& Engineering Physics BRILLIANT'S ELECTRONIC Alm To study forward & reverse characteristics of: 4. Si & Ge semiconductor diode. b. Zener Diode. Apparatus Required ‘Transistor kit along with its instructions manual and patch chords. Theory P-N Junction Diode - A p-type semiconductor in contact with an n-type semiconductor constitutes a p-n junction. Before the two semiconductors are brought together, each one is in ‘equilibrium that is the hole and electron concentrations are constant and uniform throughout ‘each semiconductor. Just after contact, majority holes from the p-type diffuse into the n-type and majority electrons from the n-type diffuse into the p-type material. The holes and the electrons recombine ‘when they meet. However, this flow of majority carriers eventually stops because of the forma- tion of a thin layer in which holes and electrons recombine, leaving 2 row of negative ions on the p-side and row of positive ions on the n-side as shown in figure 16.1(6). The layer in which electron-hole recombination occurs is called the depletion layer. The formation of charges on either side of the depletion layer constitutes a potential barrier (contact potential). This potential barrier is 0.2V for germanium and 0.6V for silicon. P-TYPE N-TYPE PN junction Fig. 16.1(a) Fig. 16.10) Its the formation of the potential barrier that makes, the p-n junction a useful device, since its effect can be controlled by an extemally applied voltage. The barrier voltage can be neutral- ized by applying a.d.c. voltage of appropriate polarity as shown in figure 162 (a). This is called forward biasing. On applying external de voltage of the same polarity as the barrier potential figure 16.2 (b) keeps the junction in reverse bias condition. The junction conducts heawily in the forward biasBRILLIANT’S Experiments condition while it offers high resistance to charge flow under reverse bias condition. Fig. 16.2(a) Fig. 16.20) “The current voltage (V-1) characteristics of a junction diode is as shown in figure 163, The relation between the diode current I and voltage V is given by : I=1,(Exp(qv/KT)-1) ‘Where is the charge of electron charge, K is Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature. In the forward biased condition, majority charge carriers are responsible for conduction, The number of these charge carriers in- jected at the junction increases with the voltage and thus the current increases (exponentially) with the voltage when the diode is reverse biased and V is greater than few volts, I I,, The reverse current tends towards the reverse satu- ration current. Under reverse bias conditions, minority charge carriers take part in the process of conduction. It Fig. 16.3 takes only a few tenths of a volt to clear all the minority Carriers, Any further increase in the bias voltage does not lead increase inthe current as all he carriers have already been set in motion, Figure 16: isthe circuit symbol for a semiconductor diode, The terminal marked "Anods (identified by the arrow head) is connected fo p-type material, while that marked ‘Cathode! connected to n-type material. Reference to figure 16.2(a) shows that to support current flow in this diode, the positive terminal of a battery must be brought to the anode the negative terminal to the cathode, in a forward-bias arrangement.80 BRILLIANT'S Zener Diode ‘The characteristics of a solid-state diode depends upon the semiconductor material form which the diode is constructed, on the nature and extent of "Doping" of this material, and on the physical construction and dimensions of the device. The semiconductor diode is operated within its forward-bias current characteristics, There is another class of diodes called Zener Diodes whose unique reverse-bias current and voltage characteristic provides completely different applications from those of the crystal diode, Figure 165 is the graph of a typical current voltage characteristics of a zener diode. When the diode is forward-biased, it acts like a closed switch, and forward current increases with an increase in applied voltage. Forward current is then limited by the parameters of the circuit. When the diode is reverse-biased, a small reverse current I,, called saturation current flows. Is constant despite an increase in reverse bias, until the zener breakdown region in the vicinity of the zener voltage V;, is reached. In this vicinity, Reverse current starts rising rapidly because of avalanche effect. Finally, zener break-down (a sharp increase in current) occurs when the zener voltage V, is reached, Figure 16.5 shows the Zener Diode characteristics also in the breakdown region. In this region small voltage changes result in large current changes. Obviously, there are dramatic changes in effective resistance at the PN junction in this region. Zener break-down need not result in the destruction of the diode. As long as current through the diode is limited by the external circuit to a level within its power-handling capabilities, the diode functions normally. Moreover, by reducing reverse bias below the zener voltage, the diode can os v be brought out of its break-down level and restored to re- verse saturation-current level. ‘This process of switching the diode between its zener and non-zener current states can be repeated again and Fig. 165 again without damaging the diode. It should be noted, how- ever, that there is a certain time lag, called recovery time, in switching the diode from one state to the other. Figure 16,6 shows the circuit symbol for a Zener Diode, ot Anete Cathode PreNTS form nthe vs. 1 gion ising rent) this matic state BRILLIANT’S. Procedure ‘Al. Forward Characteristic of SI Diode 1. Make the connections as shown in figure 167 mA (oo) Fig. 167 a Connect the voltmeter of range 1V and ammeter of range 19.115 the circuit. 3, Vary the in built dc. supply voltage in step of O.1V.and noe down corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings. 4k. Plot the graph of forward voltage\V (08 * match it with the given reference graph. at various voltage and corre caxis) versus forward current Ip (on y-axis and sponding current values. 5, Calculate forward resistance Ry 1. Forward Characteristics of Ge Diode - ‘. Repeat steps 1 to 5 above except by Ge Diode, Il, Reverse Characteristics of $i Diode - shown in figure 16.8 mA that now Si diode is replaced ' 1. Make the connections a5 i z= o101) Put the voltmeter range Vary the in built d.C. Sup voltmeter and ammeter readings. | 4. Plot the graph of reverse voltage V, (on x-axis) versus reverse current I, (on Y-axis) and match it with the given reference graph. 1e resistance R, at various Fig. 168 switch to 10 V and am ply voltage in steps of 0.1 volt and note di meter range switch to 200u A. jown corresponding, 5, Calculate reverst voltage and corresponding current IV. Reverse Characteristics of Ge Diode - TL Repeat steps 1 to 5 above except that now Si diode is replaced by Ge diode, 8.1, Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode « 1. Make the connections as shown in figure 169BRILLIANT’S Fig. 16.9 Put the voltmeter range switch to 1V and ammeter range switch to 10mA. Vary the in built in d.c. supply voltage in steps of 0.1 V and note down corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings. ‘4. Plot the graph of forward voltage V, (on x-axis) and forward current I, (on y- axis) and match it with the given reference graph 5. Calculate R, at various voltage and corresponding current. |. Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode - 1. Make connections as shown in figure 16.10 a fo Fig. 16.10 Put the voltmeter range switch to 10V and 3. Vary the in built d.c. sup and ammeter readings. Tiot the graph of reverse voltage V, (on X-axis) and revere current I, (on Yas) and Re match it with the given reference graph Determine breakdown voltage V, form the graph, " retain ammeter range switch to 10 ma. ly voltage in steps of 0.1 V. Note down corresponding voltmeter Ge stBRILLIANT’S Experiments NTS LEAKAGE CURRENT (REVERSE SATURATION ‘CURRENT!,) ve ve Kne0-> ing nd Fig. 16.11: Forward & Reversed Characteristic of Diode & Zener Diode Observation Tables (a) Forward Characteristics: Least Count of Voltmeter = Least Count of Ammeter = od S.No. vw (MA) R= Vil, ' () Reverse Characteristics Teast Count of Voltmeter Least Count of Ammeter = c S.No. VW) =I, (MA) R= VA, 1 Result 1. The cut-in voltage of diode as determined from the graph indicates the minimum voltage after which the diode is conductive. 2. During forward bias, the diode offers negligibly small forward resistance (Rj).The diode forward resistance varies throughout the characteristics. 3, During reverse bias, the diode offers very high reverse resistance (R} 44. In reverse bias, the reverse saturation current is very low and independent of reverse voltage. 5. During reverse bias, in a Zener diode, break down occurs at V,, Precautions 1. Connections should. be made properly and tightly. 2. Atleast five readings should be taken. 3. A free hand graph should be plotted.oa Engineering rnysics BRILLIANT'S. VivaVoice Q.1 What is a P-N junction diode? Ans. When P-type germanium and N type germanium crystals are joined together then P-N junction diode is formed, Q. 2 Which type of impurities are added in N-type and P-type semiconductor? Ans. Impurities from group-V elements, eg, arsenic and antimony are added in N-type semi- conductors and Impurities from group III elements eg. Boron, Aluminum are added in P- type semiconductor. Q.3 What are the majority and minority carriers in n-type? ‘Ans. Electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers, Q. 4 What is meant by Forward and Reverse bias in a diode? ‘Ans. When positive end of battery or supply is connected to the P-type crystal and negative end to N-type crystal, then the diode is said to be forward based and is said to be in reverse bias if vice-versa happens, Q. 5 Give the important parameters of PN junction diode to explain its characteristics? Ans.1. Cut-in voltage Vy 2. Dynamic resistance 1, 3. Saturation Current Iy Q. 6 What is static and dynamic resistance offered by the diode? Ans. Static resistance is the resistance offered by the diode when only a steady direct current flows through it. But when a varying forward current flows through a diode then the resistance offered by the diode in the forward direction to the varying component of the current is called dynamic resistance. Q. 7 What are semiconductors? ‘Ans. Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insula- tors. Its resistance decreases with rise in temperature i.e, It has negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Whereas metals has positive coefficient of resistance ile. its resistance increases with increase in temperature. Q. 8 What is energy band gap? Ans. Energy band gap is the energy difference between the valance band and conduction band. Q.9 What are the energy band gap of silicon and germanium? ‘Ans. For silicon it is 1.1 ev, and for germanium it is 0.72 ev. Q. 10 How will you differentiate between metals, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of energy level diagram? ah a —IANT'S en P-N ed in P- gative y be in urrent en the of the ssula- ature pand. basis Ans. Qn Ans. Q2 Ans, Qa Ans. Qu Ans. Qs Ans, } O16 Ans. qv Ans, Q18 Ans. Q.19 Ans. Q.20 Ans, BRILLIANT'S Experiments 95 In metals, the valance band and conduction bands overlaps. In semiconductors, their is very less energy gap between valance and conduction band. In insulators, the gap between valance and conduction band is very large. Can a semiconductor behave as insulators? Yes, at 0° K the semiconductor behaves as insulators. At this temperature, the valance band is full and conduction band is empty. What do you mean by reverse saturation current? When a PN junction is reverse biased, then current is diié to mintority curriers whose concentration is dependent in energy gap or band gap and the currentis called as reverse saturation current. What is the dependence of reverse saturation current on temperature? Reverse saturation current increases approximately 7° percent/* C for both Ge and Si. ‘This current doubles for every 10° rise in temperature. Which semiconductor is widely used in manufacturing semiconductor device and why? Silicon is widely used because it is abundant in earths crust as°SiO, (silica) while comparatively germanium is costly material. What is a Zener diode ? Itis a heavily doped PN junction diode which is designed to operate in the breakdown region under reverse bias condition. What is meant by Zener break down? Due to the existence of the electric field at the junction, a sufficiently strong force may be exerted on a bound electron by the field to break the covalent bands and produce new electron-hole pairs which increases the reverse current abruptly. This is called zener breakdown. ‘What is the main application of zener diode ? Voltage regulation. Can you name the other break down phenomena? Yes, Avalanche breakdown. What causes Avalanche breakdown? ‘The increase in the kinetic energy of minority carriers in the reverse bias conditior Avalanche breakdown, de? ttky diode, photo diode, light emitting diode, etc a Can you name other Yes, Tunnel diodes, sc‘Experiment No. 10 To measure the numerical aperture of an optical fiber by Statement of problem ‘The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is determined by measuring the beam intensity along the diameter at the output end of the fiber in the transverse plane. Objective scanning method, Formula Used Numetical Aperture (NA) = List of Equipments 1. Diode laser (5 mW) 2. Optical fiber Power meter 4. Detector 5. Fiber optic chucks 6. XY Translational stages 7. Optical bread board Theory Numerical Aperture is a basic descri iptive characteristic of specific fiber. It can be thought of as roy Presenting the size or “degree of openness” of the itiput acceptance cone (fig10.1) Mathematically, numerical aperture is defined as sine of half angle of acceptance cone (sin @) Figure: 10.1 The light gathering power or flux carr of the aperture, which is the ratio bet and the area of the hemisphere ( vying capacity of a fiber is numerically equal to the sine ‘ween the area of a unit sphere with the acceptance cone solid angle). A fiber with a numerical aperture of 0.66 has ity as a fiber with a mumerical aperture of 1.0 i.e. (0.66)*/(1.0)? 43% as much flux carrying capac 043 Snell's law can be used to calculate the maximum any igle within which light will be accepted into and conducted through a fiber (fig 10.2) NA-=sin0,= Jn} =n’ Where sin 0, is numerical aperture. Engineering Physics BRILLIANT'S, BRILLIA acceptan internals @> 0, the the cladd come out will also; Procedt 1 2 c N ir y N ® tiANT'S. nsity bught sin 0) 6 has Kuo)? epted BRILLIANT’S Experiments ee re 2 CLADDING Gert Sais HY Neto See Soe ra Figure: 10.2 1, and nyare the refractive indices of the core and the cladding. The semi angle 0, of the acceptance core fora step index fiber is determined by the critical angle @, (= sin” '(my/n,) for total ladding interface (figl0.3). For a ray with incident angle internal reflection to take place at core cl @> 0, the ray undergoes only partial refection at core-cladding interface and is radiated out into the cladding, Figure: 10.3 ‘ber, ideally a ray launched at an angle 6 at the input end should come out at the same angle 6 from output end (fig 10.3). Therefore the far fieldiat the outputend will also appear asa cone of semi angle 0, emanating from the fiber end. Itis then simpler tomake measurements on this far field to determine the NA of the fiber. Ina short length of straight fi Procedure 1. Couple the light into the fiber to obtain the maximum power in 2. Note the distance between the output fiber tip and the detector (say itas'r),taker= 3mm the power meter. initially. 3. Move the detector on the meter. 4. Now move the detector in direction perpendicular to the axis of the fiber in steps of 0.5 rm (say it as 'x) and note the corresponding output of the detector from power meter till again the minimum output power is detected. 5. Repeat the above steps for r= 3 mm, 35mm, 4mm, 4.5mm and Smm. for different values 1 extreme left or right to obtain the minimum power in the power 6. Plot a graph between x & power and then determine FWHM i.e. W oft, say it as W,, W,, Wy W, and Ws Now find the value of W,, W,, Wy W, and WsEngineering Physics BRILLIANT’ BRI 8. Plot a graph between W and-r which should be straight line, _ 9. Find the slope of above straight line 10. From the slope determine 0, (ue slope = tan) | Pree 11. Now calculate Numerical Aperture by the formula NA Observation Table ' ¥ = Distance between fiber end and screen =sin 0, A=scanning distance of the detector along the direction perpendicular to the axis ofthe fiber. S.No. Xnm) POWER(W) r= 3mm 5mm | r= 4mm] r= 45mm] r=Smm 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 Numerical Aperture (NA) = Sina Where, 6, = Acceptance angle of fiber Result ‘The calculated value of numerical aperture of the given optical fiber « Percentage Ertor = Precautions 1, The fiber should not have any bend. Obi 2. Light should be coupled properly in the fiber. 3. Fiber ends should be well prepared. 4. Avoid direct incidence of laser light in your eyes. Alternate Method Aim ca To measure the numerical aperture of an optical fibre by Apparatus Required He-Ne laser 20 X microscopic measuring tape, visual method. objective, fiber optic chuck, optical fiber, screen, graph paper,LLIANT'S: he fiber, i] BRILLIANT’S Experiments, 63 Theory Same as above Procedure 1. Mount both the ends of the optical fiber on the fiber optic chucks. 2. Couple the light from the He-Ne laser source onto one of the fiber ends using a 20 X : microscopic objective. 3, Place the screen at some distance from the output end (end other than at which light is coupled) of the fiber such that it is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber: 4, Now move the screen towards or away the output end of the optical fiber, such that a circular spot is formed on the screen. (Figure 10.4). 5, Measure the distance between the output end of optical fiber and screen. Let this be L. ‘Also measure the diameter of the circular spot formed omvthe screen Let it be D. 6, Use the formula : NA = sin @ = sinftan“(D/2L)] 7. Repeat the above procedure for different values of L and D and calculate theaverage value of NA. et OBJECTIVE FIBER Diaot LASER cHucK CHUCK wines SCREEN —=== 0 P reer (Ta Figure 10.4 Numerical Aperture of Fiber. Observation Table S.No. Diameter of Distance between | fan D/L | sin(tan*D/21) Spot (D) Fiber end & Screen L 2. 3 4 Calculations Mean Numerical apparatus = sin (ta > ‘Acceptance angle (0,) = sin NA= i64 Engineering Physics BRILLIANT'S Result (1) NA of the given fiber = x @) Acceptance angle of given fiber = q Mean Numerical apparatus Precaution and pechobeailneieateg tn Viva Voice yrmally on the fiber. Q.1 Give the basic construction of fiber, ‘Ans. Fiber consist of three layers. The inner most layer is known as core, the middle layer is cladding and the outer most layer is called buffer coating. Buffer coating only protects core and cladding. Refractive index of core is slightly greater than that of cladding. Q.2 What are different types of Fiber ? ‘Ans.1, Single mode step index fiber 2. Multimode step index fiber. 3. Multimode graded index fiber. Q. 3 What is the difference between step index and graded index fiber. ‘Ans. In step index fiber, the refractive index of core is constant throughout the core where as in graded index fiber the refractive index of core is maximum at the centre and it goes on decreasing gradually as we go towards cladding, Q. 4 What is the difference between single mode and multimode fiber ? ‘Ans. In single mode fiber, fiber supports only one mode (i.e, path) for the light to transmit through it whereas in case of multimode fiber the fiber supports many paths: Core diameter of single mode fiber iS tess than’ that of multimode fiber. Q. 5 What is pulse dispersion? ‘Ans, Pulse dispersion may be defined as the output light pulse produced, when the input pulse is of zero line width. Its unit is pico second/km or nano second, Q. 6 What is Numerical aperture? ‘Ans. Numerical aperture gives the light gathering capacity of a given fiber. Mathemati cally, BRILLY qu Ans.NTs er is ects eas BRILLIANT'S Experiments Ans, By total internal reflection. 65 Where n, = Core refractive index. Cladding refractive index. Refractive index of the medium around the fiber. 4 = Core-cladding index difference. Q.7 What do you mean by acceptance angle of fiber? ‘Ans, It is the maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagates down the fiber. Double the angle of acceptance is called the acceptance cone. Mathematically, acceptance angle («) = sin“! (N.A.) (Q. 8 What happens when the propagation of light through fiber is made beneath water? ‘Ans. Its N.A, decreases, as N.A. is inversly proportional to refractive index of the medium. The refractive index of water is greater than that of air: Q. 9 Give few advantages of optical fiber. Ans.1. It is light in weight. 2. It's bandwidth is large. 3, Information is transmitted using optical signals, hence better than copper cables as in copper cables the transmission is by using electrical signals, Q. 10 Give few applications of fibers. ‘Ans.1. It is used in Communication system. 2, It is used in medical fields. 3, It is used in making sensors. 