______________________________________________________________________

UNIT II

OBJECT ORIENTED ASPECTS OF C#

Class, Objects, Constructors and its types, inheritance, properties, indexers, index overloading, polymorphism,
sealed class and methods, interface, abstract class, abstract and interface, operator overloading, delegates, events,
errors and exception, Threading.
______________________________________________________________________

OBJECT ORIENTED ASPECTS OF C#

Key Concepts of Object Orientation

Abstraction
Encapsulation
Polymorphism
Inheritance.

Abstraction is the ability to generalize an object as

a data type that has a specific set of characteristics
and is able to perform a set of actions.
Object-oriented languages provide abstraction via
classes. Classes define the properties and methods
of an object type.
Examples:

You can create an abstraction of a dog with

characteristics, such as color, height, and
weight, and actions such as run and bite. The
characteristics are called properties, and the
actions are called methods.
A Recordset object is an abstract representation
of a set of data.

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Classes
When you define a class, you define a blueprint for a data type. This does
not actually define any data, but it does define what the class name means.
That is, what an object of the class consists of and what operations can be
performed on that object. Objects are instances of a class. The methods
and variables that constitute a class are called members of the class.

Defining
Class

A class definition starts with the keyword class followed by the class name;
and the class body enclosed by a pair of curly braces. Following is the
general form of a class definition:
<access specifier> class class_name
{
// member variables
<access specifier> <data type> variable1;
<access specifier> <data type> variable2;
...
<access specifier> <data type> variableN;
// member methods
<access specifier> <return type> method1(parameter_list)
{
// method body
}
<access specifier> <return type> method2(parameter_list)
{
// method body
}
...
<access specifier> <return type> methodN(parameter_list)
{
// method body
}
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Note:

Access specifiers specify the access rules for the members as well as the class
itself. If not mentioned, then the default access specifier for a class type
is internal. Default access for the members is private.

Data type specifies the type of variable, and return type specifies the data type
of the data the method returns, if any.

To access the class members, you use the dot (.) operator.

The dot operator links the name of an object with the name of a member.

The following example illustrates the concepts discussed so far:

using System;
namespace BoxApplication
{
class Box
{
public double length; // Length of a box public
double breadth; // Breadth of a box public
double height; // Height of a box
}
class Boxtester
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Box Box1 = new Box(); // Declare Box1 of type Box
Box Box2 = new Box(); // Declare Box2 of type Box
double volume = 0.0;

// Store the volume of a box here

// box 1 specification
Box1.height = 5.0;

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Box1.length = 6.0;
Box1.breadth = 7.0;

// box 2 specification
Box2.height = 10.0;
Box2.length = 12.0;
Box2.breadth = 13.0;

// volume of box 1
volume = Box1.height * Box1.length * Box1.breadth;
Console.WriteLine("Volume of Box1 : {0}", volume);

// volume of box 2
volume = Box2.height * Box2.length * Box2.breadth;
Console.WriteLine("Volume of Box2 : {0}", volume);
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Volume of Box1 : 210
Volume of Box2 : 1560

Member
Functions
Encapsulation

and

A member function of a class is a function that has its definition or its

prototype within the class definition similar to any other variable. It
operates on any object of the class of which it is a member, and has access
to all the members of a class for that object.
Member variables are the attributes of an object (from design perspective)
and they are kept private to implement encapsulation. These variables can
only be accessed using the public member functions.

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Let us put above concepts to set and get the value of different class
members in a class:
using System;
namespace BoxApplication
{
class Box
{
private double length; // Length of a box
private double breadth; // Breadth of a box
private double height; // Height of a box public
void setLength( double len )
{
length = len;
}

public void setBreadth( double bre )

{
breadth = bre;
}

public void setHeight( double hei )

{
height = hei;
}
public double getVolume()
{
return length * breadth * height;
}
}
class Boxtester
{
static void Main(string[] args)

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{
Box Box1 = new Box(); // Declare Box1 of type Box
Box Box2 = new Box();
double volume;

// Declare Box2 of type Box

// box 1 specification
Box1.setLength(6.0);
Box1.setBreadth(7.0);
Box1.setHeight(5.0);

