales ne restent pas en marge
du mouvement et mnent, elles aussi, des
projets de rcolte de tmoignages oraux. Bien
que la place de limmatriel dans les muses
119
ait suscit des dbats , la plupart des
professionnels ne doutent plus aujourdhui de
limmense potentiel des actions lies aux
tmoignages. En rcolter, cest inciter le
muse sortir de ses murs, aller la
rencontre de nouveaux publics.
Le rcit de vie, en tant que forme particulire
de tmoignage, se pense et se gre de
manire plus spcifique. Dfini comme la
narration orale, sollicite par un chercheur
dans le cadre dun entretien semi- ou non
dirig, dun sujet racontant en tout ou en partie
son parcours de vie, le rcit de vie ne met pas
laccent sur des procds, des pratiques ou
des vnements, mais rend compte des choix,
des rflexions, des objectifs, des rencontres
qui ont jalonn et construit lexistence du
tmoin (Bertaux, 2010). Dans le cadre dune
tude sur une entreprise sidrurgique, par
exemple, le chercheur peut rcolter des
informations sur le fonctionnement technique
dun haut-fourneau sous la forme dun
tmoignage ou sur le niveau de vie dun
ouvrier, sa formation, ses relations avec ses
collgues sous la forme dun rcit de vie. Le
119
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283
commenc mener des enqutes bases sur
le rcit de vie (dont une enqute sur les
migrants) (Thurion, 2014).
Le Muse dArchologie, dArt et dHistoire de
Tubize et de sa Rgion (Tubize, Province du
121
Brabant wallon), ou Muse de la Porte , a t
fond en 1968 et rnov de 2007 2009
(Muse de la Porte, 2014). Ce petit muse a
lanc en 2010 un projet de rcolte de
tmoignages et de rcits de vie autour des
forges de Clabecq, site industriel en cours de
dmolition. Ce projet participatif tait men par
des bnvoles, sensibiliss par le devoir de
mmoire. Il a t valoris par un site Internet
(La Mmoire des Forges, 2014).
Le Muse bruxellois de lIndustrie et du Travail
- La Fonderie, depuis sa cration en 1983, a
pour volont de rcolter de la mmoire orale
comme support de travail ditorial
(Puissant, 2011). Ds 1986, des tmoignages
furent recueillis de manire non systmatique
en vue dune publication ou afin de complter
les connaissances relatives aux objets
matriels acquis par le muse (Lefebvre,
Deberghe & De Sadleer, 2012).
La Maison de la Mtallurgie et de lIndustrie de
Lige (MMIL) tait, lorigine (1963), un
muse priv dpendant de lentreprise
mtallurgique
Esprance-Longdoz.
Aprs
plusieurs annes dhistoire mouvemente, il
devint en 1990 lasbl Maison de la
Mtallurgie , puis en 1992 Maison de la
Mtallurgie et de lIndustrie de Lige - Centre
de
culture
technique
et
industrielle
(Lhistoire de lassociation, 2014). En 2008, le
muse a pris conscience de la valeur
patrimoniale des tmoignages et sest engag
ponctuellement dans leur collecte (Lefbvre,
2013).
Le Muse de lHistoire de lImmigration (Paris)
a ouvert au public en 2006. Install au Palais
122
de la Porte dore , ce muse national a pour
objectifs de faire connatre un public le plus
large possible deux sicles dhistoire de
limmigration en France et de contribuer ainsi
faire changer les regards et les mentalits sur
limmigration. (Murphy, 2007). Il propose
ses visiteurs deux expositions : Repres 121
exposition
permanente
qui
retrace
chronologiquement
et
thmatiquement
lhistoire de limmigration - et la Galerie des
Dons - espace qui prsente la dmarche
participative du muse et encourage les
tmoins se manifester - (Du Mazaubrun,
2014).
Le Muse de la Mmoire vivante (Saint-JeanPort-Joli, Qubec) est install dans la demeure
seigneuriale de Philippe-Aubert de Gasp
(1786-1871), auteur des Mmoires (1866). Cet
ouvrage, qui rassemble les souvenirs de
lcrivain, constitue le point de dpart du projet
du muse ouvert en 2008. Celui-ci a consacr
toute son nergie la rcolte et la mise en
valeur de tmoignages et de rcits de vie,
dans le but denrichir leur [les publics]
comprhension du monde et afin de
transmettre ces repres culturels aux
gnrations futures. (Muse de la Mmoire
vivante, 2013).
Ces muses se sont engags dans la collecte
et lexploitation des rcits de vie pour les
raisons suivantes :
Enrichir et complter les informations
disponibles, notamment en donnant la parole
ceux qui en sont privs.
Les sources orales ont trs tt t
considres par les chercheurs comme un
moyen de connatre des minorits
auxquelles tait reste trop longtemps
indiffrente
lhistoire
acadmique
(Duclert, 2002). Ainsi, sest mise en place la
notion de contre-histoire : Lhistoire
des gouvernants est faite grce aux
archives crites, lide tait de crer de
nouvelles sources pour saisir la vie, les
reprsentations et lhistoire des domins.
(Mller, 2006). La Fonderie reprend cette
ide en annonant clairement en 1987 sa
volont de collecter la mmoire des
entreprises tant auprs des travailleurs que
des dirigeants afin d expliquer et
complter
certaines
informations
fragmentaires ou absentes. (Vanderhulst,
1987).
La collecte de tmoignages est aussi un
moyen de rassembler des sources sur un
sujet
donn.
La
Fonderie
rcolte
systmatiquement de la mmoire orale
lorsquelle acquiert une machine. Le
tmoignage du donateur permet de
contextualiser, de documenter lobjet. Le
Muse de lHistoire de lImmigration a,
quant lui, choisi de rassembler du
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patrimoine oral pour constituer un
patrimoine
de
limmigration
encore
inexistant : La collecte des objets et la
collecte des mmoires sest rvle tre
une faon mthodologique pour amener de
lobjet et du rcit de vie dans le muse.
(Du Mazaubrun, 2014).
Introduire lhumain dans le muse.
Recueillir des rcits de vie permet de
donner de la vie aux vieux papiers, aux
archives, aux machines (Vanderhulst,
1987) et d amener lhumain et une
mosaque de points de vue (Du
Mazaubrun, 2014). La prsence du tmoin
dans les salles dexposition permet
dhumaniser le discours et de dynamiser
lexposition. Grce la collecte de
tmoignages, le patrimoine technique et
industriel sincarne et nous permet de
comprendre et de faire comprendre que les
machines sont faites par des humains pour
des humains. (Lefbvre, 2013).
Un projet li aux rcits de vie est un moyen
privilgi pour entrer en interaction avec
ses publics, dans le cadre dune dmarche
participative. Le muse devient un lieu
daccueil, de rencontre et dchange, dans
lequel le tmoin et le visiteur peuvent
sapproprier vritablement leur histoire.
Linstitution musale rvle ainsi son
vritable potentiel. Elle nest pas un centre
darchives qui recueille et conserve des
documents, elle est un lieu de mdiation et
de transmission. Cette ide est souligne
par le Muse de la Mmoire vivante (2013)
qui se veut un espace de cration,
dhospitalit, de discussions .
Collecter
Constituer une collection
Une collection est un ensemble cohrent
dobjets matriels ou immatriels, slectionns
de manire raisonne dans le cadre dun projet
spcifique, autour de thmatiques prdfinies
par linstitution. Contrairement un fonds, le
muse opre des choix. Il nest pas question
pour lui de conserver de manire systmatique
lensemble des documents qui lui sont
proposs.
Le chercheur peut solliciter le don de rcits de
vie, dans le cadre dune recherche ponctuelle
ou dune enqute de longue dure. Les
enqutes du Muse de la Vie wallonne, par
exemple, durent en moyenne trois quatre
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285
obtenues seraient au jour le jour mises la
disposition du public, sous la forme de
montages vido disponibles sur Internet.
Lobjectif tait de crer un engouement, un
vnement autour du projet, qui se voulait
participatif. En allant contre-courant de la
dmarche historique classique, en proposant
la valorisation immdiate de la collecte de
rcits de vie, les auteurs du projet ont su
prouver aux tmoins potentiels lintrt de la
dmarche et, de ce fait, les ont encourags
sy impliquer. De plus, ce parti pris a donn
ce projet port par une institution de petite
envergure un rayonnement important tant au
niveau
international
de
nombreux
professionnels du monde musal ont
manifest leur intrt -, quau niveau rgional ouverture vers un large public, toutes
gnrations confondues.
Le projet La Mmoire des Forges a galement
prouv limportance de personnes-relais et de
la mise en place dun rseau de contacts. Ces
personnes connaissent le milieu tudi pour y
avoir construit des liens sociaux (anciens
ouvriers, membres dassociations). Une fois
convaincues par le projet de recherche, elles
peuvent renseigner au chercheur des
personnes-ressources, des tmoins potentiels.
Elles aident tablir un rapport de confiance
entre tmoins et chercheur.
Une autre mthode de collecte de rcits de vie
est le don spontan. Cette mthode consiste
faire prendre conscience au tmoin potentiel
de limportance de sa mmoire et linviter
en faire don de lui-mme. Pour y parvenir, le
muse de lHistoire de lImmigration a cr la
Galerie des Dons. Cette exposition prsente le
projet et la politique dacquisition du muse,
montre et contextualise quelques rcits de vie
recueillis par linstitution, dans le but dinciter
des tmoins se manifester (Grognet, 2008 &
Du Mazaubrun, 2012). Les tmoignages ainsi
rcolts sont exploits dans lexposition
permanente Repres.
Le Muse de la Mmoire vivante va encore
plus loin dans cette dmarche du don
spontan en dveloppant un concept
dexposition original.
Les expositions ne sont pas une
fin en soi. Elles laissent place aux
apports tmoignages/objets
des visiteurs, ceux-ci tant parties
prenantes, constructeurs des
expositions. Ils sont ainsi appels
tmoigner sur les lments
dexposition qui les touchent, ces
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286
tout ce qui relve du non-verbal (les gestes,
les expressions du visage) et de rendre
compte du cadre de vie du tmoin. Par contre,
la prsence dune camra lors de lentretien
peut intimider le tmoin et, de ce fait, altrer la
qualit du rcit. Pour un rsultat esthtique de
qualit, la camra doit tre manipule par des
personnes comptentes. La prsence dun
camraman est donc parfois ncessaire. Enfin,
il faut souligner que, gnralement, un fichier
vido ncessite, pour tre conserv, un
espace de stockage plus consquent quun
fichier audio.
Un appareil denregistrement audio prsente
lavantage dtre trs discret et peut tre
facilement manipul par le chercheur. La
prsence dun preneur de son lors de
lentretien nest donc pas ncessaire.
Nanmoins, un document audio offre des
options de mise en exposition plus limites
quun film. Le Muse de lHistoire de
lImmigration privilgie ce mode de captation,
plus adapt, selon Hlne Du Mazaubrun
(2014), rendre la parole intime, rsultat dune
introspection : On ferme les yeux quand on
raconte. Nous-mmes on pourrait couter en
fermant les yeux.
Lentretien se droule au muse, chez le
tmoin, dans un lieu li son histoire de vie ou
dans un espace neutre. Lenregistrement au
muse se fait dans un lieu adapt, disposant
du matriel de captation ncessaire. Ce studio
garantit un enregistrement de qualit (son et
image). Sortir du muse implique des
contraintes techniques : transport du matriel,
dplacement
de
lquipe
denqute,
amnagement dun espace denregistrement,
risque de pollution sonore Raliser
linterview domicile instaure un sentiment de
scurit, un climat de confiance et permet au
tmoin de livrer sa mmoire plus facilement.
Choisir comme cadre un lieu li lhistoire de
vie du tmoin (ancien lieu de travail, par
exemple) peut tre particulirement vocateur
et source dmotion. Attention toutefois ne
pas verser dans le voyeurisme. Enfin, le
chercheur peut raliser lentretien dans un
espace neutre, comme un caf. Le Muse de
lHistoire de lImmigration prfre cette option,
qui
garantit
la
dmarche
la
plus
authentique possible (Du Mazaubrun,
2014). Dans un espace neutre, le tmoin ne
peut pas se servir du muse pour se mettre en
scne. Il est moins enclin faonner son
discours pour correspondre aux objectifs
supposs de linstitution. De plus, dans un tel
lieu, le tmoin na pas la possibilit de dvier
de son propos ; il ne peut pas retourner dans
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287
celui qui coute. Par ce filtre, le muse rcolte
et prsente le rcit de vie de faon plus
pudique, plus respectueuse de lintimit du
tmoin.
Toute relation interpersonnelle est fonde sur
un pacte de rciprocit, un contrat tacite
dfinissant les conditions de cette interaction.
Dans le cas dun don de rcit de vie, le
chercheur attend du tmoin de lauthenticit.
Le tmoin sengage raconter le plus
sincrement possible son parcours de vie, sa
propre vision de la ralit. De son ct, le
chercheur sengage respecter, conserver
et valoriser le don reu, selon les rgles
dontologiques du muse (ICOM, 2006). Il
assure au tmoin la reconnaissance et la
transmission aux gnrations futures de la
mmoire dont il est dtenteur. Et Hlne du
Mazaubrun (2014) de souligner : Le contredon, cest cette reconnaissance.
Le rcit de vie peut, pour certains tmoins,
sapparenter une vritable thrapie. En
revenant sur sa propre existence, le tmoin a
la possibilit den faire le bilan et lanalyse, en
vue de sancrer dans le prsent (Du
Mazaubrun, 2014) et denvisager des projets
davenir (Vargas-Thils, 2008). Il est vident
que le personnel du muse na pas les
comptences suffisantes pour grer toutes les
implications
dune
telle
dmarche
psychologique. Nanmoins, en faisant preuve
dcoute et dempathie, le muse peut tre
pour le tmoin un lieu bienveillant daccueil, de
dialogue et de rflexion. En rvant de mettre
en place un club de mmoire , la MMIL
dsire offrir aux anciens ouvriers de la
sidrurgie ligeoise un cadre susceptible de
les aider faire, en groupe, le deuil de leur
entreprise
et,
paralllement,
de
se
reconstruire une identit positive (Lefbvre,
2013). Etre lcoute du tmoin, dans un
contexte participatif, est aussi une forme de
contre-don .
Conserver
Le rcit de vie, un bien patrimonial ?
Lorsquil acquiert un objet matriel, le Muse
bruxellois de lIndustrie et du Travail procde
lenregistrement du tmoignage du donateur.
Lobjectif de la dmarche est de rassembler un
maximum dinformations sur la nouvelle
acquisition. Le tmoignage oral est donc
subordonn lobjet matriel, une machine le
plus souvent. Celle-ci est intgre la
collection comme pice maitresse et est
contextualise par une srie de documents de
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288
Accessibilit des collections
Un grand nombre de facteurs entrent en ligne
de compte pour garantir une accessibilit
totale une collection : scurit, bon tat de
conservation, classification des donnes,
capacit de stockage Selon les muses
tudis, une question se pose de manire
rcurrente : Faut-il faire signer un document
au tmoin pour pouvoir exploiter son rcit ? .
Mes recherches sur la gestion des rcits de vie
par les muses ne sont, ce jour, pas encore
suffisamment avances pour que je puisse
donner au lecteur une rponse claire cette
question extrmement complexe. Nanmoins,
je me propose davancer des pistes de
rflexion.
Pour quun muse puisse exploiter et rendre
accessible des tiers un rcit de vie, il est
indispensable quun contrat attestant de cette
libre exploitation du tmoignage soit sign. Ce
contrat identifie les signataires, mentionne les
finalits et les modalits de la collecte ainsi
que les droits et obligations du tmoin et du
muse (protection de la vie prive, proprit
intellectuelle, droit limage), selon la
lgislation en vigueur dans le pays concern
(Fiche technique, 2014 ; Descamps, 2007).
Au cours de mes recherches, jai observ que
les muses nabordent pas de manire
identique cet impratif contractuel : certains le
remplissent et le font signer de manire
systmatique (Muse de la Vie wallonne,
Muse de la Mmoire vivante), dautres non
(La Fonderie, Muse de lHistoire de
lImmigration). Ce refus, qui peut entraner des
conflits juridiques prjudiciables au muse, est
justifi de deux faons.
La Fonderie explique que la plupart des
tmoins refusent catgoriquement de signer un
document : On sest rendu compte que les
gens avaient peur ! (Lefebvre, Deberghe &
De Sadleer, 2012). Beaucoup de tmoins ne
comprennent pas lutilit de ce contrat et
prfrent ne pas prendre le risque de
sengager. Le personnel du muse, de son
ct, avoue prouver des difficults expliquer
les articles du document la personne
interviewe et les intgrer. Afin de conserver
une trace crite de ce don, le muse envoie au
tmoin
une
lettre
de
remerciement,
mentionnant les circonstances de lenqute et
les modalits de conservation du rcit. Malgr
ce compromis, le muse prfre limiter laccs
ses archives orales.
La
conservatrice
des
collections
ethnographiques et responsable de la Galerie
des dons du Muse de lHistoire de
Conclusion
La gestion des rcits de vie par les muses est
encore une pratique rcente, qui soulve un
grand
nombre
de
questions
tant
mthodologiques quidologiques. Lorsquils
sengagent dans la rcolte et la valorisation de
ces tmoignages, la plupart des muses se
retrouvent rapidement confronts une srie
de contraintes qui peuvent entraner une
rvaluation complte du projet. Pour viter de
tels cueils, il convient, avant mme
denregistrer les premiers entretiens, de
rflchir lensemble du processus de
musalisation du rcit de vie, de sa captation
sa mise en exposition. Un projet incluant des
rcits de vie doit se penser trs tt et de
manire globale.
Le statut mme du rcit de vie reste dfinir ;
certains professionnels de muse ne lui
reconnaissent
pas
encore
de
valeur
patrimoniale. Or, ce nest quen lintgrant dans
une collection, en lui donnant un numro
dinventaire, que le muse peut garantir son
inalinabilit et sa conservation long terme.
Si les rcits de vie sont sources de contraintes
et de dfis, ils reprsentent aussi une
opportunit pour les muses de souvrir
davantage vers de nouveaux publics. En
dveloppant
des
projets
participatifs,
linstitution musale tablit des liens troits
avec des individus issus de diffrents groupes
sociaux. Elle devient un lieu dchange et de
dialogue dans lequel les publics sont invits
poser un regard neuf sur leur parcours de vie,
sur leur identit. En sintressant aux rcits de
vie relatifs une collectivit, le muse met en
vidence
les
expriences
historiques
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289
communes
et
renforce
le
sentiment
dappartenance un mme ensemble socioculturel. Ainsi, le muse confirme son statut
dacteur sociopolitique, apte recrer des liens
durables entre les individus.
Cet article prsente les premiers rsultats
dune tude qui nen est encore qu ses
Rfrences
Bertaux, D. (2010). Lenqute et ses mthodes. Le rcit de vie. 3e dition, Paris.
Delporte, J.-L. (2012). Interview de Jean-Luc Delporte (Directeur/conservateur du Muse de la Porte, Tubize)
ralise par M.-A. Angillis. [enregistrement audio].
Descamps, F. (2005). Lhistorien, larchiviste et le magntophone. De la constitution de la source orale son
exploitation [dition en ligne]. Consult au site http://books.openedition.org/igpde/104.
Descamps, F. (2007). Lentretien de recherche en histoire : statut juridique, contraintes et rgles dutilisation.
Histoire@Politique, 3, 14. Consult au http://www.histoire-politique.fr/index.php?numero=03&rub=autresarticles&item=24.
Duclert, V. (2002). Archives orales et recherche contemporaine. Socits & Reprsentations, 13, 69-86.
Consult le 10 janvier 2015 au site http://www.cairn.info/article.php?REVUE=societes-etrepresentations&ANNEE=2002&NUMERO=1&PP=69.
Du Mazaubrun, H. (2012). La parole et le don. Fabrique de la collection ethnographique de la CNHI.
Hommes et migrations, 1300, 126-131.
Du Mazaubrun, H. (2014). Interview tlphonique dHlne Du Mazaubrun (charge des collections et
responsable de la Galerie des Dons) ralise par M.-A. Angillis. [enregistrement audio].
Fiche technique n3. Raliser un tmoignage oral : modle de conventions. (2014, January 15). Mmoireorale.be. Plate-forme pour la valorisation des sources orales en Fdration Wallonie-Bruxelles. Consult
au site http://www.memoire-orale.be/index.php?page=dossiers&action=voir&ID=6.
Grognet, F. (2008). Les galeries participatives de la Cit nationale de lHistoire de lImmigration. La Lettre de
lOCIM, 120, 28-33.
ICOM. (2006). Code de dontologie de lICOM pour les muses. Paris. Consult au
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La
Mmoire
des
Forges
(2014,
April
15).
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2015
au
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Lefbvre, P. (2013 [sous presse]) Des machines, des outils et des tmoignages. Communication prsente lors
du colloque Le Muse dethnographie, entre continuit et renouvellement. Lige.
Lefebvre, S., Deberghe, P. & De Sadleer, F. (2012). Interview de Sylvie Lefebvre (adjointe la direction et
conservatrice des collections de La Fonderie), Pascale Deberghe (centre de documentation) et Fabienne
De Sadleer (centre de documentation) ralise par M.-A. Angillis. [enregistrement audio].
Lhistoire de lassociation. (2014, April 16). Maison de la Mtallurgie et de lIndustrie de Lige. Consult au site
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service de la machine. Communication prsente lors du colloque Entre mmoire et patrimoine. Les
tmoignages dans les muses industriels. Lige.
Mller, B. (2006). Archives orales et entretiens ethnographiques. Un dbat entre Florence Descamps et
Florence Weber, anim par Bertrand Mller. Genses, 62, 93. Consult au site
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Murphy, M. (2007). Un Palais pour une Cit. Du Muse des Colonies la Cit nationale de lHistoire de
lImmigration. Paris.
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Muse de la Porte. (2014, April 15). Muse dArchologie, dArt et dHistoire de Tubize et de sa Rgion - Muse
de la Porte . Consult au site http://www.museedelaporte.be/musee/?page_id=2.
Origine. Un sicle dhistoire. (2014, April 26). Muse de la Vie wallonne. Consult au site
http://www.provincedeliege.be/fr/node/833.
Puissant, J. (2011 [sous presse]). Histoire, mmoire et objets dans une perspective musographique.
Communication prsente lors du colloque Entre mmoire et patrimoine. Les tmoignages dans les
muses industriels. Lige.
Remouchamps, J.-M. (dir.). (1927). Enqutes du Muse de la Vie wallonne. Lige.
Thurion, M.-C. (2014). Interview de Marie-Claude Thurion (conservatrice du Muse de la Vie wallonne) ralise
par M.-A. Angillis. [enregistrement audio].
Vanderhulst, G. (1987). Les dernires annes de la Compagnies des Bronzes. Tmoignages dHenri Francart,
ouvrier fondeur. Les cahiers de la Fonderie, 3, 40-42.
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Vargas-Thils, M. (2008). Le rcit de vie comme pratique clinique. Une exprience aux consultations
psychologiques spcialises en histoires de vie. In Legrand, M. & De Gaulejac, V. (dir.). Intervenir par
le rcit de vie (pp. 261-289). Toulouse.
Rsum
Depuis quelques annes, de nombreux muses de socit se sont engags dans la conservation et la
mise en exposition des rcits de vie. Or, ce nouveau matriau est source de questionnement
mthodologique : il doit encore faire lobjet dune tude musologique approfondie. Sengager dans la
conservation de rcits de vie, cest sinterroger sur le statut donn lobjet immatriel : a-t-il valeur
documentaire ou patrimoniale ? Cest galement, dun point de vue plus technique, comprendre et
valuer les contraintes qui conditionnent les mthodologies de collecte et de classement dveloppes
par les institutions musales. Travailler les rcits de vie permet dtablir un rapport privilgi entre le
public et le muse. Quelques exemples de projets participatifs sont ici voqus. Cette communication a
pour finalit de prsenter les actions dveloppes par diverses institutions musales conservant ces
tmoignages tout en mettant en exergue les problmes rencontrs par les professionnels, afin de
dgager quelques pistes de rflexion sur la gestion des rcits de vie.
Mots cl : muses de la socit, rcits de vie, musalisation
Abstract
Collecting and preserving life stories in museums. Case studies and avenues of investigation.
In recent years, many social museums have committed themselves to the conservation and exhibition of
life stories. However, this new material raises some methodological questions that have yet to be studied
in depth. The conservation of life stories leads to questioning the status given to the immaterial object: is
it a heritage property or a document? It also means, from a more technical point of view, understanding
and evaluating the constraints that affect collection and classification methodologies developed by
museums. Working with life stories establishes a relationship between the public and the museum. Some
examples of participatory projects are mentioned here. This paper aims to present the actions developed
by various museums that preserve those life stories and at highlighting the problems encountered by
professionals in order to identify some avenues of research about the management of life stories.
Key words: social museums, life stories, musealisation
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Foreword
The field of museology has over the past two
decades been engaged in an active and
evolving dialogue on the role of museums in
interpreting history, portraying contemporary
societal events / issues, and handling
contentious social and political topics. The socalled hot-topic exhibition has increasingly
risen to the fore as a popular format for
museums to frame their narration of currently
relevant issues. The complex origins of this
phenomenon underscore that, similar to other
institutes and organizations, museums are
invariably and deeply influenced by the intrinsic
values, moral judgments, and politics of
contemporary society at large.
The history of museums is long and
complicated, and museums have always
reflected the perceived values and critical
issues of their day. Having consistently helped
fashion the philosophy and history of
knowledge in the realms of the humanities and
science, museums and their collections have
naturally become part and parcel of this
knowledge tradition (Pearce, 1992). As
incubators of secular knowledge, museums
through their collections and exhibitions
establish the highest values, proudest
memories, and truest truths of a group or
society (Duncan, 1991, p. 91). In other words,
museums present the evidence necessary to
justify the unassailable truths and facts of
human civilization, with orderly exhibitions
giving the public the full picture of the progress
and accomplishments of civilization. Bennett
(1995) provided a cogent analysis of how
museums use their role to facilitate the
dissemination of new knowledge and ideas in
the fields of geology, biology, anthropology,
archaeology, and art history as well as of new
methods used to encourage visitors adoption
of desired perspectives and understandings.
Further, museums offer to those in power a
useful tool and forum for public enlightenment
and education, with museum visitors largely
self-disciplined to adapt their behavior to
desired norms. Thus, it should come as no
surprise that many scholars view museums as
institutions that epitomize the essence of
modernity (Witcomb, 2003).
However,
rising
democratic
sentiments
changed the role and expectations of
th
museums during the latter part of the 20
century. Beginning in the 1970s, museology
scholars made the new role and purpose of
museums in society part of mainstream
discussion and debate. A groundbreaking
paper by Duncan Cameron (1971) stated the
pressing need to fundamentally change
museums from their contemporary role as
temples into forums for the exchange of
experiences
and
ideas.
The
contemporaneously emerging field of new
museology also advocated giving museums
an active role in supporting debate and
controversy. Robert Macdonald, a former
Director of the Museum of the City of New
York, wrote that, in addition to being visually
stimulating, museum exhibitions and activities
should be comprehensible and emotive and
stimulate serious dialogue (Macdonald, 1996).
Stephen Weil (1999) and Eilean HooperGreenhill (1994) both saw the focus of
museums as having shifted from the
conservation of artifacts to the servicing and
support of visitor needs. Hooper-Greenhill thus
encouraged transforming the modern museum
into a medium for communications, which
would replace the museums contemporary
role of communicating knowledge and truth
with the new roles of stimulating concept
development and encouraging dialogue. Ellen
st
Hirzy (2002) envisioned museums in the 21
century as centers for public discussion, for
celebrating individual and shared experiences,
for facilitating problem resolution, for proactive
public participation, and for effecting change.
These various models generally encapsulate
scholarly thought regarding transforming
museums into venues for public introspection
and action. Thus, using museums to highlight
and discuss hot topics may be considered a
natural outcome of this process. The longestablished role of these institutions as centers
for displaying historical and conceptual
certainties had been superseded by a new
responsibility to use exhibitions and activities
to test, challenge, and, perhaps, overturn
popularly held values and concepts. Therefore,
replacing clinically staid exhibits with exhibits
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that directly address popular topics of the day
is one key aspect of contemporary museum
transformation.
Many scholars view the environment faced by
contemporary museums and the innovative
methods developed in response as evidence of
a fundamental split of the modern museum
from the postmodern museum (Keene, 2006).
Literary theorist Terry Eagleton (2003, p.13,
note 1) in his terse description of the
postmodern condition wrote that,
By Postmodern, I mean, roughly
speaking, the contemporary movement of
thought which rejects totalities, universal
values, grand historical narratives, solid
foundations to human existence and the
possibility of objective knowledge.
Postmodernism is skeptical of truth, unity
and progress, opposes what it sees as
elitism in culture, trends towards cultural
relativism, and celebrates pluralism,
discontinuity and heterogeneity.
The museum was naturally affected and forced
to seriously rethink its position and role in the
face of the onslaught of new concepts and
questions. Thus, as a cultural medium, it is
only
natural
that
museums
reflect
contemporary social mores in their postmodern
narrative strategies.
This article reviews the relevant literature to
establish the theoretical foundation and key
analytical elements. The literature review
focuses primarily on museology papers on the
issues of addressing hot topics and the role of
the museum in contemporary society. Then the
article uses a case study method to analyze
content and make research observations.
Purposive sampling is used to select data-rich
case studies, and each case study is analyzed
to
elicit
the
postmodern-narrative
characteristics. Three exhibitions held in
Taiwan between 2012 and 2013 are introduced
and analyzed to elicit a general definition and
scope for hot-topic exhibitions and to highlight
key topics of discussion related to this
exhibition type. The three exhibitions include:
Come to Our Future: Climate Change, 2012
End of the World Exhibition - Catastrophe and
Revival, and Story of Water: Science,
Civilization and Future. The exhibitions are
further analyzed to illustrate how postmodern
narrative characteristics and strategies are
applied in hot-topic exhibitions as a way to
construct open exhibition narratives and to
accommodate public opinion and participation.
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linearly from the flora and fauna of equatorial
Africa through to that of the Polar Regions with
the purpose of highlighting the effect on life of
different environmental conditions. While the
large number of plant and animal specimens
on display conveys the diversity of life on the
planet (Fig. 1), it also draws attention to the
immediate threat to many species from
overdevelopment, habitat destruction, and
environmental pollution. The earth, one unit in
this section notes, loses over 1,000 distinct
species to extinction each year. One of the
showcased specimens, a Chinese river otter, is
on Taiwans protected list of critically
endangered animal species.
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related issues.