4, It has wild application in security and alarm system, Q.11 By which principle light is transmitted through fiber?70 Engineering Physics BRILLIANT'S Experiment-12 determine the specific rotation of sugar solution/concentration of sugar solution with the help of polarimeter, Apparatus Required Half shade or biquartz polarimeter, light source (sodium lamp for half shade polarimeter or fc light source for biquartz polarimeter), measuring cylinder, beaker, physical balance with weight box, sugar, reading lens and reading lamp. Aim Description of Apparatus Fig. 12.1 shows arrangement of the polarimeter. Light from the source $ first passes through the slit and then through a convex lens L, so that a parallel beam of light is then incident on a polarizer P. The light emerging out of the polarizer is plane polarized. This light passes through the half shade polarimeter (or the biquattz polarimeter) H and then through the polarimeter tube The tube L contains the optically active solution (such as sugar solution). The light emerging ut of it passes through an analyzer; A and the light emerging from itis seen througha telescope T. The analyzer and the telescope both are enclosed in one tube. The analyzer can be rotated about 2 horizontal axis and its angle of rotation can be read on a circular scale C, graduated in degrees, with the help of Vernier. Half Shade Polarimeter Figure 12.2 shows the half polarimeter. It is made of two semi circular plates ACB & ADB. One of the plate ACB is a half wave plate for light of a particular wavelength (5893 A°), ie, a quartz plate cut parallel to the optic axis and of thickness such that it produces a phase difference of ora path difference of 2/2 between the O & E waves for wavelength 2. The other plate ADB 8 a glass plate of thickness such that absorption of light by this plate is same as that by the quartz plate. Both the plates are joined along the diameter AB. Let the vibrations of the plane polarized light incident normally on the half shade plate from the polarizer is along OP, making a clockwise angle 6 with the optic axis of the quartz plate. These vibrations pass as such through the glass plate, but splits in two components namely ordinary O and extra ordinary E within the quartz plate. E component has vibrations along OA, parallel! to optic axis of quartz while O component has vibrations along OD, perpendicular to the optic axis. Since in quartz the speed of O component is more than that of E component, hence on emerging out of the quartz plate, O components lead a head the E component in phase by x. Thus on emergance from the quartz plate, vibrations of © components are along OC, and not along OD, but the vibrations of E component remain along OA. Now the resultant vibration of the components OA & OC is OR. Hence the plane polarized light coming out of the quartz plate has vibrations along OR. It is clear from the geometry that ZAOR = ZAOP = @ thus the vibrations of the plane polarized light emerging out of the quartz plate make an anti-clockwise angle 8 with the optic axis. . BRILLU No light em Similart quartz § its prin with th halves’ to OA hence t the pos eye cat acura Biqu of th dian by 9uans | jwith the imeter or nce with through fenton a through eter tube merging elescope ed about degrees, & ADB. ie, a ifference ate ADB fe quartz ate from le. These srdinary parallel he optic =x. Thus st along n of the ate has brations e 8 with ’ — BRILLIANT’S Experiments n analyzer is kept pavallel to OP then in the field of view the sare call be more than that emerging out ofthe quartz plate 1 to OR, then the light emerging out of the tate. But if the analyzer is so rotated that ‘of the two parts are equally inclined ‘mily eliminated. take care that, both analyzer is perpendicular Now if the principle section of light emerging out from the glass Pl Senilarly ifthe principle section of analyzer is paralle! quartz plate will be more than that from the glass pl ii ptincipal section is parallel to OA. then the vibrallote ie the axis of analyzer, hence the field of view is unifor reves will aso be uniformly illuminated when the principle secticl © to OA. But in this position, comparatively less vibration will pass through the analyzer and hence the field of view will be nearly dark. If the analyzer & slightly turned on either side from the postion of equal illumination, there willbe variation illumination of two halves. Thus our the position of equal illumination. When the field of Vet dark, then our va small variation in intensity of light, hence it is more eye can easily detect eye is more sensitive in detecting even accurate to take observation in the position of darkness. € 3 (NS i \ 7 ed An 5 Figure: 12.2 Biquartz Polarimeter tet handed and other right handed) each plates of quartz (one xrpendicular to the 0} fh plate rotates the plane of polar It consist of two semi circular of thickness 3.75 mm. Both are cut pet diameter PQ as shown in fig. 12.3 Eact by 90: jined together alone the ptic-axis and joi ization for yellow lightEngineering Physics BRILLIANT’S, When a white light, rendered plane polarised with a polarizer, travels through a biquartz normally, the phenomenon of rotatory dispersion occurs in both biquartz plate because the plane polarised light is passing through the optic axis. The planes of vibration of different colours are rotated through different angles. The rotation of yellow colour is 90° and hence YOY is a straight ine. If the principle plane of the analyzer is parallel to POQ the yellow light will not be transmitted through the analyzer and the appearance of the two halves is similar, The two halves havea greyish violet tint, called the sensitive tint or tint of the passage. When the analyser olated to one side from this position, one half on the field of view appears blue while the other appears red. If the analyser is rotated in the opposite direction the colours are changed i.e, the first half which was blue earlier now appears red and the second half which was red earlier now appears blue, The position of sensitive tint is very sensitive and is used for accurate determina- tion of optical rotatio Theory When plane polarized light is passed through an optically active solution (such as sugar ution), the plane of polarization (or plane of vibration) of light gets rotated by some ang respect to the direction of propagation of light. This is called optically rotation. The angle of rotation @ by a solution is : (i) directly proportional to the length 1 of solution (i) directly ‘opotional to the concentration C of the solution ie, 8 cc Cor O=a/C. where cc solu le with called the specific optical rotation of the solution. Now if V is the volume of solvant and x is the mass of solute, the concentration of solution =x/V Hence 0 = a/x/ or a= 6Vix Formula Used The specific optic rotation of an optical active solution, @V/Ix degree cm? decimeter-! gm-! where, @ angle of rotation (in degree), V = volume of solvant (water) in cm?, | = length of solution (or tube) in decimeter, and X = mass of solute (sugar) in gm. Procedure Take 5 gm of ugar. Dissolve it into 100 cm? distilled water and prepare the solution. Note the least count of the scale attached with the analyzer. For Half shade Polarimeter illuminate the slit with monochromatic light (sodium lamp) and if Biquartz, polarimeter is used illuminate it with white light source. 4. Clean the Polarimeter tube and fill it with distilled water. Air bubble should not be present in the tube. Now place the tube in the place provided. By seeing through the telescope we obtain two semi circu lar halves. If half shade polarimeter is used one half part is bright and other BRILLIA 4 : al ak CalT's rte she BRILLIANT'S Experiments 3 half part is dark. But if Biquartz is used, one half partis seen red and the ote pasts seen violet. Move the eyepiece ofthe telescope to and from untill the two halves are clearly focused. Now rotate the analyzer till both the halves appear uniformally illuminated (for half ‘oth halves appear of same colour i.e. greyish (for the biquartz shade polarimeter) or be polarimeter). Note this position of analyzer. Observations are taken once while rotating, the analyzer clockwise and secondly while rotating the analyzer anti-clockwise 8. Now rotate the analyzer from this position by 180° and again take similar readings by rotating it clockwise and anti-clockwise 9, Now replace the water in the tube by the sugar solution (no ait yned in point 7 and 8. xr the solution of the different concentrations. bubble should be present) 10, Repeat the procedure mentior 11. The experiment is repeated for 12. Note the room temperature and measure the length of tube in dm. Observation 1. Volume of distilled water V =. en. 2, Mass of sugar x= .. gm. Concentration of sugar solution C = x/v =... g/cm’. 3. For the angle of optical rotation - ‘Value of one division of main scale of analyzer x =... degree ‘Total number of divisions on the vernier scale n = Least count of scale attached with analyzer = x/n =... degree ‘cm =. decimeter (Remember that 10 cm = 1-decimeter) Length of polarimeter tube 4 5, Room temperature = ... degree C 6. Wavelength of light used 1~...5893A° (for sodium light source) or 6000A° (forthe electric bulb) 5. | Cone€ Position of analyzer in deg. Mean | Angle of | 0/C deg. No. - Rea | Optical | cm’gm One Position Position after 180° ran ter 180° | ding, |. rotation @ rotation Glock [Anticlock | Clock | Anticlock| 1. | Dst. Water 3. 4 Mean value of 6/C =... degree cm'/gm Calculation Substituting the mean value of 0/C and the vi specific optical rotation « ofthe sugar solution is calculated «: alue off (in'decimeter) in the relation a =O/lc, the degree cm’/ decimeter gm.4 : Engineering Physics BRILLIANT'S c Graphical Method f Braph Is plotted for concentration C on X-axis and angle of optical rotation 8 which isan straight line as shown inthe figure. Taking two point Pan Q on the graph, are drawn on X-and Y-axis and the slope of the straight line is determined The slope of straight line = ¢/C=AB/CD = degree cm/gm on Y-axis \ normals hhence specific optical rotation ==-- x (Slope of straight line) Result ‘The specific optical rotation for the sugar solution at and for... A* wavelength is a... degree em®/decimeter gin Standard Value =... degree cm®/decimeter gm degree centigrade temperature Percentage Error Precautions 1. The polarimeter tube and the 2. Sugar must be clean and the s 3. Their must be no air is filled init rm Position of analyzer should be noted only when both halves appear equally ium. nated (if half shade devise is used) or both halves (if biquartz devise is used). 