// box 2 specification
Box2.setLength(12.0);
Box2.setBreadth(13.0);
Box2.setHeight(10.0);

// volume of box 1
volume = Box1.getVolume();
Console.WriteLine("Volume of Box1 : {0}" ,volume);

// volume of box 2
volume = Box2.getVolume();
Console.WriteLine("Volume of Box2 : {0}", volume);

Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Volume of Box1 : 210
Volume of Box2 : 1560

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C#
Constructors
A class constructor is a special member function of a class that is executed
whenever we create new objects of that class.
A constructor has exactly the same name as that of class and it does not
have any return type. Following example explains the concept of
constructor:
using System;
namespace LineApplication
{
class Line
{
private double length; // Length of a line public
Line()
{
Console.WriteLine("Object is being created");
}

public void setLength( double len )

{
length = len;
}

public double getLength()

{
return length;
}

static void Main(string[] args)

{
Line line = new Line();

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line.setLength(6.0);
Console.WriteLine("Length of line : {0}", line.getLength());
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Object is being created
Length of line : 6

A default constructor does not have any parameter but if you need, a
constructor
can
have
parameters.
Such
constructors
are
called parameterized constructors. This technique helps you to assign
initial value to an object at the time of its creation as shown in the following
example:
using System;
namespace LineApplication
{
class Line
{
private double length; // Length of a line
public Line(double len) //Parameterized constructor
{
Console.WriteLine("Object is being created, length = {0}", len);
length = len;
}

public void setLength( double len )

{
length = len;
}
public double getLength()

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{
return length;
}

static void Main(string[] args)

{
Line line = new Line(10.0);
Console.WriteLine("Length of line : {0}", line.getLength());

// set line length

line.setLength(6.0);
Console.WriteLine("Length of line : {0}", line.getLength());
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Object is being created, length = 10
Length of line : 10
Length of line : 6

C#
Destructors
A destructor is a special member function of a class that is executed
whenever an object of its class goes out of scope. A destructor has exactly
the same name as that of the class with a prefixed tilde (~) and it can
neither return a value nor can it take any parameters.
Destructor can be very useful for releasing memory resources before exiting
the program. Destructors cannot be inherited or overloaded.
Following example explains the concept of destructor:
using System;

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namespace LineApplication
{
class Line
{
private double length; // Length of a line public
Line() // constructor
{
Console.WriteLine("Object is being created");
}
~Line() //destructor
{
Console.WriteLine("Object is being deleted");
}

public void setLength( double len )

{
length = len;
}

public double getLength()

{
return length;
}

static void Main(string[] args)

{
Line line = new Line();

// set line length

line.setLength(6.0);
Console.WriteLine("Length of line : {0}", line.getLength());
}
}

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When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Object is being created
Length of line : 6
Object is being deleted

Static Members of a C#
Class
We can define class members as static using the static keyword. When we
declare a member of a class as static, it means no matter how many
objects of the class are created, there is only one copy of the static
member.
The keyword static implies that only one instance of the member exists for
a class. Static variables are used for defining constants because their values
can be retrieved by invoking the class without creating an instance of it.
Static variables can be initialized outside the member function or class
definition. You can also initialize static variables inside the class definition.
The following example demonstrates the use of static variables:
using System;
namespace StaticVarApplication
{
class StaticVar
{
public static int num;
public void count()
{
num++;
}
public int getNum()
{

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}
}
class StaticTester
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
StaticVar s1 = new StaticVar();
StaticVar s2 = new StaticVar();
s1.count();
s1.count();
s1.count();
s2.count();
s2.count();
s2.count();
Console.WriteLine("Variable num for s1: {0}", s1.getNum());
Console.WriteLine("Variable num for s2: {0}", s2.getNum());
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Variable num for s1: 6
Variable num for s2: 6

You can also declare a member function as static. Such functions can
access only static variables. The static functions exist even before the
object is created. The following example demonstrates the use of static
functions:
using System;
namespace StaticVarApplication
{

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class StaticVar
{
public static int num;
public void count()
{
num++;
}
public static int getNum()
{
return num;
}
}
class StaticTester
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
StaticVar s = new StaticVar();
s.count();
s.count();
s.count();
Console.WriteLine("Variable num: {0}", StaticVar.getNum());
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Variable num: 3

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C# Inheritance
One of the most important concepts in object-oriented programming is
inheritance. Inheritance allows us to define a class in terms of another
class, which makes it easier to create and maintain an application. This also
provides an opportunity to reuse the code functionality and speeds up
implementation time.
When creating a class, instead of writing completely new data members and
member functions, the programmer can designate that the new class should
inherit the members of an existing class. This existing class is called
the baseclass, and the new class is referred to as the derived class.
The idea of inheritance implements the IS-A relationship. For example,
mammalIS A animal, dog IS-A mammal hence dog IS-A animal as well,
and so on.