From an overall perspective, displays in the
NTM Come to Our Future: Climate Change
exhibition use actual collection items and
science-based evidence to highlight the danger
to humankind of climate change while avoiding
the use of alarmist language. Furthermore, in
the latter sections focused on informing visitors
how to play a positive role in combatting /
ameliorating
climate
change,
display
messages adopt a softer approach that is
accompanied in some instances by fanciful
animation in hopes of earning visitor affinity.
2012 End of the World Exhibition Catastrophe and Revival (National Museum
of Natural Science)
Similar to the NTM, exhibitions held at the
National Museum of Natural Science (NMNS)
in Central Taiwans Taichung City focus
primarily on natural history and anthropology.
However, as it was founded in the 1980s as
part of public cultural policy initiatives, the
NMNS is much larger and better funded than
the century-old NTM. Nevertheless, both
museums continue to respond and adapt to
contemporary societal and visitor needs. They
are taking significantly more proactive
positions in society that already go far beyond
the traditional scope of operations, which
focuses on collecting, research, exhibiting, and
education.
In 2012, no issue gripped the popular
imagination more than the supposed end-ofthe-world prophesies of ancient Maya culture.
Taiwans domestic media outlets followed the
topic closely, while books and talk shows
competed vigorously to have their say on the
issue. Although the reasoned position of
science had its advocates, the misconceptions
and concerns about the truth of the dire
predictions for 2012 largely defined public
opinion due to the surfeit of sensational views
and inaccurate information fed by alarmists as
well as the rendering of imagined fears in
popular apocalypse-themed movies. Public
concern reached the point to where
entrepreneurs were making a successful and
widely publicized business of selling retrofitted
shipping containers as emergency apocalypse
shelters.
Responding to this rising tide of social
discomfort, the NMNS quickly organized and
opened in July 2012, the 2012 End of the
World Exhibition - Catastrophe and Revival
exhibition. The three theme sections, Mayan
Culture & the Mayan Calendar, The History
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vigil after that time as a way to further publicize
the clear failure of this end-of-the-world
prediction and elicit broader reflection on
mankinds deep-set fears about a worldwide
apocalypse.
Inspiring
orchestral
music
broadcast in the courtyard encouraged the
public to emerge from the shadow of fear and
celebrate the renewal and continuity of life.
While emphasizing the lack of scientific
support for apocalyptic prophecies and their
attendant disasters, this exhibition introduced
and explained the reasons behind actual
catastrophic events in history. An important
message underlying this unit was that the
earth, far from being an immutable sanctuary
for life, as we know it, is from the perspective
of geologic time a highly dynamic and unstable
planet. The second section The History and
Nature of Earthly Collisions highlights the
history and continued risk of meteors and other
solar objects colliding with our planet. Units
introduce the three main belts in the solar
system that contain these objects and describe
the relationship between these objects,
comets, and meteorite strikes on the earth.
The underlying message is that solar objects
have impacted the earth in the past and will
continue doing so in the future and,
furthermore, that these impacts invariably
trigger climatic change and catastrophic
pressures on the entrenched ecosystem.
Of earths multiple mass extinction events, the
general public is most familiar with the
cretaceous-tertiary (K/T) extinction, caused by
the impact of a 10km-wide meteor in the
modern-day Gulf of Mexico / Yucatan
Peninsula area some 65 million years ago
(Lau, 2013). The event created a 180km-wide
impact crater and triggered climatic and
environmental changes that drove dinosaurs
as well as flying and sea-dwelling reptiles such
as ichthyosaurs and pterosaurs to the brink of
extinction.
The third section Catastrophic Experiences
and the Search for Extraterrestrial Life
featured items from the NMNS museum
collection, showing visitors examples of animal
and plant life from hundreds of millions of
years ago. The main message in this section is
that science has identified 5 major extinction
events over the past 540 million years. While
each had its own distinct cause, we who today
enjoy the resources that our earth now
provides must also accept the risks and
responsibilities of inevitable natural disasters.
Nevertheless, life has proved resilient and,
following every disaster, has recovered,
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science centers use exhibitions as a medium
of education and the museum as a public
space in order to communicate scientific
knowledge and concepts to the general public.
The Story of Water: Science, Civilization and
Future exhibition held by the NTSEC in 2013
was designed to enhance public understanding
of water and emphasize the importance of
water conservation. While primarily sciencefocused, the exhibition also incorporated
relevant historical and cultural information and
highlighted the role of water in the arts and
humanities. The exhibition used a diverse
array of techniques that included multimedia
facilities (film, interactive touch screens,
projections), museum theater, and hands-on /
experiential installations. The topic was
addressed from diverse scientific, social,
economic, and artistic perspectives to raise
visitor awareness and understanding of water
in terms of our heritage, culture, and future.
The NTSEC exhibition was divided into three
sections: The Science of Water, Water &
Civilization, and The Future of Water.
Exhibition planners separated each of the
sections, respectively, into the geographically
distinct theaters of Europe, Africa, and Asia
(Figs. 3) located off the museums entrance
hall (Rain Plaza) and Water Paradise. The
standalone nature of their content meant that
sections could be visited in any desired
sequence. The exhibition used a multifaceted
approach to visitor communication, with
displays using sight, sound, texture, and aroma
to strengthen visitor impressions. In terms of
presentation media, the exhibition made
extensive use of documentary film material to
highlight
key
water
resource
issues;
illustrations and photographs to enhance visual
appeal and interest; and interactive models,
instruments, and displays to give visitors the
opportunity to gain a hands-on appreciation
of exhibition concepts. Storytelling techniques
were used extensively in combination with
mechanical models to address the various
topics in each section. The Science of Water
section used a story format to narrate the
water-related discoveries of four European
scientists, including Antoine-Laurent de
Lavoisier, Henry Cavendish, William Nicholson,
and Alfred Perot. These and other non-textbased presentations encouraged visitors
averse to reading textual descriptions to watch,
participate, and learn. The Water &
Civilization section took a theatrical approach
to introducing the Guishan Power Station,
Taipei Citys first electric power plant, and a
scene of African children playing while
Hot-Topic Exhibitions:
Management
Scope
and
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297
topic exhibition. This broadly defined category
of exhibitions infers relevance to the everyday
life / experience of visitors and thus may be
used to address contemporary as well as
historical subjects and topics of local as well as
general interest. While not necessarily focused
on subjects that are controversial, these
exhibitions should address currently relevant
issues in the arena of history, culture, politics,
or economics. Subjects addressed by hot-topic
exhibitions held at various museums around
the world over the past two decades have
addressed colonialism, race issues, war,
religion, the human body, and technology,
among others. Recent research into the
differential responses of visitors to different
exhibition topics reflects a growing academic
interest in hot-topic exhibition format (Butler,
2008; Ferguson, 2006; Cameron, 2006). The
current study adopts an inclusive definition of
the hot-topic exhibition as: An exhibition that
has both contemporary social relevance and
relevance to everyday life, which elicits
differential responses and interpretations
among visitors.
An analysis by Linda Ferguson (2006) of
Exhibitions as Contested Sites project
exhibitions identified 16 distinct themes,
including: indigenous issues, immigration,
population levels, asylum seekers, death
terrorism, treatment of prisoners of war, war
atrocities, drugs, sex, religion, racism, social
justice, globalization, sustainability of the
environment, and genetic engineering. This list
shows clearly that hot topics are rooted in their
ability to elicit differing opinions and
perspectives rather than their addressing
negative or taboo subject matter. While all
of the 16 themes have a certain degree of
universal relevance, Ferguson (2006) still
noted
the
influence
of
culture
and
contemporary events on the composition of the
list. Australian participants gave particular
emphasis to indigenous issues, republican
government, and asexual reproduction;
Canadian participants emphasized issues
related to boarding schools, racial genocide
and violence in Canadian history, ethnic
nationalism in Quebec, women in wartime, the
Pacific and Atlantic fishing industry, and
healthcare;
and
museum-employee
participants in the United States emphasized
issues including animal rights, biotechnology,
national identity, indigenous history, womens
history, terrorism, and the Iraq War.
Nevertheless, accompanying the developing
expectations of museum administrators and
museology for the evolving role of museums in
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present controversial topics fairly and
objectively. Several exhibitions in recent years
help to explain the strategies used by
museums in order to fully explore issues while
remaining detached from extreme positions.
Ferguson (2006) identified issues related to
sustainability of the environment as enjoying
the highest levels of public concurrence. This
may be due to the widespread public
recognition of environmental problems and to a
general public acceptance of these issues as
appropriate for display and discussion in
museums. Although in-depth exploration may
be the only way to truly address the
challenging complexities of hot-topic issues,
research shows that many museums conceal
the troubling and upsetting aspects in their hottopic exhibitions and highlight instead moral
lessons / cultural messages believed to be
more palatable to the general public and / or
key stakeholders (Cameron, 2006). This
approach is understandable in light of the
realities of normal museum operations and
stakeholder expectations. The four exhibitions
presented in this paper each took a unique
approach in their presentation strategy. Come
to Our Future: Climate Change took an
emotive approach meant to elicit empathy,
2012 End of the World Exhibition wove
theatrical parody into its presentations, Risk
Society turned creative art into a philosophical
statement, and Story of Water integrated a
multiple exhibition formats to convey key
messages.
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299
from the emergence of postmodernism. In
particular, narratology has been broadened
beyond its traditional place as a line of literary
theory within structuralism to now refer to any
principles-based narrative research method
used to study literature, historical works,
dialogue, film, or other cultural expression
media. Moreover, the field has expanded from
the singular narratology into the plural
narratologies as the theoretical treatment of
narratives by structuralism has diversified into
multiple analysis models (trans., Ma, 2002).
Herman adopted the insights of Barbara
Herrnstein Smith & Plotnitsky into elucidating
the relationship between postclassical and
classical theories (trans., Ma, 2002, p. 25) to
elicit the following general characteristics of the
postmodern narrative:
Single and multiple replicas
The use of repetition and iteration is one of the
distinctive characteristics of postmodern
aesthetics. As noted by Umberto Eco (1994, p.
11), novelty (nouveat) is the most important
determinant of artistic value used within
modernism. Replications of
well-known
images, no matter how pleasing, may be
appreciated only within the context of craft
art. This convention was further extended to
the artistic content of literature, songs, movies,
and illustrations. Each significant work of
modernist art was thus expected to reflect the
code of the scientific revolution and provide a
new and unique model offering a new
perspective on the world. In some cases, the
lack of novelty attributed to replication led
contemporaries to see these works as little
more than commercial or mass-media items.
However, the replication, iteration, series,
routine, and information overload techniques of
the mass media have all been coopted and
purposefully used in postmodern artistic
endeavors. Eco categorizes all replications and
iterations into one of five types: 1) the retake,
2) the remake, 3) the series, 4) the saga, and
5) intertextual dialogue or dialogism (Eco,
1994, p. 15-18). While each has distinguishing
characteristics, they all re-exchange and
recompose earlier works. The convergence
and use in postmodern works of other
techniques such as borrowing, allusion,
referencing,
reproduction,
parody,
and
plagiarism are also important characteristics of
the genre.
Semiotics distinguish among repetition of the
sign, of the signifier, and of the signified
(Cohen, 1976). Shomith Rimmon-Kenan
(1980, p. 152) developed this further by noting,
a repetition of the whole sign is a re-telling of
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300
literature,
many
postmodern
authors
intermingle multiple literary styles and genres,
creating hybrid works that have similarly
changed or even eliminated the traditional lines
separating various styles and genres. Elaine
Heumann Gurian (2006, p. 171) wrote: The
distinct edges of differing function among
libraries, memorials, social service centers,
schools, shopping malls, zoo, performance
halls, archives, theaters, public parks, cafes,
and museums will blur, and in many cases
have already begun to. The jettisoning of
traditional genre forms was apparent in many
displays in the Story of Water exhibition which
purposefully integrated disparate exhibition
techniques traditionally used exclusively in
exhibits of science, history, or art. The effect
imbued this nominally scientific exhibition with
a more approachable, liberal arts atmosphere.
Conclusion
Secondly,
analyses
of
the
narrative
perspectives of exhibitions underscore that
controversial issues represented by negative
memories, taboo subject matter, and
contemporary hot topics, no matter how
important,
incendiary,
or
emotionally
provocative, are inseparable from their broader
contemporary sociopolitical context. Public
attitudes toward these issues may be
counterproductive or even impede rational
thinking. Furthermore, the disparate opinions
elicited by this type of issue may ultimately
challenge the ingrained values, beliefs,
opinions, or morals of individuals or groups.
This new role for museums thus disallows the
use of the symbolism inherent in explicit
definitions, orderly classifications, and identity
to present controversial issues. Thus,
museums are now applying new narrative
approaches to find an appropriate and
sustainable role within the contemporary
political, ideological, and aesthetic zeitgeist.
The contextualization of museum collections,
the use of multiple sounds, and the application
of irony are now being used by museums to
express diversities of identity and opinion as
well as to review introspectively of their own
history, role, and scope of authority.
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be used to treat issues in a fresh manner that
embraces multiple perspectives and opinions.
This subsequently assists museums to
examine issues thoroughly and develop
inclusive,
non-prescriptive
exhibition
narratives. It is thus vital that the postmodern
museum exhibition becomes increasingly open
and welcoming of visitor opinions in order to
establish a position of strength from which
museums may redefine their role in society
and relationship with the public.
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Abstract
A variety of different approaches to interpreting history, contemporary scientific research, and important /
contentious social and political issues have been discussed in museology over the past two decades.
One approach now seeing growing popularity worldwide is the so-called hot-topic exhibition. The broad
spectrum of visitor reactions typically generated by hot-topic exhibitions necessitate that museums
handle this type of exhibition differently than others. The current article uses literature review to establish
a theoretical foundation and key analytical elements and a case study method to conduct content
analysis and perform research observations to assess the research questions and summarize findings.
Three exhibitions held in Taiwan between 2012 and 2013 are introduced and analyzed to elicit a general
definition and scope for hot-topic exhibitions and to highlight key topics of discussion related to this
exhibition type. The exhibitions are further analyzed to illustrate how postmodern narrative
characteristics and strategies are applied in hot-topic exhibitions as a way to construct open exhibition
narratives and to accommodate public opinion and participation.
Rsum
Lusage des Stratgies Narratives Post-modernes dans les expositions contemporaines du sujet
chaud
De nombreuses approches diffrentes pour interprter l'histoire, la recherche scientifique contemporaine
et dimportantes questions sociales et politiques ont t discutes dans le champ musal pendant les
deux dcennies qui viennent de passer. Une approche dont on voit maintenant grandir la popularit dans
le monde entier est ce quon appelle l'exposition sujet chaud . Le large spectre de ractions des
visiteurs produites par des expositions de sujet chaud ncessite que les muses traitent ce type
d'exposition diffremment des autres.
Cet article passe en revue la littrature relative au sujet pour tablir une base thorique ainsi que les
lments cls danalyse. Et une mthode d'tude de cas est employe pour rpondre aux questions de
recherche et rcapituler les dcouvertes. Trois expositions organises Tawan entre 2012 et 2013 sont
prsentes afin dobtenir une description gnrale et un aperu de ce que sont les expositions sujet
chaud. Les expositions sont de plus analyses pour illustrer comment des stratgies et des
caractristiques narratives post-modernes peuvent tre appliques aux expositions sujet chaud
comme un moyen de construire des rcits ouverts et de sadapter l'opinion du public et sa
participation.
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Part 1
Today we are facing a pressing problem of
preservation and presentation of historical and
cultural heritage, as well as its transformation
into a cultural resource and a driver of sociocultural development of the regions. The
museum becomes a considerable factor
incorporated in social and economic processes
and ensures a link between cultural policy and
regional cultural resources.
Museums priority tasks include preservation,
acquisition and broad presentation of cultural
heritage. Moreover, the role of museums as a
humanitarian
resource
(communication,
education and self-identification) is increasingly
growing under present conditions. The mission
of museums at any given time period depends
on the level and characteristics of demand for
museum
services
in
society.
The
transmodernism movement caused an acute
deficit of authentic values and accentuated the
need to build an identity. Consequently, the
museums role as a communication protocol
comes to the forefront. Museums are now
focused on the public; therefore, purposeful
work with the museum audience becomes an
integral part of museum activities.
The language of museums is universal;
however, serious efforts are required from both
museums and the public to develop a modern
communication system. One of the most
significant accomplishments of recent years is
that Russian museums have become
increasingly aware of the fact that efficient
cooperation with museum visitors can only be
managed if there is a sufficient knowledge of
the museum audience. As a rule, success
attends those museums that focus on the
specificities of the preserved heritage and the
segments of the target audience while
developing new museum programs (Chuvilova,
2013).
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Cultural Research, in cooperation with the
Scientific Council of Museums of the Siberian
Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences
(Institute of History, SB RAS), started to
develop the joint project Museums integration
in the regional socio-cultural environment. In
2012, the group started to implement the first
stage of the new research project Museum
and its visitor, 20122013. One of the main
tasks at this stage was to test different
methods of studying the museum audience.
The name of the project itself shows that the
research was focused on the local community
and the place of museums in the region. The
working group also proceeded from the
understanding
that
numerous
museum
questionnaires were not sufficient to solve
difficult problems faced today by the national
museums. Russian museology should be
based on the experience accumulated not only
by sociologists, but also by philosophers,
psychologists, and psycholinguists. Therefore,
the research was interdisciplinary and the
working group included museum experts,
historians, philosophers, sociologists, and
psychologists (Kaulen et al., 2013).
The methods used were, in some measure,
traditional for sociological studies (Muzej i
posetitel', 19751978). However, each of these
methods was enriched, extended, and
adjusted to our objectives and modern sociocultural realities. New methods were also
tested.
Different segments of the museum audience
were singled out to carry out this research. An
inherently new idea consisted of analyzing a
potential museum audience. If real visitors
represent a common subject of national
sociological museum studies, potential visitors
appear in this context for the first time. One
can also mention the appearance of a new
player in museum communication, namely the
Internet audience that possesses its own
characteristics and demands, which makes it
different from both real and potential museum
audiences.
In a post-industrial society, the museum visitor
is not a passive contemplator, but an active
participant in a communicative process, and
may even determine the form for receiving
information. Some researchers put forward an
even more radical thesis: it is not the museum
content that determines its activities today, but
rather the interest of its visitors. One can
challenge both these points of view, but one
thing still remains clear: while preserving the
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So, why do people still go to museums?
All things considered, one can acknowledge
that the answer to this question is not simple.
It is apparent that cognitive interests and
educational reasons play significant roles in
visiting a museum. Many respondents
(according to the questionnaires) mentioned
cognitive interests (24.5%) and the need to
raise their own cultural level. According to the
data from the Internet poll, most respondents
stressed education as a crucial museum
function: visitors go to a museum to get an
opportunity of a manifold development in
different areas of art, science, etc. The
museum is least of all associated with being a
leisure facility and is mainly perceived as a
high-profile institution with nobler tasks that
helps one implement life (terminal) values
(Rokeach, 1973; Leont`ev, 1998).
Nevertheless, we also came across another
point of view. Most of the respondents (42%)
mentioned recreation as a main reason for
visiting museums; participation in a museum
event (festivities, concerts, and lectures) was
indicated as a second important reason
(28.6%). As for students, the opinions split: I
discovered lots of new things and it is
wonderful to learn new information!; If one is
not supposed to get new emotions in a
museum, what is the point of going there at
all? There are other places where one can find
new information (FG1).
On the one hand, these data confirm the thesis
that museums have become the preferred
means of communication when it comes to
informal education. H. Barre (2006), UNESCO
coordinator, holds to this idea: One should
realize that today visitors are well informed,
since they have access to modern means of
communication. They wish not only to distract
themselves, but to gain knowledge. Culture
should no longer have a reputation of being an
interesting but sometimes boring experience
(p. 20).
On the other hand, the data correlate with the
opinion of F. Schouten (1998), an English
researcher who believes that, despite the
results of surveys, the visitor does not go to a
museum to gain knowledge, but rather for
entertainment (cognitive interests play a
modest role) and uses the museum as a
means of communication. A similar trend is
observed in Russia: according to the surveys
carried out by several museums, 92% of
respondents would like to spend their holidays
in a museum: to engage in creative activities
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vanish (and so will vanish the material
evidences of the past), the history will turn into
a myth. As we know, if one has no real past,
one has no real future either (Internet poll).
The respondents who prefer historical
museums are mainly represented by 30 to 55year-old visitors, i.e., the most active part of
the population. Museums of local lore and
nature reserves are, in most cases, preferred
by older age groups (55 and older), whereas
museums of natural sciences attract most
often the younger generation (1629). Strong
interest in history is also confirmed by the data
collected through focus group interviews.
These data reflect the insights of the younger
generation in their variety: One should arouse
interest in the history and not in the museum
objects; I believe Russia generally lacks the
museums that could demonstrate unusual and
unobvious events. (FG1).
Modern and, in particular, young visitors strive
to become active participants in the 1:1
reconstructed historical mystery. In this
context, the museum becomes a lever and not
only a black box. It generates a sort of
metaphysical move that implies different
degrees of immersing. Thus, for example, the
visitor is less and less interested in direct
factual knowledge and is rather curious about
the interpretation of historical events and the
correlation between the past and the future.
The visitor attempts to perceive a different
culture through his/her own world outlook. We
had a genuine feeling of getting lost in a kind of
time loop and found ourselves in the past, a
student describes a visit to one of the wooden
architecture museums. The emotions and
sensations that appeared on peoples faces
proved that the visitors felt strongly connected
to the creators of this beauty, perceived a vivid
link between the generations and were proud
of their ancestors. (FG1).
Apparently, most of the visitors to historical
museums are mainly attracted by a clear and
interesting history of the history, which makes
it necessary for them to visit modern
exhibitions, see authentic museum pieces, and
read intelligible texts. The visitor strives for a
dialogue, for which he/she usually lacks
language tools and sometimes an interlocutor.
A special communication system in museums
where people of different generations,
nationalities and confessions engage in
dialogue should be open, appeal to the
audience, and facilitate equal partnership
relations. This can be extremely appealing for
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unusual events, etc. All this may provide a
serious reason for visiting a museum.
It is quite remarkable that the respondents who
participated in our surveys and, in particular,
were part of our focus groups (which
additionally highlights the efficiency of this
research method) drew their attention to all
these forms. For example, a lot was said about
the tactile perception of a museum piece: In a
museum, one really needs to feel the era being
presented; literally, it is like wearing the same
dress. (FG1).
Young and the most active representatives of
the audience more easily absorb the
impressions based on kinesthetic senses: they
need to constantly move, displace, and form a
physical memory of events: When I was in
Konstantinovo, I saw a man sitting by the
house of Yesenin and molding a whistle. I sat
by him and made myself a whistle as a
keepsake. It would also be nice to braid with
bobbins, dance and sing. Such things are
simply necessary for active people. (FG1).
As a rule, the most vivid emotions and
impressions received in a museum are those
incited by an integrated effect on sense organs
and consciousness (tactile, audible, and visual
senses): There was a spectacular exhibition of
Salvador Dali in Ryazan Art Museum:
everything was decorated with satin fabrics,
there were candles and apples everywhere, a
relevant music was playing. And again these
apples that I even touched I had a feeling of
being
completely
immersed
in
these
masterpieces. (FG1).
The specifics of reading the information are
different in terms of sex, age, and generation
characteristics. This was, on multiple
occasions, mentioned by the professors who
attempted to overcome numerous barriers
between museums and modern children.
The normal functioning of the communicative
system is usually disturbed from both sides.
For instance, museums do not apply certain
communication channels, and neither do they
take into consideration the interests of visitors
with special perception characteristics and
cognitive needs. The lost in translation
symptom is also manifested by the audience.
Today, most young people spend their time in
a virtual space and, as a result, are not able to
communicate either with adults or also among
themselves. Interactions with those who
transfer information is also disturbed, since
real-life verbal communication is hindered.
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communion with nature and cultural heritage
are clearly the most pronounced leisure
activities of museum visitors, while the
potential audience prefers watching TV shows,
doing housework, and engage in gardening.
This contrast correlates with the differences
between the real and potential museum
audiences in terms of educational level and
128
occupation.
At the same time, a seemingly paradoxical
trend has been registered: the number of
visitors is closely related to their welfare level:
national museums are mainly visited by middle
class and low-income citizens. As pointed out
by a director of one Moscow museum, the
most active class today, i.e., the so-called new
class, is at the same time the most incurious
one. Today we observe the same situation.
Thus, according to the polls carried out in
Ryazan region, people who indicated visiting
museums as their preferred leisure activity
were mostly middle class citizens, while among
those who assessed their financial conditions
as high, such people were least represented.
And this was despite the fact that people who
evaluated their financial conditions as high
comprised approximately one-third of the entire
selection.
Today, a new visitor indeed does not always
feel like going to a museum and his/her
motivation is not clearly defined.
Therefore, while developing a strategy to work
with the visitor, one should take into account
the fact that interest in a museum is not only
related to financial and educational level, but
also to social and psychological reasons. Thus,
among the most consistent high order needs,
we should name self-affirmation and social
significance.
Such
motives
are
quite
129
pronounced in the sphere of culture. This is
translated by visiting prestigious exhibitions
and significant museum ceremonies, that is to
say one-time high-profile events. For example,
one respondent explained his motivation for
visiting the museum as follows: Various
reasons from self-education to being on trend
(Internet poll), which makes us reflect on
fashion as a significant factor of cultural
consumption.
128
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309
nation. This is one of the crucial reasons
explaining why people still go to museums.
We would like to emphasize that in order to
create a modern communication system one
should not only apply a creative approach and
innovations, but also not forget about
reasonable conservative methods, which are
simply indispensable in museum practice.
These methods concern design of the
exhibition and educational activities by means
of museum collections and presenting if not
rare but outstanding authentic objects that can
attract visitors. These objects determine the
significance and set the atmosphere of any
museum and make it appealing for people.
Part 2
It should be mentioned that the model of
comprehensive study of the museum visitor
and the definition of sociological aspects of the
problem of heritage actualization in the context
of the project Integration of Russian museums
into regional socio-cultural environment were
supported by both national museum experts
and the global museum community (Kaulen et
al., 2012). This allowed us to continue our
studies of the museum as a cultural and
community-forming core of different territorial
units acquainting visitors with the entire
spectrum of historical and cultural heritage and
stimulating the civic-mindedness and civic
responsibility of citizens.
The appearance of the edition Innovations in
Museum World. Museum as a Communication
Protocol played a considerable role in
presenting the accomplishments of the abovementioned project and the prospects of its
development
in
an
interdisciplinary
environment and at the global level (Chuvilova
& Shelegina, 2013). The conceptual foundation
of the project is an idea of the museum
performing the function of a communication
protocol. This concept was first put forward by
Manuel Castells, research professor at the
Open University of Catalonia. The eminent
sociologist raised a question of the museums
capability of overcoming one of the major
discrepancies of the information society,
namely, the one between globalization of
communication on the one hand, and the
individualization of cultural codes (driven by
the same globalization of communication) on
the other hand (Castells, 2001). The leading
Russian and international experts, whose
ideas are presented in the edition,
acknowledge that the museum has become
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310
developing
the
regional
socio-cultural
environment that would integrate these
accomplishments in science and education
and nurture humanistic and patriotic attitudes.
In accordance with world standards, the
museum represents a multifunctional structure
based on documenting scientific heritage and
performing communicative (at both internal and
external levels), scientific, methodological, and
recreational functions. The educative function
of a museum and the work with real and
potential visitors and the Internet audience
represent a matter of high priority. The efficient
fulfillment of this mission may be achieved
through the promotion of history and recent
accomplishments
of
Siberian
science,
strengthening its role in the national and global
scientific
communities,
presenting
the
researchers elaborations and projects from
different areas, developing the scientific worldview and interest towards research activities
among young people, and preserving the
traditions and continuity of generations.
The innovative nature of the museum lies in a
systematic approach based on the combination
of the content concept (informative content), IT
concept (information and telecommunication
technologies), PR concept (social demands
and links), and museum design, with due
consideration of the differentiated requirements
of visitors and the young museum audience.
Innovations include the integrative character of
museum organization, zoning (informative,
presentation, interactive, and creative zones)
and optimal museum space utilization. The
museum will possess a system of halls for
permanent and mobile exhibitions, showcases
for rare objects, and special exhibition rooms
for insular stands to quickly arrange
specimens and platforms for demonstrating
scientific models, experiments, elaborations of
Siberian research institutes, and installations
created by the visitors.
The exhibition will be based on topical,
chronological, and conceptual principles and
will present the scientific heritage as a factor in
modernizing Russia, Siberia, and the
Novosibirsk region. To enhance the informative
value and attractiveness of the exhibition,
considerable attention will be paid to its virtual
component.
In
addition
to
traditional
multimedia panels and labels, new halls will be
equipped with interactive and spherical
displays, and the objects will be attributed with
QR codes. The integration of the visual
(objects) exhibition with the virtual Internetoriented exhibitions of other Siberian museums
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311
museum acts as an information center
presenting the regions cultural heritage, an
institute of social adaptation. To elaborate the
content of the Museum of Siberia and develop
participative technologies, it is recommended
to use the materials of the Historical
Encyclopedia of Siberia, regional encyclopedic
publications,
specialized
museum
encyclopedias and catalogues, scientific
series Culture of peoples of the world in the
ethnographic collections of the Russian
museums, an illustrated edition Siberia. Atlas
of Asian Russia, and the web portals Museum
of Russia and Museums of the Siberian
Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences. To
make the project even more creative, it is
important to introduce the method of
sociological imagination, which would allow us
to look at large-scale historical events through
the lens of individual destiny and vice versa. It
is worth mentioning that several elements
constituting the image of Siberia that appeared
at the stage of its development are still present
in the conscience of the modern population,
particularly the younger generation. The
following associations with the word Siberia
are most often mentioned: cold (47.7%), snow
(30.6%), Yermak (22.4%), vast territory (20%),
taiga (20%), forest (20%), bears (20%),
deportation (18.8%), winter (17.6%), and
homeland (15.3%). Great significance is
attached to nature and climate, as well as the
historical and ethnocultural characteristics of
the region. A clear dominance of the notion
cold proves that it remains an associative
symbol of Siberia. The concept of cold reflects
numerous mythologized aspects of the region
and,
along
with
other
metaphorical
characteristics, has become a consolidating
attribute for different ethnic and social groups
in the region. The symbolic codes of cold and
winter are special indicators of the concept
Siberian. The interpretation of these codes
implies the internal work of the exposed person
in a particular time paradigm. According to
Mastenitsa, the space-time continuum of a
museum allows visitors to plunge into other
cultures or experience an effect of presence in
other cultural environments. An exhibition may
approach, as much as possible, other historical
periods to make visitors experience the
initiation effect (Mastenitsa, 2010, p. 217).
