The Galaxy School

Biology Department

Applications and Skills for year 2016

Topic 1.1
Applications and skills:
Application: Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including
striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.
Application: Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium and one named
photosynthetic unicellular organism.
Application: Use of stem cells to treat Stargardts disease and one other
named condition.
Application: Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created
embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby and from an
adults own tissues.
Skill: Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and
tissues, with drawing of cells. Calculation of the magnification of drawings
and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or
micrograph (Practical 1)

Topic 1.2
Applications and skills:
Application: Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells
of the pancreas and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
Application: Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
Skill: Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron
micrographs.
Skill: Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron
micrographs.
Skill: Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and
deduce the function of specialized cells.

Topic 1.3
Applications and skills:
Application: Cholesterol in mammalian membranes reduces membrane
fluidity and permeability to some solutes.
Skill: Drawing of the fluid mosaic model.
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 Skill: Analysis of evidence from electron microscopy that led to the proposal
of the Davson-Danielli model.
Skill: Analysis of the falsification of the Davson-Danielli model that led to the
Singer-Nicolson model.

Topic 1.4
Applications and skills:
Application: Structure and function of sodiumpotassium pumps for active
transport and potassium channels for facilitated diffusion in axons.
Application: Tissues or organs to be used in medical procedures must be
bathed in a solution with the same osmolarity as the cytoplasm to prevent
osmosis.
Skill: Estimation of osmolarity in tissues by bathing samples in hypotonic and
hypertonic solutions. (Practical 2)
Aims:
Aim 8: Organ donation raises some interesting ethical issues, including the
altruistic nature of organ donation and concerns about sale of human organs.
Aim 6: Dialysis tubing experiments can act as a model of membrane action.
Experiments with potato, beetroot or single-celled algae can be used to
investigate real membranes

Topic 1.5
Applications and skills:
Application: Evidence from Pasteurs experiments that spontaneous
generation of cells and organisms does not now occur on Earth
Aim 6: Pasteurs experiment can be repeated using modern apparatus

Topic 1.6
Applications and skills:
Application: The correlation between smoking and incidence of cancers.
Skill: Identification of phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a microscope or in
a micrograph.
Skill: Determination of a mitotic index from a micrograph.
Aim 8: The tobacco industry could be discussed. Suppression of the results
of research by tobacco companies into the health effects of smoking tobacco
was unethical. Smoking causes considerable social harm, but, with the
exception of laws on production and supply in Bhutan, has never been made
illegal
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Topic 2.1
Applications and skills:
Application: Urea as an example of a compound that is produced by living
organisms but can also be artificially synthesized.
Skill: Drawing molecular diagrams of glucose, ribose, a saturated fatty acid
and a generalized amino acid.
Skill: Identification of biochemicals such as sugars, lipids or amino acids from
molecular diagrams
Aim 7: ICT can be used for molecular visualization of carbohydrates, lipids
and proteins in this sub-topic and in 2.3 and 2.4.
Aim 6: Food tests such as the use of iodine to identify starch or Benedicts
reagent to identify reducing sugars could be carried out.

Topic 2.2
Applications and skills:
Application: Comparison of the thermal properties of water with those of
methane.
Application: Use of water as a coolant in sweat.
Application: Modes of transport of glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, fats,
oxygen and sodium chloride in blood in relation to their solubility in water.
Aim 6: Probes can be used to determine the effect of different factors likely
to influence cooling with water.

Topic 2.3
Applications and skills:
Application: Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and
glycogen in humans.
Application: Scientific evidence for health risks of trans fats and saturated
fatty acids.
Application: Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans
than carbohydrates.
Application: Evaluation of evidence and the methods used to obtain the
evidence for health claims made about lipids.
Skill: Use of molecular visualization software to compare cellulose, starch and
glycogen.
Skill: Determination of body mass index by calculation or use of a nomogram
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Aim 8: There are social implications of obesity

Topic 2.4
Applications and skills:
Application: Rubisco, insulin, immunoglobulins, rhodopsin, collagen and
spider silk as examples of the range of protein functions.
Application: Denaturation of proteins by heat or by deviation of pH from the
optimum.
Skill: Drawing molecular diagrams to show the formation of a peptide bond.
Aim 7: ICT can be used for molecular visualization of the structure of
proteins.
Aim 8: Obtaining samples of human blood for immunological,
pharmaceutical and anthropological studies is an international endeavour
with many ethical issues.