Base
and
Classes

Derived

A class can be derived from more than one class or interface, which means
that it can inherit data and functions from multiple base classes or
interfaces.
The syntax used in C# for creating derived classes is as follows:
<acess-specifier> class <base_class>
{
...
}
class <derived_class> : <base_class>
{
...
}

Consider a base class Shape and its derived class Rectangle:

using System;

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namespace InheritanceApplication

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{
class Shape
{
public void setWidth(int w)
{
width = w;
}
public void setHeight(int h)
{
height = h;
}
protected int width;
protected int height;
}

// Derived class
class Rectangle: Shape
{
public int getArea()
{
return (width * height);
}
}

class RectangleTester
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Rectangle Rect = new Rectangle();

Rect.setWidth(5);
Rect.setHeight(7);

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// Print the area of the object.

Console.WriteLine("Total area: {0}", Rect.getArea());
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Total area: 35

Initializing
Class

Base

The derived class inherits the base class member variables and member
methods. Therefore the super class object should be created before the
subclass is created. You can give instructions for superclass initialization in
the member initialization list.
The following program demonstrates this:
using System;
namespace RectangleApplication
{
class Rectangle
{
//member variables
protected double length;
protected double width;
public Rectangle(double l, double w)
{
length = l;
width = w;
}

public double GetArea()

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{
return length * width;
}

public void Display()

{
Console.WriteLine("Length: {0}", length);
Console.WriteLine("Width: {0}", width);
Console.WriteLine("Area: {0}", GetArea());
}
}//end class Rectangle

class Tabletop : Rectangle

{
private double cost;
public Tabletop(double l, double w) : base(l, w)
{}
public double GetCost()
{
double cost;
cost = GetArea() * 70;
return cost;
}
public void Display()
{
base.Display();
Console.WriteLine("Cost: {0}", GetCost());
}
}
class ExecuteRectangle
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{

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Tabletop t = new Tabletop(4.5, 7.5);

t.Display();
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Length: 4.5
Width: 7.5
Area: 33.75
Cost: 2362.5

Multiple Inheritance in
C#
C# does not support multiple inheritance. However, you can use
interfaces to implement multiple inheritance. The following program
demonstrates this:
using System;
namespace InheritanceApplication
{
class Shape
{
public void setWidth(int w)
{
width = w;
}
public void setHeight(int h)
{
height = h;
}
protected int width;
protected int height;

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// Base class PaintCost

public interface PaintCost
{
int getCost(int area);

// Derived class
class Rectangle : Shape, PaintCost
{
public int getArea()
{
return (width * height);
}
public int getCost(int area)
{
return area * 70;
}
}
class RectangleTester
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Rectangle Rect = new Rectangle();
int area;
Rect.setWidth(5);
Rect.setHeight(7);
area = Rect.getArea();

// Print the area of the object. Console.WriteLine("Total

area: {0}", Rect.getArea());

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Console.WriteLine("Total paint cost: ${0}" , Rect.getCost(area));

Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:
Total area: 35
Total paint cost: $2450

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Understanding Properties in C#
In C#, properties are nothing but natural extension of data fields. They are
usually known as 'smart fields' in C# community. We know that data
encapsulation and hiding are the two fundamental characteristics of any
object oriented programming language.In C#, data encapsulation is possible
through either classes or structures. By using various access modifiers like
private, public, protected, internal etc it is possible to control the
accessibility of the class members.
Usually inside a class, we declare a data field as private and will provide a
set of public SET and GET methods to access the data fields. This is a good
programming practice, since the data fields are not directly accessible out
side the class. We must use the set/get methods to access the data fields.
An example, which uses a set of set/get methods, is shown below.