Creation of the informative-attractive museum
sector to display the everyday life culture of
different ethnic groups with the help of
historical and ethnographic 3D reconstructions
represents one of the creative tasks related to
the museum adaptive-adapting mission. The
museum design and technological equipment
aimed at demonstrating the Siberian
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312
this potential. Firstly, the methods of
formalizing and systematizing the study
results, resources, and the ways of translating
them into socio-cultural museum practice are
applied quite meagerly. Secondly, the
accomplishments of this regional history are
poorly integrated into the all-Russian and
global scientific and cultural contexts. Thirdly,
no methods of boosting the museum potential
in order to develop a humanist and patriotic
world outlook have been elaborated.
The
integrated
efforts
of
historians,
museologists, and experts in the creation of
humanitarian information systems create a
platform for consolidating and translating
universal human values and fulfilling the
passion for knowledge among young people.
References
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Siberia: History and Recent Development Trends]. Novosibirsk: Russia: Publishing house SB RAS.
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Vy`gotskij, L. S. (1999). My`shlenie I rech`. [Thinking and Speech]. oscow, Russia: My`sl`.
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130
131
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prsence active sur les rseaux sociaux
(Muse de la Grande Guerre du Pays de
Meaux, 2013), tablettes tactiles (Archoforum
Lige, 2013) ou consoles de jeux mobiles
(Muse du Louvre Paris, 2012), dispositifs
immersifs (Climax au Palais de la Dcouverte
Paris, 2003), applications sur smartphones
(Dynamo au Grand Palais Paris, 2013), jeux
sur le site internet (BiodiverCITY 4 KIDS
lInstitut royal des Sciences naturelles de
Bruxelles, 2013), etc. On relve un style
musographique interactif plus rpandu,
bientt prtendu essentiel, pour toucher de
nouveaux
visiteurs,
notamment
les
adolescents rputs comme public exigeant.
Les ouvrages, les colloques, les journes
dtude ou les salons sur le sujet se
132
multiplient galement.
La participation des visiteurs dans la
construction de savoirs nest, quant elle, pas
indite. Sans ressasser le contexte de cration
de lcomuse, il faut lvoquer ici comme
tmoin
des
premires
tendances
de
musologie participative. Initie par G.H.
Rivire et H. de Varine, lcomusologie
sinscrit dans la conjoncture franaise de la fin
des annes 1960 (Gob & Drouguet, 2010). La
population locale, souvent issue dune rgion
en crise de reconversion, est invite
participer activement la gestion de
linstitution, protger et mettre en valeur les
patrimoines, laborer les activits du muse,
jouer un rle dans la ralisation des
expositions. Les habitants sont alors
directement confronts leurs responsabilits
lgard des patrimoines territoriaux. Comme
le souligne H. de Varine (La musologie selon
Georges-Henri Rivire, 1989), grce
lcomuse et G.-R. Rivire, la population
devient, pour la premire fois dans lhistoire
des muses, un partenaire de linstitution et de
ses responsables . La participation du public
fait donc, depuis presque cinquante ans, lobjet
dune rflexion croissante et semble se
concrtiser aujourdhui par lintgration des
NTIC et du Web 2.0.
Nina Simon, quant elle, fournit une dfinition
actualise du lieu culturel participatif :
132
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316
Comment faire cohabiter mdiation 2.0 et
dmonstrations scientifiques en permanence ?
Quels changements dans lorganisation interne
cela va-t-il provoquer ? Ces outils sont-ils
indispensables un muse universitaire
e
scientifique au 21 sicle ?
La Maison de la Science
La MASC est un espace caractre musal
ddi la diffusion et la promotion des
sciences et des technologies. Elle a le statut
133
dune association sans but lucratif (a.s.b.l. )
et est accueillie dans lancien Institut
zoologique de luniversit de Lige (ULg), qui
est un de ses quatre membres fondateurs
(avec les a.s.b.l. Le Grand Lige, Science et
Culture, Ville de Lige). Elle a t
officiellement cre en 1991 et a pour objet de
diffuser les sciences et de proposer des
animations scientifiques attractives au grand
public et aux groupes scolaires. Situe au
centre-ville de Lige, la MASC accueille
annuellement entre 25 000 et 30 000 visiteurs
principalement scolaires (70%) et familiaux.
La MASC fait partie de lEmbarcadre du
Savoir (a.s.b.l.), le rseau de culture
scientifique, technique et industrielle initi par
lULg. Outre la MASC, ce projet associe les
comptences d'acteurs locaux reconnus dans
le domaine de la diffusion des sciences et des
techniques comme l'Aquarium-Musum de
Lige, la Maison de la Mtallurgie et de
lIndustrie de Lige, lInsectarium Jean Leclerc
de Waremme, Haute Ardenne Robertville et
les Espaces botaniques de lULg. Ensemble,
les six muses accueillent prs de 150 000
visiteurs par an. La direction commune de
lEmbarcadre du Savoir et de la MASC
permet cette dernire de bnficier dune
lgitimit et dun soutien de la part de lULg.
LUniversit est, en effet, lorigine de la
dsignation de Martine Jaminon (docteur en
Physique, charge de cours lULg) ces
deux postes et intervient financirement dans
la mise disposition et le fonctionnement des
locaux ainsi que dans le dveloppement de la
recherche en musologie.
Les missions de la Maison de la Science
LICOM (International Council of Museums)
dfinit quatre fonctions musales : animation
exposition, conservation et recherche. La
MASC met aujourdhui laccent sur deux
dentre elles. La recherche et la conservation
demeurent dfavorises au profit dune
politique danimation et dexposition exploite.
La MASC ne bnficie ni de reconnaissance ni
133
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317
presse bouton , destination principale des
visiteurs individuels, ont t abandonns au
profit dune valorisation des dmonstrations
scientifiques destination des groupes. La
MASC organise une exposition temporaire par
an,
parfois
deux,
sur
des
thmes
complmentaires
(Amesurons-nous,
Biomimtisme, Dynamath, Lunettes Gogo :
de Galile lOculus Rift , etc.) ceux qui sont
voqus dans lexposition permanente.
La conservation. La MASC possde un
ensemble dobjets reus en don et gre
certaines collections du patrimoine scientifique
et technique de lULg. Elle doit en assurer la
conservation, la gestion et la diffusion. Parmi
les
pices
matresses,
la
Collection
d'lectrotechnique de l'Institut Montefiore (326
objets), une des facettes essentielles du
patrimoine scientifique de l'ULg, offre un
panorama ligeois et international des
e
e
sciences de llectricit des 19 et 20 sicles.
La majorit de cette collection est prsente
dans les parcours de la MASC ou de la Maison
de la Mtallurgie et de lIndustrie de Lige et
est stocke dans les rserves de la MASC et
du Centre dHistoire des Sciences et
Techniques de lULg.
Le muse gre galement une partie des
collections universitaires de minraux du
Laboratoire
de
Minralogie
et
de
Cristallographie (250 objets) et de fossiles
animaux et vgtaux de lunit de
Palontologie animale et humaine (101 objets)
ainsi que la collection dinstruments mdicaux
du service de Gyncologie obsttrique (227
objets).
En 2010, linformatisation et linventaire des
collections ont t entams sur le modle des
137
fiches AICIM . Ce procd a t remplac
par un dpt dobjets numriss (DONum) et
dvelopp par les institutions partenaires de la
Bibliothque interuniversitaire de la FWB. Le
projet DONum rassemble en un portail unique
les collections universitaires numrises
(bibliothques, collections artistiques, archives
et centres de documentation) et dveloppe leur
accessibilit. Complmentaire aux projets
Open Access mis en place par le Rseau des
Bibliothques de lULg, DONum se prsente
comme l'intermdiaire entre lULg et de plus
vastes projets de numrisation patrimoniale en
Belgique et en Europe.
Grce ceci, la MASC bnficie du savoirfaire de personnes comptentes dans
Analyse SWOT
Les tendances musographiques actuelles
stimulent une rflexion globale sur la place des
NTIC et de la musologie participative dans les
enjeux musaux. Cest pourquoi lefficacit du
fonctionnement de la MASC est aujourdhui
remise en question afin danticiper un
hypothtique dsintrt de la part de ses
publics grce un renouvellement de ses
mthodes traditionnelles de transmission des
sciences et de communication avec ses
publics.
Linstitution
espre
aujourdhui
parvenir saffranchir de certaines lacunes en
entamant une rflexion autour de son
ventuelle inscription dans les paysages
technologique et participatif : les NTIC et les
techniques participatives lui permettront-elles
de rpondre aux nouvelles exigences du public
e
du 21 sicle et dtendre son champ daction
aux nouveaux enjeux de la socit lis
lvolution des sciences et des techniques ?
Laideront-elles dfinir clairement son statut
(muse de sciences, centre de sciences ou
muse universitaire ?) dont dcouleront les
futures activits ? Moderniseront-elles son
image ?
En thorie
La premire tape du processus de rflexion
autour de la rnovation repose sur une analyse
SWOT de la MASC. Elle est planifie avec une
partie de son personnel (quipe pdagogique
et
scnographique,
infographistes,
responsable administratif et direction). La
mthode SWOT, simple et comprhensible par
diffrentes cultures, offre une flexibilit
applicable diffrents types dinstitutions,
137
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318
notamment le muse, et reprsente un large
potentiel dadaptations mthodologiques.
Cette dmarche, normalement utilise dans le
secteur mercantile comme outil de planification
stratgique, sorganise selon un schma
bipartite (interne, externe) rparti en quatre
critres. Lanalyse interne identifie les forces et
les faiblesses dune entreprise ou dune
marque tandis que lanalyse externe se
penche plutt sur les opportunits et les
menaces ventuelles. Ce procd permet une
dmarche collective et structure qui donne la
parole aux intervenants concerns. Ceux-ci
prennent part la discussion, expriment leurs
expriences,
leurs
aspirations,
leurs
inquitudes lies au sujet trait. Les rsultats
dune analyse SWOT sont utilisables toutes
les tapes dun projet, depuis lauto-valuation
institutionnelle jusqu la programmation et la
concrtisation des nouvelles activits.
Lanalyse SWOT est cependant critiquable
plusieurs gards. Dabord, comme toutes les
mthodes participatives, elle est fortement
teinte de la reprsentativit de ses
participants. Cest pourquoi il est ncessaire
pour lorganisateur de les mettre en confiance
et de faire preuve dune large ouverture
desprit afin que chacun se sente invit
formuler
un
point
de
vue.
Ces
recommandations sont primordiales pour ne
pas biaiser le processus. Puisque les
changements envisags pour la MASC seront
penss et orchestrs par le personnel actuel, il
est dterminant de connatre ses frustrations et
ses espoirs relatifs lavenir de linstitution.
Ainsi, on sollicite une dynamique de discussion
et dchanges laquelle le personnel de la
MASC est peu habitu. Ce dernier en profite
donc pour sexprimer, parfois de faon
virulente. Les avis divergents et les
msententes entre les participants ont ds lors
t exacerbs. Cette exprience permet la
direction de raliser que la reprsentation de la
MASC (positive comme ngative) que se fait le
personnel pse lourd sur la rputation du
muse ( travers les expositions mises en
place, les animations proposes, la motivation
et lambition portes dans les diverses
activits, etc.).
Ensuite, les forces et les faiblesses explicites
au moment de lenqute peuvent se rvler
inadquates lors de la planification du nouveau
projet. Personne ne peut prvoir avec certitude
quune force persistera comme telle dans son
nouveau contexte. Les innovations, les essaiserreurs et les leons tires des expriences
menes restent ainsi prdominants.
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319
Quest-ce
qui
caractrise
notre
communication ? Quelles sont nos meilleures
ressources ? Quelles sont les opportunits que
nous connaissons mais que nous navons pas
encore exploites ? Quels obstacles bloquent
notre progrs ? Quelles sont nos forces aux
yeux du public ? Quelles sont nos faiblesses
aux yeux du public ? Quelles sont les
tendances mergentes dont nous pourrions
tirer profit ?
FORCES
FAIBLESSES
OPPORTUNITES
Proximit avec lAquarium-Musum de
Lige et Rjouisciences
Localisation dans la ville
Progrs des NTIC
Collaborations avec lEmbarcadre du
Savoir et les muses ligeois
MENACES
Proximit avec lAquarium-Musum
de Lige
Vieillissement rapide et cot des
NTIC
Diminution de la frquentation en
FWB
Subventions insuffisantes
Peur des sciences
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320
La MASC communique avec ses publics par le
biais
de
mthodes
traditionnelles
et
rudimentaires : aucun affichage publicitaire,
distribution daffiches ou de dpliants restreinte
aux enseignants, site internet vtuste
(accessibilit,
ergonomie,
prsentation),
courriers postaux vers les coles, absence de
newsletter informatise, manque de rgularit
sur les rseaux sociaux, langues trangres
ngliges
(exposition,
animation,
Web,
publicit), dsintrt global pour le public
individuel. Le faible budget allou la
communication (entre 1.5% et 2% du budget
global annuel) oblige la MASC mener des
campagnes publicitaires sommaires pour les
expositions temporaires comme pour les
138
activits permanentes . Depuis lautomne
2013, dans un lan de modernisation de la
MASC, une nouvelle impulsion est donne
sa stratgie communicationnelle.
Ainsi, la prsence du muse sur les rseaux
sociaux tels que Twitter et Facebook a t
activement rinvestie car ils reprsentent des
perspectives dinteraction avec le public horsles-murs
peu
coteuses,
bien
que
chronophages. Une tude de limpact effectif
de ces pratiques sur la frquentation et sur la
participation des publics est dailleurs prvue.
Par
ailleurs,
depuis
novembre
2013,
lEmbarcadre du Savoir entame la conception
dun site internet dans lequel chacun de ses
muses bnficiera dune interface propre et
modernise. Grce cette initiative, la MASC
profitera, ds lhiver 2015, dune nouvelle
visibilit sur le Web. Ceci suscite, chez les
jeunes infographistes, une rflexion autour de
lidentit visuelle globale de la MASC (design
du site internet, affiches des expositions et des
ateliers, scnographie, etc.) et sur lventuelle
ncessit de repenser le logo du muse, jug
peu vocateur. Ce site internet illustre combien
lEmbarcadre du Savoir reprsente une relle
opportunit en termes de dveloppements et
de collaborations intermusaux.
Certains choix communicationnels sont
critiqus par le personnel, notamment des
titres dexpositions ou dateliers jugs
inadapts au contenu rel de lvnement et
au public cibl. Par exemple, les expositions
temporaires Best of Nature (2007) et
Remue-mninges (2014) ne mentionnent
pas explicitement quil y est respectivement
138
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321
exposition temporaire a tent doffrir de
lautonomie de visite. Cette premire
exprience est dcrite plus loin.
La mdiation
Chaque exposition est organise, depuis la
cration musographique jusqu lanimation
quotidienne par les mdiateurs et la direction,
cest--dire un personnel de formation
scientifique (masters en Biologie ou Biochimie,
doctorat en Physique) et en pdagogie des
sciences
(agrgs
de
lenseignement
139
secondaire infrieur en sciences ). Ainsi, les
dmonstrations
sont
particulirement
apprcies du public la fois pour leur valeur
scientifique et pour leur qualit de
vulgarisation. Cependant, dun point de vue
purement cratif et imaginatif, les perspectives
scnographiques sont faibles, bien quelles
soient partiellement compenses par la
prsence dune jeune infographiste dans
lquipe.
Une des forces majeures de la MASC rside
dans la nature des contenus qui sont penss
pour rpondre aux exigences du programme
scolaire de la FWB, tant donn que les
coliers reprsentent la plus grande part de la
frquentation
(70%).
Cette
dmarche
reprsente un rel atout pour les enseignants
de la rgion ligeoise qui trouvent, au muse,
le matriel et les comptences scientifiques
dont les coles ne disposent pas. Cest donc
une faon pour eux denrichir et de complter,
par des expriences concrtes, les propos
abords en classe.
La musographie de lexposition permanente
nloigne pas suffisamment lenfant de
lenvironnement scolaire (bancs, tableaux,
affiches pdagogiques, panneaux). La nature
des animations face-public (o lapprenant
dispense activement son savoir aux profanes)
et labsence deffets spectaculaires renforcent
cette impression. Les interactions se limitent
celles gnres, traditionnellement, lors dune
visite guide classique. La discussion ne se
poursuit pas hors-les-murs, mme pas sur le
Web, et aucun lien affectif avec linstitution
nest cr chez llve. Une exprience
participative avec une cole locale pourrait,
sans chambouler la musographie existante,
complter cet cueil, par exemple un
partenariat avec une cole du quartier sous la
forme de Rendez-vous au muse pendant
toute lanne, rendez-vous durant lesquels les
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visiteurs annuels. La raison de ce succs
sexplique avant tout par lattractivit du thme
auprs des enfants et des familles. La MASC
pourrait nanmoins tirer profit du succs de
son voisin pour attirer de nouveaux publics
potentiels en organisant une exprience
participative commune ou en collaborant la
ralisation dateliers, de stages, danimations
et dexpositions. Leur proximit dans le
btiment pourrait galement les inciter
investir dans du matriel technologique mobile
(smartphones, tablettes tactiles) dont les cots
seraient partags. Seule une billetterie
commune
et
un
ticket-combin
sont
actuellement mis en place, ce qui nentrane
manifestement pas la MASC dans le mme
succs de frquentation.
Intgrer la technologie : solution miracle ?
La scnographie des expositions demeure
classique, peu interactive et sans grande
originalit. Pour la premire fois, dans
lexposition temporaire Vers la Lune avec
Tania , une technologie mobile est choisie
comme principal support de mdiation. Cette
fois-ci, les animateurs ne proposent aucune
dmonstration. Des QR codes prsents sur les
panneaux renvoient directement un contenu
dans une tablette tactile o le visiteur dcouvre
des textes, des vidos, des photographies et
des extraits musicaux qui apportent un
complment informatif ce qui est prsent
physiquement (extraits de films, jeux et
littrature de jeunesse, maquettes, expts
authentiques). Ce procd est choisi la fois
pour combler le manque despace dexposition
et pour moderniser loffre de visite en
proposant un parcours propre aux visiteurs
individuels, jusque-l inexistant.
Cette dmarche toute rcente chamboule
lorganisation des activits qui ne repose plus
uniquement sur les animations et sur un intrt
privilgi pour les groupes scolaires mais sur
un support technologique ( destination des
publics familiaux ou individuels) que le
personnel nest pas habitu grer
(distribution, maintenance, coaching des
visiteurs). En effet, lquipe musale place la
mdiation prsentielle (Belan & Blet, 2011)
comme force directrice ultime de linstitution.
Une enqute de rception de la tablette tactile
par le public est actuellement entreprise et les
rsultats semblent renforcer cette impression
puisquelle nous apprend que les visiteurs
prfrent suivre une animation avec un
mdiateur plutt quune visite autonome et
technologique. Les rsultats nous apprennent
que la plupart estime stre moins amuss
(36%) et avoir appris moins facilement quavec
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323
attractivit,
ct
ludique,
pdagogiques,
ergonomie,
dutilisation, etc.
qualits
simplicit
Conclusion
En accord avec lanalyse SWOT, les espoirs
nourris dans lintgration des NTIC et de la
musologie participative la MASC sont de
taille : dfinir un statut, moderniser la
rputation, enrichir loffre culturelle, sinscrire
dans la concurrence, nouer un lien avec le
public, attirer les visiteurs individuels,
envisager de nouvelles collaborations avec les
acteurs voisins, donner la parole au public,
dynamiser les outils de mdiation. Aujourdhui,
il est possible denvisager concrtement de
nouvelles activits qui rsoudraient certaines
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324
centre de sciences confirm) et ses missions
afin denvisager une reconnaissance solide
comme
muse
de
la
FWB.
Rfrences
Belan, F. & Blet, M. (2007). La mdiation prsentielle dans un muse des sciences. La Lettre de lOCIM,
114 ; 30-38.
Bradburne, J. (1998). Problmatique dune cration : Newmetropolis. In Schiele, B. & Koster, E.H. (1998). La
Rvolution de la Musologie des Sciences (pp. 40-77). Qubec : Editions MultiMondes.
Gob, A. & Drouguet, N. (2006). La musologie : histoire, enjeux, dveloppements actuels. Paris : Armand Colin.
Gurin, M. (2009). Pratiques et consommation culturelles en Communaut franaise. Courrier hebdomadaire,
2031-2032, 33-36.
Mabillot, V. (2000), Mises en scne de linteractivit, Reprsentations des utilisateurs dans les dispositifs de
mdiations interactives.
Rsum
La Maison de la Science (MASC) est un espace musal ddi la diffusion des sciences et des
technologies abrit par luniversit de Lige. Sa direction, soutenue par les autorits universitaires,
entame une rflexion autour de sa transformation et des approches nouvellement envisages dans
lamlioration et le renforcement de ses dispositifs de communication et de mdiation. Cette dmarche
anticipe un ventuel dsintrt du public et redfinit son statut (muse de science, centre de sciences ou
muse universitaire) ainsi que sa position dans loffre culturelle ligeoise et dans lUniversit. La MASC
sinterroge sur lutilit de rejoindre lengouement du secteur musal pour le participatif et les nouvelles
technologies de linformation et de la communication afin de donner une impulsion sa rputation et de
rpondre aux nouvelles attentes du public. Lanalyse SWOT propose est la premire tape rflexive du
projet de transformation. Elle considre la situation globale de la MASC travers ses forces et ses
faiblesses (comptences du personnel, nature des collections, conjoncture financire, localisation) ainsi
que ses menaces et ses opportunits (public, situation socio-conomique rgionale, volutions
technologiques et dmographiques).
Mots cl : Centre de sciences, communication, technologies de linformation
Resumen
Pensar a la mediacin y la communicain : entre la utopia y la realidad
El "Maison de la Science (MASC)" es un espacio museal dedicado a la difusin de las ciencias y de las
tecnologas, albergado por la universidad de Lige (Blgica). Su direccin, apoyada por las autoridades
universitarias, emprende una reflexin sobre su transformacin y nuevos enfoques para mejorar y
consolidar sus dispositivos de comunicacin y de mediacin. Este proceso anticipa un eventual
desinters del publico y redefine su estatus (museo o centro de ciencias o museo universitario) as como
su posicin dentro de la oferta cultural en la ciudad y en la universidad. El MASC se pregunta sobre la
utilidad de juntarse al entusiasmo del sector museal por el proceso de participacin y las NTIC para dar
un impulso a su reputacin y responder a las nuevas esperas del pblico. El anlisis DAFO es el primer
paso en el proceso de consideracin del proyecto de transformacin. Tiene en cuenta la situacin global
del MASC a travs de sus fuerzas y debilidades (capacidades de la plantilla, naturaleza de las
colecciones, coyuntura econmica, localizacin) as como de sus amenazas y oportunidades (pblico,
situacion socio-econmica regional, evoluciones tecnolgicas y demogrficas).
Palabras clave: centros cientificos, communicacin, tecnologa de la informacin
Abstract
Thinking mediation and communication: between utopia and reality
The House of Science is a museum space dedicated to disseminating science and technology housed at
the University of Lige. The management, with the support of the university, has started to think about
transforming the House of Science with new approaches to improving and strengthening its systems of
communication and mediation. This move anticipates that the public will eventually lose interest in the
present system and is redefining its status (science museum, science centre, or university museum) as
well as its position in the cultural landscape of Lige and in the university. The MASC questions the
usefulness of joining the present infatuation with participatory and new information and communication
technology in order to boost its reputation and meet new public expectations. A proposed SWOT
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analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) is the first step of a feasibility study for this
transformation. It considers the overall situation of the House of Science with its strengths and
weaknesses (staff expertise, nature of the collections, financial situation, location) as well as its threats
and opportunities (public, regional socio-economics, technological and demographic developments).
Key words: Science centres, communication, information technology
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assidment un cabinet de curiosits qui
appartenait son ami Peiresc, qui avait les
moyens dun tel investissement et qui,
surnomm le prince des curieux , avait
consacr sa collection une partie de sa vie
et de sa fortune , rassemblant des
rarets
pour des raisons aussi bien
esthtiques quducatives et scientifiques.
Gassendi avait grand besoin de lobservation
des objets de ce cabinet pour tablir son
raisonnement scientifique (Gassendi, 1992).
une
apprhension globale du paysage, de ses
structures
et
de
ses
connexions
internes. Dautre part, je venais deffectuer ma
formation de conservateur en 1984
lcomuse du Creusot, structure trs
novatrice o sexprimentait lide de muse
sans collection et o se posait de manire
concrte la question de la place du muse
dans son territoire. Lhomme ne vit pas
seulement de tableaux. Il vit aussi et dabord
dans un environnement naturel tait le credo
de lcomuse, tel que lcrivait Jean Clair
(1974) dans un article-manifeste.
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328
intgration territoriale du muse. Ces moyens
mont t offerts par linvitation qui ma t
adresse en 1994 de concevoir la
programmation artistique dun vnement li
lanniversaire de la cration de la Rserve
naturelle.
Quatre
cas
artistiques
de
collaborations
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329
ferme, glise) est reconstruit et la sculpture est
indissociable du bti.
Quant au choix des sites, il est significatif quil
a souvent t le fait de lartiste lui-mme, en
fonction de la marche et des endroits
traverser mais quil a aussi parfois t d
lintervention des habitants eux-mmes. Ainsi,
Refuge dArt : ferme des belons ma t
propose par le maire du village de Draix au
motif que cette ferme avait t une ancienne
cole de cadres de la Rsistance et quun
groupe de rsistants y avait t arrt. Le dfi,
que Goldsworthy a accept, tait dintgrer
cette mmoire communale dans son uvre
sans pour autant en faire un monument : les
randonneurs dorment au premier tage de la
ferme reconstruite, tandis que le rez-dechausse anciennement la bergerie est
occup par une srie darches massives en
pierre qui rendent lespace non fonctionnel (fig.
2).
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330
Quelle est la signification de ces pierres
alignes ? Poses sur le sol, dans les prairies,
elles sont partie intgrante du territoire et
indiquent une direction suivre plutt que
dtre de simples objets contempler. Chaque
alignement dfinit en effet lune des relations
du village avec son environnement et porte
aussi la mmoire des connexions disparues,
les empreintes dune vie efface. Ainsi, dans
un texte sur sa sculpture de Vire, Richard
Nonas, voque-t-il le rcit de labandon du
hameau en 1936 (qui est aussi lanne de
naissance de lartiste) comme lvnement le
plus signifiant de lhistoire de ce lieu (Nonas,
2012)
Le fait que cet artiste ait t anthropologue ne
compte videmment pas pour rien dans sa
dmarche : il assume la part du drame que
connat ce hameau de moyenne montagne,
entre la vie et la mort. Ce nest pas un hasard
si linauguration de luvre en juillet 2011 fut
loccasion dune rconciliation entre le village
ruin et ceux qui en taient partis et qui
vivaient ailleurs. Telle est la fonction du
muse,
comme
Nonas
la
pratique
spontanment et dont jai moi-mme retenu la
leon : le muse nest ni en marge du territoire,
ni mme sur le territoire ; il fait partie du
territoire comme un acteur part entire et
sans en occulter bien au contraire les
vicissitudes et les malheurs.
herman de vries ou la leon de
limpermanence des choses
Assez diffrente a priori des deux dmarches
144
prcdentes, est celle dherman de vries , n
en Hollande en 1931, mme si, comme Nonas,
il exera comme chercheur avant de devenir
un artiste. En loccurrence, herman de vries
travaillait en sciences botaniques dans les
annes 1950 et, on va le voir, sa spcialit ne
fut pas sans consquences sur son orientation
artistique et sur ltroitesse de ses relations
avec le muse Gassendi o il vient
rgulirement depuis 2000 et dont il a dit que
cest le seul endroit au monde o je nai
trouv que pure posie (de vries, 2003). En
ralit, je voudrais montrer que la dmarche
de de vries est trs complmentaire de celle
des artistes que jai cits avant lui.
Ce qui, cependant, marque sa singularit tient
sa trs grande proximit avec la philosophie
orientale fonde sur lexprience sensible. Il ne
considre pas la nature comme un lment
144
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331
Autour du sanctuaire se sont organiss et
dvelopps dautres projets, qui font de cette
ralisation le point de dpart dune collection
dans lespace extrieur. Le long du sentier
daccs vers le sanctuaire, herman de vries
accompagne les marcheurs par une pigraphie
grave dans un bloc de roche : ambulo ergo
sum (fig. 5), phrase extraite de la controverse
entre Gassendi et Descartes. Depuis 2001, de
vries poursuit ce geste avec traces, un
ensemble de sentences philosophiques et
potiques graves mme la roche dans
divers lieux de la campagne dignoise.
Nulle nostalgie de sa part, toutefois : si herman
de vries a t trs attentif la dsertification
de la valle du Bs o se situe son uvre, sa
philosophie intgre la mort et la disparition
comme une donne de la vie elle-mme. Il
nest pas davantage hant par la perte des
cultures : la campagne de Haute Provence
e
e
se dpeupla la fin du 19 et au dbut du 20
sicle. Ce fut un processus dramatique, en
partie d aux dommages cologiques, la
Premire Guerre mondiale qui fit de
nombreuses victimes parmi la population
masculine, et au dveloppement de lindustrie,
qui attira dans les villes comme Marseille une
population se dtournant du pnible travail des
champs. le paysage se transforma, la nature
reprit ce que lhomme lui avait pris et dmontra
sa grande aptitude gurir, la vgtation se
mettant a recouvrir la moindre parcelle de
terrain abandonne par les hommes. (de
vries, 2003)
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332
au scepticisme. Si les randonneurs se posent
des questions, ils trouvent des lments de
rponse au muse Gassendi o un dispositif
intgre luvre in situ et y ajoute des
explications, mais ce, sans que, pour autant,
lambigut soit tout fait leve, puisque le
projet de cet artiste est bien de laisser planer
le doute, afin de solliciter le spectateur en
stimulant son esprit critique, en favorisant ses
interrogations et en lencourageant au
scepticisme.
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333
compltent et se nourrissent lun de lautre en
un voisinage qui les enrichit mutuellement.
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la rgion, celle de Seyne. Ces sentiers
passaient par les hauteurs, rejoignaient des
villages qui taient eux-mmes en hauteur, ce
qui donnait une vision du paysage toute
diffrente de celle que procure aujourdhui le
rseau routier, qui emprunte les valles.
Lobjectif prioritaire de cette mise en marche
des visiteurs est videmment de faire
connatre les uvres, mais il est galement de
favoriser la connaissance du territoire par ses
habitants. Cette connaissance vaut dailleurs
parfois reconnaissance : lorsque, pour les
uvres, ils reviennent dans les endroits qui
ont t dserts par eux ou par leurs familles,
ces habitants prouvent un sentiment de fiert
propre attnuer lexprience dchec que
reprsentait le dpart. Remis en marche par le
projet artistique, les habitants dun village
abandonn ne vivent plus cet abandon sur le
mode ngatif de la ruine et de la fuite mais sur
le mode dun renouvellement favoris et
concrtis par lintervention artistique. cette
exprience sont bien sr galement convis
les visiteurs extrieurs.
