CHEMISTRY NOTES

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CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS
A salt is formed by the neutralization of an acid by a base. There are different
types of salts. They are:a) Simple salt
b) Molecular (or) addition compounds
a) Simple salt
A simple salt is formed by the neutralization of an acid by a base.
KOH + HCl KCl + H2O
Normally, a simple salt ionizes in water and produces ions in solution. The solution of the
simple salt exhibits the properties of its component ions.
b) Molecular (or) addition compounds
i) Double salts
These are molecular compounds which are formed by the evaporation of solution
containing two (or) more salts in stoichiometric proportions. Hence the molecular
compounds which dissociate in solution into its constituent ions are known as double salt.
Double salts retain their properties only in solid state. They are also called as lattice
compounds.
Example
K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O - Potash alum
FeSO4 . (NH4)2 SO4. 6H2O - Mohrs salt
K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O 2K+ + 2Al3+ + 4SO42- + 24H2O
The double salts give the test of all their constituent ions in solution.
ii) Coordination (or complex) compounds
Coordination compound is a compound formed from a Lewis acid and a Lewis base. The
molecular compounds, do not dissociate into its constituent ions in solution are called
coordination compounds.
Example
Fe(CN)2 + 4KCN Fe(CN)2 . 4KCN (or) K4[Fe(CN)6]
Ferrous cyanide
Fe(CN)2 . 4KCN 4K+ + [Fe(CN)6]4Complex anion
In K4[Fe (CN)6] the individual components lose their identity.
The metal of the complex ion is not free in solution unlike metal in double salt in solution.
Nature of coordination (or) complex compounds
i) An anionic complex compound contains a complex anion and simple cation.
K4 [Fe(CN)6] 4K+ + [Fe (CN)6 ]4simple cation
complex anion
ii) A cationic complex contains complex cation and simple anion
[Co(NH3 )6] Cl3
[Co(NH3)6]3+ + 3ClComplex cation
simple anion
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iii) In the case of a complex compound, [Cr (NH3 )6] [Co(CN)6], it gives both
complex cation and complex anion
[Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6] [Cr(NH3)6]3+ + [Co(CN)6]3complex cation
complex anion
TERMINOLOGY USED IN COORDINATION CHEMISTRY

(a) Lewis Acid

All electron acceptors are Lewis acids.

(b) Lewis Base

All electron donors are Lewis base.

(c) Central metal ion

In the complex ion an acceptor accepts a pair of electrons from the donor atoms. The
acceptor is usually a metal / metal ion to which one (or) more of neutral molecules (or)
anions are attached. The acceptor metal cation is referred to as central metal cation.
Hence, central metal cation in a complex serves as a lewis acid.

(d) Ligand (Latin word meaning to bind)

A ligand is an ion (or) a molecule capable of functioning as an electron donor. Therefore
the neutral molecules or ions which are directly attached to the central metal ion are
called as ligand (or) coordination groups. These coordination groups or ligands can donate
a pair of electrons to the central metal ion (or) atom. Hence, in a complex compound
ligands act as Lewis bases.
Examples:
[Ni(NH3)6]2+ : Ligand = NH3 molecule and Central metal ion = Ni2+
[Co(NH3)5Cl]2+ : Ligands = NH3 molecule and Cl- ion
Types of ligands
Ligands can be classified on the basis of charge, number of donor site and bonding
(a) On the basis of charge
(i)
Negative ligands : ligands which carry negative charge e.g. CN-, Cl-, Br-, NH2-,
NO2_ etc
(ii)
Positive ligands : ligand which carry positive charge e.g. NO2+, NO+, NH3+ etc
(iii) Neutral ligands: ligands which do not carry any charge e.g. H2O, NH3, PH3, CO
etc
(b) On the basis of number of donor sites
(i)
Monodentate or unidentate ligands: Ligands which coordinate to central
atom or ion through one donor atom and form only one coordinate bond are
called monodentate/ unidentate ligands
E.g. H2O, NH3, OH-, CN-, O2- etc
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(ii)

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Bidentate ligands : ligands which coordinate to central metal atom or ion

through two donor atoms and form coordinate bonds are called bidentate
ligands eg,

(iii)

Plolydentate ligands: Ligands which coordinate to central metal atom or ion

through more than two donor atoms are called polydentate ligands and the
resulting comples is called polydentate ligands e.g. EDTA is hexadentatae
ligand
(c) On the basis of bonding
(i) Chelating ligands: A bidentate or polydentate ligand which forms two or more
coordinate bond with central metal atom or ion in such a way that a five or six membered
ring is formed is called chelating ligand and the resulting complex is called metal chelate.
This property is called chelation e.g.

