ProcessControlPrinciples

Fundamental
controlconcepts
to a
valueof a quantity
compared
Regulate
value. Reference
calledsetpoint
reference
and
Process - a collection
of equipment
materials
thattakesinputsandhasoutputs
Example

QortdependsonV6lf Qout= Qin,h constant

Qoutt Qin,tank emPties
Qort( Qin,tank overflows

I
L
H

No referencevaluegiven
et438a-1.ppt

BasicControlElements
Measurement
Controldecision
Systemmodification

I
L

neosurerrent
sight gLoss

controller
final
control
oout element

(setpoint)
tanklevel,H, is reference
h is thecontrolvariable.
Humanis thecontroller,
adjusts
Qortto maintainh as closeas possibleto H
Exampleof regulatoraction

et438a-1.ppt

AutomaticControlSystems
Automation
Autorrotic
Contro[

sensor

I
L
H

co n tn o l.
e le m e n t
Oor.rt

to
Usesensorsand analogor digitalelectronics

monitor
system.
Elements
ControlSystem
of Automatic
Process- singleor multiple
variable
- sensors/ transducers
Measurement
Errordetection- compareH to h
Controller- generate
corrective
action
Finalcontrolelement- modifyprocess
et438a-1.ppt

BlockDiagrams
Reducecomplexsystemsto inputsandoutputs
BlockDiagram
of ControlSystem

Control
element

process
controller
measurement

Signalsforma loop Controlloop

r = reference
setpoint
value
c = controlvariablein the process
m = measurement
of controlvariable
p = controller
output
u = controlelement
change
e = r - m (dueto signson summer)
et438a-1.ppt

Practical
System
Signal
Conditioning

Controller

current
to
pressure
converter

3-15psi
pneumatic
Diff.Pressure
transducer

Finalcontrolelement

Valve

Setpoint

Controller

measurement

Flow

Diff.pres.

ControfSystemPerformance
Systemsignalchangeovertimeso

e(t)=r- c (t )
Where e(t)= erroras a functionof time
r = setpoint
value
c(t)= controlvariable
as a functionof time

Control System Objectives

e(t)= 0 afterchangesor disturbances

stabfec(t)afterchangesor disturbances
Stability
Steady-state
regulation- e(t)= 0 or within
tolerances
Transientregulationhowdoessystem
performunder
change
6

et438a-1.ppt

Typesof systemresponse
uncontrolle
process

process
control
activated

instability

DampedResponse

r2
c(t)
r1

ChangeSetpoint

Transient
Responses
ovER s d ool'

r2
c(t)
r1

Setpoint
change

r1
c(t)

Disturbance

et438a-1.ppt

5e{11,'^ Trtt'e
1

AnalogMeasurement
Error
Errordetermines
accuracy

Methodsof determing
accuracy
Measured
Value: Reading+- value
100 psi +- 2 psi
Percentof FullScale(FS): (FSValue)(%t100)
Meteraccurateto +-5o/o
of FS)
10V scale
error= 10 V (+-Sotol1
00) -+-0.5V
Percentage
of Span (Span= max-min)
(Span)(%t100)
+-3o/o
P measurement
of span
20-50psi
= *-0.9 psi
error= (50-20)(+-3%1100)
Percentage
of Reading
readingof 2V +-2o/o
= -F-0.04V
error- 2V (*-Z%1100)
9

et438a-1.ppt

SystemAccuracy
Cummufative
Error
c

V+-lV

K+-lK

G+-AG

Sensor

sensoramplifier

K - sensorgain G - amplifier
gain
V - sensoroutputvoltage,
AG,av, AK uncertainities
in measurement
What is magnitude
of AV?
inPut
,/
Withno error: v - (KXG)c
\
\

output

With error V+-AV- (K*-AKXG+-AG)c

Multiple
outandsimplify
to get
=rAV +AG , AK
_ -+
VGK

Where + AV = norma6zed
V

fractionaluncertainity

=*AG +AK
= normalized
fractional
uncertainity

G ,K

10

et438a-1.ppt

Combining
the errors
UseRMS(RSS)

.
\vl \ a ) \ ^ /
/ov\ /rc\' /m\
I

Rrns

Notes:
AG AK arefractional
error. Divide% to get
GK
AV
is fractional
RMSerrorMrultiplyby
v
100to getpercent.
Workson allformulas
thatareonlymtultiplication
anddivision.