//SET/GET methods
//Author: [email protected]
using System;
class MyClass
{
private int x;
public void SetX(int i)
{

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x = i;
}
public int GetX()
{
return x;
}
}
class MyClient
{
public static void Main()
{
MyClass mc = new MyClass();
mc.SetX(10);
int xVal = mc.GetX();
Console.WriteLine(xVal);//Displays 10
}
}

But C# provides a built in mechanism called properties to do the above. In

C#, properties are defined using the property declaration syntax. The
general form of declaring a property is as follows.
<acces_modifier> <return_type> <property_name>
{
get

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{
}
set
{
}
}

Where <access_modifier> can be private, public, protected or internal. The

<return_type> can be any valid C# type. Note that the first part of the
syntax looks quite similar to a field declaration and second part consists of a
get accessor and a set accessor.
For example the above program can be modifies with a property X as
follows.

class MyClass
{
private int x;
public int X
{
get
{
return x;
}
set

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{
x = value;
}
}
}

The object of the class MyClass can access the property X as follows.
MyClass mc = new MyClass();

mc.X = 10; // calls set accessor of the property X, and pass 10 as value of
the standard field 'value'.
This is used for setting value for the data member x.
Console.WriteLine(mc.X);// displays 10. Calls the get accessor of the
property X.
The complete program is shown below.

//C#: Property
//Author: [email protected]
using System;
class MyClass
{
private int x;
public int X
{

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get
{
return x;
}
set
{
x = value;
}
}
}
class MyClient
{
public static void Main()
{
MyClass mc = new MyClass();
mc.X = 10;
int xVal = mc.X;
Console.WriteLine(xVal);//Displays 10
}
}

Remember that a property should have at least one accessor, either set or
get. The set accessor has a free variable available in it called value, which

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gets created automatically by the compiler. We can't declare any variable

with the name value inside the set accessor.
We can do very complicated calculations inside the set or get accessor. Even
they can throw exceptions.
Since normal data fields and properties are stored in the same memory
space, in C#, it is not possible to declare a field and property with the same
name.
Static Properties
C# also supports static properties, which belongs to the class rather than to
the objects of the class. All the rules applicable to a static member are
applicable to static properties also.
The following program shows a class with a static property.

//C# : static Property

//Author: [email protected]
using System;
class MyClass
{
private static int x;
public static int X
{
get

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{
return x;
}
set
{
x = value;
}
}
}
class MyClient
{
public static void Main()
{
MyClass.X = 10;
int xVal = MyClass.X;
Console.WriteLine(xVal);//Displays 10
}
}

Remember that set/get accessor of static property can access only other
static members of the class. Also static properties are invoking by using the
class name.
Properties & Inheritance

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The properties of a Base class can be inherited to a Derived class.

//C# : Property : Inheritance

//Author: [email protected]
using System;
class Base
{
public int X
{
get
{
Console.Write("Base GET");
return 10;
}
set
{
Console.Write("Base SET");
}
}
}
class Derived : Base
{
}
class MyClient

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{
public static void Main()
{
Derived d1 = new Derived();
d1.X = 10;
Console.WriteLine(d1.X);//Displays 'Base SET Base GET 10'
}
}

The above program is very straightforward. The inheritance of properties is

just like inheritance any other member.
Properties & Polymorphism
A Base class property can be polymorphicaly overridden in a Derived class.
But remember that the modifiers like virtual, override etc are using at
property level, not at accessor level.

//C# : Property : Polymorphism

//Author: [email protected]
using System;
class Base
{
public virtual int X
{

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get
{
Console.Write("Base GET");
return 10;
}
set
{
Console.Write("Base SET");
}
}
}
class Derived : Base
{
public override int X
{
get
{
Console.Write("Derived GET");
return 10;
}
set
{
Console.Write("Derived SET");
}

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}
}
class MyClient
{
public static void Main()
{
Base b1 = new Derived();
b1.X = 10;
Console.WriteLine(b1.X);//Displays 'Derived SET Derived GET 10'
}
}

Abstract Properties

A property inside a class can be declared as abstract by using the keyword

abstract. Remember that an abstract property in a class carries no code at
all. The get/set accessors are simply represented with a semicolon. In the
derived class we must implement both set and get assessors.
If the abstract class contains only set accessor, we can implement only set in
the derived class.
The following program shows an abstract property in action.