5. Bach time, before filling the tube wit be rinsed with that solution, Viva- Voice Blass plates attached at its ends must be perfectly clean ugar solution must be prepared in the distilled water. bubble left in the polarimeter tube when water or sugar solution are in the position in tint of passage th sugar solution of different concentration. it should Q.1 What do you mean by polarised light ? ‘Ans, The light which has acquired the property of one-sideness is called .2 Which device is used to polarize the light in your experiment? Ans. Nicol prism, a polarized light. Q.3 What is the principle of Nicol prism? ‘Ans. Nicol prism works on the principle of Doble refraction and total internal reflec tion, Q. 4 What do you mean by optically active substance ? ‘Ans. A substance that rotates the plane of polarisation of incident plane polarised light is called optically active substance. .5 What do you mean by dextro-rotatory and levorotatory substance? Ans. Substances that rotates the plane of vibration of incident plane polarized light clock- wise are called dextro-rotatory substance (eg ~ Sugar solution, quartz, etc.) and theLIANT'S a Yeaxis jormals rature Jean, ter. ution umi- sage yuld BRILLIANT’S Q6 Ans. Q7 Ans. Qs Ans. Qs Ans. Q.10 Ans. Qn Ans. 3 3 4 Qa Ans. Experiments 75 substances that rotates the plane of vibration anticlockwise are called levo-rotatory substance. What do you mean by double-refraction? When ordinary light is incident on a calcite or quartz crystal, it splits in two refracted rays and this phenomenon is known as double refraction. Define optic axis and principle section. A line passing through anyone of the blunt corners and making equal angles with each of the three edges which meet at this corner is known as optic axis. The plane normal to the crystal surface, containing the optic axis is called the principle section of the crystal What do you mean by specific optical rotation ? Ata particular temperature and for a given wavelength the specific optical rotation of 1 substance is equal to that angle of rotation (in degrees) which is produced by one decimetre length of that solution of concentration 1 gm/cm?, Whaat is the unit of specific optical rotation ? Degree « cm? / gm x decimetre. Which of the device half shade or biquartz is more superior ? Biquartz device is more sensitive and superior. Half shade device can be used only with light of a particular wavelength, while the biquartz device can be used with white light. What are the different methods of converting unpolarized light to polarized light ? By Nicol Prism, By Polaroid, By Reflection, By Scattering. Can you use other substance inplace ol sugar ? The substance used has to be optically activeBRILLINATS Experiments Rati) Experiment-1 aim To find the wavelength of sodium light (monochromatic source) with the help of Fresne!'s Biprism, Apparatus Required ‘An optical bench with four vertical stands, biprism, sodium lamp, convex lens, eyepiece provided with micrometer screw, slit. Formula Used Where B= fringe width 2d = distance between two virtual sources D= distance between slit and screen (Micrometer eyepiece) Also 2d= aid, 4, & d, are distances between virtual sources formed in two positions of convex lens. ‘Apparatus and Principle of Working Optical Bench: Optical bench used in this experiment is shown in figure (1:1). It consists of two iron rods, each nearly 2 m long, resting on four leveling screws. Front face of one rod is ‘graduated in mm, The bench is provided with four vertical stands respectively for slit S, biprism B, convex lens L and micrometer eyepiece P, Figure 1.1 Set up ot an optical bench ‘The vertical stands have all the motions required for smooth conduction of practical Fresnel Biprism: Fresnel biprism is a combination of two acute angles prisms with bases in contact forming a single obtuse angle. The acute angles are about 30' each with single obtuse angle about 179°, The biprism works on the principle of interference due to division of wave- front.‘emerging from the slit falls on the biprism. The edge of th: front into two parts. small angle towards the lower half of 2. Measurement of fringe width: The vertical cross-w' and the reading of micro meter screw is noted. Now we se ‘inge and reading is noted. 8 is calculated by dividing the Engineering Physics BRILLIANT’S ‘The sit is illuminated by a monochromatic source of light such as sodium lamp: The light e biprism divides the incident wave [Eye Piece Figure 1.2 Ray Diagram Firstly the one which is passing through the upper half ofthe prism is deviated through a the screen and appears to diverge from virtual image S, Secondly the one which is passing through the lower ha is deviated towards the upper half and appears to diverge from the virtual image S,.,, and fringes are obtained in the overlapping region and can be seen by eyepiece Procedure S, serve as coherent source. The interference Adjustments: To obtain the interference fringes the following adjustments are made |. The optical bench is levelled with the help of a spirit level Slit, biprism and eyepiece are adjusted to the same height, Eyepiece is focussed on its cross wire The slit is made narrow and vertical, and is illuminated by monochromatic light The biprism is moved right angles to the length of optical bench till overlapping region (@ patch of bright light) is brought in field o of view. The tangent screw of slit is rotated so that the fringes appear. The fringes are made clear by rotating the biprism in its own plane with the help of tangent screw provided with the biprism stand. The eyepiece is moved away from thelbiprism, the fringes often shift side ways. This is known as lateral shift. This lateral shift is removed when the interference pattem be comes stationary, for any position of eyepiece. The reason for lateral shift is that the line joining the slit and biprism is not parallel to the length of optical bench. ire is adjusted on any bright fringe t the cross-wire on say the next fifth difference of reading by 5, 3. Measurement of D: Distance between slitand eyepiece can be read directly on the optical BRILLIANT'S 4. Meas distance betw (13). The len in the field of are measure Fig From fig Sg 2d Thus wa Observatio The pita Total mus (1) Forti No. of Fringes Mean disBRILLIANT'S: lamp. The light ¢ incident wave ated through a stual image S, upper half and he interference sare made atic light pping region slit is rotated b the help of ways. This is ® pattern be- that the line bright fringe he next fifth ys athe optical BRILLIANT’ Experiments 13 4. Measurement of 2d: To find 2d, a lens with focal length less than one-fourth of the distance between biprism and eyepiece is mounted between biprism and eyepiece as in figure (1.3). The lens is adjusted in two positions L, and L, till sharp images of S, and S, are obtained in the field of view of the eyepiece. The distances d, and d, between the real images in two cases are measured. Now 2¢ is calculated as follows: Figure 1 From fig. 13, div a 2d dv 2d maitid Thus wave-length 4 can be determined by measuring the val B, D and 2¢. Observations ‘The pitch of the micrometer screw = .... cm. Total number of divisions on the Circular Scale = tc = Pitch = ..cms Total Number of division on the Circular Scale (1) For the fringe width No. of Reading of No. of Reading of __ | Distance between Fringes | Micrometer Screw __| Fringes |__ Micrometer Screw _| 5 Fringes (b - a) MSR[CSR] TR@ MSR] CSRTTR®) — (incm) em) |nem)| inem) (in cm) Gn cm) 1 6 2 7 3 8 4 9 5 10 Mean distance between 5 fringes = 7am Mean fringe width p= Mean distance between 5 Fringesa Engineering Physics 2) Measurement of D Position of slit stand on the optical bench, x=... em. Position of eyepiece stand on the optical bench y =... cm Distance of eyepiece from the slit D = x (3) For 24 Position of |S First Image Second Tage Lens No.| MSR] CSR. TRA | MSR] CSR] TRO] a-b Gincm)| Gnem) (nem | Gincm)| (nem) | incm)| _tinem) First () T q, 3 ‘Mean T 2 3 Wear Distance between the two coherent sources 2d cm Calculations Result- 1. Experimented value of & 2, Standard value of % 3. % error = Precautions (a) The optical bench must be perfectly horizontal (b)Slit should be narrow. () There should be no lateral shift in fringes. (@) Least counts should be measured accurately. (©) To measure 24, the focal length of the convex lens used must be low. Viva-Voice Q.1 Whatis meant by interference of light? ‘Ans, When two lights of nearly equal amplitude and same frequency travelling in one direction superimpose each other, the resultant intensity at some point is-more and at some other redistribution of energy is called interference point is less. Q.2 Whats Fresnel's biprism? ‘Ans. Fresnel’s biprism is a device to produce two virtual images of a coherent source. It is a and one obtuse angle of 179 combination of two prisms having two angles o BRILLIANT'S |BRILLIANT'S Q.3 Fresnel Ans. It worl Q.4 Which ‘Ans. Displac image « Q.5 Whyth Ans. So that have fri Q.6 Whata Ans, The fri Q.7 Ifthea ‘Ans. The fi biprisa Q.8 Whyst ‘Ans. Thesl .9 Explai ‘Ans. It cons ‘The tal Q.10 Oniga Ans Besa its red them a » 200 AttERI)| = a-b ncm)| » (incm) 4, d= d= lean ean jing in one d = and at some other erent source. It is a ingle of 179 BRILLIANT’S BRILLIANT’S Qs Ans. Q4 Ans. Qs Ans. a6 Ans. Ans. Qs Ans. Qe Ans. Quo Ans. Experiments Fresnel's biprism works on which principle? Tt works on the principle of interference due to division of wave front. Which principle do you use in finding distance between two coherent sources 2d ? Displacement method of finding focal length of a lens, only lens is displaced; object and image are constant. Why the refracting angle is kept so small? So that the distance (2d) between two virtual coherent sources may be small and we may have fringes of apperciable width What are the factors governing the fringe width in your experiment. aD The fringe width is given by B= Ifthe angle of your biprism is halved, how will itaffect your fringe width? The fringe width will be doubled since 2d = a (j.