Topic 2.5
Applications and skills:
Application: Methods of production of lactose-free milk and its advantages.
Skill: Design of experiments to test the effect of temperature, pH and
substrate concentration on the activity of enzymes.
Skill: Experimental investigation of a factor affecting enzyme activity.
(Practical 3)
Utilization:
Enzymes are extensively used in industry for the production of items from
fruit juice to washing powder.

Topic 2.6
Applications and skills:
Application: Crick and Watsons elucidation of the structure of DNA using
model making.
Skill: Drawing simple diagrams of the structure of single nucleotides of DNA
and RNA, using circles, pentagons and rectangles to represent phosphates,
pentoses and bases

Topic 2.7
Applications and skills:
Application: Use of Taq DNA polymerase to produce multiple copies of DNA
rapidly by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Application: Production of human insulin in bacteria as an example of the
universality of the genetic code allowing gene transfer between species.
Skill: Use a table of the genetic code to deduce which codon(s) corresponds
to which amino acid.
Aim 8: There are ethical implications in altering the genome of an organism
in order to produce proteins for medical use in humans.

Topic 2.8
Applications and skills:
Application: Use of anaerobic cell respiration in yeasts to produce ethanol
and carbon dioxide in baking.
Application: Lactate production in humans when anaerobic respiration is
used to maximize the power of muscle contractions.
Skill: Analysis of results from experiments involving measurement of
respiration rates in germinating seeds or invertebrates using a respirometer.
Aim 8: The ethics of the use of animals in experiments could be discussed
in relation to respirometer experiments. Large-scale use of food plants for
biofuels and the resulting impact on food prices has ethical implications.

Topic 2.9
Applications and skills:
Application: Changes to the Earths atmosphere, oceans and rock deposition
due to photosynthesis.
Skill: Drawing an absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and an action
spectrum for photosynthesis.
Skill: Design of experiments to investigate the effect of limiting factors on
photosynthesis.
Skill: Separation of photosynthetic pigments by chromatograph. (Practical 4)

Topic 3.1
Applications and skills:
Application: The causes of sickle cell anemia, including a base substitution
mutation, a change to the base sequence of mRNA transcribed from it and a
change to the sequence of a polypeptide in hemoglobin.
Application: Comparison of the number of genes in humans with other
species.
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 Skill: Use of a database to determine differences in the base sequence of a

gene in two species.
Aim 7: The use of a database to compare DNA base sequences.
Aim 8: Ethics of patenting human genes

Topic 3.2
Applications and skills:
Application: Cairns technique for measuring the length of DNA molecules by
autoradiography.
Application: Comparison of genome size in T2 phage, Escherichia coli,
Drosophila melanogaster, Homo sapiens and Paris japonica.
Application: Comparison of diploid chromosome numbers of Homo sapiens,
Pan troglodytes, Canis familiaris, Oryza sativa, Parascaris equorum.
Application: Use of karyograms to deduce sex and diagnose Down syndrome
in humans.
Skill: Use of databases to identify the locus of a human gene and its
polypeptide product
Aim 6: Staining root tip squashes and microscope examination of
chromosomes is recommended but not obligatory.
Aim 7: Use of databases to identify gene loci and protein products of genes.

Topic 3.3
Applications and skills:
Application: Non-disjunction can cause Down syndrome and other
chromosome abnormalities.
Application: Studies showing age of parents influences chances of nondisjunction.
Application: Description of methods used to obtain cells for karyotype
analysis e.g. chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis and the associated
risks.
Skill: Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resulting in the
formation of four haploid cells.
Aim 8: Pre-natal screening for chromosome abnormalities gives an indication
of the sex of the fetus and raises ethical issues over selective abortion of
female fetuses in some countries