(ii) Ambidentate ligands: Monodentate ligand containing more than one coordinating
atoms are called ambidentate ligands
e.g NO2- can coordinate with metal atom or ion through either N or O atom

(e) Coordination number

The total number of coordinate bonds through which the central metal ion is attached
with ligand is known as coordination number
Example For example in
K4[Fe(CN)6] the coordination number of Fe(II) is 6 and in [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 the
coordination number of Cu(II) is 4.

(f) Coordination sphere

Tthe central metal ion and the ligands that are directly attached to it, are enclosed in a
square bracket, called coordination sphere or first sphere of attraction

(g) Oxidation number or Oxidation state of central metal atom/ ion

It is the number that represent an electric charge with an atom or ion actually has or
appears to have when combined with other atom
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e.g. [Cu(NH3)4]2+ NH4 is neutral, monodentate ligand. Let oxidation state of the metal ion
be x then
x + 4(0) = +2 x = 2. Oxidation number of Cu is +2

Rules for writing formula of coordination compounds

(i)

Formula of the cation whether simple or complex must be written first followed
by anion
(ii)
The coordination sphere the sequence of symbols is :
First metal name followed by anionic ligand then neutral ligand finally cationic
ligand. Ligands of same type are arranged alphabetically
(iii) Polyatomic ligands are enclosed in parentheses
e.g In Na[PrBrCl(NO+2)2NH3(NO)] sequence in coordination sphere is metal
atom, alphabetical sequence of anionic ligand Br-, Cl-, NO2-, followed by neutral
ligand NH3 and then cationic ligand NO+
IUPAC nomenclature of coordination compounds
The rules are outlined below
1. In naming the entire complex, the name of the cation is given first and the anion second
(just as for sodium chloride), no matter whether the cation or the anion is the complex
species.
2. In the complex ion, the name of the ligand or ligands precedes that of the central metal
atom (This procedure is reversed for writing formulae).
3. Ligand names generally end with O if the ligand is negative (chloro for Cl-, cyano for
CN-, hydrido for H-) and unmodified if the ligand is neutral (methylamine for MeNH2).
Special ligand names are aqua for water, ammine for ammonia, carbonyl for CO,
nitrosyl for NO.
4. A Greek prefix (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, etc.) indicates the number of each
ligand (mono is usually omitted for a single ligand of a given type). If the name of the
ligand itself contains the terms mono, di, tri, liketriphenylphosphine, ligand name is
enclosed in parentheses and its number is given with the alternate prefixes bis, tris,
tetrakis instead.
For example, [Ni(PPh3)2Cl2] is named dichlorobis(triphenylphosphine) nickel(II).
5. A Roman numeral or a zero in parentheses is used to indicate the oxidation state of the
central metal atom.
6. If the complex ion is negative, the name of the metal ends in ate for example, ferrate,
cuprate, nickelate, cobaltate etc.
7. If more than one ligand is present in the species, then the ligands are named in
alphabetical order regardless of the number of each.
For example, NH3 (ammine) would be considered as a ligand and come before Cl-(chloro).
Some additional notes
i) Some metals in anions have special names
B Borate ,Au Aurate, Ag Argentate, Fe Ferrate, Pb Plumbate, Sn Stannate, Cu Cuprate,
Ni Nickelate
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ii) Use of brackets or enclosing marks. Square brackets are used to enclose a complex ion
or neutral coordination species.
Examples
[Co(en)3]Cl3 tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) chloride
[Co(NH3)3(NO2)3]
triamminetrinitrocobalt (III)
K2[CoCl4] potassiumtetrachlorocobaltate(II)
note that it is not necessary to enclose the halogens in brackets.
Name of Negative ligands
Ligand
Name
Ligand
Name
H
Hydrido
HS
Mercapto
2O
Oxo
NH2
Amido
22O2
Peroxo
NH
Imido
O 2H
Perhydroxo
NO3
Nitrato
OH
Hydroxo
ONO
Nitrito
F
Fluoro
NO2
Nitro
-3
Cl
Chloro
N
Nitride
3Br
Bromo
P
Phosphido
I
Iodo
N3
Azido
CO3
Carbonato
CNO
Cyanato
C 2O 4
Oxalate
NCO
Cyanato
CH3CO2
Acetate
SCN
Thiocyanato
2SO4
Sulphato
HCO3
Hydrogencarbonato
22SO3
Sulphito
S 4O 6
Tetrathionato
2S
Sulphido
HSO3
Hydrogensulphito
NH2CH2CO2
glycinato
C5H5
Cyclopentadienyl
2( OCCH2)2NCH2CH2CH2N
Ethylenediammine
S 2O 3
Thiosulpahato
(CH2CO2 )2
tetraacetato
(EDTA)
Name of neutral ligands
Ligand
Name
C5H5N
pyridine
(py)
NH3
Ammine
H2O
Aqua/aquo
C6H6
Benzene
N2
Dinitrogen
O2
Dioxygen
Ph3P
Triphenylphosphine