De fait, linvitation que, forts dune
connaissance approfondie et scientifique de
lhistoire du territoire, les artistes et le muse
adressent aux habitants comme aux visiteurs
est celle du retour par la marche un usage
millnaire de la montagne. Simplement, il ne
sagit pas de revenir en arrire, de faire
comme si le temps navait pas pass. Au
contraire,
les
artistes
insistent
sur
lirrmdiable disparition qui marque les gens
et les choses, lrosion qui mine les maisons,
les ruines qui gagnent du terrain, la montagne
qui se vide. Force est de reconnatre que je ne
mattendais pas ce type de regard : avant de
faire leur uvre et pour faire leur uvre du
site lui-mme, les artistes ont besoin de
procder cet tat ruin et dsert des lieux.
Gnralement, dailleurs, ils le ralisent
dautant mieux quils sont hants par
lcoulement du temps, quils lacceptent
(herman de vries), quils y opposent une forme
de stabilisation (Richard Nonas) ou quils en
dtournent les effets (Andy Goldsworthy).
Par-del ces diffrences dattitude et de points
de vue, limportant est que cette invitation
place aujourdhui le muse au centre dun
rseau. Au sens propre du terme, il rayonne
sur son territoire et non pas virtuellement, mais
physiquement, gographiquement pour ainsi
dire. Un signe en est quen 2012 nous avons
publi 2000 exemplaires un guide intitul
Lart en marche, prsentant vingt itinraires
pour dcouvrir lensemble des uvres in situ.
Ce guide, et non pas un catalogue, est vendu
Conclusion
Des considrations prcdentes ressort lide
quune dimension thique est sous-jacente au
projet visant sans aucune folklorisation
promouvoir des actions artistiques au sein dun
territoire dsert, partir des traces laisses
par loccupation de ce territoire et par ceux qui
lont faonn. Certes, lensemble des
collections traditionnelles du muse Gassendi
provient du territoire : pices archologiques
dterres,
spcimens
palontologiques
dtachs, animaux naturaliss arrachs leur
lieu dorigine ; uvres prises au clerg, objets
ethnographiques
abandonns,
autant
dlments dun trsor prlev sur les vaincus
de lindustrialisation et de la modernit. Or, le
mouvement sinverse aujourdhui : le muse
essaime, enrichit le territoire par lattractivit
des uvres quil y produit et quil y introduit. Le
muse nest donc plus ou plus seulement
le lieu o convergent des uvres et des objets
dont labsence sur les lieux o ils ont t
trouvs en accentue le sentiment de perte ou
de dpossession. Plus exactement, cette
dialectique entre tendances centriptes et
tendances centrifuges rige le muse en
centre actif de redploiement artistique. Par le
va-et-vient du public entre collections intra
muros et uvres extra muros, le muse
ambitionne de devenir un lment du territoire
part entire.
Que lon ne sy trompe pas, toutefois : installer
de lart contemporain en territoire rural nest
jamais chose facile. La difficult principale
rside dans la mobilisation des financements,
dans un contexte de ressources plus limites
quailleurs, ce qui implique la recherche de
fonds europens et de mcnats. Linstallation
des uvres de faon prenne se heurte aussi
des obstacles techniques et aux difficults
lies la ncessit de les faire accueillir par
les populations ; avant toute implantation des
uvres en extrieur, des runions publiques
associant habitants et artistes doivent donc
tre conduites ; dans la plupart des cas, elles
dsamorcent les tensions. Pour autant, la
question centrale de lacceptation, voire de
lappropriation de ces uvres reste pose en
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335
permanence. Leur maintenance est une autre
condition essentielle. Dautres problmes
doivent tre pris en compte, parfois dune
grande complexit : proprit juridique des
btiments
reconstruits,
autorisation
de
passage sur les sentiers privs et publics,
acheminement des matriaux, logistique,
obligation de rduire au minimum limpact
environnemental, dassurer la scurisation et
lentretien des uvres en accs libre, etc.
Plus largement, la lgitimit de la dmarche,
la croise de la cration contemporaine, du
tourisme culturel et du dveloppement local
nest jamais dfinitivement acquise ; elle est
toujours construire et, qui plus est, dans un
environnement politique et institutionnel qui
nest jamais stabilis : nos tutelles changent et,
avec elles, nos interlocuteurs. Ce que jai
conduit Digne, depuis 25 ans, avec le
soutien des institutions, fut donc labor
progressivement ; cest le rsultat dune
mthode participative alliant persvrance,
rigueur, visites des structures culturelles,
lectures, mais aussi hasard des rencontres
avec les artistes et des discussions avec des
amis et collgues. Il faut, selon moi, cette
mthode pour assurer son avenir au muse
Gassendi : muse mixte entre art et science,
fruit de la tension entre mouvement centripte
et mouvement centrifuge, non pas muse sur
un territoire, mais muse dans son territoire.
Ma pratique, vous laurez aussi observ, nest
pas celle dune thoricienne ; cest celle dune
conservatrice de muse un peu atypique,
soucieuse de lensemble des enjeux (sociaux,
conomiques, historiques, environnementaux, ) dune politique de dveloppement
artistique intgr. L est lessentiel de mon
message dignois : il y a bien des montagnes
soulever pour que le muse devienne, comme
le dit Richard Nonas, un sentier de montagne
145
dans un paysage plat .
145
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Rfrence
Bann, S., (2007). A garden if the Hesperides : The landscape initiative of the Muse Gassendi, Digne, and
the Geological Reserve of Alpes de Haute-Provence. In Michel Conan Ed. Contemporary Garden
Aesthetics, creations and Interpretations (pp. 235-249). Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the History of
Landscape Architecture XXIX. Washington D.C: Harvard University Press.
Bernard, C., Faure, F. & Gomez, N. (2005). Constituer et prsenter une collection dart contemporain. 3
exemples : Digne, Genve et Marseille. In coll. Exos. Association gnrale des conservateurs des
collections publiques de France, Ed. Lyon : Fage ditions.
Clair, J., (1974) Du marteau-pilon lcomuse. Chroniques de lArt Vivant, 51. (pp 2-4). Paris, Maeght.
Desvalles, A. & Debary,O., ( 2000). Un entretien avec Andr Desvalles . Publics et muses, 17-18, 232-240.
De vries, H. (2003). Ceci est parfait, cela est parfait. In Muse Gassendi Ed. Nouvelles curiosits / New curiosities
/ Nuove cusiosit. (pp. 83-86). Digne, France : Muse Gassendi.
Faure, F.,(2003). uvres-lieux et lieux autres. Universit d'Aix-Marseille I,Thse non publie.
Fontcuberta, J. (2003). Musifier la nature. In Muse Gassendi Ed. Nouvelles Curiosits / New curiosities /
Nuove cusiosit. (pp. 79-82). Digne, France : Muse Gassendi.
Gassendi, P., (1992). Peiresc ( 1580-1637) : Vie de lillustre Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, conseiller au
parlement dAix. Traduit du latin par Roger Lassalle avec la collaboration dAgns Besson. Paris : Belin.
Gomez-Passamar, N., (2008). Une commande publique lchelle du paysage. In Cros, C. & Le Bon, L., Lart
ciel ouvert : La cration contemporaine. Commandes publiques en France 1983-2007. Paris :
Flammarion.
Goldsworthy, A., (2008). Refuges dArt. Lyon : Fage ditions & Digne, France : Muse Gassendi.
Mglin-Delcroix, A. (2009). Proximit dans la distance. In herman de vries. Lyon : Fage ditions & Digne,
France : Muse Gassendi.
Nonas, R. & Plossu, B. (2011). THE RAW EDGE: Vire et les Moyennes Montagnes. Crisne, Belgique : Yellow
Now.
Poinsot, J.-M. (2008). Quand luvre a lieu : Lart expos et ses rcits autoriss. Nouvelle edition revue et
augmente. Genve : Mamco & Dijon : Les presses du rel.
Putnam, J. (2001). Art & Artifact: The Museum as Medium. London: Thames & Hudson.
Tiberghien, G.-A. (1993). Land Art. Paris : Carr.
Turner, A. (2003). Le monde extrieur lintrieur. In Muse Gassendi Ed. Nouvelles Curiosits / New
curiosities / Nuove cusiosit.(pp. 27-56). Digne, France : Muse Gassendi.
Rsum
Remodeler le projet du muse Gassendi en invitant des artistes travailler dans un vaste territoire
naturel fonde lexprience dveloppe Digne. Lauteur, conservatrice du muse et gologue de
formation, a orient le projet scientifique et culturel vers la cohabitation des collections scientifiques
autour de la notion de cabinet de curiosits et la mise en relation avec le territoire par des commandes
artistiques, qui sont ralises dans le paysage. Vingt ans plus tard, leffet rebond de cette exprience sur
la fonction du muse est considrable : Il devient un relais o les visiteurs viennent chercher des
renseignements, des cartes et mme des clefs : on peut dormir dans certaines uvres et devenir un
occupant temporaire de ces lieux dserts. Le muse nest plus seulement cet espace centripte o est
collect et conserv ce qui a disparu ; il est aussi ce foyer centrifuge partir duquel les artistes inventent
de nouvelles manires dhabiter les lieux.
Mots cl : comuses de la nature ; artistes et muses ; art de paysage in-situ ; cabinets de curiosit ;
art et nature;
Abstract
The museum is a mountain path in a flat landscape
Redesigning the Gassendi Museum project, by inviting artists to work in a vast natural territory, was the
basis of the experiment carried out at Digne-les-Bains. The author, curator of the museum with a
scientific background in geology, directed the scientific and cultural project towards the notion of
scientific collections as curiosity cabinets linked with a concept of territory as interpreted by artist
commissions created in the landscape. Twenty years later, this experiment has had a considerable
impact on the function of the museum itself: it has become a hub where visitors can find information,
maps and even keys: it is possible to sleep in some of the works and become a temporary lodger in an
abandoned place. The museum is not only a centripetal space where what has disappeared is collected
and preserved. It is also a focal point where artists can invent new ways of living in the area.
Key words: Ecomuseums of nature; artists and museums; art and nature; site specific land art; curiosity
cabinets
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La Educacin patrimonial en
Espaa
Si tuvisemos que describir la situacin de
Espaa hace cinco aos en materia de
patrimonio, estara situada como segundo pas
del mundo en cuanto a Bienes declarados
146
147
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338
Cinco aos despus, la situacin de Espaa
es sustancialmente diferente, pues, en este
tiempo, el pas, que ya cuenta con 61.352 BIC,
si bien se ha situado como el tercer pas en
cuanto a bienes patrimonio mundial (por detrs
de China), se ha dotado de dos potentes
herramientas que lo sitan como un referente
en el campo internacional, pues su caso es
excepcional por el momento. Nos referimos a
un Plan Nacional de Educacin y Patrimonio,
que contempla un programa especfico
dedicado a la Investigacin en Educacin
Patrimonial y a un Observatorio de Educacin
Patrimonial en Espaa, que hace especial
hincapi en el inventario, anlisis y evaluacin
de programas educativos. Ambos son
instrumentos financiados por dos Ministerios
(Ministerio de Educacin, Cultura y Deporte y
Ministerio de Economa y Competitividad,
respectivamente), por lo que conviene, no solo
describir y detallar sus principios, objetivos y
actuaciones, sino ponerlos en valor en la
medida en que puedan mejorar el estado y la
calidad de la educacin patrimonial en
Espaa, as como marcar la trayectoria de la
educacin patrimonial internacional en la
prxima dcada.
Los planes nacionales en Espaa, cuya
elaboracin y ejecucin es funcin del Instituto
del Patrimonio Cultural de Espaa (en
adelante IPCE), son instrumentos que se
crean para establecer una metodologa de
actuacin unificada sobre conjuntos de bienes
culturales, programar las inversiones de
acuerdo con las necesidades de conservacin
y coordinar la participacin de las distintas
instituciones
que
intervienen
en
la
conservacin de esos conjuntos patrimoniales
en nuestro pas.
Uno de los nuevos planes, de clara naturaleza
transversal, es el Plan Nacional de Educacin
y Patrimonio (en adelante PNEyP), que
pretende convertirse en una herramienta
eficaz
de
coordinacin
entre
las
administraciones e instituciones gestoras de
programas educativos relacionadas con la
transmisin del Patrimonio Cultural (Domingo,
Fontal y Ballesteros, 2013, 2).
El Plan parte de la consideracin de que las
actuaciones en materia educativa suponen
una de las lneas de actuacin ms eficaces y
rentables para garantizar la preservacin de
los bienes culturales. "Con esta finalidad, as
como con el deseo de favorecer el disfrute de
los valores histricos, artsticos, etnogrficos,
cientficos y tcnicos de los citados bienes, las
administraciones e instituciones pblicas estn
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339
intergeneracionales, multiculturales y plurales
(Domingo, Fontal y Ballesteros, 2013, 3).
En el mbito de la educacin formal, el Plan
velar por la implementacin de la normativa
educativa para un progresivo incremento
cualitativo y cuantitativo de los contenidos
patrimoniales en los currculos, as como por la
mejora de la capacitacin del profesorado y de
los recursos destinados a la transmisin del
Patrimonio Cultural. Si bien la presencia del
Patrimonio en la normativa educativa es
suficiente, esta base curricular no encuentra
su adecuada implementacin educativa dentro
de la enseanza formal. Por su parte, en el
mbito no formal de la educacin patrimonial
desarrollada en instituciones pblicas como
museos, bibliotecas, archivos o institutos de
Patrimonio, es fundamental generar una lnea
de trabajo uniforme y coordinada en cuanto a
criterios, objetivos, contenidos e, incluso,
enfoques metodolgicos. En este sentido, se
detecta que, frecuentemente, los materiales
didcticos no se elaboran partiendo de unos
conocimientos psicopedaggicos ni didcticos
apropiados. Por su parte, el personal vinculado
al desarrollo de las actividades educativas, en
ocasiones, no est adecuadamente capacitado
para facilitar la comprensin de contenidos
patrimoniales. Todo ello hace necesario que se
fomente la formacin en tcnicas y estrategias
didcticas de enseanza-aprendizaje a
gestores de Patrimonio y otros tcnicos
relacionados con el Patrimonio Cultural que
lleven a cabo labores educativas. Asimismo,
se debe impulsar la concepcin del Patrimonio
como elemento de sostenibilidad y de
desarrollo socioeconmico, sociocultural y
personal (Domingo, Fontal y Ballesteros, 2013,
3).
En el mbito informal de la educacin
patrimonial la red se est convirtiendo en un
medio y un contenido patrimonial en s mismo.
Los contenidos presentes en ella llegan a un
espectro muy amplio de pblico, no hay
barreras fsicas, generacionales, ni temporales
y permite, en la mayora de los casos,
procesos comunicativos bidireccionales. Sin
embargo, hay una falta de control sobre la
calidad de la informacin y, en muchas
ocasiones, no se respeta la propiedad
intelectual, lo que nos alerta sobre la
necesidad de un uso responsable y sostenible
de la red en relacin con la transmisin del
Patrimonio. Adems, si bien muchos centros
emplean las nuevas tecnologas para sus
actuaciones de difusin y educacin, en la
prctica no han modificado sus criterios de
actuacin (Ibez, Vicent y Asensio, 2012).
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340
garanticen la colaboracin entre educadores y
gestores del Patrimonio Cultural en materia de
educacin patrimonial.
6. Fomentar la elaboracin de materiales
educativos orientados a la transmisin de los
conceptos y valores patrimoniales.
7. Integrar las lneas de actuacin orientadas a
la didctica de los bienes patrimoniales en las
herramientas de gestin del Patrimonio
Cultural, tales como Planes Nacionales,
Planes Especiales, Planes de Salvaguarda,
etc.
8. Difundir los programas y acciones
educativas relacionados con el Patrimonio
Cultural realizados en todo el territorio
espaol.
9. Promocionar la cooperacin espaola en
programas y acciones internacionales de
educacin
patrimonial,
potenciando
su
incorporacin en polticas y redes de
naturaleza supranacional (Domingo, Fontal y
Ballesteros, 2013, 7-8).
Estos objetivos se concretan en programas y
lneas que se sustentan sobre los siguientes
criterios metodolgicos:
Formacin y especializacin. Se favorecen
actuaciones que supongan una mejora en la
formacin acadmica de los profesionales de
la educacin, los gestores y dems agentes
culturales. Esta formacin ha de ser, adems,
permanente y contemplar diferentes niveles de
especializacin.
Interdisciplinariedad. Dado que son muchos y
diversos los valores que tiene el Patrimonio
(histricos, sociales, ideolgicos, identitarios,
emotivos, etc.), la educacin patrimonial debe
partir de presupuestos interdisciplinares.
Flexibilidad, entendida como la capacidad de
adaptacin a los mltiples contextos de
aprendizaje, a la condicin viva y cambiante
del patrimonio, as como a la pluralidad de las
personas educadas en relacin con el mismo.
Diversidad. Diversidad del patrimonio, de los
mltiples valores que se proyectan sobre l, de
los pblicos y de las actuaciones que pueden
llevarse a cabo a travs de la accin
educativa. La inclusin social debe ser la meta
afn y, en este proceso, las TICs (tecnologas
de la informacin y la comunicacin) adquieren
un gran potencial para su consecucin (Prez
y Sarrate, 2011).
Participacin e implicacin social, entendiendo
que la participacin social no es el fin, sino el
origen de la educacin patrimonial, buscando
la apropiacin y aprehensin del patrimonio y,
en definitiva, la participacin de ste en la
construccin de referentes identitarios de las
personas y los colectivos.
Sensibilizacin, ordenada en una secuencia de
cinco fases: conocer para comprender,
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341
metodolgicos de la educacin patrimonial.
La formacin de gestores culturales mediante
el diseo y desarrollo de programas de
formacin,
definiendo
estrategias
de
planificacin y de comunicacin social,
buscando la formacin continua de los
gestores.
Formacin de otros agentes vinculados al
patrimonio como profesionales del sector
turstico, profesionales de los medios de
comunicacin, personal de los Cuerpos y
Fuerzas
de
Seguridad
del
Estado,
Comunidades Autnomas y Entes Locales.
Formacin de investigadores en educacin
patrimonial.
Coordinacin
y
comunicacin
entre
educadores, gestores de patrimonio, otros
agentes culturales e investigadores. Para ellos
se crearn unidades interinstitucionales y se
constituirn grupos de innovacin educativa.
Existe un 3er Programa, de carcter
transversal, que debe estar presente en los
anteriores. Es la Difusin de las propuestas
educativas, dando a conocer el conjunto de
proyectos, programas, acciones y diseos
educativos que se generen en Espaa en
materia de educacin y patrimonio. Adems,
sern lneas de actuacin especficas de este
Plan:
La difusin en la estructura institucional
pblica ya existente as como en las lneas de
trabajo desarrolladas por otros departamentos
ministeriales.
La
responsabilidad
de
diferentes
administraciones con competencias sobre el
Patrimonio, que deben ocuparse de explicar
activamente el significado y valor del PNEyP, a
travs de publicaciones, exposiciones, medios
de comunicacin, Internet, etc.
La difusin de estas actuaciones en las
principales redes sociales, crendose foros de
debate, grupos de trabajo, etc.
La implicacin del mbito empresarial a travs
de frmulas de patrocinio y mecenazgo.
El PNEyP tiene una vigencia de diez aos y
podr ser sometido a revisin a los cinco. Su
funcionamiento ser competencia de la
Comisin de Seguimiento, entre cuyas
funciones est el control del cumplimiento de
los objetivos del Plan en nuestro pas, as
como de los programas y lneas de actuacin
para la elaboracin de los correspondientes
informes anuales. Se constituye como
herramienta clave y referente en nuestra
investigacin, como pilar donde se inscribe el
Observatorio de Educacin Patrimonial, base
de datos que se configura como herramienta
de
investigacin
que
presentamos
a
continuacin.
El Observatorio de Educacin
Patrimonial en Espaa
Si tuvisemos que ajustarnos nicamente a los
datos
cuantitativos,
seguramente
s
hallaramos una enorme cantidad de
propuestas educativas (ms de 5000
detectadas en el observatorio). Sin embargo,
el dato que ms nos interesa es de corte
cualitativo: cmo son esas propuestas?,
quin las disea e implementa?, se evalan
en algn momento?, plantean objetivos
claros?, la metodologa docente es adecuada
a los objetivos?, se disean propuestas para
todas las personas?, existe pensamiento y
reflexin en torno a ellas?, cunto tiempo
duran?, quin participa en ellas?, qu
repercusin tienen?
La respuestas a estas preguntas, salvando
magnficas excepciones, no siempre nos
sitan frente a lo deseable en el panorama
nacional,
pues
localizamos
muchas
actividades inconexas, interrumpidas, sin
objetivar,
sin
medir,
sin
adecuar
metodolgicamente, que se olvidan de
personas y sectores sociales, reiterativas, sin
ajustar a los niveles de competencia cognitiva
o social, sin pensamiento o reflexin
asociados, que se interrumpen en su mejor
momento en cuanto a resultados educativos y
con escasa repercusin social, menos an
meditica.
Por otra parte, de nuestras fronteras hacia
afuera, Espaa tiene muy poca presencia en
proyectos internacionales y est muy lejos de
ser lder en el diseo de programas que inviten
y comprendan a varios pases, por lo que ese
liderazgo en lo patrimonial no encuentra su
equivalencia en lo educativo. Sin embargo,
hay indicios que nos hacen prever un cambio
inminente de esta situacin.
De la situacin descrita en el apartado anterior,
se deduce que es necesario buscar
convenientemente todo tipo de programas
educativos sobre patrimonio y hacerlo
conforme a criterios y descriptores de
bsqueda claros. Todo ese volumen de
propuestas
educativas
ha
de
ser
convenientemente almacenado y clasificado.
de cara a poderlo ordenar. Esas propuestas
educativas pueden permitirnos medir desde la
situacin de la educacin patrimonial de
nuestro pas, hasta los modelos educativos
predominantes,
o
las
ausencias
determinantes. Solo as podremos mostrar lo
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342
que hacemos exhaustivamente y estaremos
en disposicin de colaborar con otros pases.
Con el propsito de cubrir todas estas
necesidades surge en Espaa el OEPE, que
es una sucesin de dos proyectos de I+D+i
financiados por el Ministerio de Economa y
Competitividad, dentro de la convocatoria de
Investigacin fundamental no orientada, que
tiene su primer desarrollo entre enero de 2010
Profesor
rea de conocimiento
Categora
A. Palacios Garrido
CDOC
CAUN
Girona
R. Juanola
Terradellas
J. Valls Villanueva
CDOC
Oviedo
R. Calaf Masachs
CAUN
Pas Vasco
A. Ibez Etxeberra
PTUN
Pas Vasco
N. Vicent Otao
P.INT
P. Sorbonne
A. Torregrosa Laborie
Sociologa
CONT
P. Sorbonne
M. Falcn Vignoli
Sociologa
CONT
Valencia
R. Huerta Ramn
PTUN
Valladolid
P. Castro Prieto
PTUN
Valladolid
J. J. Fernndez Martn
PTUN
Valladolid
Jon. P. Arregui
Msica
PTUN
Valladolid
J. Sixto Olivar
Psicologa
PTUN
Valladolid
Hugo Rodrguez
PTEU
Valladolid
PTUN
Girona
Muntsa Calb
PTUN
Oviedo
CAUN
Huelva
Myriam Martn
Didctica
y
Organizacin
Escolar
Didctica de las CCSS
Valladolid
S. Marn Cepeda
Valladolid
S. Prez Lpez
Valladolid
S. Garca Ceballos
Universidad
Alcal
Henares
Girona
de
PAYUD
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343
de datos se gestiona el inventario y anlisis de
los programas educativos, mediante una ficha
de recogida de datos que se organiza en 5
grandes apartados: (1) Identificacin y
localizacin, (2) Descripcin, (3) Datos del
diseo educativo, (4) Relacin con otras fichas
y (5) Anexo documental. En conjunto, la ficha
de inventario se compone de 42 campos ms
un anexo documental que incluye documentos
escritos, audiovisuales y links.
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344
modelo basado
patrimonializacin.
en
los
procesos
de
hacia
la
inclusin.
En consecuencia,
entendemos que la educacin patrimonial
debe ser un proceso que forme parte de la
educacin del individuo a lo largo de toda la
vida, tanto en los procesos de educacin
formal como en la no formal e informal. Un
proceso necesario en la bsqueda del pleno
desarrollo integral del sujeto, de sus
capacidades y en todas sus dimensiones
(afectiva, social espiritual, intelectual e
interpersonal). La educacin patrimonial es el
medio y el fluido de los procesos de
construccin del patrimonio y su comprensin,
favoreciendo todo lo que ello conlleva (valorar,
conservar, respetar, cuidar, transmitir).
La educacin patrimonial, por tanto, debe
ayudar al individuo a desarrollarse plenamente
en todas sus potencialidades, para generar un
proceso consciente de apropiacin e insercin
en su medio social, as como en los procesos
de conocimiento, comprensin, valoracin,
cuidado, disfrute y difusin de aquellos objetos
materiales
,
inmateriales
y
aspectos
intangibles heredados de su cultura.
Finalmente, la educacin patrimonial debe
pretender la configuracin de las identidades
individual y social, as como la conservacin y
valoracin de los bienes patrimoniales en la
medida en que stos son parte de nuestros
referentes identitarios; cuidarlos y conservarlos
es hacer lo propio con nosotros mismos como
individuos y miembros de un grupo.
Por lo tanto, no podemos comprender la
diversidad sin las personas, ni el patrimonio
sin stas, asumiendo el concepto diversidad
como una realidad intrnseca y caracterizadora
del patrimonio. A la vista de los vnculos que
se establecen entre personas y patrimonio, es
apropiado abordarlo en conexin con su
evolucin y desarrollo en la historia reciente.
Diversidad es un concepto en constante
construccin (proceso de cambio que an
sigue en marcha) en el cual son vitales los
esfuerzos de organismos internacionales. As,
evolucionamos de una concepcin de la
dificultad centrada en el sujeto a la idea de la
inclusin centrada en el currculo, pasando de
reivindicar atencin especfica a reclamar la
necesidad
de
normalizacin,
de
las
deficiencias a las necesidades educativas, lo
cual es un indicador de la necesidad de
cambio de mentalidad en que vivimos an
inmersos.
Desde las primeras acepciones sobre
discapacidad, en referencia a la diferencia
desde una interpretacin negativa, hasta la
interpretacin actual de lo diverso como valor,
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345
han pasado dcadas de revisin y
reconceptualizacin. En esa bsqueda de un
trmino neutro y positivo han quedado
obsoletos trminos peyorativos, que no hacan
sino remarcar las carencias del sujeto, cuya
interpretacin vea su reflejo en un trato
despectivo.
La
transicin
hacia
la
normalizacin y la integracin supone el
peldao intermedio en el camino hacia la
inclusin, siempre en la bsqueda de la no
segregacin. En el modelo de integracin, el
nio con necesidades educativas se adapta al
sistema educativo, con las ayudas y apoyos
que precise, y, en un intento de eliminar la
posibilidad de fracaso, comienza a acuarse el
trmino inclusin, flexibilizando el sistema para
que todos tengan cabida en l, asumiendo la
diversidad como una realidad presente en
cada individuo. Ahora, es el sistema el que se
adapta al individuo, o, al menos, as se recoge
en la literatura.
Recientemente se acua el trmino sujetos
con capacidades diferentes en referencia al
hecho ineludible de que todos somos
diferentes y diversos, todos poseemos
capacidades diferentes, desechando esa idea
de que existe un grueso normal de la
sociedad del que difieren algunas personas
que presentan necesidades especiales.
Adoptar este nuevo concepto es una forma de
asumir la diversidad desde una visin positiva
y plantear una educacin comn para todos,
con la flexibilidad suficiente para adaptarse a
las necesidades y especificidades concretas
de cada individuo, sin anular lo diverso. Esta
concepcin abre las puertas a una nueva idea
de escuela integradora y respetuosa con
todos, que haga posible derechos tan bsicos
como el derecho a la educacin y a la igualdad
de oportunidades.
Si algo caracteriza y distingue al ser humano,
es su capacidad de aprendizaje y de generar
cultura, la capacidad para pensar sobre su
propio ser, as como la reflexin sobre su
propio pensamiento y comportamiento. Esta
caracterstica propiamente humana determina
la diversidad: todos somos diferentes. Como
hemos visto, nuestro patrimonio se caracteriza
por esa diversidad, que definimos como
principio clave a la hora de trabajar
educativamente
con
el
patrimonio.
Comprender este aspecto es fundamental para
ser capaces de metapatrimonializar, es decir,
reflexionar y conocer en profundidad nuestro
patrimonio, desentraando sus significados
diversos y respetando su valor.
Como sealan Calaf y Fontal (2010), el arte es
una parte del ser humano, de sus formas de
comunicacin y expresin. Es clave, por tanto,
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346
describimos la educacin patrimonial en
nuestra investigacin bajo la metfora de
sustancia, comprendindola como medio,
como fluido que facilita los procesos de
generacin de patrimonios. En el campo de las
ciencias qumicas, sustancia se define como
toda porcin de materia que comparte
determinadas propiedades,
un
concepto
verstil que se usa tambin en referencia a la
materia que conforma los cuerpos. Es utilizado
tambin en el mbito de la filosofa para
referirse al sustrato, a la esencia que configura
aquello que existe. En este sentido,
entendemos la educacin patrimonial como la
esencia, el medio que sustenta todas las
acciones orientadas a los procesos de
enseanza-aprendizaje de los procesos de
generacin de patrimonio, por lo que podemos
denominarlo Sustancia Patrimonial.
El propio trmino de Sustancia Patrimonial
incluye la idea de sustancia para la inclusin,
lo que, desde nuestra perspectiva, supone
entender
los procesos
de educacin
patrimonial como medio de existencia de la
diversidad del ser humano en un clima de
respeto y convivencia, ya sea intercultural,
intergeneracional, entre otros. La naturaleza
del patrimonio que bebe de la diversidad de la
creacin, favorece y se construye a partir de
sta, no siendo posible su comprensin en un
contexto homogneo. Ese medio contenedor
que constituye la sustancia patrimonial hace
posible un proceso de comunicacin
bidireccional en el mbito educativo, donde el
aprendizaje se construye en interaccin.
Esta metfora puede comprenderse desde
Bienes no
Personas
Bienes
patrimoniales
patrimoniales
SUSTANCIA PATRIMONIAL
Grfico 2. La educacin patrimonial como sustancia patrimonial para la inclusin.
patrimonio.