//C# : Property : Abstract

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//Author: [email protected]
using System;
abstract class Abstract
{
public abstract int X
{ ge
t;
set;
}
}
class Concrete : Abstract
{
public override int X
{
get
{
Console.Write(" GET");
return 10;
}
set
{
Console.Write(" SET");
}
}

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}
class MyClient
{
public static void Main()
{
Concrete c1 = new Concrete();
c1.X = 10;
Console.WriteLine(c1.X);//Displays 'SET GET 10'
}
}

The properties are an important features added in language level inside C#.
They are very useful in GUI programming. Remember that the compiler
actually generates the appropriate getter and setter methods when it parses
the C# property syntax.

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C# Indexers
An indexer allows an object to be indexed such as an array. When you
define an indexer for a class, this class behaves similar to a virtual array.
You can then access the instance of this class using the array access
operator ([ ]).

Synta
x
A one dimensional indexer has the following syntax:

element-type this[int index]

{
// The get accessor.
get
{
// return the value specified by index
}

// The set accessor.

set
{
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// set the value specified by index

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}
}

Use
Indexers

of

Declaration of behavior of an indexer is to some extent similar to a

property. similar to the properties, you use get and set accessors for
defining an indexer. However, properties return or set a specific data
member, whereas indexers returns or sets a particular value from the
object instance. In other words, it breaks the instance data into smaller
parts and indexes each part, gets or sets each part.
Defining a property involves providing a property name. Indexers are not
defined with names, but with the this keyword, which refers to the object
instance. The following example demonstrates the concept:

using System;
namespace IndexerApplication
{
class IndexedNames
{
private string[] namelist = new string[size];
static public int size = 10;
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public IndexedNames()
{
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
namelist[i] = "N. A.";
}

public string this[int index]

{
get
{
string tmp;

if( index >= 0 && index <= size-1 )

{
tmp = namelist[index];
}
else
{
tmp = "";
}
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return ( tmp );
}
set
{
if( index >= 0 && index <= size-1 )
{
namelist[index] = value;
}
}
}

static void Main(string[] args)

{
IndexedNames names = new IndexedNames();

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names[0 = "Zara";
]
names[1 = "Riz";
]
= "Nuha";
names[2
names[3 = "Asif";
]
names[4 = "Davinder";
]

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names[5] = "Sunil";
names[6] = "Rubic";
for ( int i = 0; i < IndexedNames.size;
{

i+
+

Console.WriteLine(names[i]);
}

Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:

Zara
Riz
Nuh
a
Asif
Davinder
Sunil

Rubic

N. A.
N. A.
N. A.

Overloaded
Indexers
Indexers can be overloaded. Indexers can also be declared with multiple
parameters and each parameter may be a different type. It is not necessary
that the indexes have to be integers. C# allows indexes to be of other
types, for example, a string.
The following example demonstrates overloaded indexers:

using System;
namespace IndexerApplication
{
class IndexedNames
{
private string[] namelist = new string[size];
static public int size = 10;
public IndexedNames()
{
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)

{
namelist[i] = "N. A.";
}
}

public string this[int index]

{
get
{
string tmp;

if( index >= 0 && index <= size-1 )

{
tmp = namelist[index];
}
else
{
tmp = "";
}

return ( tmp );
}
set
{
if( index >= 0 && index <= size-1 )
{
namelist[index] = value;
}
}
}
public int this[string name]
{
get
{
int index = 0;
while(index < size)
{
if (namelist[index] == name)
{
return index;

}
index++;
}
return index;
}

static void Main(string[] args)

{
IndexedNames names = new IndexedNames();
names[0 = "Zara";
]
= "Riz";
names[1
names[2 = "Nuha";
]
names[3 = "Asif";
]
names[4 = "Davinder";
]
names[5 = "Sunil";
]
= "Rubic";
names[6
//using the first indexer with int parameter

for (int i = 0; i < IndexedNames.size; i++)

{
Console.WriteLine(names[i]);
}

//using the second indexer with the string

parameter
Console.WriteLine(names["Nuha"]);
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:

Zara
Riz
Nuh
a
Asif
Davinder
Sunil

Rubic
N. A.
N. A.
N. A.
2

C# Polymorphism
The word polymorphism means having many forms. In object-oriented
programming paradigm, polymorphism is often expressed as 'one interface,
multiple functions'.
Polymorphism can be static or dynamic. In static polymorphism, the
response to a function is determined at the compile time. In dynamic
polymorphism, it is decided at run-time.