Topic 3.4.
Applications and skills:
Application: Inheritance of ABO blood groups.
Application: Red-green colour blindness and hemophilia as examples of sexlinked
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inheritance.
Application: Inheritance of cystic fibrosis and Huntingtons disease.
Application: Consequences of radiation after nuclear bombing of Hiroshima
and accident at Chernobyl.
Skill: Construction of Punnett grids for predicting the outcomes of
monohybrid genetic crosses.
Skill: Comparison of predicted and actual outcomes of genetic crosses using
real data.
Skill: Analysis of pedigree charts to deduce the pattern of inheritance of
genetic diseases

Topic 3.5
Applications and skills:
Application: Use of DNA profiling in paternity and forensic investigations.
Application: Gene transfer to bacteria using plasmids makes use of restriction
endonucleases and DNA ligase.
Application: Assessment of the potential risks and benefits associated with
genetic modification of crops.
Application: Production of cloned embryos produced by somatic-cell nuclear
Transfer
Skill: Design of an experiment to assess one factor affecting the rooting of
stem-cuttings.
Skill: Analysis of examples of DNA profiles.
Skill: Analysis of data on risks to monarch butterflies of Bt crops.
Aim 6: The design of a rooting experiment should ideally lead to the
experiment actually being carried out by students.
Aim 8: The ethics of genetic modification could be discussed.
Aim 8: Social implications of diagnosis of mutations, including the effects on
the family and stigmatization.

Topic 4.1
Applications and skills:
Skill: Classifying species as autotrophs, consumers, detritivores or saprotrophs from a
knowledge of their mode of nutrition.
Skill: Setting up sealed mesocosms to try to establish sustainability. (Practical 5)
Skill: Testing for association between two species using the chi-squared test with data
obtained by quadrat sampling.
Skill: Recognizing and interpreting statistical significance
Aim 6: It would be best for students to obtain data for the chi-squared test themselves, to give
first-hand experience of field work techniques.
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Topic 4.2
Applications and skills:
Skill: Quantitative representations of energy flow using pyramids of energy.

Topic 4.3
Applications and skills:
Application: Estimation of carbon fluxes due to processes in the carbon cycle.
Application: Analysis of data from air monitoring stations to explain annual fluctuations.
Skill: Construct a diagram of the carbon cycle.
Aim 8: The ethical implications of diverting crops such as maize from a food to a fuel crop could
be considered.
Applications and skills:
Application: Threats to coral reefs from increasing concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide.
Application: Correlations between global temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations on
Earth.
Application: Evaluating claims that human activities are not causing climate change.
http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/explore/jmol.do?structureId=1AOI&bionumber=1
Aims:
Aim 7: Databases can be used to analyse concentrations of greenhouse gases.
Aim 8: There are interesting parallels between humans that are unwilling to reduce their
carbon footprint and cheating in social animals. When the level of cheating rises above a certain
level, social behavior breaks down.

Topic 5.1
Applications and skills:
Application: Development of melanistic insects in polluted areas.
Application: Comparison of the pentadactyl limb of mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles
with different methods of locomotion.

Topic 5.2
Applications and skills:
Application: Changes in beaks of finches on Daphne Major.
Application: Evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

Topic 5.3
Applications and skills:
Application: Classification of one plant and one animal species from domain to species level.
Application: Recognition features of bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and
angiospermophyta
Application: Recognition features of porifera, cnidaria, platylhelmintha, annelida, mollusca,
arthropoda and chordata.
Application: Recognition of features of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish.
Skill: Construction of dichotomous keys for use in identifying specimens.

Topic 5.4 Cladistics

Applications and skills:
Application: Cladograms including humans and other primates.
Application: Reclassification of the figwort family using evidence from cladistics.
Skill: Analysis of cladograms to deduce evolutionary relationships

Topic 6.1 Digestion and absorption

Applications and skills:
Application: Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch
and transport of the products of digestion to the liver.
Application: Use of dialysis tubing to model absorption of digested food in the intestine.
Skill: Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system.
Skill: Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a
microscope or in a micrograph.
Utilization:
Some hydrolytic enzymes have economic importance, for example amylase in production of
sugars from starch and in the brewing of beer.

Topic 6.2 The blood system

Applications and skills:
Application: William Harveys discovery of the circulation of the blood with the heart acting as
the pump.
Application: Pressure changes in the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta during the cardiac
cycle.
Application: Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries.
Skill: Identification of blood vessels as arteries, capillaries or veins from the
structure of their walls.
Skill: Recognition of the chambers and valves of the heart and the blood
vessels connected to it in dissected hearts or in diagrams of heart structure.