&R
=
t[
T
'''
o/,
j
q,,n*, T ierc.nc,
' Ir t h 2% a. . c . r o s Y
A R+ AR,i ..*JXs:ro,o.s 1:
w
ui"
-Ra - -R; /sq

Example:
inverting
OPAMP

'(cc'd

41t.; =i&-

=*o,o z

14'" too
=t\m6
Bui
1r"
t

11

e t438a-1.ppt

TM,
' F;

r(.T

^r,o *
:
/Co os;e+(r"'s)
-16.

o Z3

oR

+ ' ?. 3 %

EF

,4rus

SensorCharacteristics
Sensitivity
- Changein outputforchange
in input.Equalsslopein lineardevice
Hysteresis
- outputdifferent
for increasing
or
input
decreasing
Resolution- Smallest
measurement
a sensor
canmake.
Linearity- howcloseto a lineis the llO
relationship
c m =m(c)+co
Where c = measuredcontrolvariable
m = slope
Go= offset(y intercept)
G,n= sensoroutput

12

et438a-1.ppt

Example
Findingm andcofromdatapoints
Y Y 1=m \x xl )

l rt =Y2-Y1
x2 x1

Sensorhasa linearresistance
changeof 100to 195
ohms,as temperature
changesfrom 20 - 120C.
Findthesensorl/O relationship
b e { '^e 't{,..t=

S l"pe.

,,.\.frl:

= (zo t,, loosr) X= 1r-,prJ

rl,)
o''-fP'- . i
(x, y.,. (tzo"r,l9ssz) t=
,xr

gS sr_
l?Sra - /oo ;i
_
=
o.gs-n/r.
lZoo(- 2,:oc
m=

=
3 - to o .o - o .9 sf". (x - Z ""c)
o.9 sx
J=

o 9s ( 2") + lao

8t
Y=O .? sX+
- ./" t
Pl"-l *u cleq/-

I e''
''''

13

et438a-1.ppt

po,,.t-s l .* /d b,e one_

"

SensorResponse
FirstOrderResponse
- ideal

c(t)
cf

no timedelay

Stepchangein measured
variable
Practical
sensorresponse
c(t) b(t; = sensorresponse
function
br= finalvalue

cf
srr P
TNCAtAsf

STf P
b Ec.ATAT,E

bi= initialvalue

et438a-1.ppt

Modefing 1stOrderRespone
Forstepincrease:

b (t)=bi. ( 0 ,

o,)

- t\
(,,-e r)

br= finalsensorvalue
bi = initialsensorvalue
t = time
t = timeconstantof sensor
Forstepdecrease
Where

-T

b( t ) = ( 0 , o +) . " r
Example:Stepincrease
b r - 4 .0V b,- 2.0V r=0.0025/s

Findtimeit takesfor sensorto reachg0o/o

of finalvalue
O . 8- ( = - e- t l". o o Z s
b{t1= z* (a -z)( ,- u*/" o"")
b ( t)= Ztz(r-e */" 'o"o)

b (-r) or

9oo/oo{ 4.oV = r,d V

3. 6 = z + z(r - s %'*zs;
3+3
15

+o.Z:t

_t/6.oo
zf
i

l"Go,z)=l^(dt/"'^{
-/.eo9:

-t/o.oozr

= t - e */o.aozs-

1.6o7(,:.ao2s)
= 6

et438a-1.ppt

o.Qo4 S = t
4"4S: {

-F-

/n rs,,,.>

il

Example:
Stepdecrease
Thesensorinitialoutputis 1.0V howlongdoesit
taketo changeto 0.2 V if thetimeconstant
of the
sensoris 0.1/s.
-t lr
bi = l .o V [4 " o .o V

?"st / s

- t/"'

bt t) " o .Z

O.Z ' I e
In (o.r1 1

b(+)=([ '-b{)

'

Llot

/
- +' /o
'I
=
o
1
4
- l.c
/.(o94G,i) -. t

,-.#r ! +"*
Significant
Digitsin measurement
and
design
In meaurement:
readable
outputof instruments
resolution
of sensorsand
transducers.
Calulation
Trunicate
usingmeaurements:
calculator
answersto matchsignificant
digitsof measurements
andreadings,
16

et438a-1.ppt

Significant
digitexamples
computepowerbasedon thefollowingmeasured
values.Usecorrectnumberof significant
digits.
| = 3.25A

V - 117.8V p = V(t)