Static
Polymorphism
The mechanism of linking a function with an object during compile time is
called early binding. It is also called static binding. C# provides two
techniques to implement static polymorphism. They are:

Function overloading

Operator overloading

We discuss operator overloading in next chapter.

Function
Overloading
You can have multiple definitions for the same function name in the same
scope. The definition of the function must differ from each other by the

types and/or the number of arguments in the argument list. You cannot
overload function declarations that differ only by return type.

The following example shows using function print() to print different data
types:

using System;
namespace
PolymorphismApplication
{
class Printdata
{
void print(int i)
{
Console.WriteLine("Printing int: {0}", i );
}

void print(double f)
{
Console.WriteLine("Printing float: {0}" , f);
}

void print(string s)
{

Console.WriteLine("Printing string: {0}", s);

}
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Printdata p = new Printdata();

// Call print to print integer

p.print(5);

// Call print to print float

p.print(500.263);

// Call print to print string

p.print("Hello C++");
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:

Printing int: 5
Printing float: 500.263
Printing string: Hello C++

Dynamic
Polymorphism
C# allows you to create abstract classes that are used to provide partial
class implementation of an interface. Implementation is completed when a
derived class inherits from it. Abstract classes contain abstract methods,
which are implemented by the derived class. The derived classes have more
specialized functionality.
Here are the rules about abstract classes:

You cannot create an instance of an abstract

class

You cannot declare an abstract method outside

an abstract class

When a class is declared sealed, it cannot be

inherited, abstract classes cannot be declared
sealed.

The following program demonstrates an abstract class:

using System;

namespace PolymorphismApplication
{
abstract class Shape
{
public abstract int area();
}
class Rectangle: Shape
{
private int length;
private int width;
public Rectangle( int a=0, int b=0)
{
length = a;
width = b;
}
public override int area ()
{
Console.WriteLine("Rectangle class area :");
return (width * length);
}

class RectangleTester
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Rectangle r = new Rectangle(10, 7);
double a = r.area();
Console.WriteLine("Area: {0}",a);
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:

Rectangle class area :

Area: 70
When you have a function defined in a class that you want to be
implemented in an inherited class(es), you use virtual functions. The

virtual functions could be implemented differently in different inherited class

and the call to these functions will be decided at runtime.
Dynamic polymorphism is implemented by abstract classes and virtual
functions.
The following program demonstrates this:

using System;
namespace PolymorphismApplication
{
class Shape
{
protected int width, height;
public Shape( int a=0, int b=0)
{
width = a;
height = b;
}
public virtual int area()
{
Console.WriteLine("Parent class area :");

return 0;
}
}
class Rectangle: Shape
{
public Rectangle( int a=0, int b=0): base(a, b)
{

}
public override int area ()
{
Console.WriteLine("Rectangle class area :");
return (width * height);
}
}
class Triangle: Shape
{
public Triangle(int a = 0, int b = 0): base(a, b)
{

}
public override int area()
{
Console.WriteLine("Triangle class area :");
return (width * height / 2);
}
}
class Caller
{
public void CallArea(Shape sh)
{
int a;
a = sh.area();
Console.WriteLine("Area: {0}", a);
}
}
class Tester
{

static void Main(string[] args)

{
Caller c = new Caller();
Rectangle r = new Rectangle(10, 7);
Triangle t = new Triangle(10, 5);
c.CallArea(r);
c.CallArea(t);
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:

Rectangle class area:

Area: 70
Triangle class area:
Area: 25

C# Interfaces
An interface is defined as a syntactical contract that all the classes
inheriting the interface should follow. The interface defines the 'what' part
of the syntactical contract and the deriving classes define the 'how' part of
the syntactical contract.
Interfaces define properties, methods, and events, which are the members
of the interface. Interfaces contain only the declaration of the members. It
is the responsibility of the deriving class to define the members. It often
helps in providing a standard structure that the deriving classes would
follow.
Abstract classes to some extent serve the same purpose, however, they are
mostly used when only few methods are to be declared by the base class
and the deriving class implements the functionalities.

