Chapter 2

The Physical Layer

The Theoretical Basis for Data

Communication

Fourier Analysis
Bandwidth-Limited Signals
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

Fourier Analysis

In the early 19th century, Jean-Baptiste

Fourier: given a periodic function g(t) with
period T
Where

1
g (t ) c an sin(2nft) bn cos(2nft)
2 n1
n 1
2T
an g (t ) sin(2nft)dt
T 0

2T
bn g (t ) cos(2nft)dt
T 0
2T
c g (t )dt
T 0

Bandwidth-Limited Signals
ASCII character b is
01100010

1
cos(n / 4) cos(3n / 4) cos(6n / 4) cos(7n / 4)
n
1
sin(3n / 4) sin(n / 4) sin(7n / 4) sin(6n / 4)
bn
n
c 3/ 4
an

A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.

(b) (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)

(d) (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)

Relation between data rate and harmonics.

Guided Transmission Data

Magnetic Media
Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optics

Twisted Pair

The signal is usually carried as the difference in

voltage between the two wires in the pair. This
provides better immunity to external noise
(a) Category 3 UTP.
(b) Category 5 UTP.

Four pairs of cat 5

wires
For LAN
100Mbps Ethernet
uses 2 pairs. One
pair for each
direction
1-Gbps Ethernet
uses four pairs

Shielded TP (STP)

Twisted Pair

Links that can be used

Both directions at the same time (like two-lane road):
full-duplex links
Either direction, but only one way at a time (like a
single track railroad line): half-duplex links
Only one direction (like one-way street): simplex links

UTP (unshielded Twisted Pair)

Category

Maximum data rate

Usual application

CAT 1 (de facto name,

never a standard)

Up to 1 Mbps (1 MHz)

analog voice (POTS) Basic Rate Interface in ISDN Doorbell

wiring

CAT 2 (de facto name,

never a standard)

4 Mbps

CAT 3

16 Mbps

CAT 4

20 Mbps

Mainly used in the IBM cabling system for Token Ring

networks
Voice (analog most popular implementation)
10BASE-T Ethernet.
Used in 16 Mbps Token Ring. Was only a standard briefly and
never widely installed.

CAT 5

100 MHz

No longer supported; replaced by 5E.

CAT 5E

100 MHz

CAT 6

Up to 250 MHz

CAT 6E

Up to 500 MHz
(field-tested to 500 MHz)

CAT 7
(ISO Class F)

Full-motion video
Teleradiology
600 MHz
Government and manufacturing environments
1.2 GHz in pairs with Siemon
Fully Shielded (S/FTP) system using non-RJ45 connectors but
connector
backwards compatible with hybrid cords.
Until February 2008, the only standard (published in 2002) to
support 10GBASE-T for a full 100m.

100 Mbps TPDDI , Gigabit Ethernet. Offers better near-end

crosstalk than CAT 5
Minimum cabling for data centers in TIA-942. .Quickly
replacing category 5e.
Support for 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GBASE-T.) May be either
shielded (STP, ScTP, S/FTP) or unshielded (UTP).

Coaxial Cable

It has better shielding, greater bandwidth than unshielded

twisted pair, so it can span longer distance at higher
speed
50-ohm cable for digital transmission
75-ohm cable for analog transmission and cable
television

A coaxial cable.

Fiber Optics

An optical transmission has three key components: light source (a pulse of

light indicates a 1 bit while the absence of light indicates a 0 bit),
transmission medium (ultra thin fiber of glass), and detector (generates an
electrical pulse when light falls on it)
single-mode fiber can transmit data at 100Gbps for 100 km
(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the
air/silica boundary at different angles.
(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.

Fiber Cables

(a) Side view of a single fiber.

(b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.

Fiber Cables (2)

A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs (light emitting diodes)

as light sources.

Fiber Optic Networks

A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.

Fiber Optic Networks (2)

A passive star connection in a fiber optics network.