3.25A 3 significantdigits
117.8V 4 significantdigits
calculator382.85W
Trunciate
to 3 significant
digits p - 383W
Significant
digitsnotfactorin designcalculations
Devicevaluesassumedto haveno uncertainity.
Computethe currentflowthrougha resistorthathas
a measured
R of 1.234ko anda voltagedropof
1.344Vdc.
ft = 1.234kA 4 significant
digits
V - 1.344V 4 significant
digits
l= (1.344)l(1
.234x103)= 1.089mA 4 digits
17

et438a-1.ppt

BasicStatistics
Arithmatic
Mean( Centraltendency)
n

*= (l {

n
Where Xi= i th datameasurement
n = totalnumberof measurents
taken
x = meanvalue
Varidnce( Measureof dataspreadfrommean)

rr

dr=l* i

'2
x)

)di
/-J

2 (i=1)

O=

n1

o2 = varianceof data

StandardDeviation
o = standarddeviation

18

et438a-1.ppt

Statistics
Example
A 1000ohmresistoris measured10timesthefoflow
readingswheretaken
Test # Reading
Test# Reading
1
1016
6
1011
2
986
7
997
3
981
8
1Q44
4
990
I
991
5
1001
10
966
Findthe mear\varianceandstandarddeviation
of the
tests Whatis the mostfikelyvaluefor the resistorto
have?

x=

tora +? 8{+? gtr1 ) o+

l_. l"rr+))?+t o44{

/o

R = ? 18 .3

--t>z

d ,= 0o,a-rlea)
dr t r 3l3 r z?

e-t =

d.=(9S<-)lr s)
d r = / st 3

f.t

( - = 1 @ : \F6 * : ? t . 6

T- - ' . = 4 e s 3
/o -l

Ar-t- VAlufs
D4,s'{ I tLe ,tTL r..{* q -f..
19

et438a-1.ppt

Sr{or-tl} Bf

,.f

Lr-rrrHI^J *36-.

So g?S, 3Sr _

ldealOPAMPCharacteristics

IN VTR TIN G
TTRMIN A L

NI N_I N V T R T ] N G
I t RMIN A t

1.) infinite
Z^
2.) Zout- 0 zerooutputimpedance
infiniteGainis constantfor all
3.) Bandwidth
frequencies
4.) WithVo= 0, Vo- 0 (Nooffsetvoltage)
5.) Infinitevoltagegain (&)

fromsaturation
recovery
6.) Instant
7.) l,n= 0 (dueto infiniteZ,n)

et438ala.ppt

1"

OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIERS

(oP AMP)
V O LT A GEA M P L IF IE R
DESI G NED
F O RUSE I N
ANALOGCOMPUTERS.
Symbolfor basicOP AMP

Two Inputs

V1lnvertinginput
V, Non-inverting
input
V,tO
VrtO

Vo.O
VotO

Requiresbipolarpowersupplies
(dc)AMPLIFIERS
AND CAN
OP AMPSARE DIRECTCOUPLED
AMPLIFYdc & ac SIGNALS
SIMULTANEOUSLY

BasicAmplifier
Circuits
Inverting
VoltageAmplifier
Av --

-Rf
R,n

v-'[+)
Vo Limitedby *- V
LargeAucausesVo= V (saturation)
Non-lnvertingVoltageAmplifier
D

, .1

' .f

n"*

[r

R r ')

R'i

%-u[,

R,n= R,nof OP AMP

Auhasminimum
valueof 1
et438ala.ppt

R')
R,n/

OtherusefulOPAMPcircuits
lmpedance
buffers(Voltage
follower)
UsedwherehighZ,nneeded

Vi

tl

-V

-l
t"
zo

Ztn

Characteristics
Practical
Circuit(LM741)

ldeal

Au= 1
Z,n= 1MW

&= 1

Zo =1ow

Z,n= infinite
Zo= 0

Circuit
causesminimum
loading
on previous
stage

et438ala.ppt

Example:Bufferedvoltagedividercircuit
Voltagedividerformulaonly
validfor infiniteloadresistance
FindVounderload

N' LoAbv.

Sk,.

vo=ffi(rzv)

v= {. vd l
5 k= Rr-W rrH LoA\
= Sksr-ll
SL. n" i,s kszRLllSkn!r6

ffi(rzv) =2.Av

Add impedance
buffer AstucrnE LFnY4I Ri= | rncrAV:l

+12Vdc

R",= Q ,t t skn"
+_

u*r
Q,i

et438ala.ppt

Rd
vo

5k = Rr-

R o =l osr

So VInC
=V

\e ^-L
-

V; :'

lMs. llsKrt
I rnu (s ko)
- lfnsr t Slsl-

{ 9?Ss1
foks.-t (g 7Sn

" 1??ssr

?v
( r z v)= 3.?s

V,n = ! = 3.98?V

Electronic
AddingandSubtracting
Inverting
S umming
Amplifier
I

ldeal
circuit

R1

UsingSuperposition
Gainv.,

-Rf

Gainv,

R1

-Rf

Gainv.