Declaring
Interfaces
Interfaces are declared using the interface keyword. It is similar to class
declaration. Interface statements are public by default. Following is an
example of an interface declaration:

public interface ITransactions

{

// interface members
void showTransaction();
double getAmount();
}

Example
The following example demonstrates implementation of the above interface:

using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;
using System.Text;
using System;

namespace InterfaceApplication
{
public interface ITransactions
{
// interface members
void showTransaction();
double getAmount();
}

public class Transaction : ITransactions

{
private string tCode;
private string date;
private double amount;
public Transaction()
{
tCode = " ";
date = " ";
amount = 0.0;
}

public Transaction(string c, string d, double a)

{
tCode = c;
date = d;
amount =
a;
}

public double getAmount()

{
return amount;
}

public void showTransaction()

{
Console.WriteLine("Transaction: {0}", tCode);
Console.WriteLine("Date: {0}", date);
Console.WriteLine("Amount: {0}", getAmount());
}
}
class Tester
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Transaction t1 = new Transaction("001",
"8/10/2012", 78900.00);
Transaction t2 = new Transaction("002",
"9/10/2012", 451900.00);
t1.showTransaction();

t2.showTransaction();
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result:

Transaction: 001
Date: 8/10/2012
Amount: 78900
Transaction: 002
Date: 9/10/2012
Amount: 451900

Abstract classes

Abstract classes, marked by the keyword abstract in the class

definition, are typically used to define a base class in the
hierarchy. What's special about them, is that you can't create an
instance of them - if you try, you will get a compile error. Instead,
you have to subclass them, as taught in the chapter on
inheritance, and create an instance of your subclass. So when do
you need an abstract class? It really depends on what you do.
To be honest, you can go a long way without needing an abstract
class, but they are great for specific things, like frameworks,
which is why you will find quite a bit of abstract classes within the
.NET framework it self. A good rule of thumb is that the name
actually makes really good sense - abstract classes are very
often, if not always, used to describe something abstract,
something that is more of a concept than a real thing.
In this example, we will create a base class for four legged
animals and then create a Dog class, which inherits from it, like
this:
namespace AbstractClasses
{
class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Dog dog = new Dog();

Console.WriteLine(dog.Describe());
Console.ReadKey();
}
}
abstract class FourLeggedAnimal
{
public virtual string Describe()
{
return "Not much is known about this
four legged animal!";
}
}
class Dog : FourLeggedAnimal
{
}
}

If you compare it with the examples in the chapter about

inheritance, you won't see a big difference. In fact, the abstract
keyword in front of the FourLeggedAnimal definition is the biggest
difference. As you can see, we create a new instance of the Dog
class and then call the inherited Describe() method from the
FourLeggedAnimal class. Now try creating an instance of the
FourLeggedAnimal class instead:

FourLeggedAnimal someAnimal = new

FourLeggedAnimal();

You will get this fine compiler error:

Cannot create an instance of the abstract class or interface
'AbstractClasses.FourLeggedAnimal'
Now, as you can see, we just inherited the Describe() method, but
it isn't very useful in it's current form, for our Dog class. Let's
override it:
class Dog : FourLeggedAnimal
{
public override string Describe()
{
return "This four legged animal is a
Dog!";
}
}

In this case, we do a complete override, but in some cases, you

might want to use the behavior from the base class in addition to
new functionality. This can be done by using the base keyword,
which refers to the class we inherit from:
abstract class FourLeggedAnimal
{
public virtual string Describe()
{
return "This animal has four legs.";

}
}

class Dog : FourLeggedAnimal

{
public override string Describe()
{
string result = base.Describe();
result += " In fact, it's a dog!";
return result;
}
}

Ref :
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/
http://www.csharpcorner.com/UploadFile/tusharkantagarwal/objectorientedcsharp11162005070743AM/objectorientedcsharp.aspx