~ 1)A. where, j= refractive index of biprism material, A = angle of biprism a = distance between slit and biprism. Why should the slit be narrow? The slit should be narrow so as to obtain a good contrast between dark and bright fringes. Explain the construction of sodium lamp ? It consists of a glass tube of u-shape containing sodium and neon gas at a pressure of nearly 10 mm of mercury. There are two electrodes of tungsten coated with barium oxide. The tube is kept enclosed in an evacuated jacket so that there may not be any heat loss. On igniting the sodium lamp, first it emits red light, Why ? ‘Because, the excitation energy of neon is less than sodium. First neon is excited and gives its red light.This excited atoms of neon gas now collides with the sodium atom to excite them and thus we get yellow light of sodium after sometime. aSRILLIANT'S ower (mw) Draw the dnote the mA. nW, vis, draw along the so known texceed BRILLIANT'S Experiments 109 Experiment-21 To determine the band gap in a semiconductor using a PN junction diode. Statement of problem The energy band gap of a semiconductor crystal is determined by noting the variation of reverse current with increase in temperature, The slope of the curve gives the value of energy band gap in eV, Objective Formula used A graph between log I, and 10°/T is a straight line, The band gap is: AE = slope of straight line / 5.0 Equipments Required A junction diode, D.C. power supply, a small heat controlled oven, a thermometer, a mi- ‘tometer, fitted on a circuit board. Principle of working In a solid, the atoms are close by interact with the result that these energy levels show degeneracy and due to interactions split into many close by levels forming an energy band. The inner bands 1* and 2™ etc. are filled or satisfied like energy levels in atom. The valence band of valence orbits and next to it are conduiction levels or bands. The gap of energy Eg between almost filled valance band and nearly empty conduction band is called forbidden gap if this gap is larger than 10 eV or so, it is an insulator and if 1 eV, it is semiconductor (1.1 eV for Si and 0.7 eV for Ge). If Eg= 0 they are overlapping, itis a good conductor, The receptivity of dielectrics is 10° ohm- m to 10” ohm-m as per the latest conclusion world over. 4E band gap = the energy gap between the top of valance band and bottom of conduction band. Fermi Level (E,) According to Fermi-Dirac distribution law, a level E, in between valance band energy level and conduction band energy level is called Fermi Level E, which has ¥ occupancy of probability of electrons. In junction the valance and conduction band energy levels on p side fe higher than, the corresponding energy levels on the n-side. The n-material has a large concentration of electrons and a few holes and vice-versa in p-material. At the junction, the holes diffuse from P-side into the n-side and electrons from n to p giving conventional diffusion current from p to 8. On application of forward bias, rapid flow of holes from p-side to n-side and vice vetsa start In reverse bias this diffusion current is negligible. Only drift current (minority holes from n to P side and electrons from p to n side) due to carrier generations I (gen) of minority carries is available,Engineering Physics BRILLIANT'S At equilibrium applied voltage V=0 J (diffusion) - I (gen) =0 1 (diffusion) - I (gen b Figure-21.1 Circuit diagram ¢ A a Obse 2 8 ' E 8 Ae 13 "Temp (O7TKK) Figure-21.2 Graph ' It has been found that under applied other bias voltage V | 1 (diffusion) = Eye" by probability law Net I= I (diffusion) -T (gen) T= 1et¥ =I, ls 5 | T=, (eM 1 ; ‘As V is negative e*¥™" > 0 L I= I, =, Reverse saturation current cal 1-1, @"™-1) Or I « e*®T where AE = EcEv 2.303 logy, I, = Const ~ AE/KT Bio : Pre 2.308 logiy I, « 10° = Const - AE 1.6 « 10-P/KT _AEL6x10 903 «1.38 If I, in mictoampere and AE in electron volt log I, = otherconst. ~ i 10° Togo, =aconst.-5.036AEx—— Biol, =a 5 7LANT'S BRILLIANT’S Experiments Thus a graph between logisis and 10°/T is a straight line with slope log, Or slope of line = -5.036 AE slope/5.036. Procedure, a) AP-N junction diode connected in reverse bias is used for measuring the band gap of the semiconductor materia. Insert the thermometer in the hole provided on the setup and measure the initial tem- perature. Now switch ON the oven and note the reading of ammeter (,) for every 2 degree rise in temperature up to 60°C ©) Convert the current in to microampere and temperature in to Kelvin and plot the graph of log({,) and 10°/T, which will bea straight line. Note the slope of this line to find the band gap of the semiconductor with the help of given formula, Observation Table Least count of Thermometer = Least count of Ammeter = S.No. Camrent ] Curent] Temp. | Temp, 107T | Tow, 1m) 1, (A) wo | wo T 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Calculations Plot a graph in log 1, and 10°7t (Slope/5.036) eV Band gay Precautions a) Temperature should not increase 80°C. b) Use the diode in reverse bias. ' ©) Diode should be put properly to have good thermal contact. d) Reading of both the current and temperature should be taken simultaneously. Keep observing the readings both in cooling and heating,2 Q4 Ans. Q2 Ans. Q3 Ans. Qa Ans, Qs Ans. Q6 Ans. Q7 Ans. Viva-Voice Engineering Physics What are semiconductors? Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insula- tors. Its resistance decreases with rise in temperature i.e, It has negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Whereas metals has positive coefficient of resistance i.e. its resistance increases with increase in temperature. What is energy band gap? Energy band gap is the energy difference between the valance band and conduction band. ‘What are the energy band gap of silicon and germanium? For silicon it is 1.1 eV, and for germanium it is 0.72 eV. How will you differentiate between metals, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of energy level diagram? In metals, the valance band and conduction bands overlaps. In semiconductors, their is very less energy gap between valance and conduction band. In insulators, the gap between valance and conduction band is very large. Can a semiconductor behave as insulators? Yes, at 0° K the semiconductor behaves as insulators. At this temperature, the valance band is full and conduction band is empty. What do you mean by reverse saturation current? When a PN junction is reverse biased, then current is due to minority curriers whose concentration is dependent in energy gap or band gap and the current is called as reverse saturation current. What is the dependence of reverse saturation current on temperature? Reverse saturation current increases approximately 7° percent/°C for both Ge and Si. This current doubles for every 10° rise in temperature. Q BRILLIANT’S mistor. } Ohm's: decreas ‘The the therBRILLIAD BRILLIANT @n Experiment-4 Aim ‘To determine the refractive index and dispersive power of the materi | of pristh with thee help of spectromete Engineering Physics Apparatus Required Spectrometer, prism, mercury source, reading lamp and spirit le vel. Formula Used Refractive index! Where A= Angle of P 8m = Angle of minimum deviation Hw ligand , = refractive index for voilet, red and yellow colou Description of Apparatus Spectrometer - The spectrometer consists of three @ The collimator C The prism table P. and Figure 4.1 SpectrometerNT'S. the BRILLIANT’S Experiments 29 (i The collimator - Collimator consists of two cylindrical hollow metallic tubes. Th achromaticlens'b at one end and the smallers is provided with a slit at the othe: be made wide or narrow by means of a screw S,. Both the tubes are connectéd gement such that the tu by the rack and pinion arrai ,¢ fitted with the slit can be moved inside or outside the tube fitted with the lens with the hel of screw S,. It is $0 adjusted that the slit fom the lens are focal plane of the lens so that the rays emerging ou ounted.on’a fixed collimator is ind and this stand is rigidly attached to the base of th The ¢ollimator rests on two screws provided below it with which it can spectromet horizontal. == (ii) The Prism table - It is a metallic circular dise horizontally in the centre of the instrument and the position can be read with the help of two vernier attached to it. The leveling of the provided at the lower surface. The table which the prism is kept, It is supported m table can be made with the he of three n be raised or lowered and clamped in any desi position with the help of screw. The prism table is also provided with a tangent screw fora motion. The circular dise has aight parallel lines and also the concentric circles draw on it surface. They help in’ placing the’ prism in the Correct position. (ili) Telescope - The telescope consists of similar tube: tide The eyepiece achromatic objective lens O at one end and Ramsdon eyepiece E on the othe tube can be moved in or out of the other tube by means of s -ew with the help of rack and pinion arrangement. On the outer side of eyepiece tube, there is a eyepi <¢ L, (a combination of two or more than two lenses) and crosswire within it. Only the eyepiece can be taken out or inserted by hand, $0 that cross wites lie at the focus of the eyepiece al the eyepii objective lens. The telescope is clamped to distinctly seen. By moving tube by means of screw, the ss wires can be ight in the focal plane of the the main body of the instrument and can be moved slightly by tange crew, The telescope is a hed to the main scale and when it rotates, the graduated scale rotates with it, The inclination of tel ope is adjusted by two screws provided at the lower surface. Adjustment Be (a) The axis of the telescope and that of the collimator must intersect the principal vertical ometer, the following adjustments must be made using the spe axis of rotation of the telescope: This adjustment is already been done by the manufacturer and can only be tested in the labor: ally in the centre of prism table and its image is observed in the telescope tube without eyepiece and for a wide cory. For this purpose a pin is mount slit in the collimator. If the image appears in the middle, at every position of telescope than the Otherwise the image is made in the centre by usi the screw supporting the telescope and collimator till the pins appear in the middle (b) Prism table should be levelled levelled with th 1. The prism ti a rews stipportti table. This done with the help of spirit leve second method w of the prism table.