Topic 6.3 Defense against infectious disease

Applications and skills:
Application: Causes and consequences of blood clot formation in coronary
arteries.
Application: Florey and Chains experiments to test penicillin on bacterial
infections in mice.
Application: Effects of HIV on the immune system and methods of
transmission.
Utilization:
An understanding of immunity has led to the development of vaccinations
Aims:
Aim 8: The social as well as the economic benefits of the control of bacterial
diseases around the world should be stressed.
Aim 9: Science has limited means in the fight against pathogens, as shown by
the spread of new diseases and antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Topic 6.4 Gas exchange

Applications and skills:
Application: Causes and consequences of lung cancer.
Application: Causes and consequences of emphysema.
Application: External and internal intercostal muscles, and diaphragm and
abdominal muscles as examples of antagonistic muscle action.
Skill: Monitoring of ventilation in humans at rest and after mild and vigorous
exercise. (Practical 6)
Guidance:
Ventilation can either be monitored by simple observation and simple
apparatus or by data logging with a spirometer or chest belt and pressure
meter. Ventilation rate and tidal volume should be measured, but the terms
vital capacity and residual volume are not expected.
Students should be able to draw a diagram to show the structure of an
alveolus and an adjacent capillary
Essential idea: Neurons transmit the message, synapses modulate the message.

Topic 6.5 Neurons and synapses

Applications and skills:
Application: Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine by neurons at synapses.
Application: Blocking of synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in
insects by binding of neonicotinoid pesticides to acetylcholine receptors.
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 Skill: Analysis of oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials
Utilization:
An understanding of the workings of neurotransmitters and synapses has led to the
development of numerous pharmaceuticals for the treatment of mental disorders
Aim 8: The social effects of the abuse of psychoactive drugs could be
considered, as could the use of the neurotoxin Botox for cosmetic treatments.

Topic 6.6 Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction

Applications and skills:
Application: Causes and treatment of Type I and Type II diabetes.
Application: Testing of leptin on patients with clinical obesity and reasons for the failure to
control the disease.
Application: Causes of jet lag and use of melatonin to alleviate it.
Application: The use in IVF of drugs to suspend the normal secretion of hormones, followed
by the use of artificial doses of hormones to induce superovulation and establish a pregnancy.
Application: William Harveys investigation of sexual reproduction in deer.
Skill: Annotate diagrams of the male and female reproductive system to show names of
structures and their functions.
Utilization:
Hormones are used in a variety of therapies such as replacement therapies
Aims:
Aim 8: Scientists are aware that the drugs women take in fertility treatment pose potential risks
to health. Should scientific knowledge override compassionate considerations in treating
infertile couples?
Additional higher level

Topic 7.1 DNA structure and replication

Applications and skills:
Application: Rosalind Franklins and Maurice Wilkins investigation of DNA
structure by X-ray diffraction.
Application: Use of nucleotides containing dideoxyribonucleic acid to stop
DNA replication in preparation of samples for base sequencing.
Application: Tandem repeats are used in DNA profiling.
Skill: Analysis of results of the Hershey and Chase experiment providing
evidence that DNA is the genetic material.
Skill: Utilization of molecular visualization software to analyse the association
between protein and DNA within a nucleosome
Aim 6: Students could design models to illustrate the stages of DNA
replication.

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Topic 7.2 Transcription and gene expression

Application and skills:
Application: The promoter as an example of non-coding DNA with a function.
Skill: Analysis of changes in the DNA methylation patterns.

Topic 7.3 Translation

Application and skills:
Application: tRNA-activating enzymes illustrate enzymesubstrate specificity
and the role of phosphorylation.
Skill: Identification of polysomes in electron micrographs of prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Skill: The use of molecular visualization software to analyse the structure of eukaryotic
ribosomes and a tRNA molecule.

