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MCS 013
July 2016-january 2017 session

Ans 3 (a)

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Ans

In number theory and combinatorics, a partition of a positive integer n, also called an integer
partition, is a way of writing n as a sum of positive integers. Two sums that differ only in the order of
theirsummands are considered the same partition. (If order matters, the sum becomes
a composition.) For example, 4 can be partitioned in five distinct ways:
4
3+1
2+2
2+1+1
1+1+1+1
The order-dependent composition 1 + 3 is the same partition as 3 + 1, while the
two distinct compositions 1 + 2 + 1 and 1 + 1 + 2 represent the same partition 2
+ 1 + 1.

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A summand in a partition is also called a part. The number of partitions of n is
given by the partition function p(n). So p(4) = 5. The notation n means
that is a partition of n.
Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers
diagrams. They occur in a number of branches of mathematics andphysics,
including the study of symmetric polynomials, the symmetric group and in group
representation theory in general.

Write down all partitions of 8

8
7+1
6+2
5+2+1

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4+2+1+1

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3+2+1+1+1

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2+2+1+1+1+1
1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1

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Ignou Study Helper (sunilpoonia006)

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(c) What is set? Explain the basic properties of sets.

Ans
A set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up a set (also known as
the elements or members of a set) can be anything: numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other

Ignou Study Helper (sunilpoonia006)

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sets, and so on. Georg Cantor, the founder of set theory, gave the following definition of a set at the
beginning of his Beitrge zur Begrndung der transfiniten Mengenlehre:[1]
A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our perception [Anschauung]
or of our thoughtwhich are calledelements of the set.
Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have
precisely the same elements.[2]
Cantor's definition turned out to be inadequate for formal mathematics; instead, the notion of a "set"
is taken as a primitive notion in axiomatic set theory, and the properties of sets are defined by a
collection of axioms. The most basic properties are that a set can have elements, and that two sets
are equal (one and the same) if and only if every element of each set is an element of the other; this
property is called the extensionality of sets.
property

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The two basic properties to represent a set are explained below using various examples.

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1. The change in order of writing the elements does not make any changes in the set.

In other words the order in which the elements of a set are written is not important. Thus,
the set {a, b, c} can also be written as {a, c, b} or {b, c, a} or {b, a, c} or {c, a, b} or {c,
b, a}.

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For Example:

Set A = {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} is same as set A = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}

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i.e., {4, 6, 7, 8, 9} = {8, 4, 9, 7, 6}

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Similarly, {w, x, y, z} = {x, z, w, y} = {z, w, x, y}

and so on.

2. If one or many elements of a set are repeated, the set remains the same.
In other words the elements of a set should be distinct. So, if any element of a set is
repeated number of times in the set, we consider it as a single element. Thus, {1, 1, 2, 2,
3, 3, 4, 4, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4}
The set of letters in the word GOOGLE = {G, O, L, E}
For Example:
The set A = {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} is same as set A= {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
i.e., {5, 6, 7, 6, 8, 5, 9} = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
In general, the elements of a set are not repeated. Thus,

Ignou Study Helper (sunilpoonia006)

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(i) if T is a set of letters of the word moon: then T = {m, o, n},
There are two os in the word moon but it is written in the set only once.
(ii) if U = {letters of the word COMMITTEE}; then U = {C, O, M, T, E}

Solved examples using the properties of sets:

1. Write the set of vowels used in the word UNIVERSITY.
Solution:
Set V = {U, I, E}

2. For each statement, given below, state whether it is true or false along with the
explanations.

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(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ..} = {9}

(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}

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Solution:

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(i) {9, 9, 9, 9, 9, ..} = {9}

True, since repetition of elements does not change the set.

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(ii) {p, q, r, s, t} = {t, s, r, q, p}

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True, since the change in order of writing the elements does not change the set.

Ignou Study Helper (sunilpoonia006)

www.ignousite.blogspot.com

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Ans (b)
Definition Of Multiplication Principle:Multiplication Principle states: If an event occurs in m ways and another event occurs independently in n ways,
then the two events can occur in m n ways.

EXAMPLES OF MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE

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A pizza corner sells pizza in 3 sizes with 3 different toppings. If Bob wants to
pick one pizza with one topping, there is a possibility of 9 combinations as the
total number of outcomes is equal to Number of sizes of pizza Number of
different toppings.

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Ignou Study Helper (sunilpoonia006)

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7.

(a)

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Explain principle of duality with example?

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Ans.