‘COLLIMATOR PRISM TABLE. oA a 5 ¢ @ © Figure 4.2 In this method, the prism is placed on the prism tube with its refracting edge at the centre of the prism table and one of its polished surface perpendicular to the line joining the two levelling screws P & Q as shown in figure 4.2 (a). Now rotate the prism table in such a way that refracting edges AB and AC face towards the collimator and light falling on the prism is usually reflected on both sides as in figure 4.2 (b), The telescope is moved to one side to receive the light reflected from the face AB and the levelling screws P and Q are adjusted to obtain the image in the centre of the field of view. Again the telescope is moved to the other side to receive the light reflected from the face AC and the remaining third screw R is adjusted till the image becomes in the central field of view of the telescope. The procedure is repeated till the two images from both the reflecting faces are seen in the central field of view of the telescope. The prism table is now levelled. (© Telescope and Collimator are adjusted for parallel light by Schuster’s method: First of all the prism is placed on the prism table and then adjusted deviati proximately for minimum, ion position (see procedure). The spectrum is now seen through the telescope. Now the refracting edge of the prism is slightly tuned towards the collimator and the collimator is, adjusted with the help of its rack and pinion arrangement such that spectrum is distinctly seen’ ‘Then the refracting edge of the prism is slightly turned towards the telescope and the telescope is adjusted with the help of its rack and pinion arrangement such that again the spectrum is distinctly seen, The process is repeated till the slight rotation of the prism table does not make the image to go out of focus. This means that both collimator and telescope are now individually set for parallel rays. Theory When a light ray QP is incident at the point O of the surface AB of the prism ABC, it follows the path OD after refraction through the surface AB (from air to glass), bending towards the normal NOM. The refracted ray is OD. This ray again suffers refraction from glass to air at the surface AC and bends away from the normal N'DM' (i.e. bends towards the base BC) and follow the path RS. The emergent ray is RS. The angle of incidence i is < QON, the angle of refraction is where A and B are some constant. What do you mean by pure and impure spectra? A spectrum in which various colours overlap each other and their regions are not clearly defined is called a impure spectrum and a spectrum in which various colours o distincts positions without any overlapping is known as pure spectrum. Why are two vemniers provided in the spectrometer ? ‘This is done to eliminate the error due to the non- coincidence of the centre of the graduated scale with the axis of rotation of the prism table or the telescope. Ifthe telescope carries the main scale, the prism table carries the vernier scale and vice-versa What is the type of eyepiece used? Ramsdon's eye piece. What is the construction of Ramsdon's eyepiece? Both the eye lens and field lens in this eyepiece have equal focal lengths, and the distance of separation between the two is equal to two third of the focal length of any of them. The crosswire is placed beyond th: field Jens, and the distance of the crosswire from lens is in normal adjustment equals one fourth the focal length of any of them. aBRILLIANT’S BRILLIANT’S. Engineering Physics The formati Experiment-2 Aim To find the wavelength of sodium light by measuring the diameter of Newton's rings. Apparatus Required Sodium lamp, travelling microscope, Newton's ring apparatus consisting of an optically J plane glass plate, convex lens, a glass plate movable at angle 4 = Lae ‘a a reflected light a Principle of Working The experimental arrangement of obtaining Newton's ring is shown in figure 2.1 For air film 2+ A2 Atthe poi intensity. Thus MICROSCOPE Theory : New r ee Diameters the lens placed entre at C. Let ing correspon Newton's Ring in Experiment Reflected Light (Central Spot Newton's Ring is Dark) in Experiment Figure 2.1 Lis a plano convex lens of radius of large curvature. This lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate P. The lens makes contact with the plate at C. Light from an extended monochromatic source falls on the glass plate G kept at 45° with the vertical. The glass plate G reflects a part of light normally on the air film enclosed by the lens L and the glass plate P. Newton's rings are observed due to the interference of two rays one which is reflected from the bottom of the plano convex lens and other ray which is reflected from the top of the plane glass plate. These rings ate localised in the air film, and can be seen with a microscope focused on the film,pically face is tee fare P mie eas em the BRILLIANT'S. Experiments The formation of Newton’ explained with the help of figure (2.2) Figure 2.2 Ray Diagram AB is a monochromatic ray of which goes out ight which falls on the system. A part of it is reflected at C form of ray 1. The other part which is refracted along CD, after reflection from D it comes out as ray 2, with a phase reversal of ray 1 and 2 satisfies the condition of interference and so they inte d produces dark and bright fringes. As the tings are observed in the flected light, the path difference between them is 2utcosr+A/2 For air film 1 = 1, and for normal incidence r = 0 hence in the case, thé path difference is 2b 0/2 Atthe point of contact t=0, and the path difference is 2/2, which is the condition of minimum intensity. Thus central spot k. For nt maximum, Theory : Newton's ring by reflected light Diameters of dark and bright rings can be c the len: Iculated as follows : In figure (2.3) Let LOL’ be s plate AB. The curved surface. LOL is the part of spherical surface with at C. Let R be the radius of curvature of plano convex lens and r be the radius of Newton's ring corresponding to the constant film thickness t, As discussed aboveBRILLIANT’S and 2t=nd, for dark ring where n= 0, 1, 2, 3... ee, From the property of circle NP x NQ=NO*ND Substituting the values x QR-t)=2Rt-te2Rt or 2Rt OR ‘Thus for bright ring eo HE. or D=V2ARxJin-1 or ive. the diameters of bright rings are proportional to the square roots of odd natural number. Similarly for dark ring 2t =m rt = or mR or Dén4mR or D=2VRaR or Dav “Thus Diameter of dark ring is proportional of the square root of natural number. Now as we have, D,2=4nAR and Diy =4(n + pRA ; D: Di = 4pRA Using this formula 2 is found. Procedure 1. Adjustments: (@) First the glass plate P, plano convex lens Land the plate P are cleaned to ensure that there are no dust particles. (ii) Now the light from sodium light is made to fall on the convex lens L, and the parallel light from lens L falls on the glass plate G which is to be kept at 45°. This ensures that light is falling normally on the system of plano convex lens and plane glass plate kept in contact beneath the glass plate G. / BRILLIAN (ii) D dv) 4 ™ B 3 2. Me @T @N ‘The d 3. Me taken. But by the for Wher the readin surface, Observal Value Total | Least Forth No. of rings 16 “4 12 10BRILLIANT’S. experiments 19 (ii) Note down the least count of travelling microscope. (iv) Move the eyepiece to and fro inside the tube so as to adjust it such that crosswires are s distinctly seen. (©) Focus the microscope to obtain distinct Newton's rings in the field of view by lowering or raising up the microscope by rack and pinion arrangement. 2. Measurement of Diameter of rings @ The microscope is moved horizontally (say towards left) with the help of tangential screw and counting the rings, the cross-wire is made tangential on the 16" bright circular ring. The reading of microscope is noted. Now the microscope is gradually moved towards left and the readings of say 14%, 12%, 108, 8%, and 6 rings are noted. Since itis difficult toadjust the cross-wire tangential tothe rings nearer to centre hence the readings are taken only upto 6" ring. i) Now keep on moving the tangential screw of the microscope in the same direction till the 6th ring on the right hand sideis reached. Again note the readings of 6, 8% 10%, 12%, 14% and 16 rings. ‘The difference in readings on the two sides of a ring will be its diameter. nber. 3. Measurement of R (radius of curvature): Usually lens of known radius of curvature is taken. But if the radius of curvature is unknown, the same can be calculated using spherometer by the formula, ee Cara Where | is the distance between the two legs of the spherometer and h is the difference of the readings of the spherometer when it is placed on the lens as well as when placed on plane surface, Observations Value of one division on the main scale of microscope (x) = .. cm. Total number of divisions on the vernier scale (n) = Value of one main scale division ( Hetet Count of mberoncope 735 saber of aivisten on Veil pale (9) = PO For the diameter of rings > No. of Reading of microscope Diameter | D?in rings ‘Onleftside ‘On right side of ring | cm? e MSRIVSRITR (a MS.RIVS.RITR. @ | D=a-b cm cm cmEngineering Physics BRILLIANT'S Calculations Result The value of 2 = Standard. value Note - For graphical method itis easier to calculate aby drawing graph of D? and number of rings figure 24 > No. of ring Figure 2.4 AB yeas 1 oO cD aR Precautions 1) The glass plate, lens must be perfectly cleaned (@) The glass plate should be kept al The radius of curvature of the plano convex lens must be large so that the large diameter ings may be obtained, i The source must be monochromatic and extended. (5) The tangential screw of the microscope must be mo he same direction to avoid (©) While measuring the diameter the cross-wire should be tangenti BRILLIAN Viva-Voie QW Ans. Th Q2 Ans. Q3WI Ans. Ne Q.4 Ne Ans. Ne 2 Ans. Di Q.6 WI Q.7 WI Q.8 Ca oom Q. 10 ite 7BRILLIANT’S Experiments Viva-Voice => | Q. 1 What are Newton's ring? ‘Ans. These are alternate bright and dark tings formed by monochromatic ight falling normally in air film formed between a plane-convex lens and a flat glass sutface. These rings were st studied by the Scientist Newton, hence known as Newton's ring Q.2 Whatare the applications of this Practical? ‘Ans. Newton's ring experiments are used to: 1. Find out the wavelength of monochromatic source of light: Find out the radius of curvature of plano-convex lens, fo check the surface quality of lens ‘4. To determine the refractive index of any li rofrings Q.3 Why Newton's ring are circular? ‘Ans. Newton's rings are circular because the locus of t al thickness in the air film a circle Q.4 Newion's rings are uniform or non-uniform ? [Ans. Newton's rings are non-uniform because as we go far from the central ring the rings get closer and closer this is because the diameter of dark and bright rings are not proportional to the same factor Q.5 To what factor are the diameters of dark and bright rings proportional? Ans. Diameter of dark rings are proportional to the square root of natural number and the diameter of bright rings are proportional to the square root of odd natiral ntimbers @. 