Topic 8: Metabolism, cell respiration and photosynthesis

Topic 8.1 Metabolism
Applications and skills:
Application: End-product inhibition of the pathway that converts threonine to isoleucine.
Application: Use of databases to identify potential new anti-malarial drugs.
Skill: Calculating and plotting rates of reaction from raw experimental results.
Skill: Distinguishing different types of inhibition from graphs at specified substrate
concentration
Guidance:
Enzyme inhibition should be studied using one specific example for competitive and noncompetitive inhibition
Utilization:
Many enzyme inhibitors have been used in medicine. For example ethanol has been used to
act as a competitive inhibitor for antifreeze poisoning.
Fomepizole, which is an inhibitor of alcohol dehydrogenase, has also been used for antifreeze
poisoning.

Topic 8.2 Cell respiration

Applications and skills:
Application: Electron tomography used to produce images of active
mitochondria.
Skill: Analysis of diagrams of the pathways of aerobic respiration to deduce
where decarboxylation and oxidation reactions occur.
Skill: Annotation of a diagram of a mitochondrion to indicate the adaptations to its function.

Topic 8.3 Photosynthesis

Applications and skills:
Application: Calvins experiment to elucidate the carboxylation of RuBP.
Skill: Annotation of a diagram to indicate the adaptations of a chloroplast to its function.
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Aim 6: Hill/s method demonstrating electron transfer in chloroplasts by observing DCPIP

reduction, immobilization of a culture of an alga such as Scenedesmus in alginate beads and
measurement of the rate of photosynthesis by monitoring their effect on hydrogen carbonate
indicator are all possible experiments.

Topic 9: Plant biology

Topic 9.1 Transport in the xylem of plants
Applications and skills:
Application: Adaptations of plants in deserts and in saline soils for water conservation.
Application: Models of water transport in xylem using simple apparatus including blotting or
filter paper, porous pots and capillary tubing.
Skill: Drawing the structure of primary xylem vessels in sections of stems based on microscope
images.
Skill: Measurement of transpiration rates using potometers. (Practical 7)
Skill: Design of an experiment to test hypotheses about the effect of temperature or humidity
on transpiration rates.
Aims:
Aim 7: The introduction of image processing software and digital microscopes increases
further the ability to gather more data to ensure reliability.
Aim 6: Measurement of stomatal apertures and the distribution of stomata using leaf casts,
including replicate measurements to enhance reliability, are possible experiments

Topic 9.2 Transport in the phloem of plants

Applications and skills:
Application: Structurefunction relationships of phloem sieve tubes.
Skill: Identification of xylem and phloem in microscope images of stem and root.
Skill: Analysis of data from experiments measuring phloem transport rates using aphid stylets
and radioactively-labeled carbon dioxide.

Topic 9.3 Growth in plants

Applications and skills:
Application: Micropropagation of plants using tissue from the shoot apex, nutrient agar gels
and growth hormones.
Application: Use of micropropagation for rapid bulking up of new varieties, production of
virus-free strains of existing varieties and propagation of orchids and other rare species.
Utilization:
Micropropagation is used for rapid bulking up of new varieties of plant
Aims:
Aim 6: Investigations into tropisms could be carried out.

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Topic 9.4 Reproduction in plants

Applications and skills:
Application: Methods used to induce short-day plants to flower out of season.
Skill: Drawing internal structure of seeds.
Skill: Drawing of half-views of animal-pollinated flowers.
Skill: Design of experiments to test hypotheses about factors affecting germination.

Topic 10: Genetics and evolution

Topic 10.1 Meiosis
Applications and skills:
Skill: Drawing diagrams to show chiasmata formed by crossing over.
Aims:
Aim 6: Staining of lily anthers or other tissue containing germ-line cells and microscope
examination to observe cells in meiosis are possible activities

Topic 10.2 Inheritance

Applications and skills:
Application: Morgans discovery of non-Mendelian ratios in Drosophila.
Application: Completion and analysis of Punnett squares for dihybrid traits.
Application: Polygenic traits such as human height may also be influenced by environmental
factors.
Skill: Calculation of the predicted genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid
crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes.
Skill: Identification of recombinants in crosses involving two linked genes.
Skill: Use of a chi-squared test on data from dihybrid crosses.
Aims:
Aim 4: Use analytical skills to solve genetic crosses.
Aim 8: Ethical issues arise in the prevention of the inheritance of genetic disorders.