Wireless Transmission

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radio Transmission
Microwave Transmission
Infrared and Millimeter Waves
Lightwave Transmission

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Sugestion: IHF (incredibly), AHF(astonishingly), PHF(prodigiously)

The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.

Radio Transmission

1. RF waves are easy to generate, can travel long distance, and

can penetrate buildings
2. In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the
curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

Lightwave Transmission

Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems.

A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.

Communication Satellites

Geostationary Satellites
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
Satellites versus Fiber

Communication Satellites

Communication satellites and some of their properties,

including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time
and number of satellites needed for global coverage.

Communication Satellites (2)

The principal satellite bands.

Communication Satellites (3)

VSATs using a hub.

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

Iridium

(a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the earth.
(b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.

Globalstar

(a) Relaying in space.

(b) Relaying on the ground.

Public Switched Telephone System

Structure of the Telephone System

The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless
Trunks and Multiplexing
Switching

Structure of the Telephone System

(a) Fully-interconnected network.

(b) Centralized switch.
(c) Two-level hierarchy.

Structure of the Telephone System (2)

A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.

Major Components of the

Telephone System

Local loops

Analog twisted pairs going to houses and

businesses

Trunks

Digital fiber optics connecting the switching

offices

Switching offices

Where calls are moved from one trunk to another

The Local Loop: Modems,

ADSL, and Wireless

The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to

computer call. Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.

Modems

(a) A binary signal

(b) Amplitude modulation

(c) Frequency modulation

(d) Phase modulation

Digital Subscriber Lines

Bandwidth versus distanced over category 3 UTP for DSL.

Digital Subscriber Lines (2)

Operation of ADSL using discrete multitone modulation.

Digital Subscriber Lines (3)

A typical ADSL equipment configuration.

Wireless Local Loops

Architecture of an LMDS (local Multipint Distributed Services) system.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

(a) The original bandwidths.

(b) The bandwidths raised in frequency.
(b) The multiplexed channel.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength division multiplexing.

Time Division Multiplexing

The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).

Time Division Multiplexing

Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

Circuit Switching

(a) Circuit switching.

(b) Packet switching.

Message Switching

(a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching

Packet Switching

A comparison of circuit switched and packet-switched networks.

The Mobile Telephone System

First-Generation Mobile Phones:

Analog Voice
Second-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice
Third-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice and Data
Fourth-Generation Mobile Phone: mobile
web access, IP telephony, gaming services,
hingh-definition mobile TV, Video
conference, 3D Television

Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells.

(b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.

Channel Categories
The 832 channels are divided into four categories:

Control (base to mobile) to manage the system

Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to calls

for them

Access (bidirectional) for call setup and

channel assignment

Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data

D-AMPS
Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) A D-AMPS channel with three users.

(b) A D-AMPS channel with six users.

GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications

GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which

uses an eight-slot TDM system

GSM (2)

A portion of the GSM framing structure.

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access

(a) Binary chip sequences for four stations

(b) Bipolar chip sequences
(c) Six examples of transmissions
(d) Recovery of station Cs signal

Third-Generation Mobile Phones:

Digital Voice and Data
Basic services an IMT-2000 network should provide

High-quality voice transmission

Messaging (replace e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc.)
Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.)
Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)

Cable Television

Community Antenna Television

Internet over Cable
Spectrum Allocation
Cable Modems
ADSL (assymetric digital subscriber line)
versus Cable

4G
Two 4G candidate systems are commercially deployed:
a. the Mobile WiMax standard (first used in South
Korea in 2007), and
b. the first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE)
standard (in Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm, Sweden
since 2009).

Since the first-release versions of Mobile WiMax and

LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s peak bit rate,

Community Antenna Television

An early cable television system.

Internet over Cable

Cable television

Internet over Cable (2)

The fixed telephone system.

Spectrum Allocation

Frequency allocation in a typical cable TV system

used for Internet access

Cable Modems

Typical details of the upstream and downstream

channels in North America.