6 Whatis the Principle of this experiment? ‘Ans. Newton's ring experiment is based on the principle of interference due to division of amplitude, Q.7 Which two rays interfere to give Newton's ring ? ‘Ans. The two rays which interfere are the one which is céming from the bottom of the plano convex lens and the other coming from the top of the plane glass plate Q.8 Can you name any other device working on the principle of interference due to division Bameter of amplitude ? ; Ans, Michelson interferometer Q.9 What are the types of Newton's ring? avoid ARS. (1) By reflected light (2) By transmitted light Q. 10 How you obtain Newton's ring in your case? Ans. By reflected light,2 Qn Aas. Qu Ans. Q13 Ans. Que Ans. Qa5 Ans. Q.16 Ans. Qa7 Ans. a8 Ans, Engineering Physics BRILLIANT’S: What is the difference in both types? Newton's ring due to reflected light are obtained by the interference of reflected light where as the Newton's rings due to transmitted light are obtained by the interference of transmitted light from the plane glass plate and plano convex lens. Also in case of Newton's ring due to reflected light the central spot is dark and due to transmitted light the central spot is bright. Why the central spot is dark in case of Newton's ring due to reflected light? n [As for the reflected light, the path difference = 2t+> At the centre since the thickness of air film ie. t= 0 a Path difference = , which is the condition of destructive interference hence the central spot is dark. Can we get bright spot at the centre? Yes we can get bright spot if their is any dust particle at the point of contact between lens and plane glass plate. Why we get bright spot at the centre due to dust particle? Because due to dust particle at the centret # Ohence path difference # > i.e, the condition of destructive interference is not satisfied. ‘The radius of curvature of your lens should be large or small ? Large. Why ‘R' Should be large? ‘The radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens must be large so that angle of the film is. small and the rings are of large diameters. How will the fringes be affected if few drops of aliquid are inserted in between the lens and the plate? What will happen if in your experiment, the sodium lamp is replaced by a white light source ? [since : l ‘The diameter of rings will decrease, ie, the fringes will appear to contract There will be few coloured rings around the centre. These rings will be few in number since on moving away from the centre, there will be overlapping between the bright and. dark rings of different wave lengths. The rings will be in order from violet to red because the diameter of a ring is proportional to the square root of wavelength. BRILLIANT Aim To del Apparat AMic Formula Here, Apparatu This 1 optically p optically 4 each other can be mo can be ind which recEngineering Physics BRILLIANT'S: Experimen aim To determine the wavelength of main spectral lines of mercury lamp with the help of plane transmission grating Pat BRILLIA Apparatus Required Plane transmission grating, spectrometer, mercury lamp, prism, reading lamp and reading R: lens. Description of Apparatus Th 1. Spectrometer- The spectrometer is described in experiment number 4 2. Plane transmission grating- It js an arrangement in which there isa fine quality of glass con which parallel lines are ruled equidistant with a fine diamond point by a machine. Th ‘The ruled lines are opaque to light, the spacing between any two lines (order of 2) are transparent. This is plane transmission grating } sivest Theory Formu The figure (5.1) represents a section of wave front ww’, grating collimating lens L, and screen ' XY is placed perpendicular to plane of paper. Secondary wavelets originates in all directions and are focused at a point Py on screen XY. The point P, will be central maxima along with P,, for angularly diffracted. The net resultant is bright and dark bands on both sides of central maxima. Ww ‘The intensity distribution at PP, ete is considered by applying the principle of a single slit. (a+b)sind=na | The waves starting from $,S,...$, etcin figure 5.1 in section of wavefront will differ in phase from S. respectively increasing in A. poem SCREEN Figure 5.1LiANT’ of plane reading nf glass achine, 2) are ns and P,, for slit. phase BRILLIANT'S Experiments The resultant of N slits is found by putting St in the equations of single sit. nec sinNB = snp Ris resultant amp. The intensity 1 The factor A’ =" ~ gives the intensity of diffraction pattern due to single slit and gives the combined effect of all such slits Formula Used The wavelength 2 of a spectral line is calculated by the formula esinO=nd 1. Adjustment of spectrometer -> Same as described in experiment no 4. Figure 5.2Engineering Physics BRILLIANT’S (0) Collimator and telescope are arranged in a line and the image ofthe slit is focused on the vertical crosswire. The reading is noted on both the venires. (i) The telescope is now rotated through 90°. i) Mount the grating on the prism table and rotate the prism table so that the reflected image is seen on the vertical crosswire. Take the reading of the verniers. (iv) Turn the prism table from this position through 45 is normal to the incident beam. or 135°. In this position the grating 3. ‘The slit should be adjusted parallel to the lines of the grating -> for this setting, the slit is rotated in its own plane till the spectral lines become very sharp and bright. 4. Measurement of angle of diffraction (0) rte, + Ste, Voor Figure 5.3 (0) Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct image and adjust the different spectral lines (violet, green and red tum by turn on the vertical crosswite for Ist order. Note down the reading of both the verniers in each setting (i) Rotate the telescope further to obtain the second order spectrum and adjust the spectral lines on the vertical crosswire and note the reading, iil) Now rotate the telescope to the right of the direct image and repeat the above procedure for first order as well as for second order. iv) Find out the difference of the same kind of verniers (V, from V, and V, from V,) for each pectral line in the first order and then in the second order. The angle is the twice the ingle of diffraction for that particular colour. Half of it will be angle of diffraction. (©) Find out the angles of diffraction for other colours in first and second orders. Observations 1. Value of one division on main scale of spectrometer, x Total number of divisions on the v ier scale, n= ae % __ Value of one division on M.S._ ast count of Vernier = oral No of divisions on the VS. BRILLIAN 3. Fe ‘Orderd Spectr First ord n=l [Second < Calcul ‘The! Gr From Putt waveleny Result The\ fuuanrs BRILLIANT'S Experiments 38 Lesst-caunt 96 pectoetar iC Reading of telescope for direct image = he reflected Reading of telescope after rotating it through 90° = ale hai flied tage belied! Userebestrire the grating Reading after rotating the Prism table throigh 45° or 135% 3, For diffraction angle 6 Reading of circular s ae craic Es so te ee Baas eae a “ ere x eI v2 Second ordey Red vi a) 7 aaa Snes Tov Son i vw Calculations oo The number of lines ruled per inch on the given grating N = Mrocedure “, 254 ciunganamcase ees es eresch From, esin@=nd eine Se: : E: Pung yabiok poe femsder 1 ond oe mos ESET) OWE altar clo, he wavelength of different colours (wavelength) can be found Result The wavelengths of different colours for the given source of light (..) are given as follows Colour of Spectral] Observed wave | Standard Wave- | Percentage length % (in A°) | length in A®) error Red Yellow Violet {a Enalnsasing Physics BRLLIANT'S Precautions 2, Light should fall normally onthe gating 3, Ging shouldinot in toch by hada 1, Fol gate baer ote Sato Slr ek pe ea slop Viva-Voice (Q.1 What do you mean by diffraction ? travelengih of igh is called faction 0.2 Differentiate between interference and dtacion 0.3 Whats difacion grating? 0.4 What is gating element? denoted by (a €) where eis with of teanperet parts width of opaque part Dope hen) cries ae ita OW aetai Ans. We knw that (e+ ) Sin =m pe ei earn ee eee Dear i uiere (2.6 What are the main diference inthe grating sper sd prim pect? ide. Heno ‘The prism spectra depends on the material of prism, while the grating spectra does not depend on the material of grating the sm spectrum is more intense than the grating spectra, Inthe prism spectra, the violet colour is deviated most and the red colour in deviated least while in grating spectra, ed colour is maximum {fraction angle for the violet colour is minimum and for the Qn Qn Ans Q1 Ans. Qn Ans Aniers order ferent sacle sepa- his is part, ther BRILLIANT’S Experiments an Q.7 What are the types of diffraction? Ans. Fresnal’s diffraction and frounhaffer's diffraction. Q. 8 Differentiate between them. ‘Ans.(1) In Frounhaffer diffraction the distance between source and slit is infinite whereas in the .¢ of Fresnel's diffraction, it is finite ) In Frounhaffer diffraction lens is used but in Fresnel's diffraction lens is not used @) In Frounhaffer diffraction, the incoming wavefronts plane while in Fresnel’s diffraction, the incoming wavefront is spherical or cylindrical Q. 9 Which diffraction is used here? ‘Ans. Frounhaffer's diffraction Q. 10 What is the dispersive power of grating? ‘Ans. The rate of change of angle of diffraction with wavelength is defined as the dispersive power of grating. This is expressed as dy on dh (e+d)e0s® Dispersive power is more for higher orders. Q. 11 On what factors does the dispersive power of a grating depends? ‘Ans. The dispersive power depends upon (i) grating element (i) angle of diffraction (il) order of spectrum. Q. 12 When will be the second order missing ? Ans. When e=d ie, when the distance between two opaque lines is equal to the width of the opaque line. Q. 13 What are the types of grating? Ans.(i) Transmission grating, which are ruled on plane glass surfaces. (ii) Reflection gratings, which are ruled on polished surface ( Q. 14 What is the resolving power of grating ? ine oF concave) Ans. Resolving power of grating is nN Where n= Order of Spectrum and N= Number of lines on grating Q. 15 What do you mean by ‘ghosts’ and how do they arise in grating spectra? Ans. Ghosts are the false lines accompanying the genuine lines in the spectra produced by a grating, They arise on account of some periodic error made in the spacing of the rulings.BRILLIA Engineering Physics BRILLIANT'S i Experimen a Aim Ine ‘To measure the divergence and beam waist of the laser beam. The Apparatus Required oa He-Ne laser, stand, screen, measuring tape, graph papers. a Theory Fro Divergence is defined as the spread of the laser beam i.e. how much angle is subtended by . the laser spot at the point of origin. It is measured in radians. The divergence of the laser bear is extremely small as compared to the conventional lights sources: A laser beam after travelling the distance upto moon spreads only 2 km across while this much spread takes place by torch light only when light travels a few kilometer distance. This is because of the low divergence of the laser beam. The typical divergence of a He-Ne laser is of the order of 1 mill radia Proce Another characteristics ofthe beam is called waist diameter. The beam waist of a Laser beam _ is the location along the propogation direction where the beam radius has a minimum, The waist _ radius (Wo) is the beam radius at this location. 