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Principal of duality

According to principle of duality "Dual of one expression isobtained by replacing

AND (.)withOR(+) and OR with AND togetherwith replacement of 1 with 0 and 0
with 1.

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For example:
consider the expression A+B=0. The dual of this expression is obtained by
replacing + with . and 0 by 1. i.e., A.B=1 is dual of A+B=0.

Ignou Study Helper (sunilpoonia006)

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(d)

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State and prove the Pigeonhole principle.

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Ans.
Pigeonhole Principle

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The word "pigeonhole" literally refers to the shelves in the form of square boxes or holes that were utilized

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to place pigeons earliar in the United States. In mathematics, there is a concept, inspired by such
pigeonholes, known as pigeonhole principlewhich was introduced in 1834 by a German
mathematician Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet. On his name, this principle is also termed as Dirichlet
principle.

Pigeonhole principle roughly states that if there are few boxes available; also, there are few objects that
are greater than the total number of boxes and one needs to place objects in the given boxes, then at
least one box must contain more than one such objects.
In this page below, we shall go ahead and learn about pigeonhole principle and its applications.
The definition of pigeonhole principle is that:

If "n" number of pigeons or objects are to placed in " k" number of pigeonholes or boxes; where k<n,
then there must be at least one pigeonhole or box which has more than one object.

Ignou Study Helper (sunilpoonia006)

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We can also define pigeonhole principle as:
If n items are to be put in k boxes, then there must be an empty hole if and only if there exists at least one
hole containing more than one pigeon.
Pigeonhole principle gives rise to many useful, but simple and quite evident extensions. According to the
more formal definition of an extension of this principle.

Proof
Proof of Generalized Pigeonhole Principle
In order to prove generalized pigeonhole principle, we shall use the method of induction. According to
which we will assume the contradiction and prove it wrong.
Let us suppose that total "n" number of pigeons are to be put in "]m" number of pigeonholes and n>m.
Let us assume that there is no pigeonhole with at least pigeons.
In this case, each and every pigeonhole will have less than pigeons.
Therefore, we have

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Number of pigeons in each pigeonhole < nm

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Total number of pigeons < number of pigeonhole

Total number of pigeons < nm

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Total number of pigeons < n

But given that number of pigeons are strictly equal to n.

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Which is a contradiction to our assumption.

Hence there exists at least one pigeonhole having at least pigeons.

(a)

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Find inverse of the following

functions.

Ans.

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(b) Explain circular permutation with the help of an example.

Ans.

Circular Permutation
The number of ways to arrange
over) circle is

distinct objects along a fixed (i.e., cannot be picked up out of the plane and turned

The number is
instead of the usual factorial
because the circle can be rotated.

since all cyclic permutations of objects are equivalent

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For example, of the

permutations of three objects, the
distinct circular permutations
are
and
. Similarly, of the
permutations of four objects, the
distinct circular
permutations are
,
,
,
,
, and
. Of these, there
are only three free permutations (i.e., inequivalent when flipping the circle is allowed):
,
,
and

for

. The number of free circular permutations of order

is

for

, 2, and

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, giving the sequence 1, 1, 1, 3, 12, 60, 360, 2520, ... (OEIS A001710).

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(c) What is indirect proof? Explain with an example.

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Definition Of Indirect Proof

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Indirect proof is a type of proof in which a statement to be proved is assumed false and if the assumption leads
to an impossibility, then the statement assumed false has been proved to be true.

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EXAMPLE OF INDIRECT PROOF

Sum of 2n even numbers is even, where n > 0. Prove the statement using an indirect proof.
The first step of an indirect proof is to assume that 'Sum of even integers is odd.'
That

is,

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2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . . + n) = an odd number 2

2n

an

odd

number

= an odd number

n(n + 1) = an odd number, a contradiction, because n(n + 1) is always an even number.

Thus, the statement is proved using an indirect proof.

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(d)

What is Boolean algebra?

Ans.

Boolean algebra
In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in which the
values of the variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0 respectively.
Instead of elementary algebra where the values of the variables are numbers, and the main
operations are addition and multiplication, the main operations of Boolean algebra are
the conjunction and denoted as , the disjunction or denoted as , and the negation not denoted as .
It is thus a formalism for describing logical relations in the same way that ordinary algebra describes
numeric relations.

Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole in his first book The Mathematical Analysis of
Logic (1847), and set forth more fully in his An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854).
According to Huntington, the term "Boolean algebra" was first suggested by Sheffer in 1913.

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Boolean algebra has been fundamental in the development of digital electronics, and is provided for
in all modern programming languages. It is also used in set theory and statistics.

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