R2

vo: -Rrt *u , * 5 )
Total
output
# R 2 R ./
Outputis inverted
sum of v1,v2,and v,
lmprovedcircuit
(non-ideal
OP AMP)

Vt
,

R
bias compensation
v?

R"= R, ll R2ll R. ll R,

et438a1a.ppt

R1

-Rf
R3

Non-inverting
Summing
Amp
Rp

vt
v?
v3

V^: (, *&) (v, +v, +v

" \
R/ \
3

Rr = R z = R s
Foranynumber,fl, inputs.
vo =

(''

, R, )(u, t vz+. . . . . *vn

- R/(..

Assuming
. . .Rn
R,,=Rz=R3=
Example.n=3, Rr = Rz= Rs=56kRr= 9k ft = 1k
Vr = 0.5Vdc Vz= 0.37Vdc Vs= 0.8Vdc Findvo

Vo:(''.t-)(* .

Vo=(,*+)[ os+osz+oa\
\

et438a1a.ppt

1kl\

)-u'u667

InvertingArnp
Exarnples
Rf .

10k

Find V"with
vin-- 2 Vdc

-p.,

-'.

V=z+v
,rtA

Vo'
ffu' --)v=-ZVi V=-Lev)=+

V .-ldk*r,

/-ef R{=sksz,{,,.d A, lV V;--LVdq

-:f*
=
Av.+!=
Kr,.,
S kua
F

flo|Cowe R

-+{.
V;=ZVJ. V=ArV;"-/(z)=

L"-l Rr=tr,sksztTndAv4 V Vi,=z-vl.

n =:&

2'Sksc

tls

_4a
^*v- ?; =
-o's- Pedcrces
rruPxr VcarAGr
#=
V = A uVr =- o.s ( z v d ") - - l V d c
ottrp."T snnArllR rilxru
m,
Lt ks b,yrJ,nq t/,
et43gala.ppt

>

Non-lnverting
AmpExamples
Rt

Rp

100k

FindV" and
A" Givenvaluesof R
andv, = -1 Vdc

vr

I
V =V( '*
z - 3 Vdc
-r(:)
V.
F

,4,rusAJ o S t q N
C H A ^ ' rG r

=('*'#)=+
Ar=(r-*)
es
(, ILL A/ol"
oO
rnF

lS
A t\P
AJorE: Qino { o P A
ST ACI
R es u- c E o L L r tr u t o F PeEV'ous

kol ts % |
Vi rQ,se*to L Vdc,tu

= 3( 6) = t B v d c
Av
V;
%=

ydc
r
ls
3AT
ArqArA:s
S
ppa
,r
H ,q AJ,l A nP
c Aru

|5 L't"''+e'd
Po-* ,-S,^Pt
('" nein1)
A c =,Jtolt d 's{o,-4ed
et438ala.ppt

Amplifier
Summing
Example
vt

& 25k

v?

FindVo Given
v1 = 0.2 Vdc
v 2 = 0 .1 Vd c
v3 = -0.1Vdc

v3

-fu,
V=-R{(t-*-+,)=
#', --#Vrt

-I*"-e zv)+
V o=
+ *G , u ) | { H( o - r v )
- 6 ' (a 7 (o -rv)
+ -i o (o 'rv)
V' 1,s( z v ) +
'
t'
t\

f.

Y'o - c.B - o .6 a c?+ t,o v J 6 =

A PPLl C A T ior J S

O.46 6 7V d c

Rs CRTATES
A, , 4. A3 PorEruTrorrr"I-[
A u b to PntxE R
WFIEn l Rr' e =Rr \t'A v r B 4 6 A o f V l ,V . V 3

et438ala.ppt

Averaging
theOutputof 3
Temperature
Sensors

q 5ok

LM34

LM34- temperature
sensors.Gain= 10 mV/F
Tr=50F Tz=45FTs=50F
Averagethe temperature
usinga gainof -1 and-5. F i n dth e
valueof R,and V" for eachvalueof Gain

To AvE & A GE R ,'Rr=R3=So lsz

V,.
- R.(9
'\tP, n
8B l
t z "'--*")

V^ :
u

( , = R . .R,

Struqg

n /\" \.,J
I-\
**+[
*,ai
v"=
E
---*iJ

et438al
a.ppt

l0

AveragingE xampfe
continued

{.*

+V.+
V*) {"" 3 rnpuil5

Y= +(v,
f^ P,.^ts
r)