Sin
identidad,
no
puede
configurarse un patrimonio colectivo. Es decir,
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347
sin individualidad no existe colectividad,
conceptos antagnicos que se necesitan
mutuamente para su existencia. Por ello,
consideramos el patrimonio como fuente de
diversidad y su finalidad principal se orienta a
la inclusin: el respeto de lo individual en un
sistema global y amplio que nos incluye a
todos. Entendemos por tanto la inclusin
como contexto y como finalidad de la
educacin patrimonial. Si la finalidad de la
educacin es formar individuos desarrollando
sus potencialidades, la de la educacin
patrimonial ser desarrollar las potenciales
relaciones entre personas y bienes en una
estructura de inclusin. Esa relacin causaconsecuencia
entre
educacin-inclusin
determina, por estar inmersa en ella, la
educacin patrimonial.
Siguiendo con la metfora propuesta, el
elemento central en la educacin patrimonial
es la persona. La energa central que prepara
para el aprendizaje es la emocin, entendida
desde la psicologa como desencadenante de
procesos
cognitivos.
Esta
dimensin
psicolgico-estratigrfica del patrimonio que
proponemos
no
ha
sido
abordada
directamente en este sentido, por lo que
delimitar este nuevo concepto es una labor
complicada. Para ello, tomamos como
referencia disciplinas muy relacionadas como
son psicologa y educacin, para trasladar sus
relaciones al campo de la educacin
patrimonial. Introducimos, como hemos visto,
el concepto metapatrimonializacin, que
acuamos para referirnos al aprendizaje sobre
los procesos de patrimonializacin al mismo
tiempo que stos se desarrollan. Por ello,
abstraemos el concepto patrimonio con la
adhesin del prefijo griego meta, entendido
como
reiteracin
del
patrimonio,
trascendindolo
como
contenido
de
enseanza aprendizaje. Se trata de generar
patrimonio a travs de la enseanza activa del
mismo, la reflexin patrimonial sobre el
patrimonio, una amalgama de conceptos en
referencia, en definitiva, al efecto de la accin
educativa en la educacin patrimonial.
Sobre esta base terica, damos un paso ms
hacia el anlisis de la legislacin en sus tres
niveles de concrecin: internacional, nacional y
autonmico, para conocer cmo se recoge el
tratamiento educativo del patrimonio en la
normativa. Es necesario, adems, efectuar
este anlisis en los tres mbitos de referencia
que
enmarcan
nuestra
investigacin:
educacin, patrimonio y diversidad. Por ello,
abordamos primero las leyes autonmicas de
patrimonio, centrando la bsqueda en aquellos
trminos relacionados con la educacin, para
despus ampliar el radio al mbito nacional e
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348
generales,
a
trminos
puramente
econmicos. A pesar de ello, s se han
localizado programas y planes de
estudios superiores que abordan el
patrimonio
desde
perspectivas
educativas.
- Las Comunidades Autnomas que
abordan tanto el concepto de identidad
como el de patrimonio en todos los
niveles
educativos
preuniversitarios
cuentan, todas ellas, con planes de
estudio
superiores
vinculados
al
patrimonio.
- Si comparamos el conjunto de los
resultados de las autonomas con el
mbito estatal, encontramos que mientras
la normativa estatal no menciona el
trmino patrimonio en la etapa de Infantil,
las autonomas s deciden desarrollarlo.
- El trmino identidad se trabaja de
forma variable segn los niveles
educativos que lo manejen. As, en
educacin infantil la identidad se centra
en la configuracin y reafirmacin de la
persona, relacionada directamente con el
desarrollo evolutivo del nio. Sin
embargo, a medida que se avanza en el
nivel educativo, apreciamos cmo la
identidad pasa a trabajarse desde una
conciencia ms cultural, entendiendo al
alumnado como grupo inserto en una
comunidad escolar, local, nacional e
internacional.
Esto
lo
vemos
progresivamente en Primaria, ESO y
Bachillerato.
- No existe una normativa que regule a
nivel internacional ni europeo el
tratamiento educativo del patrimonio en
los estados miembros. A pesar de esta
ausencia, en Espaa tanto la normativa
estatal como la Autonmica s abordan el
patrimonio en diferente medida.
Una vez efectuada esa revisin y el anlisis
descrito en el marco terico de nuestra
investigacin, el siguiente paso clave es
describir el problema de investigacin que
orienta nuestros esfuerzos. Nos situamos en el
marco del paradigma socio-crtico, definiendo
nuestro objetivo de estudio como: Conocer,
evaluar y analizar programas de educacin
patrimonial referentes en el trabajo desde la
diversidad para conocer los principios clave
que determinan el xito de la inclusin,
extrayendo los estndares de calidad, las
necesidades y ausencias, con la finalidad
especfica de definir un modelo educativo
nico y de calidad en la materia.
Sobre
la
base
expuesta,
definimos
las
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349
continuacin. Son los denominados criterios
de inclusin y exclusin para la seleccin de la
muestra
Parmetros
La calidad del diseo, contenido y
planificacin de las actuaciones y
estrategias previstas.
Alcance. La calidad y la utilidad de
los resultados as como de los
impactos generados (resultados o
efectos).
Trabajo
con
pblicos
con
capacidades diferentes.
Criterios de inclusin
Calidad en el diseo didctico y
coherencia interna entre objetivos,
contenidos,
metodologa
y
temporalizacin.
Programas educativos de alcance
a nivel nacional.
Criterios de exclusin
Ausencia de criterios de calidad
y/o coherencia interna en el diseo
didctico.
Apertura
a
destinatarios.
No abrirse a la participacin de
todo
tipo
de
destinatarios,
dirigindose exclusivamente a uno
o varios colectivos.
Proyectos aislados ya finalizados,
sin previsin de continuidad.
Implementacin en el momento de
la investigacin
todo
tipo
de
Proyectos
estables
que
se
implementan en el momento de la
investigacin.
Concepcin actualizada y positiva Proyectos
sustentados
sobre Proyectos
de la diferencia
creencias definidas en torno a las slido.
capacidades diferentes.
Tabla 2. Criterios de inclusin y exclusin de programas en la muestra.
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sin
sustento
terico
necesidad.
3. Importancia de la sensibilizacin terica
transversal en torno a la inclusin y adopcin
de la inclusin como principio integral y
transversal a la poltica, objetivos y programas
de la institucin o espacio de patrimonio.
4. Comprender la diversidad como una
realidad extensible a todos, sin olvidar todas
sus esferas (fsica, cognitiva, emocional,
social, cultural, etc.).
5. Adaptar la institucin y las estrategias
educativas a las caractersticas y necesidades
de las personas (y no al revs).
6. Trabajar para la plena dignidad de todos
(cumplimiento de los derechos humanos).
7. Concepcin de los espacios patrimoniales
para y de las personas (participacin activa de
todos).
8. Programacin flexible igual para todos.
Incorporacin transversal de la diversidad
durante todo el proceso (diseo, ejecucin y
evaluacin de proyectos).
En definitiva, el proyecto OEPE ha logrado
abrir una lnea de investigacin especializada
para conocer, coordinar y definir estndares de
calidad en la educacin patrimonial en
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351
Espaa, necesarios para poder educar sobre
modelos organizados y slidos. El creciente
inters por la educacin patrimonial es hoy un
hecho que se constata en el Observatorio.
Como sealan Marn y Prez (2013), el trabajo
desde la educacin patrimonial supone una
importante
responsabilidad
si
somos
el
la
el
y
Referencias
Calaf, R. y Fontal, O. (2010). Cmo ensear arte en la escuela. Madrid: Sntesis.
Cuenca, J. M. y Estepa, J. (2013). La educacin patrimonial: lneas de investigacin actual y nuevas
perspectivas. En J. Estepa (Ed.), La educacin patrimonial en la escuela y el museo: investigacin y
experiencias (343-366). Huelva: Universidad de Huelva.
Domingo, M., Fontal, O. y Ballesteros, P. (Coords.) (2013). Plan Nacional de Educacin y Patrimonio. Madrid:
Ministerio de Educacin, Cultura y Deporte: Secretara de Estado de Cultura.
Falcn, M. (2010). Esttica de lo afectivo. Ariel: Revista de filosofa, 6, 44-50.
Fontal Merillas, O. (2003). La Educacin Patrimonial. Teora y prctica en el aula, el museo e internet. Gijn:
Trea.
Ibez, A., Vicent, N., y Asensio, M. (2012). Aprendizaje informal, patrimonio y dispositivos mviles.
Evaluacin de una experiencia en educacin secundaria. Didctica de las Ciencias Experimentales y
Sociales, 26, 3-18.
Marn Cepeda, S. y Prez Lpez, S. (2013). Programas singulares de educacin patrimonial. Investigar para
innovar. En Fontal (Coord.), La educacin patrimonial, del patrimonio a las personas (45-56). Gijn:
Trea.
Prez, M. G. y Sarrate, M. L. (2011). Las TIC promotoras de inclusin social. Revista Espaola de Pedagoga,
249, 237-254.
Resumen
La educacin patrimonial es actualmente un campo de creciente inters en Espaa. Recientemente se
ha aprobado el Plan Nacional de Educacin y Patrimonio, en cuya elaboracin ha participado el
Observatorio de Educacin Patrimonial (OEPE), observatorio de referencia en Espaa que nos permite
configurar una base de conocimiento extensa en torno a las prcticas de educacin patrimonial y
museos en los ltimos aos. Se trata de herramientas educativas clave para garantizar la conservacin
y la investigacin en torno a nuestro patrimonio. El desarrollo de nuevas lneas de investigacin
centradas especficamente en la epistemologa de la educacin y el patrimonio, as como el diseo de
modelos educativos emergentes, resultan clave para el avance y la solidez de la educacin patrimonial.
Presentamos a continuacin ambas iniciativas, as como la tesis doctoral denominada Educacin
Patrimonial y diversidad: Evaluacin de programas y definicin de un modelo basado en los procesos de
patrimonializacin, investigacin que se apoya en el Observatorio para definir un modelo educativo
slido en el trabajo educativo del patrimonio atendiendo a la diversidad de los destinatarios.
Palabras clave: Educacin, Patrimonio, Espaa, Plan Nacional, Observatorio de educacin patrimonial,
diversidad, inclusin.
Abstract
Education and Heritage in Spain: Heritage Education oriented towards social Inclusion
Heritage education, nowadays, is a field of increasing interest in Spain. Recently, the National Heritage
and Education Plan and the Observatory of Heritage Education (OEPE) were developed as a reference
in Spain, allowing us to create an extensive base of knowledge concerning heritage education practices
in recent years. Both are educational tools, keys to conservation and investigation concerning our
heritage. The development of new lines of investigation, specifically on education and heritage, and the
design of emergent educational models, turn out to be key for the advance and strength of education in
this field. We present these two initiatives, as well as the doctoral thesis Heritage Education and
Diversity: Program evaluation and definition of a process-based model, research supported by the
Observatory, to define a strong educational model for the educational work of heritage oaying attention
to diversity.
Key words: Education, Heritage, Spain, National Plan, Observatory of Heritage Education, diversity,
inclusion.
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Punto de
proyecto
partida,
ncleo
del
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353
las personas. Coca ensalza la importancia del
visitante como usuario de las instituciones,
haciendo
hincapi
no
solo
en
sus
caractersticas individualizadas, sino, en sus
intereses para dar lugar a estas experiencias.
Morn (2011) hace una reflexin integra sobre
los museos como agentes activos para la
equidad social lo que enfatiza un trato
igualitario al pblico asistente. En su artculo,
Morn habla de los diferentes colectivos con
los que desarrolla proyectos de inclusin, y
aade que sus limitaciones o diversas
capacidades no les excluyen de poder sentir,
disfrutar y participar de las experiencias que
ofrece el arte. Morn aboga por una educacin
inclusiva, causa a la que nos sumamos con
nuestro proyecto. Estamos convencidos de
que trabajar con el arte de forma educativa y
sensorial provoca efectos favorables en los
seres humanos, en su calidad de vida y en su
bienestar diario.
Por ltimo, hacemos alusin a los estudios de
Eisner (2008), que aborda el museo como un
lugar para la educacin y seala que nuestra
labor como educadores es entender y crear las
condiciones que promuevan el crecimiento de
la visin y, por lo tanto, fomentar la direccin
que toma el desarrollo de la mente, a lo que l
alude como un logro cultural. En base a la idea
sobre la que anteriormente hablbamos en la
que entendemos que el arte es beneficioso,
Eisner ayuda a nutrirla exponiendo que las
obras de los museos nos proporcionan
grandes satisfacciones, ayudan a formar
nuestra mente y acudimos a ellos para
encontrar deleites especiales. Estas palabras
sublimes, ensalzan a la perfeccin el concepto
de las experiencias que se hacen posibles con
el arte y ste es el objetivo principal que
perseguimos con nuestra investigacin.
Las referencias que aqu recogemos caminan
en la lnea del importante papel que
representan la educacin en el mbito artstico
y el protagonismo de las personas como
visitantes,
consumidoras
y
receptoras,
hacindola extensiva a todos los pblicos sin
exclusin alguna.
Imaginemos por un instante un museo sin
personas, el MOMA, Museo de arte moderno
de Nueva York, conocido por todos, por
ejemplo, u otro de los museos ms relevantes
y prestigiosos, el Centre Pompidou. Este
ltimo, alberga ms de 76.000 obras de arte
moderno y contemporneo de los siglos XX y
XXI del marco europeo, y registra una media
de 16.000 visitantes al da, como figura en su
pgina web. Podramos imaginarnos un da
Educacin
constructor
pluralidad,
hilo
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354
Nuestro trabajo, como hemos anticipado en la
introduccin, se centra en la sensibilizacin de
las personas con el patrimonio, trabajamos de
forma colectiva, pero entendemos el
patrimonio como los vnculos individuales que
se establecen entre las personas y los bienes
que poseemos, forman parte de nuestro
entorno o se han anclado en la memoria. Lo
que tratamos de conseguir con esta
investigacin es construir estos vnculos con
una parcela del patrimonio con la que an no
se ha establecido esta conexin, la cultura
artstica de presente, el Arte contemporneo.
En el observatorio, se han localizado
numerosos programas que trabajan educacin
patrimonial para inculcar los valores de
conocimiento, cuidado, restauracin y difusin
del mismo, pero es muy minoritaria la muestra
a nivel nacional que trabaja sobre el arte
contemporneo y las personas mayores.
Varios yacimientos, conjuntos arqueolgicos o
espacios artsticos ofrecen talleres, itinerarios,
u otro tipo de actividades para los diferentes
grupos que quieran participar de estas
propuestas. Sin embargo, hay un campo que
nos inquieta al que hemos denominado
yacimiento innovador por su carcter
exploratorio, se trata de un campo todava
alejado de muchos, un conjunto artstico ms
conceptual que conocemos comnmente
como Arte Contemporneo. Si entendemos
que el arte forma parte del patrimonio como
Las meninas (Velzquez 1656) o La
Gioconda, (Da Vinci 1503-1517) Cuntos
incluiramos el Arte contemporneo dentro de
este concepto?, y si de nuevo nos paramos a
pensar, Cuntos contestaramos que no es
patrimonio si emitiramos la pregunta de forma
directa? Queda claro que las respuestas
pueden ser algo contradictorias en la mayora
de los casos, sin embargo encontramos una
explicacin en base a los arquetipos que
vinculamos a la palabra patrimonio, en efecto,
somos conscientes de que el arte
contemporneo forma parte del patrimonio
artstico, pero no lo incluimos a priori en
nuestra definicin.
En la bsqueda documental que hemos
llevado a cabo, hemos tomado como base
principal el Observatorio de Educacin
Patrimonial en Espaa como fuente clave de
nuestro estudio, realizando una evaluacin
previa de los programas existentes sobre los
intereses
expuestos.
Los
resultados
presentaron un bajo nmero de programas
dirigidos a las personas mayores en
contraposicin a los localizados para escolares
y jvenes, detectando, por tanto, la necesidad
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356
contrastando las ideas y estableciendo
mejores criterios y estrategias de actuacin,
registro y evaluacin.
Esta lnea de investigacin estudia en primer
lugar las resistencias existentes entre el arte
contemporneo y el colectivo de trabajo.
Nuestro primer objetivo es descubrir las
razones que provocan este rechazo, como
pueden ser la incomprensin o la esttica.
Una vez halladas, se trabajar en la ruptura de
estas barreras tornando la mirada hacia una
multiplicidad
de
visiones,
lecturas
y
significados que nos ayuden a conocer y
comprender el arte contemporneo.
Entender que el arte contemporneo forma
parte de nuestro patrimonio presente, de
nuestra cultura actual, que es resultado de su
tiempo y que es una evolucin artstica del arte
que ellos aceptan y disfrutan es el reto que
proponemos.
Ya hemos contextualizado las primeras lneas
sobre uno de los conceptos primordiales de la
tesis, la educacin artstica. Pero nos falta otra
de las claves de este estudio que es la
educacin patrimonial. La didctica del
patrimonio implica unos procesos de
enseanza-aprendizaje basados en los
trminos propiedad, pertenencia e identidad,
que mediante el uso de diferentes estrategias,
instrumentos y recursos harn posibles los
vnculos entre el patrimonio y las personas.
Entendemos que sentimos algo como nuestro
cuando lo dotamos de valor, lo impregnamos
de un significado y sentimos que forma parte
de nosotros o nos identificamos con ello.
Normalmente esta relacin se da de forma
inconsciente con objetos o vivencias cercanas,
sin embargo no poseemos estos sentimientos
frente a una obra de arte contempornea.
Tomaremos como base de nuestro trabajo el
patrimonio inmaterial, el cual es definido por la
Convencin para la salvaguardia del
patrimonio cultural inmaterial UNESCO (2003)
como los usos, representaciones, expresiones,
conocimientos
y
tcnicas
que
las
comunidades, los grupos y, en algunos casos,
los individuos reconozcan como parte
integrante de su patrimonio cultural. El
patrimonio inmaterial se caracteriza por el
respeto a la diversidad cultural, lo que permite
canalizarlo
hacia
nuestros
fines
de
conocimiento, comprensin y disfrute del arte
contemporneo. Consideramos que esta es la
parcela de patrimonio ms emocional de los
seres humanos, en ella estn integrados los
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357
comenzamos a ver y a dialogar sobre obras
contemporneas y acciones artsticas de la
cultura actual, los participantes logran disfrutar
del arte contemporneo despertando y
ampliando sus capacidades.
Implementacin prctica
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358
trabajo con el arte contemporneo constituye
la parte ms prolongada. Es importante
conocer que nos demanda el arte como
visitantes y como hemos evolucionado hasta
este momento artstico. Esta trasmisin de
conocimientos, y la adquisicin de una cultura
visual es funcin de la educacin. Sin estos
conocimientos o herramientas previas, la
interpretacin del arte se dificulta en muchos
casos, por consiguiente la visita a espacios
contemporneos no se disfruta, lo que deriva
en el problema presente de la exclusin social.
Las salas vacas de diversos museos
presentan un contexto que no es visitado por
incomprensin o desconocimiento como ya
nos han arrojado algunos datos extrados de
los registros.
El colectivo con el cual hemos establecido
trabajar hace de su trayectoria fuente de
riqueza patrimonial activa que contiene pasado
y presente, memoria y vivencia, de nuevo
simbiosis que ayuda a aproximar los valores
que nos proponemos como educadores: valor,
respeto, conservacin y difusin de nuestro
legado.
La muestra participante est integrada por 47
miembros, cuyo rango de edad se extiende
desde los 55 hasta los 76 aos, marco idneo
para nuestra investigacin por su bagaje y
experiencia a lo largo de la vida, lo que nos
facilita establecer los vnculos partiendo desde
su patrimonio personal hacia el patrimonio
contemporneo compartido.
Por su trayectoria y vivencias, nos permite
mostrarles
metafricamente
como
contenedores activos de un patrimonio
pasado y presente de gran riqueza que a
travs
de
propuestas
prcticas
irn
descubrindose a s mismos como minas
patrimoniales, dotando de valor sus recuerdos,
objetos y experiencias. Minas que explotar a
travs de su memoria.
No se pretende nicamente hacerles sentir
que el patrimonio les pertenece, sino que en
una doble va, ellos forman parte del
patrimonio y por tanto su legado tambin ha de
compartirse y dejar huella como parte del
mismo. El alto nmero de experiencias vividas,
favorece la creacin de vnculos necesarios en
los procesos de apropiacin del patrimonio, lo
que por consiguiente favorece el esquema de
trabajo que estructuramos a travs de la
sensibilizacin.
El colectivo de personas mayores es uno de
los grupos que presentan estadsticamente
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FASE
1 Fase
DESCRIPCIN
PROCEDIMIENTO
ESTRATEGIA
Reflexin
Toma de conciencia
Empata
Reconceptualizacin
Relato/narracin
Acciones creativas
Exposicin
Creacin de
blog/artefacto
2 Fase
Reflexin
Discusin y debate
Comprensin
Experimentacin
Creacin colectiva
Exposicin
Creacin de
blog/artefacto
Conocimiento
Comprensin
Experimentacin
Transposicin
Registro de visitas a
Museos
Entrevistas con
Artistas
Metforas visuales
Creacin de
blog/artefacto
Realizacin de
exposicin.
3 Fase
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360
finalidades diversas. En este bloque, nos
ayudamos de las nuevas tecnologas para
hacer retrospectivas pictricas de algunos
artistas polmicos como Malevich, partiendo
de su obra Circulo negro sobre fondo blanco
(1915). De este modo los participantes son
capaces de descubrir los inicios de las
creaciones, los movimientos y los intereses de
los artistas. Realizamos actividades como
bsquedas de artistas influyentes o similitudes
entre obras de diferentes autores. Estas
herramientas digitales son un recurso muy
importante para este estudio, ya que nos
permite visionar diferentes salas virtuales o
conocer nuevas tendencias de arte como
performances o happenings.
En esta primera promocin dentro de este
bloque, se ha contado con la colaboracin del
colectivo Punto Rojo quienes ofrecieron a los
participantes una ponencia sobre Arte y
procesos de transferencia. El Colectivo El
Punto Rojo como agente activo de mediacin.
El colectivo de forma abierta y dialogante
aport nuevas herramientas de aproximacin
desde
dos
perspectivas,
una
como
educadores y otra como artistas. Narraron sus
experiencias y sus proyectos con la
comunidad escolar explicando las formas de
trabajo
para
mediar
entre
el
arte
contemporneo y las personas. Por ltimo, nos
mostraron parte de su obra, lo que result una
experiencia muy fructfera que contribuy a
romper las barreras con el arte contemporneo
y permiti al grupo contactar de forma directa
con artistas que se mueven dentro de la
cultura actual.
Un cuarto bloque ha sido destinado a La
creacin: experimentar procesos creativos
para poder comprenderlos. Los participantes
han desarrollado actividades prcticas de
experimentacin, trabajando con huellas
identitarias mediante soporte en barro, o con el
movimiento suprematista, mediante collage.
Prcticas muy distantes que ayudan a conocer
diferentes formas de expresin y a lograr la
plasmacin de esas sensaciones y emociones
de forma creativa, lo que nos ayuda a
identificarnos con las obras y provoca el
acercamiento con los artistas.
El ltimo bloque, Un Patrimonio compartido:
poner en valor el arte de nuestro tiempo,
concluye el primer curso de nuestro estudio.
Cierra el ciclo con una breve muestra final
expositiva sobre el proceso educativo
desarrollado. Esta muestra se nutre de las
creaciones y actividades realizadas hasta el
momento, de los testimonios y narraciones de
los participantes, y posee una parte registrada
de debates y reconceptualizaciones. No es
una exposicin nicamente visual, sino una
muestra abierta y participativa que nos sirve
para reanudar el camino, donde la recogida
de las impresiones de los visitantes dar
continuidad al prximo curso, en el que se
sumarn nuevos miembros a los que ya
forman parte del programa lo que servir de
mediacin para construir nuevos enfoques.
Los bloques han sido acompaados de visitas
a diferentes salas expositivas como el Museo
de Arte Contemporneo Espaol Patio
Herreriano, que contaba con la exposicin
temporal Total Environment de Maggie
Cardels, una exposicin que versa sobre la
idea de descendencia de la autora, sus hijos y
su evolucin. Toda ella realizada a travs de
imgenes que construyen la historia de su
vida, lo que ha conectado a la perfeccin el
trabajo sobre el patrimonio personal trasladado
a creacin artstica. Tambin ha tenido lugar
una visita a la sala de exposiciones de la
Pasin localizada en Valladolid, que albergaba
la exposicin colectiva El eterno femenino,
retratos entre dos siglos con obras de artistas
como Pablo Picasso, Joan Mir, Julio Romero
de Torres, Joaqun Sorolla, Pablo Gargallo,
Miquel Barcel o Santiago Botero. La
coleccin mostr un recorrido desde finales del
siglo XIX hasta la actualidad sobre la figura de
lo femenino, su influencia en la sociedad y la
evolucin de esta figura. Y, por ltimo, la visita
al Museo Reina Sofa de Madrid, que en su
variada muestra dej volar libremente el
intelecto de los participantes. Estas salidas,
han permitido poner en prctica los
aprendizajes
adquiridos,
siendo
las
experiencias ms concluyentes para esta
primera fase de estudio donde hemos podido
ver cmo ha crecido el nivel de participacin y
de construccin crtica y discursiva, hemos
sido testigos de ese momento de significacin
esttica.
Para determinar la validez y rigurosidad del
estudio, se recogen registros diarios del grupo
de trabajo con un carcter mixto. Esta dualidad
metodolgica cualitativa y cuantitativa, se
llevar
a
cabo
mediante
diferentes
instrumentos de recogida de datos, entrevistas
a los participantes, narraciones, testimonios,
cuadernos de campo, y registros grficos que
faciliten la revisin de las sesiones. Y, por
ltimo, un pre-test, post-test con grupos de
control habiendo utilizado para verificar su
fiabilidad un Alfa de Cronbach, extrayendo
medidas de variables observables que se han
adecuado a nuestros intereses de estudio,
tomando como punto de partida dos escalas
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361
validadas (GENCAT Verdugo, Arias, Gmez y
Schalock, 2009) y (TECA Lpez-Prez,
Fernndez-Pinto, y Abad, 2008). Con todos los
datos recogidos, podremos triangular los
resultados de forma ms determinante. Los
instrumentos cuantitativos se ocuparn de
valorar el estado inicial y final, por tanto los
cambios generados. Los instrumentos de perfil
cualitativos, permitirn conocer las causas y
evolucin del proceso educativo, arrojando
matices de cada fase del proceso de
implementacin.
Conclusiones previas
La investigacin se encuentra en plena fase de
desarrollo por lo que es difcil extraer datos
conclusivos.
www.kaipachanews.blogspot.pe
Referencias
Aguirre, I. (2008). Nuevas ideas de arte y cultura para nuevas perspectivas en la difusin del patrimonio. En
Aguirre, I., Fontal, O., Darrs, B. y Rickenmann, R., El acceso al patrimonio cultural. Retos y debates.
Pamplona: Ctedra Jorge Oteiza y Universidad Pblica de Navarra.
Bisquerra, R. (2004). Metodologa de la Investigacin Educativa. Madrid: La Muralla, S.A.
Calaf, R. (2009). Didctica del patrimonio: epistemologa, metodologa y estudios de casos. Gijn: Trea.
Calb, M., Juanola, R. y Valls, J. (2011). Visiones Interdisciplinarias en educacin del patrimonio. Girona:
Documenta Universitaria.
Coca, P. (2010). El discurso expositivo del museo desde contextos pedaggicos. Arteterapia. Papeles de
Arteterapia y Educacin Artstica para la Inclusin Social, 5, 211-221.
Calb, M., Juanola, R. y Valls, J. (2011). Visiones Interdisciplinarias en educacin del patrimonio. Girona:
Documenta Universitaria.
De Diego, N., San Milln, B. y Vidador, M. (coords.) (2008). Patrimonio y Sociedad. Aprendiendo con arte.
Pamplona: Cederna-Garalur.
Eisner, E. W. (1995) Educar la visin artstica. Barcelona: Paids.
Eisner, E. W. (2008). El museo como lugar para la educacin. Actas del I Congreso Internacional. Los museos en
la educacin. La formacin de los educadores. Madrid: Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, 13-21.
Fontal, O. (2007). Se estn generando nuevas identidades? Del museo contenedor al museo patrimonial. En
Calaf, R; Fontal, O; Valls, R. E. Museos de Arte y Educacin. Construir patrimonios desde la
diversidad. Gijn: Trea. 27-52.
Fontal, O. (2008). La importancia de la dimensin humana en la didctica del patrimonio. En Mateos, S. (Coord.).
La comunicacin global del patrimonio cultural. Gijn:Trea, 53-109.
Fontal, O. (2012). Patrimonio y educacin: una relacin por consolidar. Aula de innovacin educativa, 208, 1013.
Fontal, O. (2013). (coord.). La educacin patrimonial: del patrimonio a las personas. Gijn: TREA.
Gmez Redondo, C. (2012). Identizacin: la construccin discursiva del individuo. Arte, Individuo y Sociedad, 24
(1), 21-37.
Lpez-Prez, B., Fernndez-Pinto, I. y Abad, F. J. (2008). TECA, Test de Empata Cognitiva y Afectiva. Madrid:
Tea Ediciones, S.A.
Martn Cceres, M., Cuenca J. M. (2011). La enseanza y el aprendizaje del patrimonio en los museos: la
perspectiva de los gestores. Pas Vasco: Universidad del Pas Vasco.
Mateos, S. M. (coord.), (2008). La comunicacin global del patrimonio cultural. Gijn: TREA.
Morn, M. (2011). Los museos de Arte: Agentes activos para la equidad social. Proyecto para personas con
necesidades especficas de apoyos. En Arteterapia: Papeles de arteterapia y educacin artstica para la
inclusin social, 6, 253-268.
Prez, A. (2014) El colectivo de docentes El Punto Rojo ensaya en el Museo Patio Herreriano otra forma de
ensear Arte. Norte de Castilla. Recuperado de http://www.elnortedecastilla.es/20120520/masactualidad/cultura/colectivo-docentes-punto-rojo-201205201457.html
Valls. J y Prez, S. (2012). Oye, el patrimonio es nuestro! Aula de innovacin educativa, 208, 14-17.
UNESCO. (Paris, 2003). Convencin para la salvaguarda del Patrimonio Cultural Inmaterial. Recuperado de
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132540s.pdf
Verdugo, M.A., Arias, B., Gmez L. E., y Schalock, R.L. (2009). Escala GENCAT, manual de aplicacin de la
escala GENCAT de calidad de vida. Barcelona: Departamento de Accin Social y Ciudadana de la
Generalitat de Catalunya.
