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Analog Multiplier and PLL

UNIT-III

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Introduction

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Introduction

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MULTIPLIERS
A multiple produces an output V0 , which is

proportional to the product of two inputs Vx

and Vy.
That is, V0 = K Vx Vy
where K is the scaling factor that is usually
maintained as (1/10) V-1
There are various methods available for performing
analog multiplication. Four of such techniques,
namely,
1. Logarithmic summing technique
2. Pulse height/width modulation Technique
3. Variable trans conductance Technique
4. Multiplication using Gilbert cell and
5. Multiplication using variable trans conductance
technique.

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Terminologies associated voltage of the multiplier

characteristics

Accuracy:
This specifies the derivation of the actual output from the ideal output, for any
combination of X and Y inputs falling within the permissible operating range of the
multiplier.
Linearity:
This defines the accuracy of the multiplier. It represents the maximum percentage
derivation from the ideal straight line output. An error surface is formed by plotting the
output for different combinations of X and Y inputs. The Linearity Error can be defined
as the maximum absolute derivation of the error surface. This linearity error imposes a
lower limit on the multiplier accuracy.

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..CONTD

Squaring Mode Accuracy:

The Square law curve is obtained with both the X and Y inputs
connected together and applied with the same input signal. The
maximum derivation of the output voltage from an ideal square
law curve expresses the squaring mode accuracy.

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..CONTD
Bandwidth:
The Bandwidth indicates the operating capability of an analog
multiplier at higher frequency values. Small signal 3 dB
bandwidth defines the frequency f0 at which the output
reduces by 3dB from its low frequency value for a constant
input voltage. This is identified individually for the X and Y
input channels normally.
The transconductance bandwidth represents the frequency at
which the transconductance of the multiplier drops by 3dB of
its low frequency value. This characteristics defines the
application frequency ranges when used for phase detection
or AM detection.
Quadrant:
The quadrant defines the applicability of the circuit for
bipolar signals at its inputs. First quadrant device accepts
only positive input signals, the two quadrant device accepts
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the four
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quadrant device accepts two bipolar signals.

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Logarithmic summing Technique:

This technique uses the relationship

lnVx + lnVy =ln(VxVy)

Logarithmic multiplier has low accuracy and high temperature

instability. This method is applicable only to positive values of
Vx and Vy.
this type of multiplier is restricted to one quadrant operation
only.
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Pulse Height/ Width Modulation

Technique:

V z = K z T = K z At=Vx Vy/Kx Ky

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Multiplier using Emitter coupled

Transistor pair

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..CONTD

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Variable Transconductance
Technique:

V0 = gm RLVx = (Vy/VTRE)VxRL
=(Vx Vy RL/Vt Re

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Four Quadrant Variable

transconductance multiplier

The four quadrant operation indicates that the output voltage is

directly proportional to the product of the two input voltages
regardless of the polarity of the inputs and such multipliers can be
operated
in
all
the
four
quadrants of
operation.

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Analog Multiplier ICs

Analog multiplier is a circuit whose output voltage at any instant is

proportional to the product instantaneous value of two individual input
voltages.
The important applications----multiplication, division, squaring and square
rooting of signals, modulation and demodulation.
These analog multipliers are available as integrated circuits consisting of
op-amps and other circuit elements. V0 =VxVy/10

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Multiplier quadrants:

The transfer characteristics of a typical four-quadrant multiplier is shown in

figure. Both the inputs
can be positive or negative to obtain the corresponding output as shown in
the transfer
characteristics.

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Applications of Multiplier ICs:

The multiplier ICs are used for the following purposes:
1. Voltage Squarer
2. Frequency doubler
3. Voltage divider
4. Square rooter
5. Phase angle detector
6. Rectifier

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Voltage Squarer:

Figure shows the multiplier IC connected as a squaring circuit. The inputs

can be positive or
negative, represented by any corresponding voltage level between 0 and 10V.
The input voltage Vi to be squared is simply connected to both the input
terminals, and hence we have, Vx = Vy = Vi and the output is V0 = K Vi2 .
The circuit thus performs the squaring operation. This application can be
extended for frequency doubling applications.

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Frequency doubler

A sine-wave signal Vi has a peak amplitude of Av and frequency of

fHz.
Assuming a peak amplitude Av of 5V and frequency f of 10KHz, V0
=1.25 1.25 cos2(20000)t.
The first term represents the dc term of 1.25V peak amplitude .
The output waveforms ripples with twice the input frequency in the
rectified output of the input signal. This forms the principle of
application of analog multiplier as rectifier of ac signals. The dc
component of output V0 can be removed by connecting a 1F
coupling capacitor between the output terminal and a load resistor,
across which the output can be observed.