Y= t-F (V,*V,*V:n

o. qo-rno$ -l
]on

Q, 4,.,1' R6

t***eeyl
fi^d Re.lo,{ronsl",p

-r-*a

R,
I
+
l
aIL=^t+
- E- e^l - i * ' "t ' i R r=
- l =l

{oAa-^Y (arnValqe

AV -n&=4, , g>

f, n d R6a^J Vo Au = - l

ni= Av-

A , (r
n
K6'

Vf /0rn vlF( r ,) = /o n tV /r ( s o 'o ) =1 i V

Tf S"t

T - <s"r=V: /a^V lrG)=lo^Vfrfrr"r)= o'.ot,V

=,o,4-o
V.
-T.: <.oo
l-- V*' iornu (l) = /d*u lf (<o'F)
l,

R,-solecr R{= 4&

n
/)

- t(sjk*,\ = t6 6z}.2{es
-=
-=-f l

V"'

+o'4s*-o'1 =Q4s
o
s
:
Avrea6e

C f'e"ks
et438a
I a.ppt

AveragingExampfecontinued
Part2 Find R,and Vofor Au_-_b
Fr nJ Vo l,rg O { I {
Av R '
p:
t\

/ "r: 3

{n
a

8 , . S o L s r A u,S

Q4= = (f9l"l : 8s.:a ksa-Arus

;rr''\

Vo'

-. Stlr( V,
R,

\"'

-4r-

-\
E
:l
l
z(o
oq/
f
s + o .<5
*V, +V ,\--B r

t)

3*
Va= t , c6 ? (r, 3 SV'\- L-ry
,n l

u hec (

s . l. R-

\--

n yt
:;:-"

'| )
?
/o,S+O,<S+o,q\=
(.ZS
Ckecks
5 r#
)=
\-3l =--

t',cg
N rr{', R6 rs A { N - 51t"'' d *--d Va{
va lr'r'qe d
use closesl sta ^d *d
"
}"
rol
e
gt- 1l"enr Crtl '
Po"tenil o cne{

Fn**'l)cq-tQr
-e) r,r.r

et438ala.ppt

t2

SkSl-

srt eS

ScalingLinearTransducer
Outputs
x= transducer
input
(measu
redvalue)
Vr = transducer
output
voltage
gain
Kr = transducer
(slope)
KS =

s c d l e rg a i n
VS = sceller
output
= lTlX.
value- min.value
outputspan So
inputspan

Si

or scalercharacteristics
Case1: no offsetin transducer
gainformula:Vr = Krx
Transducer
Required
scalergain:
Kr=

desiredspan

transducer
span Sr

scalerout putf ormula

vs - K" . K, . x
vs - Kr. vr
et438-2a.ppt

Sd

by constant
BlockDiagramCase1: multiply
scaler
Transducer
XVTVS
''l

-l

tts

tl

input

outPut

Vr = Krx

V, = KrV,

P (x) range0 - 50 pisg

transducer:
Example:Pressure
V (Vr)range0 - 1.25Vdc
Des ir e do u tp u rt a n g e :O- 10 Vdc
gain,gainrequired
to
to scaletranSdricer
Findtransducer
values
new rangeand drawthe blockdiagramwithcalculated
s h o wn .
FindK,

outputspan_ So Kr = 1.25-0V = 0.025V/psig

=
Kr
50 - 0 psig
inputspan

F inds c a l e rg a i n

vl\ s

K"=

et438-2a.ppt

Si

desiredspan : So

span Sr
transducer

10-0v =
8 V/V

1.25-0V

withoffset- Outputwithno offset

Case2: Transducer
_vr_
b = transducer
offset
gainf ormula:
T ransducer
Vr=Kt x+b
b

Scalergainf ormula
Mustsubtractoffset

correct
formof
#
s c a l e r o u t put
->
scalerequation

V -K, (K'X*b)-K, b
V - KrKrX*Krb-Krb

V -K, Krx
V - KrV, - Krb

Blockdiagram

*
input

- l@ u ' nl
Vr= Ktx+b

et438-2a.ppt

Scaler

Transducer

->
output

V, = KrVt-Krb

vs

Example:offsettransducer
outputtransducer
range
Temperature
transducerTemprange0 - 100C (x)
o u tp u t
1 - 5 V d c ( V r)
Desired
output:0 - 10Vdc
FindK, and b for transducer.
AlsofindK, to get desired
output.Alsodrawthe blockdiagramandinsertgains
andformulas
Fi n d K, K _- out put s pa n _ S o K_ _ 5 -1 V :0 ' 0 4 V/c
t = input s pa n
S i ' l t=
100 - oC
Fi n db fro m points lopef o rmo f l i n e V , -Vrr = Kr(x - x.,)