3 It can be located anywhere with respect to the laser but it is often at the output window. . A laser beam whose divergence approaches the minimum divergence and maximum power in 4 the prescribed area of the beam is referred to as a Gaussian beam. We shall assume thatthe laser beam is oscillating in TEMyy mode; its output is @ Gaussian Obse beam Di Tt can be shown that the radius w(z) of the beam varies with z (taken along the direction of propagation) as - (92°¥ wan] to( 227] zi Where 2w is the waist diameter (diameter where the wavefront is plane) of the beam and 1 is the wavelength of laser radiation. Obse dw(z The gradient “= 0(2)] of the beam radius locus at a distance 2 is given by L i) 2O lik an @ \awa) wel “Lawe) | The angle 6(2) varies with z. However, when Rest! 2 2, 8(2)=8(a) 6,= é ied by beam elling torch ce of jow. in nd 87 BRILLIANT'S Experiments 8, is the half dive nce angle of the beam. The determination of 0, requires the measurement Equation (1) can be expressed as. wiz) = wg + Og? 2? ®) In equation (4), Wo ® and 2 are three unknown parameters, Therefo} et up 3 equations to obtain the values of w, and @,. For this purpose w (spot xbitrary planes distant 2, 2+ D and 2 + 2D froma reference plane. We red at sor have O fe w2()ewe+Oe (+P w2(2)= (+207 ‘The waist size w, is given by wy = Procedure 1. Mou! he laser in a fixed position and level the laser 2, seatecheeeliones 3. Place the screen at the distance 2, 2 dimension of the laser beam spot on graph paper at each observation point, 4. Measure the radius of the spot at each observation point and note down in the observa: ron the screen. D and z + 2D and carefully draw the outside tion table, Observations Divergence using distance formula ‘Screen Laser > Oo screen — 2 es Figure 9.1 Divergence of laser beam Observation Table S.No. | Distance(Gm) | Sport Size (W) em ©, (mili radians) 3 24D Wy Loess 2+2D ws Result ‘The divergence of the laser beam is one of its important parameter, The experimentally obtained divergence value is in a very good agreement with the theoretical value. The average divergence is found to be 1 milli radians as expected88 Engineering Physics BRILLIANT'S Precautions 1. The observation points should be equally spaced. 2. Draw the beam spot carefully 3. Avoid direct viewing of Laser. Altemate method Aim ‘To measure the divergence of the laser beam using a lens of known focal length. Apparatus Required Hel fe laser, screen, scale, lens. Theory Same as above ERS (lane? Screen — 1 Figure 9.2 Divergence of laser beam by using a lens. Procedure Another simple method to determin: beam and measure the radius of focal measured ve 1 Op isto insert a lens of known focal length fin the laser spot w. The divergence 8, = wif. Spot size should be ery accurately. Lens should be of large focal length i.e. about 100 cm or more, Observations 1. Focal length of lens (f) = 2. Size of Spot on the screen (w) = Calculation Precautions 1. Lens used should be of large focal length. 2. Spot size should be measured accurately. Ywa - Voice Q. 1 Whatis the full form of LASER ? Ans, ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation’ BRILL Q2 Ans. Q3 Ans.oe BRILLINAT'S Experiments 59 Q2 a Ans, Q3 Ans. Qa Ans.1 2. 3. 4. Qs Ans.1 6 laser P d be Ans.L Ans. Qs Ans, What do you mean by stimulated emission? According to Enstein, an atom in an excited energy state may, under the influence of the electromagnetic field of a photon of frequency v incident upon it, jumps to a lower energy state, emitting an additional photon of same frequency (v). Hence two photon, one original and the other emitted, move together. This is stimulated emission of radiation. How laser light differs from ordinary light? Laser light is produced by stimulated emission while ordinary light is produced by spontaneous emission, Give few important properties of laser beam, It is coherent, ie, The emitted waves are in same phase. It is monochromatic, ie. its wavelength is limited in a very small range. Its angular spread is very small Extreme brightness. Give few important things about He-ne laser. Herne laser is a gas laser. It is continuous las It is a four-level laser system. nvented by Ali Javan, D Herriot and W. Bennet. Electric discharge is used for pumping, He-ne are in the ratio 10:1, Tt was i This laser is widely used for laboratory work having wavelength of 6328 A and itis available in the out power range from 1 mw to 10 mw. Give few application of Laser. Laser is used in Medical works, Laser is used in Material workings, e.g. - cutting, drilling, etc, Laser has military Application. Also laser is used in marking holograms, laser light shows, laser pointers, controlling chemical reactions, basic research, ete Why laser light has got low divergence. Because of the optical resonator used. What is an optical resonator? ‘An optical resonator is an assembly of active medium sandwitched between two mir- rors. apruanr's < lass envelop, reen, e signals and ster monitor py willemite or medium very low, BRILLIANT’S Experiments To study the Hall Effect experiment and find the Hall coefficient, carrier density and carrier mobility of a given semiconductor crystal Apparatus required Hall probe, Hall Effect set-up, Electromagnet, constant current power supply, digital Gauss Aim meter. Formula Used Yaw iw fi _ Hall coefficient Rye = [iq = 3 * slope of Vir, graph (V cm A*1G+ or 10° cm?/C) Hall field E,,= ~ ¢vjem) all fie tt (viem) 1 Cartier density n= (cm) Carrier mobility Ry o(em*V-'sec-t) Where, V,,: Hall Voltage, w : thickness of the crystal, d: width of the crystal, Ij: Hlall Curr Hi: magnetic field, q: charge 1.6 « 10-” and o: conductivity of the sample Theory When a sample (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current I placed in a transverse mag netic field H, then an electric field Eis induced in the direction perpendicular to both Yand H. This Phenomenon is called Hall Effect. The Hall Effect may be used for: 1, Whether a semiconductor is n or p type 2. Finding the carrier concentration 3. In calculating the mobility 4 by measuring the conductivity © Figure 34.1 shows a semiconductor bar carrying a current I in the positive X direction. Let magnetic field H is applied in the positive Z direction. Now a force is exerted on the cha carriers (electrons or holes) in the negative Y direction. Due to this force, charge cartiers are Pressed downwards toward face 1. For example, in n type sample, the charge cartiers are «lectrons which are accumulated on face 1, So face 1 becomes negatively charged with respect to face 2. Therefore a potential difference V,, is developed between surface 1 and 2 which is called the Hall voltage. The polarity of Hall voltage enables us to determine experimen the semiconductor sample is n type or p type. whetherEngineering Physics Y Semiconductor Bar BRILLIANT'S: aaa Figure: 34.1 Figure: 34.2 In equilibrium state, the electric field intensity E due to Hall Effect must exert a force on the carriers which just balances the magnetic force i.e., (a) where e is the magnitude of charge on electron or hole and v is the drift velocity Now, Y, B=“ of Vv, =Ex qt Vt End Vy=Hvd te E=H @) We know that the current density J is given by tedepey a Where p is the charge density and A= wd is the area of the sample. ¥ Pp: xA @) From equations 2 and 3) we have Hel oa Now We introduce Hall coeticiént Ry, defined by Ryo @ Hx Procedure Adjustment of magnetic field: Switch ON the constant current power supply and adjust the input current to obtain the magnetic field H BRILLIAN Deter 1 Cc ef Pu te(BRILLIANT'S current 2 a force on the ity and adjust BRILLIANT’S Determination of Hall Voltage Experiments 163 Connect the green wires to the current and red wires to the voltage terminals of the Hall effect setup. Put the crystal exactly perpendicular and symmetrically between the poles of the elec- tromagnets Increase the value of current, in steps of ImA and note the corresponding Hall potential Vjq for one direction of current and magnetic field Now reverse the directions of current and magnetic field by interchanging the present polarities ‘Again increase the value of current I, in steps of 1 mA and note the corresponding Hall potential Viz for other direction of current and magnetic field Take the mean of Vi and Vj say it as Vip to calculate the Hal field E,, = Repeat the above steps for different value of H. From the above data plot a graph between I,,and Vy for both the values of magnetic field this wll ea stsight ine The slope ofthese line multiplied by “wl ve the Hal coefficient of the crystal. Now take the mean of the above calculated two values of hall coefficients to have the required average value, 10.The other parameters such as carrier density and mobility are calculated using Hall coefficient. Observations Specification of the sample Input current leads: Green Hall voltage output leads: Red (Crystal: p type lightly doped Thickness (Ww)? [Maximum current : 10mA width of the crystal (d)= mn] He S| Input | Hall voltage V,,, (mV)] Hall Voltage V, | Mean | Hall Field No. | Current (mV) when Ij,and H_ | V,(mV) | Ey(@V,/d) 1, (ma) are in other direction | (Vj, | ¢Volem) + Vii 7 a 3 4 5 6Engineering Physics Z 8 10 BRILLIANT'S Results ‘The Hall Effect set up is studied and the various parameters measured for the give crystal are as follows: Hall coefficient Ry, (108 em*/C Hall field E,, (V/em) = Carrier density n (cm) Carrier mobility » (em?V~! sec Precautions 1. While noting the value of Hall voltage the directions of current and magnetic field should be changed simultaneously. 2, The zero field potential should be as small as possible and should be subtracted from the measured potential. Hall probe should be handled very carefully. Readings should be noted carefully. Viva Voice Q.1 What is Hall Effect? ‘Ans. When a sample (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current I placed in a transverse ‘magnetic field H, then an electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both and H. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. Q.2 On what factors the sign of Hall potential depends? ‘Ans. It depends upon the nature of charge carries. Thus by noting the directions of Hall potential and the magnetic field, the nature of charge carriers may be determined by the use of Flemings left hand rule. Q.3 How do you define Hall Coeffici ‘Ans. It is numerically defined as Hall electric field produced by unit current density and unit magnetic field Q.4, What is mobility? Ans: It is the drift velocity of the charge carrier acquired per unit electric field Q5. What are the applications of Hall Effect? ‘Ans: The applications of Hail Effect are: 1. It is used to determine the sign of the charge carriers which inturn determines whether semiconductors n- type or p- type. Density of charge carriers. Mobility of charge carriers. ent? 3 BRILLIAM Objectiv To de Construs The ¢ about 6 Sextant. the circu on anoth desired p Onearla and other axis of th flected Principh AS Ly 24 Princip