Resumen
Dentro del mundo del arte y los museos, nos movemos en un estado actual de nuevas tendencias que
se abren paso a travs de conceptos como la pluralidad, la identizacin, la transgresin y lo conceptual,
dando lugar a una proliferacin de lenguajes artsticos y multiplicidad de expresiones. El presente
estudio centra sus bases en la creacin de lazos de aproximacin entre el Arte Contemporneo y las
personas. Concretamente se trabaja con uno de los colectivos que presenta uno de los menores niveles
de asistencia y consumo de museos que albergan este tipo de arte, las personas mayores. En el punto
de partida, pensamos que la existencia de vnculos entre este tipo de arte y las personas mayores son
ms limitados, no se encuentran identificados con ese espacio y no han recibido una educacin a travs
del mismo, lo que deriva en un menor grado de inters hacia este tipo de muestras artsticas.
Consideramos, que diferentes aspectos como la esttica, la comprensin o la identificacin con la obra,
son algunos de los nexos fallidos, por lo que buscamos un cambio de mirada o reconceptualizacin a
travs de la reflexin y la experimentacin para aproximar el Arte Contemporneo.
Palabras clave: Educacin, Patrimonio, Personas Mayores, Arte Contemporneo
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363
Abstract
A contemporary art project with seniors
Within the world of art and museums, we move in a current state of new trends that step into concepts
such as plurality, creation of identity, transgression and conceptualization, leading to a proliferation of
artistic languages and multiplicity of expressions. The present study focuses on creating approaches
between contemporary art and people. It works specifically with one group that has a low level of
attendance and use of contemporary art museums: seniors. To begin with, we suggest that links
between this art and seniors is very limited. They do not identify themselves with the space and lack an
education through it, which eventually leads to a lower level of interest in this type of art exhibition. We
consider that different aspects such as aesthetics, understanding, or identification with the work cause
the failure of those connections, so we look for a change of look or reconceptualization through reflection
and experimentation to bring contemporary art closer.
Key words: Education, Heritage, Seniors, Contemporary Art.
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Prsentation du CECA
dynamique Best Practices
et
de
la
But recherch
proposition
au
travers
de
cette
Comment
donner
un
caractre
fondamentalement
international
aux
propositions faites? La bonne pratique
a-t-elle la mme identit dans des
environnements
anthropologiques
fondamentalement divers ? La modlisation
a-t-elle, dans ce cadre, un sens autre que
primitivement colonialiste ?
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365
aux particularismes marqus,
lAmrique du Nord et lAfrique.
lEurope,
154
155
www.gem.org.uk
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366
Prsentation gnrale de loutil Best
Practice
Cest la forme outil de pilotage qui a t
choisie, incitant les concepteurs et oprateurs
de programmes se poser une suite
systmatique de questions tout au long des
phases de conception, de mise en uvre,
dvaluation/apprciation et de remdiation de
leurs programmes.
On trouvera en annexe la liste dtaille des
tapes considrer et des questions se
poser lors de llaboration dun programme
ducatif et culturel. Le site ICOM/CECA en
156
prsente un commentaire plus dtaill.
Les questions sont multiples, convoquant, de
manire exigeante parce que, la fois,
exhaustive et systmatique, des dimensions
varies :
Dimensions thoriques: quels degrs de
pertinence institutionnelle, scientifique,
sociale, conomique pour le programme
analys, quelle dontologie applique-t-on
dans le choix de servir un public
particulier ?
- Dimensions scientifiques : Quelle nature
de discours, de contenu, sera choisie au
sein du programme (anthropologique,
plastique, anecdotique, technique) par
rapport au discours de lexposition
(historique, archologique), Quel choix
doutils dapprciation/valuation va-t-on
faire ?
- Dimensions managriales : quel type
dintervenants va-t-on choisir pour la
mdiation et pourquoi ?
- Dimensions oprationnelles : Comment
utiliser au mieux les espaces, la gestion
des flux ? Pour quelle ncessit
dvolution entre le produit conu et le
produit ralis va-t-on opter ?
- Dimensions budgtaires, etc.
Ces tapes sont
regroupes en quatre
moments cls : Conception du programme,
Ralisation du programme,
valuation
(excution et rsultats), Remdiation. Elles
indiquent des questions se poser,
systmatiquement, mais dans un ordre qui
variera selon la nature du programme
(lvaluation, par exemple, selon chaque
programme, pourra tre formative ou
sommative et donc se situer dans une
chronologie diffrente, les partenaires pourront
156
http://network.icom.museum/ceca/publications/bestpractice/
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367
Ces deux niveaux sont consultables soit sur le
157
site du CECA , soit dans la premire
publication Best Practice (Nardi, 2012).
Il reste une dimension couvrir de manire
systmatique, soit par lintermdiaire dun
enseignement distance cibl, soit par le biais
de publications ou, mieux, dune publication
importante type manuel. Cest celle de
lapprofondissement de chacune des tapes,
au-del
de
dfinitions
et
dexemples
thoriques, approfondissement faisant le point
(langue par langue) des publications existantes
autour de laspect trait, de la thorie les soustendant, dexemples fournis par le rseau
CECA, pouvant ainsi gnrer une sorte de
photographie de laction ducative et culturelle
des annes 2010.
Cest ce troisime niveau que je voudrais
simplement effleurer ici pour en faire ressortir
les potentialits.
http://network.icom.museum/ceca/
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368
certaines dimensions dune exprience
musale, etc. Certains programmes, enfin,
mettent en branle temporairement des savoirfaire
spcifiques
non-prsents
dans
linstitution, tels le tissage, la teinture ou la
calligraphie dans le dveloppement dateliers
dexprimentation.
Le deuxime but recherch pourra tre celui
dtendre le rayon dintervention de linstitution
par la collaboration avec des institutions
extrieures, dautres muses pour dcliner une
thmatique : par exemple celle des fleurs pour
les
muses
dart,
danthropologie,
darchologie et de sciences naturelles de
Dijon il y a une quinzaine dannes, des
institutions intervenant sur des bassins de
publics diffrents, tels des bibliothques, des
centres darchives, des services rgionaux de
linventaire ou la Conservation Rgionale des
Monuments Historiques. Le rapprochement
avec des entits non culturelles tels les
services de transports municipaux ou de sport,
le rseau des taxis, aidera le muse sortir de
son relatif ghetto dimage. Linstitution muse
gagne de plus souvent, dans ces jumelages,
une plus grande reconnaissance politique au
niveau local avec les consquences positives
que cela peut entraner.
On le voit, la consquence naturelle de toutes
ces
formes
de
collaboration
est
lenrichissement de la qualit de loffre et un
potentiel daugmentation et de diversification
des publics.
A laide de quels moyens ?
La collaboration avec dautres entits implique
la plupart du temps une relative rciprocit qui
sera envisager, en particulier pour des
muses possdant peu de moyens. Les
collaborations les plus solides et les plus
durables sont celles, tel le mcnat, o chacun
tire des bnfices de lassociation. Cet aspect
peut tre un critre de choix parmi les
possibles.
Quel rle sera donn chacun des
associs ?
Ce point a fait lobjet de dbats anciens et
nombreux au sein du comit ICOFOM : celui
du partage de pouvoir au sein dun muse,
celui de la prise de pouvoir par telle ou telle
communaut, professionnelle ou identitaire. Je
ne laborderai donc que trs succinctement,
insistant, dans le cadre qui est ici le mien, sur
le difficile quilibre conserver dans toutes les
productions dun muse et particulirement
dans la production de ses programmes
ducatifs et culturels, quilibre entre la
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369
http://network.icom.museum/ceca/nouvelles/detail/article/th
e-results-of-ceca-best-practice-award-2014-1/L/2/
159
E. Nardi (d.), Best Practice 1 (2012) et II (2013). A
Tool to Improve Museum Education Internationally. Roma :
Edizioni Nuova Cultura.
www.kaipachanews.blogspot.pe
Rfrences
Allard, M, Larouche, M.-C., Meunier, A. & Thibodeau, P. (1998). Guide de planification et dvaluation des
programmes ducatifs : Lieux historiques et autres institutions musales. Montral : Les Editions
Logiques.
Bordeaux, M.-C. (2013). Du service ducatif au service culturel dans les muses. Bulletin des bibliothques de
France [en ligne], n 3.
Caillet, E., & Lehalle, E. (1995). A lapproche du muse, la mdiation culturelle. Presses Universitaires de Lyon.
Coppey, O., & Jacobi, D. (1995). Muse et ducation : au-del du consensus, la recherche du partenariat , in
Publics et Muses, Vol 7, N 7 ,10-22.
Degain, J., & Benharkate, S., (2009). valuer les bnfices dune activit musale. Lettre de lOCIM
122 | 2009, pp.19-25.
Der Parthogh, L. (2002). Bnvolat et programmes ducatifs , Nouvelles de lICOM, N4.
http://icom.museum/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/ICOM_News/2002-4/FRE /p4b_2002-4.pdf
Gazeau, M.T. (1974), Lenfant au muse , Paris, Les ditions ouvrires.
ICOM/CECA. Best practice projects in education and cultural action. Page consulte le 10 mai 2015 au site
http://network.icom.museum/ ceca/publications /best-practice/
Gellereau, M. (2005). Les mises en scne de la visite guide : communication et mdiation, Paris, LHarmattan.
Mdiation de lart contemporain : perspectives europennes pour lenseignement et lducation artistiques (2000),
Colloque. Paris, La Documentation Franaise.
Le muse et lenfant (1979). Museum, UNESCO, numro spcial, Vol. XXI, N3.
Muses de Strasbourg (2014). Actions ducatives. Page consulte le 10 mai 2015 au site
www.musees.strasbourg.eu/index.php?page=actions-educatives.
ONeill, M.C. (2006). Visitors and objects in temporary exhibitions. In Gottesdiener, H. et Vilatte, J.-C., Culture
and communication, Proceedings of the XIXe Congress of the International association of empirical
aesthetics, Laboratoire Culture et communication, Universit dAvignon et des Pays de Vaucluse.
ONeill, M.C. (2002). Age et statut social : leur influence sur la visite dune exposition temporaire. Dans
Dufresne-Tass, C., (Ed.), Lvaluation, recherche applique aux multiples usages. (pp 24-36). Paris :
Conseil international des muses.
Rpublique Franaise (2006). Loi n 2006-396 du 31 mars 2006 pour lgalit des chances
Rpublique Franaise. Ministre de lEducation nationale. De la maternelle au baccalaurat, lducation artistique
et culturelle. Page consulte le 10 mai 2015 au site http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid20725/l-educationartistique-et-culturelle.html
Rsum
Le dveloppement dun outil international de pilotage des programmes ducatifs et dune recherche
systmatique, mene auprs du rseau des membres de lICOM/CECA, a fait apparatre un besoin
important de se rfrer un corpus identifi de bonnes pratiques dans llaboration des multiples
programmes offerts par les muses travers le monde leurs publics. Cette requte se heurtait
diverses difficults. Cest la forme outil de pilotage qui a t choisie, incitant les concepteurs et
oprateurs de programmes se poser une suite systmatique de questions tout au long des phases de
conception, de mise en uvre, dvaluation/apprciation et dune nouvelle mdiation de leurs
programmes. Les questions sont multiples, convoquant des dimensions thoriques (ex: quels degrs de
pertinence institutionnelle, scientifique, sociale, conomique pour le programme analys ?), scientifiques
(ex: Quel choix doutils dapprciation/valuation ?), oprationnelles (ex: Quelle ncessit dvolution
entre le produit conu et le produit ralis?). Loutil suscite, la fois, intrt, crainte et critiques qui
devraient progressivement en impacter le contenu.
Mots cl : programmes ducatifs, best practices, ICOM/CECA
Abstract
Development of an international tool for managing educational and cultural programs: The "Best
Practices" instrument of ICOM / CECA
A systematic study that included a network of professional members of ICOM / CECA, revealed a
significant need for referring to an identified body of "best practices" in the development of the many
programs offered by museums worldwide to their audiences. This request faced several problems. As a
result, the "managing tool" form that was chosen, whereby program designers and operators ask
themselves a systematic series of questions as they work through the phases of design, implementation,
evaluation / assessment and remediation of their programs. These questions are multiple, and bring up
theoretical dimensions (e.g. what are the degrees of institutional, scientific, social, economic relevance),
scientific dimensions (e.g. what choice of assessment / evaluation tools could be used), and operational
questions (e.g. how much should the designed program and the final one evolve?). The tool solicited
interest, criticism, and concern, which should gradually impact the content of the ICOM/CECA Best
Practice tool.
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Key words: educational programmes, best practices, ICOM/CECA
ANNEXE
Aspects considrer lors de la conception, de la ralisation et de lvaluation dun programme
culturel ou ducatif
Conception du programme
Origine du projet
Justification et pertinence
Pertinence sociale
Pertinence institutionnelle
Pertinence scientifique
Justification conomique
Collaboration et partenaires
Bnficiaires
Raisons du choix des bnficiaires
Buts et objectifs
Ressources
Opportunits
Espaces
Personnel
Moyens financiers
Comptences disponibles
Contenu
ventail des contenus possibles
Choix de contenu parmi les possibles
Articulation des contenus
Coordination moyens-contenu
Combinaison moyens-contenu pour chaque tape
Combinaison moyens-contenu pour lensemble du projet
Prvision de lvaluation
- Nature des lments soumis valuation
- Acteurs de lvaluation (interne ou externe)
Qui dcide ce qui sera valu ?
Qui conoit lvaluation ?
Qui excute lvaluation ?
- Public vis par lvaluation
Type de public qui sera tudi
Prcision des caractristiques de ce public
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372
Ralisation du programme
Interprtation
Restitution-Rapport
Rapport complet + Synthse destination de linstitution
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Raisons de ltude
Description de la faon dont elle a t ralise
Justification des choix oprs
Rsultats obtenus
Critique et interprtation
Perspectives et suites scientifiques et professionnelles donner aux rsultats
Remdiation selon les rsultats de la recherche et, entre autres, les besoins de linstitution
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Voir et lire
Programme d'intgration culturelle des jeunes et des adultes en cours
dalphabtisation
Renata Sant Anna
Muse d'Art Contemporain de l'Universit de So Paulo Brasil
***
plusieurs
villes
brsiliennes. Par ailleurs, le contact entre le
muse et les jeunes artistes a t instaur,
avec la production dune srie de huit
expositions appeles juste titre Jovem Arte
Contempornea
(JAC
Jeune
Art
Contemporain ).
Le muse ouvrait alors, pour la socit
brsilienne, un espace permanent dtudes et
dchanges sur lart contemporain, en
promouvant le dialogue entre les tudiants, les
artistes, les professeurs de luniversit et la
communaut en gnral.
Les interactions entre la communaut scolaire
et le MAC ont suscit le dbut du projet
monitoria-ateli
[ monitorat-atelier ],
idalis par Martin Grossman, Monica Nador e
Luciana Brito, en 1983. Ce programme a t
lorigine de la cration du Service dArt et
ducation du MAC, en 1985, sous la gestion
de Mme. la Prof. Aracy Amaral.
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375
du muse, prparait lcole les lves et
les enseignants avant la visite aux
expositions ;
1989-1992 : le Cours de Formation des
Gardiens, qui avait pour objectif de valoriser
leur
travail,
en
leur
apportant
des
connaissances sur la collection quils
protgent. Cette formation a compt avec la
participation de tous les professionnels du
muse ;
1989-2014 : le Programme le loisir avec lart
pour le troisime ge, programme qui est
devenu une rfrence dans le milieu
musologique pour le travail avec les
personnes ges ;
1991-1997 : le Projet Olharte [ regardART ] :
organisation dexpositions et de publications
dart contemporain pour les enfants et la
publication de livres dart pour enfants ;
1991-2002 : Le muse et le handicap, qui
organisait des expositions accessibles aux
handicaps moteurs et dficients visuels, avec
un matriel pdagogique adapt ;
1991-2002 : le cours Mthodes des artistes,
qui prsentait la dmarche et la potique des
artistes de la collection ;
1995 -2014 : le Programme MEL - Le muse,
lducation et le ludique, qui produisait des
jeux et des jouets spcialement dvelopps
pour le public des enfants en interaction avec
les oeuvres en exposition.
Parmi ces programmes, certains ont fait lobjet
de recherches acadmiques (niveau Master 1
et 2). Notons galement que les publications
ralises dans le cadre du Projet Olharte ont
reu le Prix Jabuti le plus important prix
littraire au Brsil.
En outre, les professionnels du MAC ont
labor un matriel pdagogique vou aux
enseignants, compos de posters des uvres,
disponibles pour emprunt, et de dpliants
apportant des informations complmentaires
sur les uvres et les mouvements artistiques
dans lesquels elles sont insres. Ce matriel
pdagogique peut aussi tre consult sur le
site internet du Muse, un autre outil important
pour la diffusion des travaux de linstitution.
Le
travail
de
la
Division
Technique
et
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376
dart moderne et contemporain dAmrique
Latine : avoir un lieu permettant de rassembler
toute la collection (auparavant partage entre
ses deux siges) et exposer une partie
considrable de ses 10.000 uvres environ.
Nous y trouvons des peintures lhuile, des
dessins, des gravures, des sculptures, des
objets et des uvres conceptuelles, des
e
matres de lart du XX sicle tels que Picasso,
Matisse, Mir, Kandinsky, Modigliani, Calder,
Braque, Henry Moore, Tarsila do Amaral, Di
Cavalcanti, Volpi, Brecheret, Flvio de
Carvalho, Antonio Dias, Regina Silveira, entre
autres.
2
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377
La proposition consiste prsenter la
collection du muse travers des visites aux
expositions et des rencontres en salle de
classe, afin de construire un programme
coordonn entre le muse et lcole.
Considrations finales
Concernant les catgories de population de
tous les ges, l analphabtisme , terme
adopt pour dsigner ltat de personnes qui
sont prives des codes de lcriture et de la
lecture, rvle une ralit qui empche le
dveloppement personnel, social, conomique
et culturel des individus.
Dans une socit o lcriture est le code
www.kaipachanews.blogspot.pe
378
dominant et o la valeur sociale est base sur
le niveau dducation, les personnes prives
de ce savoir sont souvent amenes dployer
une norme gamme de stratgies visant
cacher cette difficult lire, crire et calculer.
Elles perptuent ainsi leurs limites dune
participation plus active dans leurs vies
professionnelle
et
socioculturelle
et
augmentent leur risque dexclusion sociale.
Devenues publiques depuis plus de cent ans,
les institutions culturelles, telles que les
muses et les bibliothques, ont nanmoins
Rfrences
Freire, Paulo, (2011). Educao como prtica da Liberdade. Ed. Paz e Terra: So Paulo.
Obrist, Hans Ulrich,(2009). Entrevistas. Rio de Janeiro: Cobog.
SantAnna. Renata, (2010). Novo MAC. Revista Casa Cludia Luxo, oct.-nov., 589, pp.154-155. So Paulo :
Ed. Abril.
Rsum
Le Muse dArt Contemporain de lUniversit de So Paulo (MAC/USP) a un rle central dans la
formation de diffrents publics dont des professeurs, des lves de luniversit et des enfants dcoles
publiques et prives. Du fait de son statut universitaire, son rle social dpasse celui habituellement
rserv des institutions similaires. Le MAC/USP se situe dans une rgion de la ville qui abrite plusieurs
institutions ayant des missions analogue telles que le Muse d Art Moderne, le Muse Afro-Brsilien et
le btiment de la Fondation Biennale. Il sinsre, avec dautres muses de la ville de So Paulo, dans un
mouvement douverture de nouveaux publics. Le MAC/USP a labor un programme pour
lalphabtisation des illettrs, le plus souvent des immigrants venus des provinces rurales du Nord du
Brsil. Le Programa Ver e Ler (Programme Voir et Lire), a pour but douvrir le muse au public des
jeunes et adultes qui reprsentent 51000 lves qui suivent des cours du soir. L emmnagement du
muse dans son nouveaux btiment, daprs le projet original dOscar Niemeyer enfin ralis, a rendu
possible lextension des horaires douverture, tendant ainsi le travail de la Division dducation des
publics non pris en compte auparavant.
Mots cl : ducation et action culturelle, analphabtisme, Brsil
Abstract
See and read: A programme for the cultural integration of young people and adults who are
learning how to read
The Contemporary Art Museum of the University of So Paulo (MAC/USP) has a central role in the
training of different audiences: teachers, college students, and children from public and private schools;
its social role goes beyond what is normally offered by similar institutions. The new MAC is in an area
that encompasses several other institutions with similar social missions: the Museum of Modern Art, the
Afro Brazilian Museum, and the Bienniale Foundation. Socio-culturally it is part of the movement by
several museums in So Paulo to expand its outreach to include large parts of the public. The MAC/USP
has developed a programme for teaching illiterate people to read. The Programa Ver e Ler (See and
Read Program) aims to open the museum to the public of illiterate young people and adults, mostly
immigrants from rural northern Brazil, who represent 51 000 students presently in school night classes.
The success of this program could lead to the expansion of this experience to other institutions. The
move to the new museum building, with architectural design by Oscar Niemeyer, created new
possibilities for expanded opening times, extending the work of the Education Division to the public not
covered previously.
Key words: education and cultural action, illiteracy, Brazil
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Introduccin
En el ao 2012, un reportaje publicado en un
peridico de Puerto Alegre deca: Con ms de
70 aos, el Hospital Colonia Itapu agoniza...
De los miles de residentes del pasado,
quedan 34, todos ancianos, en la ciudad
cerca de 60 kilmetros del centro de
Puerto Alegre. Circulan por calles y plazas
casi desiertas. [] Esas personas
llegaron all como prisioneras. Eran
160
enfermos de hanseniase , enfermedad
antes conocida como lepra y tratada en
161
aislamiento (Zero Hora, 07/04/2012 ).
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sealada por el estigma y por historias de gran
sufrimiento. De los muros del hospital hacia
adentro, las memorias de los antiguos
residentes revelan la segregacin forzada, la
separacin de la familia, la vida en el
confinamiento, los prejuicios sufridos, el miedo
social. De los muros hacia afuera, esos locales
eran vistos como amenazas debido al terrible
miedo a la lepra, una enfermedad contagiosa,
cuyo tratamiento no fue descubierto sino
despus de la Segunda Guerra Mundial con el
desarrollo de los antibiticos.
La lepra despertaba el milenario miedo
asociado a la degradacin fsica de los
enfermos: el miedo al contagio era tan
excesivo que los locales donde construir los
lazaretos se elegan en secreto, pues
comnmente los vecinos protestaban contra la
construccin de esos hospitales (Serres,
2004). De ese modo, los locales eran un mal
necesario y servan, segn la concepcin de
la poca, para evitar la propagacin de la
enfermedad, aunque ninguna comunidad los
quera cerca.
Si para las comunidades vecinas y para la
sociedad en general, la lepra representaba
miedo y terror, la situacin no era distinta para
los enfermos. Ingresar al lazareto, adems de
un estigma que nadie quera cargar,
significaba la cercana de la muerte. En la
mayora de los casos, los enfermos buscaban
ocultar su enfermedad para evitar el
aislamiento, sin embargo, cuando eran
descubiertos por los servicios de salud, el
aislamiento se haca inevitable (Serres, 2009).
Dentro del lazareto, comenzaba una nueva
vida, nuevas relaciones sociales, nuevas
identidades se adquiran, algunas bastante
complejas. Segn Goffman (1988, p.46):
Cuando el individuo entiende por la
primera vez quines son los que debe
aceptar como sus iguales, sentir por lo
menos una cierta ambivalencia, ya que
stos no slo son ntidamente
estigmatizados y, por tanto, diferentes
de la persona normal que l se cree,
sino que tambin pueden tener otros
atributos que, en su opinin, difcilmente
162
pueden asociarse a su caso .
162
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381
espacios,
a
menudo
incitados
por
investigadores de diversas reas, comenzaron
a preocuparse en contar sus historias, en dar
sus testimonios, en preservar sus recuerdos a
travs de historias, fotografas, objetos que les
posibiliten explicar lo vivido. En algunos casos,
exigiendo que sus nombres no sean expuestos
y, en otros casos, insistiendo en el
reconocimiento a travs de la revelacin de
sus nombres. Por iniciativa de los empleados
de esos hospitales, con la cooperacin de los
residentes o con la ayuda de investigadores,
se comenz un proceso para salvaguardar la
memoria de los antiguos residentes y de las
propias instituciones.
Entre 1999 y 2000 el Centro de Investigacin y
Documentacin (CEDOPE) fue creado en el
Hospital Itapu con el objetivo de recoger la
documentacin producida por la institucin
desde su fundacin. Se cre una base de
datos con los testimonios de historia oral de
las personas directamente relacionadas a la
Institucin: los mdicos, el personal, los
religiosos y especialmente los antiguos
enfermos, hoy residentes en la institucin
(Borges et al., 2003). En el CEDOPE tambin
se organiz una pequea coleccin de objetos
pertenecientes al hospital y a los antiguos
residentes, objetos que representan un poco
de la vida en aislamiento.
En el Hospital de Santa Teresa tambin se
cre un lugar para preservar la memoria de la
institucin y de sus residentes. La iniciativa
parti del personal del hospital, preocupado
por la desaparicin de documentos, registros
fotogrficos y objetos. En un intento por
preservar estos vestigios, se estableci en la
antigua casa del sacerdote de la Colonia un
pequeo museo, abierto a la comunidad
interna y externa al hospital. El museo retrata
un poco de la vida en el hospital y fue
organizado y dirigido por el personal de la
institucin, con la ayuda de algunos pacientesresidentes.
Los procesos de creacin del CEDOPE en la
Colonia Itapu y del Museo en Santa Teresa
fueron distintos. En el caso del Itapu, la
iniciativa parti de la direccin y de los agentes
externos a la institucin: historiadores,
practicantes, investigadores. El proyecto cont
con la ayuda de la comunidad hospitalaria, de
los funcionarios y de los residentes, que sobre
todo hicieron la donacin de colecciones. La
direccin del CEDOPE estuvo a cargo de la
administracin del hospital. El Centro funcion
entre los aos 1999 y 2002 y actualmente est
desactivado, aunque todava conserva en un
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382
sufrimiento para los afectados. Problematizar
estas historias a travs de los lugares de
conservacin y del estudio de los testigos
puede ayudar a esos grupos a vivir con el
pasado traumtico, contribuyendo para
fortalecer las polticas pblicas destinadas a
poner fin a la estigmatizacin de la
enfermedad, an muy presente en Brasil.
Michel Pollak (1989) afirma que los recuerdos
traumticos pueden esperar dcadas hasta
encontrar
el
momento
propicio
para
expresarse. En relacin a los residentes del
Itapu, se puede percibir un movimiento
hacia querer recordar y grabar los testimonios
cuando encuentran personas interesadas en
conocer sus historias y en conservarlas. Para
la conmemoracin de los 60 aos del Itapu
en el ao 2000 se organiz una exposicin
narrando la historia de la institucin, con el uso
de fotografas y testimonios. En aquel
momento, un grupo de residentes se ofreci
voluntariamente para narrar sus recuerdos y
ayudar a contar la historia del hospital, que
tambin era su historia. Dicha exposicin
despert un sentimiento de identidad y de
protagonismo en estos residentes: queran
contar sus vivencias, darlas a conocer y
transmitirlas al futuro.
En el caso del Santa Teresa, los residentes se
refieren con orgullo al Museo existente en el
hospital. En 2013, un proyecto de la UDESC
(Universidad del Estado de Santa Catarina)
comenz a realizar entrevistas con los
residentes, con el objetivo de crear una base
de datos y promover la identificacin del
acervo. El espacio del museo es reconocido
como el lugar responsable por salvar la
historia del hospital y las historias de los
residentes. Los encuestados muestran sus
fotos en la coleccin, narran y repiten historias
que revelan la vida cotidiana dentro de la
institucin.
Preservar estos testimonios a travs de
monumentos, centros de documentacin,
museos, tal vez sea la nica manera de
transmitirlos a las generaciones futuras. Su
conservacin permitir entender un poco ms
a nuestra sociedad y a sus procesos de
exclusin, permitiendo, al mismo tiempo,
contribuir a la ampliacin del concepto de
patrimonio, que adems de los testigos
materiales ms concretos, debe considerar un
universo mltiple de valores y de actores.
El CEDOPE del Itapu y el Museo del hospital
Santa Teresa se pueden interpretar como
locales privilegiados para guardar la memoria
La patrimonializacin de locales de
sufrimiento
Franois Hartog (2006) examina la memoria y
el patrimonio como sntomas de una nueva
relacin con el tiempo, que marca nuestro
actual rgimen de historicidad, caracterizada
como diferentes formas de relacionarse, de
traducir, y luego de contrarrestar el orden del
tiempo. Un rgimen de historicidad marcado
por una nueva relacin con el pasado, en el
que "la ola patrimonial, en sintona con la de la
memoria, aumenta cada vez ms hasta tender
a ese lmite que sera todo el patrimonio. As
como se anuncian o se reivindican memorias
de todo, todo sera patrimonio o susceptible de
serlo (Hartog, 2013, p. 233). Ya no se trata ya
de una memoria nacional buscando despertar
el sentido de pertenencia a los distintos
segmentos sociales, sino la percepcin de la
diversidad y con ello la expansin de lo que se
entendera como patrimonio.
La relacin con el patrimonio refleja la relacin
que determinada sociedad decide establecer
con el tiempo: "un pasado del cual el presente
no
puede
o
no
quiere
desligarse
completamente. Ya sea para celebrarlo,
imitarlo, conjurarlo, para extraer su prestigio o
simplemente para poder visitarlo" (Hartog,
2013, p. 197), dando sentido al pasado.
Frente a esto, la catstrofe que pronto invadi
el siglo XX con las guerras y regmenes
caracterizados por la represin gener la
necesidad de dar sentido a los recuerdos
relacionados con el sufrimiento, que parece
estar ligado a la voluntad de un ajuste de
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cuentas con un pasado perturbador, lo que
posibilitara
vivir
mejor
el
presente.
Transformar espacios marcados por el dolor
en lugares de memoria (Nora, 1993) es un
desafo pues promueve una paradoja: se
perpeta lo que se quiere olvidar.
En Europa, este proceso puede ser observado
a travs de la patrimonializacin de los lugares
de memoria vinculados al Holocausto,
mientras que en Amrica Latina se puede
observar ese fenmeno en relacin a los
espacios ligados a las dictaduras militares. La
patrimonializacin de estos espacios les
confiere nuevos significados y muestra la
memoria como una de las preocupaciones
polticas y culturales centrales del mundo
contemporneo, expresado a travs de una
mayor preservacin de los vestigios del
pasado, una verdadera "seduccin de la
memoria" (Huyssen, 2000). Este fenmeno se
puede observar a travs de la proliferacin de
sitios, como los museos, que se ofrecen como
garanta contra el olvido, ampliando la
comprensin acerca de lo que debe ser
considerado patrimonio cultural. Segn Ballart
Hernandez y Jordi Tresseras (2007), los
museos fueron llamados a preservar la
memoria de los acontecimientos sociales y
polticos que tuvieron lugar en el siglo XX,
entre ellos, los acontecimientos trgicos.