V, - 1- 0.04(x-0)
Vr :0. 0 4 x +1
s ob = 1
Findscalergain

K^a

desired
span
-

-9 .Y
-+4 - 2.sv/v=
K"
!s r = '5-o
-1V
v - KrVr-K, b
\/ = 2.5Vr-2.5(1)

scalerformula V, - 2.5Vr - 2.5

et438-2a.ppt

so

transducer
span Sr

a----^^^t-

Ex a m p l eC: a s e2 c o n tinued
BlockDiagram

Scaler

Transducer

* , FV ,
input l

V r = 0. 04x + 1

output
V s = 2 .5 V r-2 .5

withnooffset,Outputoffset
Case3: Transducer
c = sclleroffsetcan be
value
gainf ormu l a :
T ransducer
Vr = Krx
Scalerf ormulamust
adda constant
Vs-KrVr+c
-c

K"

desiredspan _ Sd

transd
ucerspan Sr

To findc, usepointslopeform
Vt - Vrl

et438-2a.ppt

- K"(V, - Vr1)

transducer
Pressure
Case3: Example:
range0 - 25 psig(x)
0- 1V( Vr )
gain
Desiredrange(-5V to 5 Vdc) Findtransducer
andscalergainformula.Drawtheblockdiagramof the
system
F indK ,

Kr- -

o u tp ustp an
-!
inputspan

Si

.K,
-' = ==t -9 , : 0. 04v/ p si g
25 - 0 Psig

FindK,K,:ffi:+
u;(;u],u
: 1o
:
v/v=K,
Iq 1 -0v : ry
1
formof lineto findthe valueof c
Usepoint-slope

(1,5) f;ji:ffiiffi?:l$"
-Vr,|)(Vr1,Vr1):
V,-Vrr:K,(V,
v,-5 -1 o ( Vr- 1)
V, - 10Vt - 5
BlockDiagram

scalergainformula
G= -5 in thiscase
Scaler

Transducer
XVTVS

,:

i n pu t
6

Vr= 0'o4x
er43'-2a.ppt

output

v, = l ovT-s

Example
1
Rangeof lineartemperature
transducer
is 32- 212F
witha transducer
gainof 10mV/F.Thedesiredoutput
of thetransducer
fortherangeof temperature
is
0 - 10Vdc.Findthegainformula.
K.=o . ol v lf
\=
ST
\r"
-l

F r pb S ' A N

V ' ,..-V r, =.?.rL-o.3zv

: /,8 V

DucrPc"TAT 3Z"F Scale"dto

d.= rReJ Sf crn

Kr.

jr
ST

Ar \ - SzF
(e zn )=o .3
V
V, =o. orv /r.
Ar q. zrz-fV.;o ot vfr (znr)=2,tlv

/o v
tv:

S,=
"d

\.\

/rr-

rv

oV=lav

Yt = KrT + 'b

C n s s 2 S cAtrnJG t)us1 8e rn,,vC OfFsi-f

V.- K,v- --K=[ Ft," o [ {- ,r " ,- ,G* pt.o

A .z z V
/ov

Vr' s se Vr - s.'t6(ot4 Vlv

\( =s"s6vT- t.'t'tgvlv ckeqk

J. lz

a t 3zol: -Vt = o. 3zv

V"=S.Se(c :z) - i. tig
c t t z lz o F Vr=R .tz v

o -32

lt ,

2 tz" r

V.'s sa(arz)- r.?19: /o.olV

BlucL Dl*(co-rv1
et438-2a.pp,

iO V

CLecks

0V

Example
2
Lineartemperature
transducer
Range: -20C to 50 C Kr = 20 mV/C
D e sir e d r a n g0e : 5V dc.
Transducer
outputvoltageis bipolar(+-)

Vr at - 2ooc
V r o-t 5 o oc

. -o4v
Vr,' 20nnv
lr? zof)

(so.C)= / ,o V
Vr; /o nnV
/t

ll1
\cnt-eRf oenn[LA V." ( Vr - K. 6 F'nd b G""pl^,c*

K."
+=ffi=3S?t
'l'

VT

i'