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Frequency doubler

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Voltage Divider

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Phase angle Detector

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PHASE LOCKED LOOP

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PLL

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PLL

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PLL

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PLL- construction and operation

The phase detector or comparator compares the input frequency fs with

feedback frequency fo. The output of the phase detector is proportional to the
phase difference between fs & fo. The output of the phase detector is a dc
voltage & therefore is often referred to as the error voltage.
LPF removes the high frequency noise and produces a dc level. The high
frequency component (fs + fo) is removed by the low pass filter
The output frequency of VCO is directly proportional to the dc level. The VCO
frequency is
compared with input frequency and adjusted until it is equal to the input
frequencies.
PLL goes through 3 states, i) free running ii) Capture iii) Phase lock.
Before the input is applied, the PLL is in free running state.
Once the input frequency is applied the VCO frequency starts to change and
PLL is said to be in the capture mode. The VCO frequency continuous to change
until it equals the input frequency and the PLL is in phase lock mode.
When Phase locked, the loop tracks any EC6404-LINEAR
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input frequency
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through its repetitive
action.

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PLL

The phase detector is basically a multiplier and produces the sum (fs + fo)
and difference (fs - fo) components at its output. The high frequency
component (fs + fo) is removed by the low pass filter and the difference
frequency component is amplified then applied as control voltage vc to VCO.
The signal vc shifts the VCO frequency in a direction to reduce the frequency
difference between fs and fo. Once this action starts, we say that the signal is
in the capture range. The VCO continues to change frequency till its output
frequency is exactly the same as the input signal frequency. The circuit is then
said to be locked.
Once locked, the output frequency fo of VCO is identical to fs except for a
finite phase difference . This phase difference generates a corrective
control voltage vc to shift the VCO frequency from f0 to fs and thereby
maintain the lock. Once locked,PLL tracks the frequency changes of the input
signal.
Thus, a PLL goes through three stages (i)free running, (ii) capture and (iii)
locked or tracking.
Capture range: the range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock
with an input signal is called the capture EC6404-LINEAR
range. This
parameter is also
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expressed as percentage of fo.
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Pull-in time: the total time taken by the PLL to establish lock is called pull-in

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Low Pass filter

The function of the LPF is to remove the high frequency components in

the output of the phase detector and to remove the high frequency noise.
LPF controls the characteristics of the phase locked loop. i.e, capture
range, lock ranges, bandwidth
Lock range(Tracking range):The lock range is defined as the range of
frequencies over which the PLL system follows the changes in the input
frequency fIN.
Capture range:Capture range is the frequency range in which the PLL
acquires phase lock. Capture range is always smaller than the lock range.
Filter Bandwidth:Filter Bandwidth is reduced, its response time increases.
However reduced Bandwidth reduces the capture range of the PLL.
Reduced Bandwidth helps to keep the loop in lock
through momentary losses of signal and also minimizes noise.

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Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

The third section of PLL is the VCO; it generates an

output frequency that is directly proportional to its
input voltage.
Voltage controlled oscillator
A voltage controlled oscillator is an oscillator
circuit in which the frequency of oscillations can be
controlled by an externally applied voltage
The maximum output frequency of NE/SE 566 is
500 Khz.

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Equations

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Monilithic VCO-IC 566

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MONOLITHIC PHASE LOCKED

LOOPS (PLL IC 565)
Pin Configuration of PLL IC 565:

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Block Diagram

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IC565

The signetics NE/SE 560 series is monolithic phase locked loops. The
SE/NE 560, 561,
562, 564, 565 & 567 differ mainly in operating frequency range, poser
supply requirements & frequency & bandwidth adjustment ranges.
The important electrical characteristics of the 565 PLL are,
Operating frequency range: 0.001Hz to 500 Khz.
Operating voltage range: 6 to 12v
Input level required for tracking: 10mv rms min to 3 Vpp max
Input impedance: 10 K ohms typically.
Output sink current: 1mA
Output source current: 10 mA
The center frequency of the PLL is determined by the free running
frequency of the VCO, which is given by

where R1&C1 are an external resistor & a capacitor connected to

pins 8 & 9.
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IC565

The lock range fL & capture range fc of PLL is given

by,

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Applications of PLL-IC
1.Frequency Multiplier

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2.FSK Demodulator

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FSK Demodulator

The output of 555 FSK generator is applied

to the 565 FSK demodulator.
Capacitive coupling is used at the input to
remove dc line.
At the input of 565, the loop locks to the
input frequency & tracks it between the 2
frequencies.
R1 & C1 determine the free running
frequency of the VCO, 3 stage RC ladder filter
is used to
remove the carrier component from the
output.
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3.AM Demodulation

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4.Frequency
multiplication/division:

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5.Frequency Synthesizer

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