Ligand
NH2(CH2)2NH2
(en)
CH3NH2
CO
NO
CS
NS
CH3COCH3

Name
ethlenediammine
Methylamine
Carbonyl
Nitrosyl
Thiocarbonyl
Thionitrosyl
Acetone

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Name of Positive ligands

Ligand
NO+
NO2+
NH2NH3+
Few examples to elaborate above rules
[PtCl2(C2H5N)(NH3)]
[Fe(CO)5]
[PtCl2 (NH3)4] [PtCl4]
[Cr(NH3)4][CuCl4]
Na[PtBrCl(NO2)(NH3)]
[Pt(py)4][PtCl4]
[CoCl(ONO)(en)2]+
[{(C6H5)3P}Rh]Cl
[Fe(H2O)4(C2O4)]2SO4
K4[Fe(CN)6]
K3[Fe(CN)5NO]
Na[Ag(CN)2]
[Fe(CO)5]
Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
[CoCl2(NH3)4]3[Cr(CN)6]
[Fe(C5H5)2]
Na2[Ni(NC)4]
K2[HgCl4]
[Cr(Ox)3]3[CoCl(NO2)(NH3)4]Cl
[Co(en)3]Cl3
Na3[AlF6]
K[Cr(NH3)2(CO3)2]
Na3[Cr(en)2(C2O4)3]
[Co(NH3)5(NCS)]Cl2
[Cr(H2O)4Cl2]2SO4
[Ni(DMG)2]
K2HgI4

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Name
Nitosonium
Nitronium
hydrazinium

Amminedichloro (pyridine)platinum(II)
Pentacarbonyliron(0)
Tetraamminedichloroplatinum (IV)
tetrachloroplatiate(II)
Tetraammineplatinum(II)
tetrachlorocuperate(II)
Sodium amminebromochloronitro
Tetrapyridineplatinum(II)
Tertrachloroplatinate(II)
Chlorobis(ethylenediamine)nitritocobalt (III)
ion
Tris(triphenylphosphine)rodium(I)chloride
Tetraaquooxalatoiron(III)sulphate
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II)
Potassium pentacyanonitrosylferrate(II)
Sodim dicyanoargentate (I)
Pentacarbonyliron(0)
Ferric hexacyanoferrate(II)
Tetraamminedichloroplatinum(IV)
Tetrachloroplatinate(II)
Bis(cyclopentadienyl)iron(II)
Sodium tetraisocyanonickelate(II)
Potassium tetrachloromercurate(II)
Tris (oxalato) chromate (III) ion
Choronitrito tetraamine cobat(III) chloride
Tris(ethylene diammine) cobalt(III) chloride
Sodium hexafluoro aluminate(III)
Potassium dicarbonate diammine
chromate(III)
Sodium tri oxalate bis (ethylene diammine)
chromate(III)
Pentaammineisocyannatocobalt(III)Chloride
Tetraaquodichlorochromium(III) ion
Bis(dimethylglyoximato)nickel(II)
Potassium tetraiodomercurate(IV)
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8) naming of the bridging ligands of the bridged polynuclear complexes

Complexes having two or more atoms are called polynuclear complexes. In these
complexes, the bridge group is indicated by separating it from the rest of the complex by
hyphen and adding the prefix -before the name of each different bridging group. Two or
more bridging groups of the same type are indicated by di-, tri- etc. When a bridging
ligand is attached to more than two metal atoms or ion, this is indicated by subscript to

Is named as Bis(ethylenediammine)cobalt(III)--amido--hydroxobis(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III)sulphate
Or -amido-teyrakis (ethylenediammine)--hydroxo-dicobat(III)sulphate

Werners coordination theory

Postulates of Werners theory
1) Every metal atom has two types of valencies
i) Primary valency or ionisable valency
ii) Secondary valency or non ionisable valency
2) The primary valency corresponds to the oxidation state of the metal ion. The primary
valency of the metal ion is always satisfied by negative ions.
3) Secondary valency corresponds to the coordination number of the metal ion or atom.
The secondary valencies may be satisfied by either negative ions or neutral molecules.
4) The molecules or ion that satisfy secondary valencies are called ligands.
5) The ligands which satisfy secondary valencies must project in definite directions in
space. So the secondary valencies are directional in nature where as the primary valencies
are non-directional in nature.
6) The ligands have unshared pair of electrons. These unshared pair of electrons are
donated to central metal ion or atom in a compound. Such compounds are called
coordination compounds.
Werners representation
Werner represented the first member of the series [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 as follows.
In this representation, the primary valency (dotted lines) are satisfied by the three
chloride ions. The six secondary valencies (solid lines) are satisfied by the six
ammonia molecules.