Topic 10.3 Gene pools and speciation

Applications and skills:
Application: Identifying examples of directional, stabilizing and disruptive selection.
Application: Speciation in the genus Allium by polyploidy.
Skill: Comparison of allele frequencies of geographically isolated populations.
Utilization:
Many crop species have been created to be polyploid. Polyploidy increases allelic diversity
and permits novel phenotypes to be generated. It also leads to hybrid vigour

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Topic 11: Animal physiology

Topic 11.1 Antibody production and vaccination
Applications and skills:
Application: Smallpox was the first infectious disease of humans to have been eradicated by
vaccination.
Application: Monoclonal antibodies to HCG are used in pregnancy test kits.
Application: Antigens on the surface of red blood cells stimulate antibody production in a
person with a different blood group.
Skill: Analysis of epidemiological data related to vaccination programmes
Aims:
Aim 7: Use of databases to analyse epidemiological data

Topic 11.2 Movement

Applications and skills:
Application: Antagonistic pairs of muscles in an insect leg.
Skill: Annotation of a diagram of the human elbow.
Skill: Drawing labelled diagrams of the structure of a sarcomere.
Skill: Analysis of electron micrographs to find the state of contraction of muscle fibres.
Aims:
Aim 7: Use of grip strength data loggers to assess muscle fatigue.
Aim 7: Use of animations to visualize contraction.
Guidance:
Elbow diagram should include cartilage, synovial fluid, joint capsule, named bones and named
antagonistic muscles.
Drawing labelled diagrams of the structure of a sarcomere should include Z lines, actin
filaments, myosin filaments with heads, and the resultant light and dark bands.
Measurement of the length of sarcomeres will require calibration of the eyepiece scale of the
microscope.

Topic 11.3 The kidney and osmoregulation

Applications and skills:
Application: Consequences of dehydration and overhydration.
Application: Treatment of kidney failure by hemodialysis or kidney transplant.
Application: Blood cells, glucose, proteins and drugs are detected in urinary tests.
Skill: Drawing and labelling a diagram of the human kidney.
Skill: Annotation of diagrams of the nephron.
Guidance:
ADH will be used in preference to vasopressin.
The diagram of the nephron should include glomerulus, Bowmans capsule, proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule; the relationship between the
nephron and the collecting duct should be included.
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Topic 11.4 Sexual reproduction

Applications and skills:
Application: The average 38-week pregnancy in humans can be positioned on a graph
showing the correlation between animal size and the development of the young at birth for
other mammals.
Skill: Annotation of diagrams of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages of
gametogenesis.
Skill: Annotation of diagrams of mature sperm and egg to indicate functions.

Option C: Ecology and conservation

C.1 Species and communities
Applications and skills:
Application: Distribution of one animal and one plant species to illustrate limits of tolerance
and zones of stress.
Application: Local examples to illustrate the range of ways in which species can interact within
a community.
Application: The symbiotic relationship between Zooxanthellae and reef-building coral reef
species.
Skill: Analysis of a data set that illustrates the distinction between fundamental and realized
niche.
Skill: Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or animal species with an abiotic
variable.
Aims:
Aim 6: Factors influencing herbivory could be investigated

C.2 Communities and ecosystems

Applications and skills:
Application: Conversion ratio in sustainable food production practices.
Application: Consideration of one example of how humans interfere with nutrient cycling.
Skill: Comparison of pyramids of energy from different ecosystems.
Skill: Analysis of a climograph showing the relationship between temperature, rainfall and the
type of ecosystem.
Skill: Construction of Gersmehl diagrams to show the inter-relationships between nutrient
stores and flows between taiga, desert and tropical rainforest.
Skill: Analysis of data showing primary succession.
Skill: Investigation into the effect of an environmental disturbance on an ecosystem.

C.3 Impacts of humans on ecosystems

Applications and skills:

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 Application: Study of the introduction of cane toads in Australia and one other local example
of the introduction of an alien species.
Application: Discussion of the trade-off between control of the malarial parasite and DDT
pollution.
Application: Case study of the impact of marine plastic debris on Laysan albatrosses and one
other named species.
Skill: Analysis of data illustrating the causes and consequences of biomagnification.
Skill: Evaluation of eradication programmes and biological control as measures to reduce the
impact of alien species.