Sb" T

t'-o,4V {".,-, Pl"+

V.. 3 .s r r V r -s ,S ? ,( - o 'q )
r ,* t.{ZYv l v
\ =s .s ? V

-0,{V

Cl^ecL Vt. - o,<V of - zoo

c
V . " a, s ?r (u .< u )+ t,4 2 9 t o V

Vr= lV

a-* ScoC

vo 3 .s ? r (r)r l'{19 : S-oV

o,orv/c

et438-2a.ppt

3 .S ?t v, t 1. 1

Practical
Realization
of gainformula
UseOPAMPcircuits
vs

scalingwithoutoffset:
useinverting
or non-inverting
ampsto implement
K,
Forinverting
K^ -

-Rr
R'n

SLNSUI<

Fortransducers
withoffsetuse inverting
summation
amps
vb

SecondOP AMP changessign if Rrl = R,n Av = -1

stage1

overallgain

v - +V,+f", vs- (+V,++v,)r-rr

-F
v , +F u ,
Rr'Ro
Gainformulawithoffset
Rf
RT
et438a2a.ppt

K"b-

ff",

Example:Designan OP AMPcircuit
thatwill
impfement
the scaferequationfromExample 2
Assume Rr' = Rin= 1ookr: Rr= 470 kO
V, - 3 .5 7 1 8 +1.429 scaferrelationship
for

Examp
le 2

vb

470ko
Rf

R,.| 100ko

VT
Ett

100ko

Kr=
fr
SoLvE

K s ' 3 , s ? r R6={?oksr

ro(, Rr

R, ,

, "

ft"

*F

. /3r.arkrc

f:S- Qa &sc slo,-'J*"/ vo/r^q po*e^llorrre*en

t'
I l-7957

;=
-"**-rn^,#
*t*
/o l<s,

K
'- s*ot -= R t ,V ,
Ri

Ccr{,("*le*iA
k r L = l. {29

c,| (4 S R [ " { ?oA r t **r y ( 6 '

S tmp ls Case thak,,et438a2a.ppr

R{ t o Arub Q t t o

Assut*ti Vl = J . r v

t <27=#(a) + /,T.?_
^ Sf
K bL" ;

10

V=*04a,rd /,oV
r nt r 5* f , g / a

P6' gtokst so

#339:6Sv
o,7rys - :--- Eo&-r.

E"*
Rc
_F; =*/ Eo
V.= k.[

Modelsof Components
Typesof components
in controlssystems
electrical
mechanical
liquidflow
gas flow
thermal
Behaviorof systemsdefinedby characteristics
Example:
electrical
resistance
capacitance
inductance
delay

voltage
current
charge

- amountof potentialrequiredto producea

Resistance
unitcurrent.
Capacitance
- amountof chargerequired
to makea unit
changein potential.
- amountof potential
Inductance
required
to makea unit
changein rateof flow(current).
- timeintervalbetweensignal
Delay(Dead-time)
appearing
on inputand response
appearing
on output.

e t38 a - 3 r .

mcd

Defining
Equations
(linear)
Resistance
Staticresistance
R=e

i
(non-linear)
DynamicResistance
Dependson the
valuesof e and i.
R =Ae=d"
Ai di
Can estimatedynamicR withslopeof tangentlineat
operatingpoint.
Ae e2 - e1
R =-= .
. -Ai

Capacitance
t^ Aq
\-r=ae
c .A e =A q
i =C

q9
dt

t2_ t1

I is rateof changeof flow

= Amp
Columb/sec
AQ
c. A" = = i
At At
Definition
of capacitance

Inductance
ai
e = L. = L.di
dt
At

et38a3r.mcd

Potential
required
to
makechangein flow

,?""X'"lT:i:1,?,:;ffi",lf,Sj,ff
:,"n.ytransmissio
'o=*p
Where:
D =dist ance(m)
Vp= vefocityof propagaiion
(m/s)

re
mp characteristic.
ff; ff ['rJ,9J][""1' sistancevort-a
F indRat 6Voperati o n
r-

Av

Ai

i1: o.s i2:: o. s o 4

v 1 : : 5. 9S v : =
2 6.0 5
Av :: v 2 - v 1
AV -- 0 .1

Ai = i2
Ai = 0.004

i1

R] : Av
Ai

R
et38alr.mcd

25

ohm

Example.Sinevoltageacrossa capacitor.
What is the
current?
e ( t) =V ma*. sin(ro. t )