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Defects of Werners theory

Werners theory describes the structures of many coordination compounds
successfully. However, it does not explain the magnetic and spectral properties .

Valence bond theory (VB Theory)

Valence bond theory, primarily the work of Linus Pauling regarded bonding as
characterized by the overlap of atomic or hybrid orbitals of individual atoms.
The postulates of valence bond theory:
1) The central metal atom/ion makes available a number of vacant orbitals equal to its
coordination number.
These vacant orbitals form covalent bonds with the ligand orbitals.
3) A covalent bond is formed by the overlap of a vacant metal orbital and filled ligand
orbitals. This complete overlap leads to the formation of a metal ligand, (sigma) bond.
4) A strong covalent bond is formed only when the orbitals overlap to the maximum
extent. This maximum overlapping is possible only when the metal vacant orbitals undergo
a process called hybridisation. A hybridised orbital has a better directional characteristics
than an unhybridised one.
The following table gives the coordination number, orbital hybridisation and spatial
geometry of the more important geometrics
Coordination number
Types of hybridization
Geometry
2
sp
linear
3
4
sp
tetrahedral
2
4
dsp
square planar
2 3
6
d sp
octahedral
3 2
6
sp d
octahedral

Magnetic moment
A species having at least one unpaired electron, is said to be paramagnetic.
It is attracted by an external field. The paramagnetic moment is given by the following
spin-only formula.
= ( + 2) BM
s = spin-only magnetic moment
n = number of unpaired electrons
BM = Bohr magneton, the unit which expresses the magnetic moment.
When the species does not contain any unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic.
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Applications of valence bond theory

(i) If the ligand is very weak like F-, H2, Cl- etc. It does not force the pairing of 3d electrons
and hence outer orbital octahedral complexes are formed by sp3d2 hybridization.
(ii)But if the ligand is strong like CN-, (COO)22-, ethylenediammine (en) etc, it forces the
paring of 3d electrons and hence inner orbital octahedral complexes are formed by d2sp3
hybridization
(1) Atom or ion of d-block element contain 1,2 or 3 electrons in d-orbit
(d1,d2,d3 system)

Ti3+, V3+, Cr3+

Since two 3d orbitals are available for d2sp3 hybridization. Hence, these systems
may accept six lone pairs from six ligands and they form octahedral complexes
[ Ti(H2O)6]3+ , [V(H2O)6]3+, [Cr(H2O)6]3+
Since due to complexation the unpaired electrons in (n-1) d-orbitals are not
disturbed, the magnetic moment of free metal ions remains intact in octahedral
complexes
More possibility
In addition to d2sp3 hybridisation metal ions may undergo sp3 or dsp2 hybridization
forming tetrahedral or square planar complexes respectively
Since in sp3 or dsp2, the d-electrons are not disturbed, the magnetic moment of free
metal ion remains intact n tetrahedral or square planar complex
(2) Atom or ion of d-block element contain 4,5 or 6 electrons in d-orbit
(d4,d5,d6 system)
Mn(III), Fe(III), Co(III), Fe(II)

In above type ions, in ground state two 3-d orbitals are not vacant to participate
thus 3d electrons are not disturbed and hence magnetic moment of free metal ions
remains intact in outer orbital octahedral complex. Energy gap between 4s and 4d
is large, the sp3d2 hybridisation is not perfect hybridization and hence outer orbital
complexes are comparatively less stable. Moreover, 4d orbitals are more extended
in space than 3dorbitals and hence sp3d2 hybrid orbitals are also more extended in
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space than d2sp3 hybrids. So bond length in outer orbital octahedral complexes is
comparatively longer and so they are less stable. Such complex is possible if ligand
is weak
Another possibility

For strong ligand like CN- maximizes pairing of 3d electrons, two 3d orbitals may be
maid vacant for d2sp3 hybridisation forming octahedral complex.
As two d-orbitals of inner shell are involved in hybridisation, complex are said to be
inner orbital octahedral complex.
The energy of the orbitals involved in hybridisation is in continuation. The d2sp3
hybridisation is perfect and at the same time due to less extension of 3d orbitals in
space, bond length is also short. So, inner orbital octahedral complexs are more
stable than outer orbital octahedral complex
As the paring of 3d electrons is forced in d2sp3 hybridisation in these systems, hence
the magnetic moment of the free metal ion undergoes change on complexation
One more possibility
In addition to inner orbital octahedral and outer octahedral complexes ions may
also form tetrahedral and square planner complex by sp3 and dsp2 hybridization
(3) Atom or ion of d-block element contain 7,8 or 9 electrons in d-orbit
(d7,d8,d9 system)
Co(II), Ni(II, Cu(II)

Two vacant 3d orbitals cannot be made available for d2sp3 hybridization even after
maximum pairing. So, there is no chance of the formation of inner orbital
octahedral complex