El deseo de memoria o envie de muse
(Ballart & Tresseras 2007, p. 59) que engloban
los espacios y experiencias relacionadas con
el trauma y el sufrimiento, perpetan las
memorias que han sufrido y resistido al dolor y
a la opresin, dndole nuevos usos
ideolgicos del pasado. La patrimonializacin
de los campos de concentracin y prisiones, el
establecimiento de espacios de conciencia
(museos, memoriales, monumentos) que
tratan de recordar las tragedias se presentan
como resultado de esta expansin del
concepto de patrimonio y de la preocupacin
poltica con la memoria, que busca garantizar
su conservacin como una manera de
reconciliacin con un pasado doloroso, que
an est presente y se impone a lo social.
La "novedad" respecto al patrimonio, adems
de su dilatacin temporal, hasta tiempos muy
recientes, puede estar en patrimonializar
lugares de sufrimiento y dolor, como se puede
interpretar un local como un lazareto. La
patrimonializacin/ musealizacin de esos
espacios, aunque cada vez ms frecuentes,
todava promueve discusiones que van ms
all de la "naturaleza" de los bienes (no se
cuestionan la patrimonializacin de antiguos
Recuperado de http://www.nucleomemoria.org.br/
Acceso en 20 de enero, 2014.
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384
idea cont con el apoyo de ms de 20
organizaciones, entre ellas la OAB-RJ (Orden
de los Abogados), Asociacin Brasilea de
164
Prensa (ABI), Sindicatos, Consejos, ONGs.
El manifiesto propone la transformacin de
esos locales en centros culturales y de
preservacin de la memoria.
La ley 12.528/2011, que cre la Comisin
Nacional de la Verdad, entidad responsable en
Brasil por averiguar crmenes cometidos en el
perodo de la dictadura en el pas (1964-1985),
establece en su prrafo III del artculo 3, la
necesidad de "identificar y hacer pblicas las
estructuras, los sitios, las instituciones y las
circunstancias relacionadas con la prctica de
violaciones de los derechos humanos". En
estos procesos de patrimonializacin estn en
juego el derecho a la justicia y a la verdad y la
lucha contra el olvido. Los museos y
monumentos, por lo general instalados en
estos lugares (o cerca de ellos), son espacios
por excelencia para promover la preservacin
de estos recuerdos.
Otro caso interesante de esas prcticas de
creacin de espacios de memoria en locales
de sufrimiento en Brasil es el que ocurre en
algunos hospitales psiquitricos. Estos lugares
parecen estar tratando de exorcizar un pasado
doloroso, demuestran la necesidad de
humanizar las condiciones de aislamiento en
grandes instituciones psiquitricas. Se puede
mencionar como ejemplos el Museo de la
Locura (creado en 1996 en el Hospital
Psiquitrico de Barbacena, Minas Gerais), el
Museo de Arte Contemporneo Bispo do
Rosario (creado en 2001 en la Colonia Juliano
Moreira, en Ro de Janeiro), el Memorial del
So Pedro (creado en 2002, en el Hospital
So Pedro, en Puerto Alegre), el Centro de
Documentacin e Investigacin del Hospital
Colonia SantAna (establecido en 2011 en ese
antiguo hospital, actual Instituto de Psiquiatra
de Santa Catarina). Estas instituciones tienen
sus particularidades, pero en muchos aspectos
parecen preocupadas por la preservacin de
los vestigios de un pasado doloroso, actuando
como una forma de reconciliacin con el
pasado por medio de la memoria.
Considerando que el patrimonio es una
construccin cultural en la que cada sociedad
establece
sus
referentes,
la
patrimonializacin/musealizacin
est
directamente relacionada al presente, a la
164
Recuperado
de
http://administrativo.oabrj.org.br/
/arquivos/files/-Upload/manifesto_memoria.pdf Acceso: 20
de enero, 2014.
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385
El sufrimiento, por lo tanto, no es un hecho
inevitable e inherente a estas instituciones,
sino ms bien una forma de hacer frente a la
enfermedad, agravada por la separacin social
que el aislamiento significaba. Esos lugares de
sufrimiento, como pueden ser considerados
los lazaretos, fueron construidos con base en
ideas cientficas, traducidas en polticas. El
aislamiento alejaba a los pacientes de sus
familias y de la interaccin con la vida externa
a la institucin, factores que, en conjunto con
las consecuencias de la propia enfermedad,
en muchos casos las deformidades fsicas,
resuenan en la memoria de los que han
pasado sus vidas en los lazaretos. El
sufrimiento fsico y moral sufrido por los
residentes impregna el espacio, resuena en
sus paredes, como si los edificios del hospital
tambin hayan sido responsables de las
consecuencias causadas por la enfermedad.
La creacin de espacios de memoria en esas
instituciones permite conocer y reflexionar
acerca de estas prcticas, y adems,
representan una lucha contra el olvido. En este
contexto, los museos, monumentos y centros
de la memoria, ejercen una funcin social
fundamental, en que recordar garantiza la
transmisin del sentido memorable atribuido a
las tragedias y las experiencias traumticas
(Jeudy, 1995, p. 59).
Los lugares de memoria creados en las
dependencias de los antiguos hospitales no se
presentaron, en un primer momento, como
demandas de los internos/residentes, sino por
el personal o investigadores. Los residentes
viven, como se mencion anteriormente, la
paradoja entre el deseo de recordar y la
necesidad de olvidar, sin embargo, tan pronto
fueron creados estos espacios de memoria,
los internos y ex internos los apoyaron con
informaciones, relatos, documentos.
Es posible que la generacin que vivi el
aislamiento y consecuente sufrimiento que l
conlleva trate de silenciar esos recuerdos,
pero las siguientes generaciones, hijos y
nietos de ex internos podrn querer conocer y
comunicarlos, algo que ya pas a ocurrir,
como se evidencia en el "Programa
Reencuentros", lanzado en el ao 2011 en la
Fundacin Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz) en Ro de
Janeiro. El proyecto, inspirado en la
experiencia de las Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo
(Argentina), busca, a travs de un proyecto de
mapeo gentico, identificar a los hijos de los
ex
pacientes
hospitalizados
en
las
165
leproseras.
Los documentos que se
conservan en estas instituciones, en los
espacios de memoria, tambin permiten
ayudar en estas investigaciones.
Paul Ricoeur (2000) se pregunta si debera
haber una negociacin entre la memoria y el
olvido. Para el autor existe un olvido de
reserva (para cuando pueda ser comunicado)
y un olvido por la destruccin de los vestigios.
Museos, monumentos y archivos son una
manera de evitar la destruccin de los
vestigios y eventualmente (o idealmente) se
convierten en centros de investigacin sobre
los temas que preservan. Los espacios que
figuran aqu, al igual que otros de la misma
naturaleza, deben ser vistos como lugares
privilegiados de la custodia de las pruebas
relacionadas con la vida, con el sufrimiento y,
ms especficamente, con la lepra.
Consideraciones finales
El sufrimiento es un hecho histrico que incita
a nuevos arreglos sociales (Farge, 2011). En
el caso de los espacios de segregacin, la
patrimonializacin/musealizacin
del
sufrimiento parece investida de un deber de
testimonio. El deber de la memoria que
caracteriza el momento actual englob estos
espacios y experiencias relacionadas al
sufrimiento.
Actualmente en el Itapu y en el Santa Teresa
quedan pocos residentes, solamente ex
enfermos que siguen internados por distintas
razones, desde problemas socio-econmicos
hasta por necesitar cuidados especiales. En
algunos aos no quedar nadie ms. Estas
instituciones tendrn nuevos usos, a lo mejor
no tendrn ms usos hospitalarios, una vez
que tienen enormes estructuras y se
encuentran lejanas de los centros urbanos. En
algunos casos, es posible que reciban nuevos
segregados o se rehabiliten para funciones
contemporneas. Sin embargo, no se puede
borrar la memoria relacionada con su
construccin y dcadas de uso especfico.
Los museos y lugares de memoria juegan el
rol de guardianes de la memoria de estos
lugares y espacios de interpretacin y
165
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386
comunicacin. Como mencion Poulot (2013,
p. 81), estos museos, basados en la
colaboracin de los movimientos polticos y
sociales, favorecen el trabajo de duelo de una
manera, al mismo tiempo, "familiar y
asustadora".
Pero, cmo no sucumbir a la tentacin de la
misin de "salvar" memorias marginadas,
olvidadas u ocultadas? Cmo tratar los
recuerdos de los sujetos que poco pudieron
dejar de recuerdos suyos? Al intentar
comprender el tema de la patrimonializacin/
musealizacin de estos espacios, estamos
tambin
estableciendo
su
importancia
patrimonial y ayudando a crear significados
Referencias
Borges, V. T. (2013). Um depsito de gente: as marcas do sofrimento e as transformaes no antigo
Hospital Colnia SantAna e na assistncia psiquitrica em Santa Catarina, 1970-1996.
Histria, Cincias, Sade Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, v.20, n.4, 1531-1549.
Borges, V. T. (2012a). Loucos nem sempre mansos. Puerto Alegre: Editora da UFRGS.
Borges, V.T. (2012b). A nossa sociedade produziu esse tipo de instituio: o Museu da Loucura e
seu acervo. Itaja: Casa Aberta Editora.
Borges, V. T.; Barcelos, A. H. ; Fontoura, A. A. (2003). Desvendando uma histria de excluso: a
experincia do Centro de Documentao e Pesquisa do Hospital Colnia Itapu. Histria,
Cincias, Sade-Manguinhos (Impresso), Rio de Janeiro, v. 10, n.2, 397-414.
Duarte, L. F. D. (1998). Investigao antropolgica sobre doena, sofrimento e perturbao: uma
introduo. In: Duarte, Luiz Fernando Dias; Leal, Ondina Fachel. (Org.). Doena, sofrimento,
perturbao: perspectivas etnogrficas. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Fiocruz. pp.9-27.
Farge, A. (2011). Lugares para a histria. So Paulo: Autntica.
Foucault, M. (2000). Histria da Loucura. 6a ed. So Paulo: Perspectiva.
Hartog, F. (2006). Tempos do mundo, histria, escrita da historia. In: Guimares L.M.S. (Org.) Estudos
sobre a escrita da histria. (pp. 15-25). Rio de Janeiro: Editora 7 Letras.
Hernndez, F. H. (2006). Planteamientos tericos de la museologa. Gijn: TREA.
a
Hernndez, J. B.; Tresseras, J. J. i. (2007) Gestin del patrimonio cultural. 3 ed. Barcelona: Editorial
Ariel.
Huyssen, A. (2000). Passados presentes: mdia, poltica, amnsia. In: Hartog. F. Seduzidos pela
memria: arquitetura, monumentos, mdia. (pp.9-40) Rio de Janeiro: Aeroplano.
Nora, P. (1993). Entre memria e histria: a problemtica dos lugares. Projeto Histria, So Paulo,
n.10, 7-28.
Poulot, D. (2013). Museu e Museologia. Belo Horizonte: Autntica Editora.
Ricoeur, P. (2000). La memoria, la historia, el olvido. Buenos Aires: Fondo de la Cultura Econmica.
Serres, J. C. P. (2004). Ns no Caminhamos Ss: O Hospital Colnia Itapu e o Combate Lepra
no Rio Grande do Sul (1920-1950). Dissertao de Mestrado (Histria). So Leopoldo:
Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos.
Serres, J. C. P. (2009). Memrias do Isolamento: trajetrias marcadas pela experincia de vida no
Hospital Colnia Itapu. Tese de Doutorado (Histria). So Leopoldo: Universidade do Vale do
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Resumen
Frente a la obsesin conmemorativa y la emergencia de la memoria como una de las preocupaciones
polticas y culturales de las sociedades contemporneas, la preservacin de los vestigios del pasado se
ha convertido en una demanda de la sociedad y los museos, en actores imprescindibles en esos
procesos. El deseo de preservacin tambin englob los espacios y las experiencias relacionadas al
trauma y al sufrimiento. La patrimonializacin de espacios que buscan el recuerdo de tragedias se
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387
produce como consecuencia de la expansin de la nocin de patrimonio y se ofrece como garanta
contra el olvido. Las polticas de memoria permiten rememorar y preservar locales relacionados a
distintos tipos de sufrimiento: guerras, genocidios, terrorismo, crceles, hospitales. La musealizacin de
esos espacios, en general, presenta las comunidades/actores involucrados en los procesos
patrimoniales. El objetivo de este artculo es presentar y analizar ese fenmeno en relacin a la
musealizacin de las leproseras, antiguos locales de aislamiento de los enfermos de lepra, instituciones
creadas en Brasil a lo largo de la primera mitad del siglo XX. Sern presentadas las experiencias de
musealizacin de dos Hospitales: Colonia Itapu en Ro Grande del Sur y Colonia Santa Teresa en
Santa Catarina.
Abstract
Museums in Old Leprosarium and Suffering: Trends, Institutions and Social Actors
In the face of obsession for memorials and the emergence of memory as a political and cultural concern
in contemporary societies, preserving the vestiges of the past has become a true demand of society, and
museums are essential actors in these processes. The desire to preserve has also encompassed places
and experiences related to trauma and suffering. The places meant to recall tragedies became
patrimonies, and are the result of the expanded notion of heritage, offering themselves as guarantees
against oblivion. The policies enable remembering and preserve local places related to different kinds of
suffering: wars, genocide, terrorism, jails, and hospitals. Musealization of these spaces, in general,
presents the communities involved in the processes. The purpose of this article is to present and analyse
this phenomenon in relation to the making of leprosarium museums, former places for seclusion of lepers
th
in Brazil throughout the first half of the 20 century. We will present experiments of turning these places
into museums in hospitals like Colnia Itapu, in Rio Grande do Sul, and Colnia Santa Teresa, in Santa
Catarina.
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166
All ethical and legal issues about disposal will be left for
another study (Moore, 1994; Weil, 2002).
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According to the survey answers active
acquisition principles of art museums can be
divided in four overlapping groups: valuebased, regionally determined, art historical and
technical. In the official documents valuebased acquisition principles are emphasized;
this became clear in the survey answers as
well. For example to collect information for
future generations, to preserve aesthetic and
cultural values and understanding of our time
and its plurality were among the given
principles. Concepts such as to choose, to
preserve and to pass on to future generations
were frequently mentioned, thus making an
understanding of the essence of time evident.
Various regional principles were also seen as
important. Artworks are acquired from local
artists and collections are gathered to
emphasize the meaning of local memory. This
eventually will form a network of art collections
among different regions, where each region
functions as a part of a whole, thus covering a
wide range of artistic phenomena. In addition
to value-based and locally oriented principles,
high artistic quality and art historical relevance
were naturally seen as important principles.
In conjunction with acquisition principles the
operating idea of a museum presents the core
identity of the museum. Its message can be
ascertained through three questions:
What does the museum do?
What does it produce?
What is included in this process?
The survey answers to the first question
indicated the following: a museum preserves,
researches, acquires and presents, which are
all in alignment with the ICOM ethical
guidelines and Finnish museum legislation
(ICOM, 2005; Museolaki 1 11.11.2005/877).
In addition to these common denominators,
factors such as passes cultural capital and
has a role as a memory of society where
mentioned. Both examples introduce a strong
timeline into the operating idea of the museum.
Museums are not only responsible for their
own time, but they have to understand their
role as mediators, where the core of operation
spans from far back in the past into the distant
future.
As to the question of products, museums
produce both abstract ideas and concrete
services. First of all, museums provide
concrete artistic services in society such as
exhibitions, publications or pedagogical
programs. This work results in an increase of
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390
need to study conceptions, attitudes and
emotions. Such tacit information is the link
between theory and practice or acquisition and
disposal. The mediators in this process are
museum professionals.
168
Disposal
In the process of disposal both theory and
practice meet with very irreversible outcomes.
There are many questions to answer. Is the
169
character of disposal active or passive? How
can disposal be justified in a heritologically
sound way? What will physically happen to the
museum object on a disposal list? How
substantial is the element of error? (Burg,
1996; Weil 1997; Too Much Stuff? 2003;
Disposal Toolkit, 2008; Davies, 2011). The
aspect of doubt in any disposal process is
crystallized in these questions, which include
not only ethical, legal or media-sexy aspects,
but also very time-consuming and extremely
practical endeavors (Weil, 2002). To complete
the process successfully a disposal decision
alone will not suffice. This is the area where
theory meets practice. One has to have a solid
chain of procedures; from the initial decision
through the time the objects actually leave the
museum. It is the only way that decision
makers and staff executing the process are
able to sleep in peace, both during their
working years and after retirement.
In order to examine the unwritten world of
disposal, the research also focused on such
factors as the documentation level and
marginal elements of collections, as well as the
influence of everyday attitudes. By looking into
these incompleteness issues within collection
management, the difference between official
and tacit information became evident. In the
following chapters this difference will be
ascertained through seven questions that were
presented in the survey to museum
professionals.
168
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quality of some of these works does not
fulfill any museums criteria, but due to
various acquisition agreements, they
cannot be disposed of (Survey 2012).
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In addition to these main characteristics there
were variations in matters involving the chain
of decision, interval of collection inventories
and the actual method of demolition used. In
some cases the cultural board of the city also
took part in decision-making. The interval of
inventory varied from two to ten years and the
artwork was listed as disposed of, if not
encountered in two or three consecutive
171
inventories. The method of disposal also had
variations such as: The artworks were left in
the museum; they were just moved to a lowerpriority storage. The artworks were put in the
garbage. The artwork was destroyed with the
consent of the artist. It became clear that
there are no unified procedures with which
disposal is carried out. One has to keep in
mind that all artworks left on a museums
premises after disposal decisions have been
made will keep consuming resources, and any
calculated or expected benefits will not actually
be realized. This is an area in need of
professional consensus.
171
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The previous seven questions aimed to
ascertain the tacit nature of disposal in Finnish
art museums. In addition, it was possible to
point out nine factors that would explain why
disposal has been seen as a rather
cumbersome procedure:
1. The disposal process reserves and
consumes resources before any benefits
become evident.
2. Disposal is a very broad subject.
3. Disposal has not yet been approved of by
professionals on a general level.
4. A precise overview of a collection is
necessary before any disposal process is
implemented.
5. There is always the element of error.
6. Disposal takes time.
7. The link between theory and practice is very
concrete and disposal needs a definite value
assessment.
8. There are differing everyday practices
among various museum professionals.
9. A disposal hierarchy exists.
I believe that by studying the paths of tacit
information within museums it becomes
possible to tackle these nine themes and
render benefits in the area of our heritological
wellbeing. To acknowledge the role of
collective know-how directly benefits a
museum object and helps us to carry out any
museological value assessment of the
collection.
Museological Value Assessment
The value assessment of a collection is a
natural companion to collection management.
It sets a concrete foundation for determining
which artworks are of critical importance to a
museum and its identity. 49% of Finnish art
museums have discussed value assessment
but in only 13% of them has it actually been
implemented. According to the survey answers
value assessments in Finnish art museums
can be divided into three areas: art historical,
pragmatic and museological.
Artistic and art historical assessments are
naturally important and have their background
in disciplines such as history and philosophy.
As an example of pragmatic value
assessments one can point out rescue plans or
insurance values of any given artwork. The
problem with art historical and pragmatic value
assessments is that they do not necessarily
cover the entire collection and are to some
extent determined by outside factors and
players. They are important, but are not
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395
assessments in their everyday work. The
answers included the following:
Acquisition of artworks
Disposal of artworks
Prioritizing conservation
Prioritizing among 9 000 artworks
Prioritizing artistic and historical values
Prioritizing research
Prioritizing long-term loans
Fitting artworks into a collection context
Developing collection management
Choosing artworks for exhibitions
Planning publications
Planning exhibitions with local artists
Preservation work regarding the local art scene
Valuing the importance of frames
Assigning insurance values to artworks
Guiding situations
The
Impact
of Museological
Value
Assessment
In general, the concept of an impact factor has
been chosen as a key one when studying
meaningfulness in society. What do people
consider meaningful in their own environment
and why? (Weil, 2002; Holden 2006; Scott,
2008, 2013; Conn, 2010; Davies, 2011;
173
Pettersson, 2013; Piekkola, 2013).
One
example of an impact is the ability of museums
to function as safe havens in society (Weil,
2002, p. 207; Conn, 2010, p. 231; Museums
2020, 2012, p. 8; Munley, 2013, p. 50). This
means that a museum is a public institution
where all groups are given an equal possibility
to gather and exchange opinions in a relaxed
173
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www.kaipachanews.blogspot.pe
Un rle essentiel
tre
connecteurs
et
activateurs
de
connaissances
et
d'expriences
entre
collections et publics c'est le rle essentiel que
les muses ont pour moi.
www.kaipachanews.blogspot.pe
399
Il ne sagit pas de faire de la comptition mais
de complter, denrichir. Bien applique, la
technologie se prsente comme une excellente
ressource pour fournir un contexte, des
comparaisons, des rfrences, etc.
mon avis, la question se poser n'est pas
de savoir si nous introduisons la technologie
dans le muse, mais comment utiliser les
mthodes digitales pour approfondir les
implications avec l'art, lhistoire, la science, les
processus cratifs. Il sagit de laisser la
dcision de les utiliser ou non, et comment,
dans les mains des usagers.
Le visiteur est plong dans la technologie tous
les jours. Alors il me semble que ce serait une
mauvaise stratgie si, en entrant dans un
muse ou un centre culturel, il avait
limpression que celle-ci n'existe pas.
Je pense que les muses doivent offrir le
maximum doptions possibles pour largir
linformation,
pour
approfondir
les
connaissances, pour stimuler l'observation,
pour activer la rflexion critique. Nous devrions
utiliser la technologie sur autant de supports
que nous pouvons et laisser l'utilisateur le
soin de dcider sil les utilise ou pas,
Pour tablir des connexions entre le savoir et
l'observation, pour amliorer les capacits
critiques et analytiques, pour stimuler la
crativit, la technologie se prsente comme
une allie. Par exemple, le programme Art et
Concepts connect class rooms , ArtNC
(artnc.org)
offre d'excellentes ressources
pdagogiques pour les coles. Le programme
prsente 150 uvres du Muse d'art de
Caroline du Nord et le cybervisiteur est invit
faire des liens entre les concepts et les uvres
exposes, offrant une approche non linaire
la collection. Une srie de plans de leons et
de vidos aide intgrer la collection d'uvres
aussi dans les programmes d'ducation non
artistique (maths, philosophie, etc). Tout ce
contenu peut tre partag et stock en ligne
dans un fichier personnel ArtNC.
Muses plates-formes
Voyons maintenant les rseaux sociaux :
l'utilisation des rseaux est actuellement
inscrite dans les stratgies du muse (une
stratgie de communication, une stratgie tout
au long de l'organisation). Nous ne savons pas
comment les rseaux sociaux vont voluer,
mais, pour l'instant, il est important d'tre actif
l o se trouvent les utilisateurs, cest--dire
www.kaipachanews.blogspot.pe
400
travaillent. On peu ainsi aller plus au-del du
ton institutionnel du web.
Mais, profitons-nous bien des plates-formes
sociales? Utilisons-nous les rseaux, les blogs,
comme une plate-forme pour la conversation
et l'interaction avec les utilisateurs du muse,
ou
sommes-nous
seulement
des
radiodiffuseurs et annonceurs, diffuseurs de ce
que nous faisons ?
Autres questions se poser : Notre visiteur est
mobile, nos contenus le sont-ils aussi ? Le
tlphone mobile est omniprsent ; nous
lavons toujours porte de main. Faisons que
nos contenus soient amicaux friendly sur
petit cran, pertinents et contextuels.
Un fait significatif : l'Espagne est l'un des pays
europens avec la plus grande pntration des
smartphones. Le nombre dapplications
installes en moyenne par utilisateur est de 19
(dont 8 payantes) mais le pourcentage des
muses espagnols avec applications est de
2% ! Il y a l tout un filon explorer et
exploiter.
Bien entendu, avant de dvelopper des
applications, la priorit devrait tre de rendre
nos sites Web adapts pour le tlphone
(Responsive Web Design), ce qui veut dire non
seulement de les formater pour un petit cran,
mais aussi de soigner la vitesse de
chargement des images et de repenser
l'architecture de navigation pour les rendre
vraiment utiles sur mobile.
Un exemple de la faon de connecter le public
avec le travail de restauration et l'tude des
uvres est ce que nous avons essay dans
l'application pour tablettes Muse Explore
(MNAC, 2012). Elle est gratuite et on explique
ce quon a dcouvert travers ltude par
rayons X, la rflectographie et d'autres
techniques qui nous permettent de connatre le
processus cratif de l'artiste. On offre des
contenus prsents de manire diffrente de
celle de l'exposition et lusager peut interagir et
les partager sur les rseaux.
Storytelling
Les panneaux explicatifs constituent aussi un
moyen puissant de connecter la collection et le
public.
Une grande partie du secret pour intresser le
visiteur est de savoir comment expliquer,
comment raconter, c'est--dire l'art du rcit ou
www.kaipachanews.blogspot.pe
401
Google
Art
Wikipedia
Project,
Europeana,
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402
gestion
des
contenus
numriques,
beaucoup plus dvelopps en gnral
dans les muses anglophones que dans
les muses mditerranens.
Dfis venir
Il ny a pas un, mais plusieurs dfis relever
dans les annes futures :
La numrisation, encore ;
Llaboration de plus de contenus,
plus d audiovisuels, avec plus de
qualit ;
La ncessit de dvelopper les
multiplates-formes
www.kaipachanews.blogspot.pe
403
une
organisation
horizontale ;
l'intgration du contenu numrique (on
la nomm quand on parlait des
tendances, mais cest aussi un dfi). Il
sagit moins davoir au-dedans de
l'institution
un
bon
content
management system (CMS) ou des
moyens technologiques, mais davoir
une mentalit de partage, de
transparence et, naturellement, de la
mthode.
La formation : il faut renforcer la
formation
en
comptences
numriques, soit linnovation, la
communication, la coopration et le
travail d'quipe.
Le
dveloppement
des
technologies
numriques au sein du muse n'a pas t un
Rfrences
for the Future of Museums (2012). TrendsWatch. Consult partir de http://www.aamus.org/resources/center-for-the-future-of-museums/projects-and-reports/trendswatch
Mairesse F. (2013). Elments de prospective musale. La Lettre de lOCIM. 150, 9-14.
MNAC (Museu Nacional dArt de Catalunya). (2013). Strategy 2017. Consult partir de
http://www.museunacional.cat/sites/default/files/strategy_2017_ang_0.pdf
MNAC (Museu Nacional dArt de Catalunya). (2012). The Museum Explores. Works of art under examination.
Consult partir de http://www.museunacional.cat/en/museum-explores-works-art-under-examination-0
NMC.
(2013).
NMC
Horizon
Report
2013.
Museum
Edition.
Consult
partir
de
http://redarchive.nmc.org/publications/2013-horizon-report-museum
Partage Plus. (2012). Digitising and Enabling Art Nouveau for Europeana. Consult partir de
http://www.partage-plus.eu/en/news/view/8,Art+Nouveau+on+Europeana
Roda C. (2012). Digital Strategy Map for Museums. Slideshare. Consult partir de
http://fr.slideshare.net/innova3/digital-strategy-map-for-museums
Smithsonian Institution. (2012). Google On Trial Is the Google Art Project Good? SI Web and New Media
Strategy Wiki. Consult partir de http://smithsonian-webstrategy.wikispaces.com/Google+On+Trial-Is+the+Google+Art+Project+Good%3F
Stack J. (2013). Tate Digital Strategy 201315: Digital as a Dimension of Everything, Tate Papers Issue 19.
Consult partir de http://www.tate.org.uk/research/publications/tate-papers/tate-digital-strategy-201315-digital-dimension-everything
Center
Rsum
La dimension numrique envahit aujourd'hui l'ensemble du muse. De nombreux tablissements sont
embarqus aujourd'hui dans l'laboration de leur stratgie numrique. Certains ont russi et pleinement
mis en uvre leur politique numrique, d'autres se battent encore pour la dvelopper, tous travaillent
pour que le numrique soit pleinement intgr dans la stratgie gnrale du muse. Le Museu Nacional
d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelone, a dvelopp sa stratgie numrique pour les prochaines annes partir
de rien. Il a ainsi eu lopportunit de dvelopper le numrique ds le dbut. Le but de cette prsentation
est de partager le processus de mise en uvre de la stratgie numrique, de dire quelles priorits ont
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404
t mises en jeu, quels sont les dfis surmonter et de faire connatre la participation du muse aux
grands projets numriques travers le monde tels que Google Art Project, Europeana ou Wikipedia.
Mots cls : Numrique, Stratgie numrique, Museu Nacional dArt de Catalunya
Abstract
Digital strategy at the Museum: need, trends, challenges
The digital dimension invades the entire museum of today. Many facilities are now embedded in the
development of their digital strategy. Some museums were successful and fully implemented their digital
policy, others are still struggling to develop it; everyone works to get a fully integrated digital policy into
the overall strategy of the museum. The Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, has developed
its digital strategy for the coming years from nothing; it has had the opportunity to develop the digital from
the start. The purpose of this presentation is to share the implementation process of its Digital Agenda,
which priorities have been set and what are the challenges to overcome, as well as its participation in
major digital projects worldwide such as Google Art Project, Europeana or Wikipedia.
Key words: Digital, Digital Strategy, Museu Nacional dArt de Catalunya
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Sector
Items
Display characteristics
Minerals
Native elements
Sulphides
Sulphosalts
Oxides
Halides
Carbonates
Borates
Sulphates
Phosphates
Tungstates
Silicates
Rare earth
Rocks
Sedimentary
Igneous
Metamorphic
Gems
Gems
Gems are put in black panels set in the centre of the hall, and
each specimen is displayed with a number. A larger label is on
the side containing the corresponding trade names.
Schnyder
Collection
Applications
Mineral and rocks Select rocks and minerals displayed in wall-mounted cabinets.
and
related
end Each specimen is displayed with a small-scale object that
products
shows an example of its application and a label explaining it.
For example, the mineral talc is displayed next to a talcum
powder package.
Caves
Stalactites
stalagmites
Other
Meteorites
Type minerals
Organic
minerals
Fossil table
and Large poster hung on the wall containing photos of caves and
a small text with glossary. Beneath and in front of the poster
there are glass displays containing stalactites and stalagmites.
origin These minerals (amber, pearl and oil) are exhibited in a glass
display, and each specimen has a label with the name, origin
and donor name.
A table decorated with a poster of dinosaurs with select fossils
on it. The labels on the fossils only display numbers. This fossil
table is used in presentations for school groups.
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Oldest rocks
Geological house
Other
Shop
Items for sale including small mineral and rock samples, arts &
crafts items, books and learning games for kids.