C.4 Conservation of biodiversity

Applications and skills:
Application: Case study of the captive breeding and reintroduction of an endangered animal
species.
Application: Analysis of the impact of biogeographic factors on diversity limited to island size
and edge effects.
Skill: Analysis of the biodiversity of two local communities using Simpsons reciprocal index of
diversity.
Aim 8: Scientists supported by governments are devoting relatively large amounts of effort to
save particular animal species. Can criteria be established to justify a hierarchy of value of one
species over another?

AHL
C.5 Population ecology
Applications and skills:
Application: Evaluating the methods used to estimate the size of commercial stock of marine
resources.
Application: Use of the capture-mark-release-recapture method to estimate the population
size of an animal species.
Application: Discussion of the effect of natality, mortality, immigration and emigration on
population size.
Application: Analysis of the effect of population size, age and reproductive status on sustainable
fishing practices.
Application: Bottom-up control of algal blooms by shortage of nutrients and top-down control
by herbivory.
Skill: Modelling the growth curve using a simple organism such as yeast or species of Lemna

C.6 Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles

Applications and skills:
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 Application: The impact of water logging on the nitrogen cycle.

Application: Insectivorous plants as an adaptation for low nitrogen availability in waterlogged
soils.
Skill: Drawing and labelling a diagram of the nitrogen cycle.
Skill: Assess the nutrient content of a soil sample
Utilization:
Crop rotations allow the renewal of soil nutrients by allowing an area to remain fallow.

Option D: Human physiology

D.1 Human nutrition
Applications and skills:
Application: Production of ascorbic acid by some mammals, but not others that need a dietary
supply.
Application: Cause and treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU).
Application: Lack of Vitamin D or calcium can affect bone mineralization and cause rickets or
osteomalacia.
Application: Breakdown of heart muscle due to anorexia.
Application: Cholesterol in blood as an indicator of the risk of coronary heart disease.
Skill: Determination of the energy content of food by combustion.
Skill: Use of databases of nutritional content of foods and software to calculate intakes of
essential nutrients from a daily diet.

D.2 Digestion
Applications and skills:
Application: The reduction of stomach acid secretion by proton pump inhibitor drugs.
Application: Dehydration due to cholera toxin.
Application: Helicobacter pylori infection as a cause of stomach ulcers.
Skill: Identification of exocrine gland cells that secrete digestive juices and villus epithelium
cells that absorb digested foods from electron micrographs

D.3 Functions of the liver

Applications and skills:
Application: Causes and consequences of jaundice.
Application: Dual blood supply to the liver and differences between sinusoids and capillaries.

D.4 The heart

Applications and skills:
Application: Use of artificial pacemakers to regulate the heart rate.
Application: Use of defibrillation to treat life-threatening cardiac conditions.
Application: Causes and consequences of hypertension and thrombosis.
Skill: Measurement and interpretation of the heart rate under different conditions.
Skill: Interpretation of systolic and diastolic blood pressure measurements.
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 Skill: Mapping of the cardiac cycle to a normal ECG trace.

Skill: Analysis of epidemiological data relating to the incidence of coronary heart disease.

AHL
D.5 Hormones and metabolism
Applications and skills:
Application: Some athletes take growth hormones to build muscles.
Application: Control of milk secretion by oxytocin and prolactin
Aim 8: There are numerous drugs that can enhance performance. Is the use of these drugs
acceptable in terms of conducting a fair test as long as all athletes have equal access to them?

D.6 Transport of respiratory gases

Applications and skills:
Application: Consequences of high altitude for gas exchange.
Application: pH of blood is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45.
Application: Causes and treatments of emphysema.
Skill: Analysis of dissociation curves for hemoglobin and myoglobin.
Skill: Identification of pneumocytes, capillary endothelium cells and blood cells in light
micrographs and electron micrographs of lung tissue.
AIM:
Aim 8: Some sports, such as high-altitude mountain climbing or scuba diving, may push the
limits of the human body beyond endurance and cause damage. Should they be controlled or
banned?

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