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In d7,, with promotion of one electron to 5s or 4d, it becomes loosely bonded to

the nucleus and hence, it may easily be removed and so, Co(II) will easily be
oxidized to Co(III)
In d8 , after maximum pairing of 3d electrons, one 3d orbital may be vacated for
dsp2 hybridization and hence d7 , d8 systems favour the formation of square planar
complexs with changed magnetic nature
In d9, one d-orbital is not made available for dsp2 hybridization. So there is no
question of the formation of square planar complex by d9
More possibility ( weak ligand)
However they may undergo sp3d2 hybridization forming outer orbital octahedral
complex with same magnetic properties as in free metal.
One more possibility
Also sp3 hybridizations can easily occur favouring the formation of tetrahedral
complexes with unchanged magnetic character
(4) In d10 Zn(II) , Cu(I)
In d10, 3d orbitals are completely filled up, so, it may form tetrahedral complex by
sp3 hybridization or outer orbital octahedral complexes by sp3d2 hybridization
Magnetic properties of the free metal ion remains unchaged in tetrahedral or outer
orbital octahedral complexes
Defects of Valence bond theory

While the VB theory, to a larger extent, explains the formation, structures and magnetic
behaviour of coordination compounds, it suffers from the following shortcomings:
(i) It involves a number of assumptions.
(ii) It does not give quantitative interpretation of magnetic data.
(iii) It does not explain the colour exhibited by coordination compounds.
(iv) It does not give a quantitative interpretation of the thermodynamic or kinetic
stabilities of coordination compounds.
(v) It does not make exact predictions regarding the tetrahedral and square planar
structures of 4-coordinate complexes.
(vi) It does not distinguish between weak and strong ligands.

Crystal field theory (CFT)

Main postulates of crystal field theory are
(i)
In a coordination compound there are electrostatic interaction between metal
atom/ion and ligands. Ligand assumed to be a point charge
(ii)
In an isolated metal atom or ion all five d-orbitals have equal energy i.e. they are
degenerate
(iii) When metal atom/ion gets surrounded by ligands, there occur interaction
between d-electron cloud of metal atom/ion and ligands
(iv) If the field due to ligan around metal atom is spherically symmetrical, d-orbitals
of metal remains degenerated
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(v)

(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)

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If filed due to ligand surrounding metal is unsymmetrical ( as in octahedral and

tetra hedral complexes) the degeracy of d-orbitals is splitted into two sets of
orbitals
Orbitals lying in the direction of ligands (point charges) are raised to higher
energy state than those orbitals lying between theligands ( point charges)
The energy difference between two sets of orbitals is denoted by o for
octahedral and t for tetrahedral
The magnitude of o and t depends upon the field strength of ligand around
the metal
Ligands which cause larger splitting ( large ) are called strong field ligands while
those which causes small splitting (small ) are called weak filed ligands

Spectrochemical series
Arrangement of ligands in order of their ability to cause splitting () is called
spectrochemical series
I- < Br- <S2- <SCN- <Cl- <F- <OH- <C2O42- <O2- <H2O <NCS- < NH3 < en < NO2- <CN- <CO
The spectrochemical series is an experimentally determined series. It is difficult to explain
the order as it incorporates both the effect of and bonding.
A pattern of increasing donation is as follows
Halides donors < O donors < N donors < C donors

Crystal field splitting in octahedral complexes

The octahedral arrangement of six ligands surrounding the central metal ion can be
shown as follows
It is obvious from the figure, that ligands approaching the x,
y, and z axis. The two d orbitals namely d(x2 y2) and d(z2)
will suffer more electrostatic repulsion and hence their
energy will be grater than other three orbitals d(xy), d(yx)
and d(xz) which will have their lobes lying between the axis
Thus degenerate set of d-orbitals split into two sets:
eg orbitals of higher energy including d(x2 y2) and d(z2)
and t2g orbitals of lower energy including d(xy), d(yx) and
d(xz)
The crystal field splitting is measured in terms of energy difference between t2g and eg
orbital and is denoted by a symbol o . It is generally measured in terms of Dq. It is called
as crystal field splitting energy or crystal field stabilization energy
Eg orbitals are 6Dq above the average energy level and t2g orbitals are 4Dq below the
average energy level

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Significance of 0
A strong field ligand approaches the central metal atom/ion strongly and thus the
magnitude of 0 is high. Hence in the case of strong field ligand, the magnitude of 0 is
grater than, the pairing energy ( the energy required to pair up two negatively charged
electrons having opposite spin in an orbital). However, under the influence of weak field
ligand, 0 is smaller than pairing energy (P)
Now, let us consider the d4 configuration of the central atom/ion. The first three electrons
will go into t2g orbitals using Hundd rule of maximum multiplicity. The fourth electron will
go in the eg orbital when the ligands are weak as, 0 < P giving the configuration t2g3eg1.
But if the ligands are strong, then the fourth electron will pair up when any of the singly
occupied t2g orbitals (as 0 >P) to give the configuration t2g4eg0

Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral complexes

The tetrahedral arrangement of four ligands
surrounding the metal ions can be shown as shown
in figure.
It is obvious from the figure that none of the dornital point exactly towards the ligands. However,
three d-orbitals d(xy), d(yz) and d(zx) are pointing
close towards ligands
As a result of this, the energy of these three
orbitals increases much more than the other two dorbitals d(x2 y2) and d(z2). The d-orbitals thus split
in two sets of orbitals: t2g orbitals of higher energy
including d(xy), d(yz), d(xz) and eg orbitals of lower energy including d(x2 y2) and d(z2)
Energy difference between two sets of orbitals is represented by f. However splitting is
much smaller than that in octahedral complexes
4

9
Negative sign denotes that order of splitting in tetrahedral complexes is reverse of that in
octahedral complexes.
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Because of the small value of t, electrons generally do not pair and results in formation of
high-spin complex.

Limitation of Crystal field theory

The crystal field model is successful in explaining the formation, structures, colour and
magnetic properties of coordination compounds to a large extent.
However, from the assumptions that the ligands are point charges, it follows that anionic
ligands should exert the greatest splitting effect. The anionic ligands actually are found at
the low end of the spectrochemical series.
Further, it does not take into account the covalent character of bonding between the
ligand and the central atom.
These are some of the weaknesses of CFT, which are explained by ligand field theory (LFT)
and molecular orbital theory

Factors affecting the stability of complexes

1) A coordinate compound is formed in solution by the stepwise addition of ligands to
metal ion. The overall stability constant is given by
M + nL MLn
[]
=
[][]
Higher the value of f more stable is the complex or more the quanity of MLn be exists in
solution.
Free metal ions rarely exist in the solution so that M will usually be surrounded by solvent
molecules which will compete with the ligand molecules, L, and be successively replaced
by them.
For simplicity, we generally ignore these solvent molecules and write stability constants as
follows in the formation of MLn are
M + L ML
K1 = [ML]/[M][L]
ML + L ML2 K2 = [ML2] / [ML][L]
ML2 + L ML3 K3 = [ML3] / [ML2][L]
_____________
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____________

MLn-1 + L [MLn] / [MLn-1][L]

where K1, K2, etc., are referred to as stepwise stability constants.
Alternatively, we can write the overall stability constant thus:
M + nL ML4
= [MLn]/[M][L]n
The stepwise and overall stability constant are therefore related as follows:
4 = K1 K2 . Kn
2) Higher is the charge density on the central metal ion, grater is the stability of the
complexes. For example [Fe(CN)6]3- is more stable than [Fe(CN)]43) More is the basic character of ligand, more stable is the complex
4) Chelating ligands form more stable complexes than the monodentated ligands

ISOMERISM
Compounds having the same chemical formula but different physical and chemical
properties due to the different structural arrangements are called isomers.
This phenomenon is known as isomerism.
Coordination compounds exhibit two major types of isomerism, namely
(A) structural isomerism and (B) stereoisomerism (space isomerism).
Each of these is further classified as shown below.

A) Structural isomerism
a) Coordination isomerism
b) Ionisation isomerism
c) Hydrate or Solvate isomerism d) Linkage isomerism
e) Ligand Isomerism
B) Stereoisomerism
a) Geometrical isomerism b) Optical isomerism
A) Structural isomerism
a) Coordination isomerism
In a bimetallic complex, both complex cation and complex anion may be present. In such a
case the distribution of ligands between the two coordination spheres can vary, giving rise
to isomers called the coordination isomers. This phenomenon is called coordination
isomerism. This isomerism is illustrated by the following pairs of complexes where the
complex cation and anion contain different metal centres.
1. [Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6] and [Cr(NH3)6]
[Co(CN)6]
Hexammine hexacyano
Hexamine
hexacyano
cobalt(III) chromate(III)
chromium (III) cobaltate (III)
2. [PtII(NH3)4] [CuCl4]
and [Cu(NH3)4]
[PtCl4]
Tetraammine Tetrachloro
Tetraammine Tetrachloro
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platinum (II)

cuparate (II)

copper (II)

platinate (II)

b) Ionisation isomerism
Coordination compounds having the same molecular formula but forming different ions in
solution are called ionisation isomers. This property is known as ionisation isomerism.
An example of this type of isomerism is furnished by the red-violet,
[Co(NH3)5Br]SO4
[Co(NH3)5SO4]Br
pentaamminebromocobalt(III) sulphate pentaamminesulphatocobalt (III) bromide
The red-violet isomer yields sulphate ion and the red isomer furnishes bromide
ion in solution.
[Co(NH3)4Cl2]NO2
and
Tetraamminedichlorocobalt(III)