Figure 1. Collection displayed in the main exhibition hall of the Museum of Geosciences of University of So Paulo. This figure
shows the main display sectors and their respective characteristics.
The
exhibition
thus
adopts
technical
terminology and a classificatory rhetoric of
geology, with information limited to the
attributes of the specimen, not mentioning
other values attached to it, thus leading to what
Meneses (1994) describes as fetish for
objects, mystifying them.
I conceived this research project while I was an
undergraduate student of the Geosciences and
Environmental Education program of the
Institute of Geosciences and developed
projects in connection with the Museum of
Geosciences for the following courses:
Methodology for Teaching Geosciences and
Environmental
Education,
Environmental
Education Practices, and the Fundamentals of
Visual Language courses.
The projects for Methodology for Teaching
Geosciences and Environmental Education
and Environmental Education Practices were
carried out in 2011 during an internship and
were divided in two phases: the first
concentrated on the audience; the second on
the Museum staff.
The first phase was carried out in the first half
of 2011 and aimed at verifying whether visitors
obtained any information from the labels
displayed with specimens in the main
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408
hosted at the front door of the building by an
undergraduate volunteer or one of the Museum
personnel, who takes them to a classroom
where they are taught about the origin of the
Earth or another specific subject as agreed
with the teacher; then they visit the Museum,
where students are usually allowed to visit
freely after receiving general instructions. The
profile of school group visits in the first half of
2011 was as follows: second- to fifth-year
students accounted for 26.5%, sixth- to ninthyear students accounted for 27.7%, tenth- to
twelfth-year students accounted for 25.8%, and
students of other colleges accounted for 15.5%
(in the period from 2004 to 2012, second- to
fifth-year students accounted for 11.1%, sixthto ninth-year students accounted for 30.9%,
tenth- to twelfth-year students accounted for
20.3%, and students of other colleges
accounted for 8.2%). The remaining groups
referred to infant school and other educationrelated groups. When visiting the main
exhibition hall, second- to fifth-year students
usually made comments according to their
cognitive development, about shapes, colors
and textures of specimens, and showed
initiative to touch the few specimens that were
not in display cases; most of them were
attracted to a small and outdated poster (not
described above) that shows the geological
timeline and features a dinosaur drawing. Of
this same group, boys invariably stopped at the
applications display case and discussed the
toy car shown as an application of steel, but
their discussion was not about the latter
(metal), but about whether it was or was not
made by a certain manufacturer; girls, on the
other hand, stopped at the house model and
discussed dolls. This behavior shows that the
audience, as noted by Cury (2005), does a
reading based on its daily life, rereading from
the contemporary perspective. As for sixth- to
twelfth-year students, most of them were more
interested in taking pictures and touching the
fossils on the fossil table. They showed more
interest in the displayed items as they
completed more questions on them, however
they did not demonstrate that they had read
the labels. It is not possible to say whether the
reason they do not seem to read labels is
because they are already saturated with
information by the time they arrive at the
museum. Notwithstanding this fact, it should be
mentioned that the periodic table is usually
taught in the eighth or ninth grade, so it is
possible to infer that a significant portion of the
label contents do not have any meaning to
about 50% of students.
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any connection with the stalactite and
stalagmite specimens beneath the poster.
Although I did not estimate how often the
above comments were made, spontaneous
visitors invariably asked the guard what is this
museum about? before leaving the museum. I
think it reveals that visitors have an idea that
exhibitions convey a message or they would
have thought that it was about minerals and
rocks, and maybe they felt intimidated to say
that it was about the latter. According to Cury
(2005), a museological communication is
effective when visitors embody the museum
message. In the case of spontaneous visitors,
it is possible to conclude that communication
was not effective, because they did not seem
to read labels, or, if they did, they did not
understand nor could infer what the exhibition
was about.
The second phase of the project, developed in
the second half of 2011, was conceived when I
showed the findings of the first phase to
museum staff, on which occasion we
determined that addressing the issue that
spontaneous visitors did not know the point of
the museum should be a priority. This phase
aimed at encouraging reflection on the
practices of the Museum of Geosciences by
adopting the participatory action research
methodology for environmental education,
which is, according to Tozoni-Reis (2007),
based on the presupposition that a funo da
educao a de instrumentalizar os sujeitos
para uma prtica social transformadora (the
role of education is to provide subjects with
instruments for a transforming social practice).
Together we then defined the themes to be
discussed, which ranged from education to
labels. In relation to the latter, we adopted as
reference the book Exhibit Labels: an
interpretative approach written by Beverly
Serrell (1996). The museum staff is composed
of three members: a public relations
professional, a historian, and a geologist, none
of whom have museology training.
I conducted 11 classes using the selected
themes, which also included discussions on
the museum. In my opinion it produced positive
results, despite the fact that the museum chief,
a geologist, could not participate as he was
completing a Masters degree in Mineralogy.
The other members expressed their opinions
and it became clear that they have difficulty
reflecting on their activities because they are
usually overloaded with work, especially with
school groups. Due to the fact that the
exhibition had been originally organized by a
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410
this showed the lack of expography
knowledge. Acknowledging how important it is
to consider the museum as a walk-in
experience that requires a particular design
turned my attention to another aspect that
probably affects visitors: the fact that the
University campus is visually different from
most places in So Paulo. It is in fact a
university city with its own city hall, inside So
Paulo. A city with no graffiti and few traffic
lights, where buildings are not tall, and
surrounded by plenty of green areas. So those
who visit the Museum of Geosciences, which
by the way is hard to find on campus, start
their visit before entering the Institutes
building. This fact gives rise to other questions:
how do visitors feel when they enter the
exhibition hall? Do they feel comfortable or do
they come with other things in their minds?
All of these issues made me realize that it
would be fundamental to address them from
the museology perspective, because even
though the findings of the described projects
showed as important and useful, they were not
sufficient, as none of them considered the
cultural experience enjoyed in a museum,
which according to Cury (2012b) is ritualistic,
sensorial, affective, emotional, physical and
fractal. It would also be necessary to construct
a narrative by making the correlation between
museological objects in a space and carry out
a conceptual articulation, taking into account
Phases
Activities
Product
Preliminary
Planning
Idea
and
Preliminary
design
and
evaluation
1. Creation of prototypes.
2. Front-end, formative and summative evaluations.
Feedback
for
the
definite
conception of the exhibition.
Museographical conception
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Final
evaluation
Process evaluation
Figure 2. Project overview. This figure provides an overview of the phases to be completed.
Final considerations
This research was conceived to include the
opinion of the many audiences of the Museum
of Geosciences throughout the process. It
starts with the staff of the museum, building
their capacity to carry out a critical analysis of
the museum activities as well as of the others,
and thus be able to devise a museological plan
and organize exhibitions and activities to get
closer to society. As the Museum is a section
of an educational institution, it is going to hear
the opinion of its members (students,
professors, researchers and staff) on how they
use the museum and what they would want to
see in the museum; this information is going to
be used to create areas in the exhibition and to
devise the museological plan, as this internal
audience comprises prospect donors and
researchers. Finally, the impressions of the
external audience (individuals with no relation
with the Institute), who account for the largest
share of visitors, are going to be used to adjust
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the language of the prototypes and, indirectly,
reveal their knowledge of Geosciences, and
the contribution of visual language to teaching
Geosciences.
I believe that one of the main challenges in this
project will be the development of an
expography that meets the needs of the
students of the Institute and effectively
communicates a message to people who do
not have any technical knowledge of the area,
not only in relation to the selection of the
specimens to be exhibited, but also how to
exhibit them.
If the quantitative research reveals that
students use the Museum to study the features
of minerals and rocks that they have to identify
in field activities or in the mineralogy course, it
will be fundamental to have an exhibition that
shows a wide variety of a same type of mineral
or rock, which is not different from the current
exhibition.
Another issue derives from the fact that,
according to Frodeman (1995), geology has
the nature of a hermeneutic science. During
the undergraduate period, geologists learn how
to obtain information from the characteristics or
patterns of an outcrop. As a result, experts
usually see much more information in a
displayed specimen than non-academic
audiences. The idea of testing prototypes is
aimed at facing the challenge of filling this gap
in information. It is expected to find out and
use, as much as possible, the previous
knowledge of the external audience.
At the end of this research, which is currently
in the preliminary phase and is expected to
end in the beginning of 2015, I expect to
evaluate the adopted methodology and
problematize the working method for exhibition
design and organization in contemporary
museums.
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References
Cury, M.X. (1999). Exposio: Anlise metodolgica do processo de concepo, montagem e avaliao.
(Masters thesis). So Paulo, Brazil: Escola de Comunicao e Artes, Universidade de So Paulo.
Cury, M. X. (2005). Comunicao museolgica. Uma perspectiva terica e metodolgica de recepo. (Doctoral
dissertation). So Paulo, Brazil: Escola de Comunicaes e Artes, Universidade de So Paulo.
Cury, M. X. (2012a). Anlise de exposies antropolgicas: Subsdios para uma crtica. Anais do XIII Encontro
Nacional de Pesquisa em Cincias da Informao - A informao na sociedade em rede para a
inovao e o desenvolvimento humano, 1, 1-20.
Cury, M.X. (2012b). Museologia, comunicao museolgica e narrativa indgena: a experincia do Museu
Histrico e Pedaggico ndia Vanure. Museologia & Interdisciplinaridade, 1, 49-76.
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(October, 2005). Instituto Brasileiro
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Dunn, P.J., & Mandarino, J.A. (1987). Formal definitions of type mineral specimens. American Mineralogist, 72,
1269-1270.
Frodeman, R. (1995). Geological reasoning: Geology as an interpretive and historical science. Geological Society
of America Bulletin, 107, 8, 960-968.
Histrico (n.d.). Museu de Geocincias. Retrieved from http://www.igc.usp.br /museu/omuseu.htm.
Museum Definition. (1997). International Council of Museums. Retrieved from http://icom.museum/thevision/museum-definition/.
Kandinsky, W. (1997). Ponto e Linha sobre o Plano. So Paulo, Brazil: Martins Fontes.
Kofka, K. (1975). Princpios de Psicologia da Gestalt. So Paulo, Brazil: Ed. Cultrix.
Lopes, M.M. (1988). Museu: Uma Perspectiva de Educao em Geologia (Masters thesis). Campinas, Brazil:
Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Educao.
Meneses, U.T.B. de. (1994). Do teatro da memria ao laboratrio da histria a exposio museolgica e o
conhecimento histrico (fim). Anais do Museu Paulista, 3, 83-84.
Potapova, M.S. (1968). Geologia como uma cincia histrica da natureza. Terrae Didtica. Retrieved from
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Santaella, L. (1983). O que Semitica. So Paulo, Brazil: Ed. Brasiliense.
Serrell, B. (1996). Exhibit Labels: An Interpretative Approach. Walnut Creek, USA: Altamira Press.
Tozoni-Reis, M. F.C. (2007). A pesquisa ao participativa e a Educao Ambiental: uma parceria construda
pela identificao terica e metodolgica. In Tozoni-Reis, M.F.C. (Org.), A pesquisa-ao participativa
em educao ambiental: Reflexes tericas (pp.121-161). So Paulo, Brazil: Annablume.
Abstract
This article describes a study in progress into the expography of geoscience museums, particularly the
conditions for producing exhibitions on scientific themes that reach non-academic audiences. The locus
of this study is the Collection of Minerals and Rocks of the Institute of Geosciences, which runs the
geology and geosciences undergraduate and graduate programs of the University of So Paulo. This
Collection, built up since 1934 for hands-on mineralogy courses, was opened in the 1990s for public
visitation and is known as Museum of Geosciences. The profile of visitors has since changed, but not its
expography, which still adopts the academic terminology and classificatory rhetoric of geology. We
believe it leads to what Meneses (1994) describes as fetish for objects, mystifying them. To draw society
closer to this museum, we plan to adopt a participatory approach to design an exhibition that will also
include front-end, formative, summative and process evaluations, as proposed by Cury (1999). With this
research, we expect to discuss methodology in museums, particularly in expography processes of
scientific museums, and exhibition aspects analyzed in terms of communication, and problematize the
working method for exhibition design and organization in contemporary museums.
Key words: Geosciences and Museums. Expography. Museum and University
Resumen
Este artculo describe una investigacin en curso en el expografa de los museos de geociencias,
particularmente las condiciones para producir exposiciones sobre temas cientficos para un pblico no
acadmico. El locus es la Coleccin de Minerales y Rocas del Instituto de Geociencias de la Universidad
de So Paulo, que ofrece el grado y postgrado en geologa y geociencias. Esta coleccin, creada en
1934 para las clases practicas de mineraloga, est abierta desde la dcada de 1990 para la visitacin
pblica con el nombre Museo de Geociencias. El perfil del visitante ha cambiado, pero no su expografa,
que todava adopta la terminologa acadmica y la retrica de clasificacin de la geologa. Creemos que
esto conduce a lo que Meneses (1994) describe como fetiche de los objetos, mistificndolos. Para
aproximar el museo de la sociedad, planeamos adoptar un enfoque participativo para disear una
exposicin y hacer evaluaciones previa, formativa, sumativa y de proceso, segn lo propuesto por Cury
(1999). Como resultado, esperase discutir metodologa en museos, especialmente en los procesos de
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expografa de museos cientficos y los aspectos de la exposicin analizados desde la comunicacin, y
problematizar el mtodo de trabajo para el diseo y montaje de exposiciones en los museos
contemporneos.
Palabras clave: Geociencias y Museos. Expografa. Museo y Universidad
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Introduction
Les institutions musales ont connu au cours
des dernires dcennies une transformation en
profondeur des missions qui leur taient
confies. Plus autonomes, elles doivent
davantage se soucier de leur rentabilit tout en
participant au rayonnement conomique et
culturel des territoires o elles sont implantes
(Benhamou & Moureau, 2006). La loi de
janvier 2002 largit leurs missions, par-del la
conservation et linstruction, la prise en
compte du plaisir du public le plus large
(Poirrier, 2004).
Paralllement ces volutions, lapparition des
TIC est apparue comme une faon de concilier
les volonts dlargissement des publics et des
missions. Le dveloppement de ces outils sest
accompagn de discours la croise de
lhdonisme et de lducatif faisant de ces
dispositifs la fois des sources dexpriences
dimmersions ludiques mais aussi des moyens
dinstruire autrement de nouveaux publics.
Cette apparente panace reprsente par les
TIC a conduit au dveloppement de dispositifs
in situ (telles que les bornes interactives), en
dehors du muse (visites virtuelles, prsence
sur les rseaux sociaux) ou dobjets faisant le
lien entre le dedans et le dehors (QR code).
Ces
mdiations
apparaissent
comme
particulirement adaptes pour des jeunes
reprsents comme des Digital Natives par
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Les usages numriques des jeunes
dans les muses : enjeux pratiques et
thoriques
Quels sont les enjeux concernant les
jeunes dans les muses de Culture
Scientifique et Technique ?
Par-del la raffirmation de louverture des
muses tous les publics par la loi du 4
janvier 2002, le jeune public a toujours
bnfici d'un statut particulier et d'un intrt
marqu comme lillustrent les diffrents
rapports
ministriels
sur
la
Culture
Scientifique et Technique et ses lieux de
diffusion parus depuis les annes deux mille.
Les muses y sont considrs comme des
sources d'panouissement personnel, de
russite scolaire et d'intgration. Ils permettent
notamment de faire voir les sciences sous un
autre angle un ge propice la naissance de
centres dintrt pouvant conduire la
construction dune orientation professionnelle
dans un contexte de dsaffection des filires
scientifiques. Capter, sduire et fidliser ces
futurs citoyens, futurs adultes, futurs parents
reprsente un investissement pour l'avenir.
Des pistes varies pour adapter les
propositions musales au public jeune. Pour
mener bien ces missions, des efforts sont
raliss afin de faire des propositions
dexpositions ou dactions de mdiations
adaptes ce public des 15-25 ans. Dans
cette perspective, diffrentes actions sont
menes sur le tarif, la relation aux institutions
frquentes par les jeunes et ladaptation des
propositions musales aux gots supposs de
cette population.
Le tarif apparat ainsi comme une premire
variable daction pour favoriser laccs aux
muses. En effet, le prix pourrait tre un frein
pour des jeunes disposant de peu de
ressources et des tarifs prfrentiels sont
souvent proposs au niveau national (gratuit
pour les moins de 25 ans dans les muses
nationaux) et local sous la forme de
nombreuses cartes offrant des tarifications
avantageuses dans diverses municipalits.
Le lien avec les institutions notamment
scolaires ou universitaires constitue une autre
piste pour faire venir les jeunes au muse.
Par-del les diffrents efforts raliss afin
daccueillir des visites scolaires, certaines
initiatives plus originales peuvent tre
voques. Le Musum National d'Histoire
Naturelle travailla ainsi avec des lves de
l'cole nationale suprieure des arts dcoratifs
pour concevoir la mouche gante crase
prsente en introduction
Mouche en 2007.
de
l'exposition
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lments danalyse peuvent galement y tre
associs, permettant de connatre le nombre
dutilisations, le temps et le parcours effectu
par chaque visiteur au sein de linteractif.
Cependant, tant l'achat du matriel que les
cots de conception ou de maintenance
associs ainsi que
les besoins
de
comptences techniques sont de rels freins
pour des structures de taille moyenne et
induisent un accs ingal ces dispositifs.
Les grands tablissements scientifiques et
surtout les centres de Culture Scientifique et
Technique, moins en lien avec les collections,
utilisent avec force les interactifs, tentant des
dveloppements toujours plus novateurs. La
Cit des sciences (Universcience) propose
ainsi de nombreux interactifs au sein de ses
expositions, mlant techniques anciennes
adaptes et nouveauts technologiques.
Lexposition Lonard de Vinci (2012-2013)
proposait notamment le dispositif zooming
inter surface , une prsentation de donnes
plus proche de la non-linarit de Prezy que
de la faon de penser induite par PowerPoint.
Les informations en lien avec la vie et lhistoire
du personnage ponyme taient accessibles
via des bornes ou des tables multi-touch. Des
dispositifs de ralit augmente inspirs de la
technique du Pepper's ghost, technique
d'illusion d'optique thtrale, sintgraient alors
de manire valorisante dans le parcours.
Lexposition Epidemik , prsente la Cit
des sciences de 2008 2010, poussait quant
elle le principe de gamification son
maximum, les visiteurs se transformant en
pion, ou plutt en vecteur infectieux, invits
suivre diffrents scnarios permettant de
limiter la propagation de la maladie.
Les musums en rgion, tant soumis
dautres contraintes que ces institutions, se
contentent souvent de proposer une ou deux
de ces manips interactives au sein de leur
exposition. Par-del les difficults induites par
les cots et les comptences, ladaptation de
ces dispositifs aux publics dune part et leur
intgration dans la proposition musale dautre
part ne va pas de soi. Il est pourtant primordial
de faire le bon choix tant sur la forme que sur
le contenu et d'tre sr de l'impact rel sur le
public des 15-25 ans. Le Musum d'histoire
naturelle de Lille a ainsi install au centre
d'une unit ddie la gologie une table
interactive permettant chacun de composer
son propre minral partir d'atomes qu'il faut
assembler. Il a travaill avec lquipe du
laboratoire GERiiCO de lUniversit de Lille 3
pour valuer ce dispositif aprs son installation
dans le parcours. Certains tablissements
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418
Merckl & Octobre, 2012). Ces travaux
laissent alors entrevoir une bien plus grande
htrognit des pratiques que celle postule
par Prensky, et plus particulirement
l'existence de non-usagers comme de styles
d'usages disqualifiant socialement des TIC.
Ds lors, il sagit plutt d'analyser les pratiques
des jeunes assimils des Digital Natives en
cho aux travaux concernant la construction
des pratiques culturelles juvniles (e.g. Lahire,
2005). Ceux-ci indiquent l'influence du
patrimoine de dispositions des individus sur
leurs pratiques, ainsi que du rle jou par les
contextes sociaux sur lacquisition et
lexpression
de
ces
dispositions.
La
construction identitaire des jeunes et de leurs
pratiques y est au centre de socialisations
concurrentes dont les crans ne fournissent
qu'un des contextes et un des espaces
relationnels (Garcia-Bardidia et al., 2014).
Lanalyse doit donc prendre en compte une
htrognit, voire une dissonance, de
modes de consommation pour un mme
individu pouvant autant concerner les muses
que les TIC. De surcrot, une entre par les
pratiques juvniles invite ne pas assimiler
trop rapidement pratiques et gots, et donc
limiter les premires leur partie considre
par les acteurs comme la plus constitutive de
leur identit car la plus valorisante socialement
(Lahire, 2009). En complment, doivent tre
intgres des pratiques sous contraintes plus
ou moins fortes (scolaires, professionnelles),
habituelles mais effectues sans got
particulier,
ironiques
et
distancies,
dpendantes de circonstances exceptionnelles
(vacances, ftes...), accompagnes plus ou
moins par obligation, etc. En ce sens, les
valeurs vhicules par les discours sur les
Digital Natives, et plus largement sur les
bienfaits de l'internet, doivent tre confrontes
aux
pratiques
juvniles
afin
d'tre
dnaturalises.
Etendre les rles des interactifs pris en compte
lors de lexprience de visite musale. Ces
questions font cho la manire dont les
recherches
en
comportement
du
consommateur traitent de la consommation
musale et du rle que peuvent y jouer les
TIC. En effet, de nombreuses recherches ont
t menes dans ce champ partir dune
perspective exprientielle (e.g. Debenedetti,
2003 ; Bourgeon-Renault, 2010 ; Puhl &
Mencarelli, 2010). Cette approche considre le
consommateur/visiteur comme tant en qute
dexpriences hdoniques et symboliques.
Rcemment, ces travaux se sont intresss
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419
attirer un jeune public (Courvoisier & Jaquet,
2010).
Mthodologie
L'tude prsente ici dcoule d'une volont
partage du Musum-Aquarium de Nancy et
des chercheurs de l'Universit de Lorraine de
coproduire une recherche rpondant ces
enjeux. La mthode dcrite ici sinscrit dans
une dmarche de ce type, les diffrentes
phases ayant fait lobjet d'allers-retours
rguliers entre les parties prenantes dans le
souci de concilier la fois une forme de
proximit et de distance avec l'objet d'tude.
Dans un premier temps, la double volont de
comprendre les facteurs structurant la mise en
place des TIC dans les muses et de
dconstruire la reprsentation des jeunes
comme Digital Natives nous a conduits
raliser 29 entretiens semi-directifs. La collecte
a t ralise auprs de 21 supposs Digital
Natives gs de 13 25 ans, appartenant au
public potentiel ou rel du MAN, se
caractrisant par des rapports dclars
htrognes aux TIC (matrise, got pour ces
outils) et aux muses (frquentation, type de
muse...). La grille d'entretien tait structure
autour de trois thmes principaux : le rapport
aux muses, le rapport aux TIC et le rapport
aux TIC dans les muses.
Suite cette premire collecte de donnes,
huit entretiens ont t raliss avec des
personnes travaillant au Musum-Aquarium de
Nancy. Afin de saisir le plus globalement
possible les reprsentations ainsi que le
fonctionnement de l'institution, nous avons
souhait communiquer avec des personnes
occupant des postes diffrents. Ceci nous a
conduits interviewer trois membres de
l'quipe de direction en charge des publics,
trois mdiateurs et deux membres de l'quipe
participant directement la scnographie. La
grille d'entretien utilise tait construite autour
des thmes suivants : les missions et tches
effectues
par
les
professionnels,
la
reprsentation des jeunes (en gnral, au
muse et vis--vis des TIC), la construction
des outils de mdiation et l'intrt des TIC
dans les muses notamment vis--vis des
jeunes.
Ces entretiens ont fait l'objet d'un codage
ouvert intra-entretien autour de thmes
mergents lis aux usages des TIC et des
muses chez les jeunes rpondants, ainsi qu
la prise en compte de ces pratiques par les
Rsultats
Les jeunes et les TIC dans les muses :
entre valeurs strotypes et variations en
contexte
Les entretiens raliss tant avec les
professionnels quavec les jeunes illustrent la
large diffusion des TIC auprs du public jeune.
La large palette de fonctionnalits associes
ces outils numriques les rend omniprsents
chez la plupart des jeunes rpondants.
Moi je suis accro au portable dj, a
cest clair. Aprs, dans mon boulot, dans
ce que je fais en ce moment en
alternance, je suis toujours devant un
ordi, jutilise aussi le numrique, lordi
[] quand jai rien faire ou que je suis
chez moi, je suis toujours dessus : parler
avec des gens, savoir ce qui se passe
autour de moi sans tre avec les
personnes. Mais sinon ouais cest plus
quand je suis chez moi ou en ville, au
boulot, lcole. (tudiante, 22 ans)
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420
une autre, et ont la fois des usages
associs au travail ou aux tudes mais aussi
ludiques ou pratiques. Le temps semble alors
fractionn en micro-espaces sur les outils :
En cours jai lordi douvert, je prends
mes notes dessus Quand je mennuie
un peu, je check un peu Facebook, je vais
sur le site de lEquipe ou je chatte avec
dautres gens Des fois, jaime bien aussi
vrifier ce que dit le prof sur google
(tudiant, 22 ans)
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421
Pour moi un muse a reste un muse
dart [] Jy vais ds que jai un moment
de libre [] Mes cours dhistoire de lart,
a a chang mon regard sur les uvres
[] Sur Tweeter cest juste gnial, ils
vont te dire aujourdhui il y a telle salle
qui est ferme pour restauration, oubliez
pas il y a lexpo qui finit la semaine
prochaine (cadre, 24 ans)
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422
mmes difficults en termes de moyens. En
labsence de relles comptences en la
matire, les pratiques de communication
semblent par exemple plus faciles mettre en
place grce des stagiaires, alors que les
dispositifs numriques supposent souvent une
sous-traitance coteuse et risque en termes
de maintenance.
Ces problmes sont par ailleurs renforcs par
un risque associ dobsolescence perue des
dispositifs, aggrav par le sentiment que
limportance de linvestissement oblige
conserver un dispositif mme peu performant
et que la faiblesse des moyens entrane des
choix de prestataires moins adapts. De fait, il
semble plus difficile ici de sassurer dune
image plus jeune peu de frais.
De la mme manire, ces deux pratiques ne
sinsrent pas de la mme manire dans la
mdiation musale existante. Toutes deux
peuvent participer dune meilleure transmission
dun savoir, dun renforcement de lexprience
musale et de la volont dattirer le jeune
public. Il sagit dans une certaine mesure
daligner les valeurs associes aux Digital
Natives aux pratiques du MAN pour favoriser
linclusion et lappropriation de lespace
musal.
Cest pas parce que tes jeune que tes
forcment hyper-connect daccord, mais
quand mme, pour certains enfin
certains vont tre rassurs dans le sens o
ils vont voir des choses quils connaissent.
Ils connaissent peut-tre pas le muse
mais ils connaissent ces objets-l, ces
interactivits. Et de les voir dans le muse,
a va aussi permettre de les rapprocher
dun univers quils connaissent et de faire
quils se sentiront plus laise dans le
muse. (direction 2)
Jai pens leur mettre porte de main
un tlphone, une tablette ou quoi que ce
soit o tu peux faire des trucs simples o
tas tout bloqu et tu peux faire que des
photos, et leur dire Vas-y, fais-toi plaisir
et visite le muse avec a. [Leur] dire
Approprie-toi lexposition autrement.
Dans la galerie de zoologie, tu te fais
plaisir, tu prends toutes tes photos, aprs
on te les envoie par mail ou aprs mme
les gamins je pense limite ils sen fichent
de les avoir les photos, cest plus le fait de
les prendre, dun moment donn se poser
et de rigoler en prenant la girafe de travers.
Ca peut tre une autre faon de faire de la
mdiation aussi. Alors on pourrait faire a
en phase test, cest--dire acheter trois
tablettes et voir ce que a donne avec
certains groupes. (direction 2)
plus
facilement
des
contenus
jugs
intressants notamment sous la forme de
web-documents la mise en place de
mdiations
interactives
se
heurte
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423
mdiations au sein dune quipe de vacataires
parfois fluctuante.
Conclusion
Au final, la premire phase de ce travail de
recherche fait ressortir diffrentes pistes de
rflexion sur les possibilits ouvertes par le
numrique dans les muses partir du cas du
MAN. Dans un premier temps, les entretiens
raliss avec de jeunes visiteurs potentiels
mettent en vidence limportance des valeurs
accordes aux TIC et leur adquation avec
des prises quils offriraient dans les muses. Ils
indiquent cependant lintrt de ne pas
considrer ces discours comme signes de
pratiques homognes et rappellent quel point
les socialisations pralables aux institutions
culturelles et aux TIC en faonnent les usages
possibles. De la mme manire, les entretiens
raliss avec les professionnels de cette
institution
clairent
les
logiques
organisationnelles facilitant ou non la mise en
place de dispositifs numriques pour appuyer
la mdiation musale sous toutes ses formes.
Le dcouplage entre action sur le site et
actions de communication externe est alors
intressant en ce quil dvoile une partie des
enjeux sous-jacents de ces pratiques.
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Rsum
Les jeunes sont souvent reprsents comme peu intresss par les muses et pourtant comme un
public important pour ces institutions. De surcrot, les visiteurs ns aprs 1980 seraient des Digital
Natives (Prensky, 2001) dont le rapport au monde aurait t construit par imprgnation des
caractristiques des diffrents crans au milieu desquels ils auraient grandi. L'intgration de l'interactivit
dans les muses apparat donc comme une condition ncessaire pour rendre ces espaces conformes
aux attentes des jeunes. Aprs un rappel des enjeux pratiques et thoriques ouverts par cette injonction,
nous prsenterons les rsultats dune tude qualitative confrontant les discours des jeunes en matire
de muses et de TIC et les discours des professionnels du Musum-Aquarium de Nancy sur leurs
pratiques face eux. Ceux-ci nous conduiront relativiser le concept de Digital Native et proposer des
voies alternatives pour envisager linteractivit dans les muses.
Mots cl : Digital Natives, Technologies de lInformation et de la Communication (TIC), interactivit,
mdiation musale
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425
Abstract
Communication and Information Technologies for Digital Natives? Re-examining a summons in
the case of a Centre for Science and Technology
Young people are usually represented as scarcely interested by museums and at the same time as an
important target for these institutions. Moreover they are supposed to belong to the Digital Natives
generation, according to the specific skills and taste for Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT) they have developed since childhood. Thus, creating mediations with ICT appears to be a
compulsory way to attract Youth in museums. We will question this representation in this paper through
qualitative research carried out with supposed Digital Natives and with professionals from a natural
history museum. Analysis and interpretation of their interviews lead us to deconstruct the concept of
Digital Native and help give hints on how ICT can be used efficiently in museums.
Key words: Digital Natives, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), interactivity, museum
mediation
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