[Co(NH3)4NO2Cl]Cl
nitrite Tetraamminechloronitrocobalt(III) chloride

[Co(NH3)5NO3]SO4
and
pentaamminenitratocobalt(III) sulphate

[Co(NH3)5 SO4]NO3
pentaamminesulphatocobalt(III) nitrate

c) Hydrate isomerism or Solvate isomerism

The best known examples of this type of isomerism occurs for chromium chloride
CrCl3.6H2O which may contain 4, 5, (or) 6 coordinated water molecules.
1. [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl.2H2O - Bright green
Tetraaquadichlorochromium(III) chloride dihydrate
2. [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2.H2O - grey-green
Pentaaquachlorochromium(III) chloride monohydrate
3. [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 - Violet
Hexaaquachromium(III) chloride
These isomers have very different chemical properties and on reaction with
AgNO3 to test for Cl- ions, would find 1,2, and 3 Cl- ions in solution respectively.

d) Linkage isomerism
Linkage isomerism occurs with ambidentate ligands. These ligands are capable of
coordinating in more than one way. The best known cases involve the monodentate
ligands SCN-/NCS- and NO2 -/ONO
Forexample
[Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl2 the nitrito isomer - red colour
pentaamminenitritocobalt(III) chloride - O attached
[Co(NH3)5 NO2]Cl2 the nitro isomer - yellow colour
pentaamminenitrocobalt(III) chloride - N attached
e) Ligand isomerism
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Ligand isomerism arises from the presence of ligands which can adopt different isomeric
forms. An example is provided by diaminopropane, which may have the amine groups in
the terminal (1,3-) positions or in the 1,2-positions.

B)Stereoisomerism (space isomerism)

Consider two compounds containing the same ligands attached to the same central metal
ion, but the arrangement of ligands in space about the central metal ion are different,
then these two compounds are said to be stereoisomers and this phenomenon is known
as stereoisomerism. There are two different types of stereoisomerism.
a) Geometrical isomerism or b) Optical isomerism.
a) Geometrical (or) cis-trans isomerism
Geometrical isomerism is due to ligands occupying different position around the
central ion. The ligands occupy position either adjacent to one another or opposite
to one another. These are referred to as cis-form respectively. This type of
isomerism is, therefore, also referred to as cis-trans isomerism. Geometric isomers
are possible for both square planar and octahedral complexes, but not tetrahedral
Geometrial isomerism in 4-coordinate complex
.(1) [Ma2b2] type complexes Square planar
In a cis-isomer two identical (or) similar groups are adjacent
to each other whereas in a trans-isomer they are
diametrically opposite to each other.
Square planar complexes of the type [Ma2b2]n+ where a and
b are monodentate ligands, exist as cis and trans-isomers as
shown
Example of this type of complexes
are [Pt (NH3)2 Cl2] and [Pd(NH3)2
(NO2)2].
The cis trans isomers of these
compounds are represented as
Cis-diamine dichloroplatinum(II) and
trans- diammine dichloroplatinum(II)
(2) [Mabcd] type complexs
Square planar complex of this type exist in three isomeric forms for example
[ Pt(NH3)(Py)(Cl)(Br)] exist in the following structures

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(3) [ Ma2bc] type complexes

Square planar complexes of this type also shows cis-trans isomerism.
For example [Pd (Cl)2Br I]2- exists in the following cis-trans

(4)[M(AB)2]n type complex

Here m is the central metal ion and (AB) represents an unsymmetrical bidentate ligand(A)
and (B) arethe two ends (i.e. coordinating atoms) of the bidentates ligands such type of
complexes also show trans and cis isomerism

For example [Pt(gly)2]; here gly represents the glycinato ligands, NH2CH2COO- which has
N (A)and O (B)atoms as its donar
Geometrial isomerism in 6-coordinate complex, octahedral complex
A complex compound having the central metal ion with
coordination number equal to 6 has octahedral shape. The
system used for numbering different positions of ligands in an
generally it is assumed that the 1,2 positions are cis-positions.
Normally it is taken that 1,6 positions are trans-positions
(1)An octahedral complex of the type [Ma4b2]
where a and b are monodentate
ligands, exists as two geometrical Isomers:

(2) [Ma3b3] type complexes

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When each trio of donor atoms(
viz ligands (a,a and a) occupy
adjacent position at the corners
of an octahedral face, we have
facial isomers
When the positions are around
the meridian of octahedron,we
get Meridional (mer) isomer

b) Optical Isomerism
This is a phenomenon in which certain organic or inorganic compounds have the property
of rotating plane polarised light. The compounds which exhibit this property are called
optical isomers. The optical isomers of a compound have identical physical and chemical
properties. The only distinguishing property is that the isomers rotate the plane of
polarised light either to the left or right. If the rotation is on the leftside, then that isomer
is levo and if on right side, then isomer is dextro. The equal proportion of levo and dextro
mixture is called racemic mixture
It is generally found octahedral chelate ions. The two isomers of this type of complex are
mirror image of each other and cannot super impose on each other, hence they possess
chirality character.
coordination compound of type
[PtCl2(en)2]2+ two geometrical isomers are
possible. They are cis and trans. Among
these two isomers, cis isomer shows optical
activity because the whole molecule is
asymmetric.

The optical isomers of [CoCl2(en)(NH3)2]+

are as follows

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Optical isomeric structure of [Cr(ox)3]3- or [Cr(C2O4)3]3- as follows

Bonding in Metal Carbonyls

The homoleptic carbonyls (compounds containing carbonyl ligands only) are formed by
most of the transition metals. These carbonyls have simple, well defined structures.
Tetracarbonylnickel(0) is tetrahedral,

Pentacarbonyliron(0) is trigonalbipyramidal

Hexacarbonyl chromium(0) is octahedral.

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Decacarbonyldimanganese(0) is made up of two square pyramidal Mn(CO)5 units joined by

a Mn Mn bond.

Octacarbonyldicobalt(0) has a Co Co bond bridged by two CO groups

Colour of coordination complexes

(i)Colour of a complex is not because of the light absorbed but is due to the light reflected
(complementary colour) e.g. If radiation corresponding to red light are absorbed from
visible region, the compound appears to have blue colour
(ii0 In coordination complexes energy difference () between two d-sets of d-orbitals is
small. Radiations of appropriate frequency absorbed from visible region can cause
excitation of d-electron from lower energy orbital to higher energy orbital. Remaining light
is transmitted and compound appears coloured
(iii)IF there are no d-electrons present or completely filled d-orbitals are present then
there is no d-d transition possible and complex appears colourless

Importance and applications of Coordination Compounds

Coordination compounds are widely present in the mineral, plant and animal worlds and
are known to play many important functions in the area of analytical chemistry,
metallurgy, biological systems, industry and medicine.
These are described below:
Coordination compounds find use in many qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis.
The familiar colour reactions given by metal ions with a number of ligands (especially
chelating ligands), as a result of formation of coordination entities, form the basis for
their detection and estimation by classical and instrumental methods of analysis. Examples
of such reagents include EDTA, DMG (dimethylglyoxime), nitrosonaphthol, cupron,
etc.
Hardness of water is estimated by simple titration with Na2EDTA. The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
form stable complexes with EDTA. The selective estimation of these ions can be done due
to difference in the stability constants of calcium and magnesium complexes.
Some important extraction processes of metals, like those of silver and gold, make use of
complex formation. Gold, for example, combines with cyanide in the presence of oxygen

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and water to form the coordination entity [Au(CN)2] in aqueous solution. Gold can be
separated in metallic form from this solution by the addition of zinc
Similarly, purification of metals can be achieved through formation and subsequent
decomposition of their coordination compounds.
For example, impure nickel is converted to [Ni(CO)4], which is decomposed to yield pure
nickel.
Coordination compounds are of great importance in biological systems. The pigment
responsible for photosynthesis, chlorophyll, is a coordination compound of magnesium.
Haemoglobin, the red pigment of blood which acts as oxygen carrier is a coordination
compound of iron. Vitamin B12, cyanocobalamine, the antipernicious anaemia factor, is a
coordination compound of cobalt. Among the other compounds of biological importance
with coordinated metal ions are the enzymes like, carboxypeptidase A and carbonic
anhydrase (catalysts of biological systems).
Coordination compounds are used as catalysts for many industrial processes. Examples
include rhodium complex, [(Ph3P)3RhCl], a Wilkinson catalyst, is used for the
hydrogenation of alkenes.
Articles can be electroplated with silver and gold much more smoothly and evenly from
solutions of the complexes, [Ag(CN)2] and [Au(CN)2] than from a solution of simple metal
ions.
In black and white photography, the developed film is fixed by washing with hypo
solution which dissolves the undecomposed AgBr to form a complex ion, [Ag(S2O3)2]3.
There is growing interest in the use of chelate therapy in medicinal chemistry. An
example is the treatment of problems caused by the presence of metals in toxic
proportions in plant/animal systems. Thus, excess of copper and iron are removed by the
chelating ligands Dpenicillamine and desferrioxime B via the formation of coordination
compounds. EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning. Some coordination
compounds of platinum effectively inhibit the growth of tumours. Examples are: cisplatin
and related compounds.

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