- . sin( rrl't) = C'V ,r*' rrl'cos( r,l't )

i ( t ) = c- d u =c.d
U'- vV max'
dt

90 degreeleadbetweencurrentandvoltage
Example:Currentpulseof 0.1 sec andamplitude
of 0.1
mA appliedto a capacitorproducesa risein voltagefrom
0 to 25 V. What is the capacitance?
i=C-A e
At

s o l v e fo rc

i, = 0. 1 ' 1 0 - 3 ' a m p

i. 4=c
Ae

e1 : = O 'volt

e2 = 25'vo l t

t 1 - 0'sec

t 2 -. 1. sec

Ae = e 2 - e 1

At -t 2

Ae = 25.volt

At - 0. 1. sec

c = i.At

C - 4-rc-7 .farad

Ae

C - 4.0 pF
et38a-Jr.mcd

t1

Ans

Example:voltagepulseof amplitude
5 witha durationof
0.02sec is appliedacrossan inductor.Thiscausesa
currentincreasefrom 1 ampto 2.1 amp. FindL.

e = L.4
At

Solvefor inductance

Ai

t 1 : =0 ' s e c

t2

, 1 = 1 .a m p

a2 2. 1.amp

At , - -t2 - t 1
At - 0 .0 2 .s e c

Ai

L :

0.02.sec

Ai

'z

i1

L- 0.091.henry

".oAit

e := 5' volt

1. 1. amp

Example.Electrical
delays
inryt
(t)

L=".4

oupr"rt
(t-td)

(V-s/A)

Transmission
lines
D
t r=' up

vp = velocityof propagation
typicalvaluesbetween
2-3 x108m/s

et38a{ r.mcd

a.) Findthe delayof a 600 m transmission

linewith
vp = 2'3x108m/s
b.) Findthe delayof a satellitetransmission
witha path
lengthof 2000 km and a velocityof propagation
of
3x108m/s.
a. )
D = 6 0 0 .m

up = 2. 3-108

D
up

t6 :

sec

t d=2'609'10-6'sec
ta =2.609pS

b')

Ans

convertkmto m
2 0 0 0 k. m .10 00

rr . d

2. 106. m
F

km

t d =6. 667'103

3 . 10 ' . s e c
td = 6.667 mS
et38a-,Jr.mcd

sec

Ans

LiquidFlowCharacteristics
Flow= volumeof liquid/unit
time
(e.g. gallons/minute)
Potential= pressure
- dependson the typeof flow
Liquidflowresistance
Typesof liquidflow
Laminar- lowvelocityflows.Streamlinesare
parallel.
Liquidflowsin layers.
Linearflowresistance
highvelocityflow.
turbulent- relatively
flowresistance
non-linear
Number
Flowtypedetermined
by the Reynold's
R = P'v'd
p
Wherep = densityof the fluid(kg/m3)
v = averagevelocityof the fluid(m/s)
of pipe(m)
d = diameter
p = absoluteviscosityof fluid(Pa-s)
Not e :R e y n o l d 'nsu mberis dimensionless
Laminarflow. R<2000
Turbulentflow:R>4000
flow:2000<R< 4000
Transition
et38a-$r.mcd

Averagevelocityof liquid
V=
LaminarFlow

o
A

Where:
fl = areaof pipe (m2)
O - flow (m3/s)
Velocitydistribution

Sincepipediameteris usuallygiven
V=

4.Q

n'd2

Where:

O - flow (m3/s)
d = pipediameter(m)

LaminarFlowEquations
for RoundPipes

p=Rg .e
R L=

128'p'l
n'd4

et38a-$r.mcd

(pa)
(Pa-s/m3)

Where: p = prssuredrop(Pascals)
Rr = laminarflowresistance
O - flow (ms/s)
| = lengthof pipe(m)
F = sbsoluteviscosity(Pa-s)
d = pipediameter(m)
TurbulentflowEquations
for RoundPipes
p = Kt . e2
R t = 2-K t . Q
K +=
'

Where.

et38a-Qr.mcd

pa
Pa-s/ m3

I P f -l
n2-d5

f= frictionfactor (seetable3.3 p. 80 text)

| = length(m)
d = pipediameter(m)
p = densityof liquid(kg/m3)
(Pa-s/m3)
Rt = turbulent
flowresistance
p = pressure(Pa)
O - flow (m3/s)

in volumeof liquid
- increase
LiquidFlowCapacitance
requiredto makeunitincreasein pressure
ra
r\r

Av
L=

op

(m3/Pa)
Where:
Cr = c?Pacitance
AV = volumechange(m3)
Ap = pressurechange(Pa)
Pressurerelationship
A p= p. g. AH
p = densityof fluid
where:
g = acceleration
dueto gravity
H - heightof liquidin tank
Deriverelationship

Ap =p
s+

A A+
^H=
A AVAVA
t1 =;
E

AP

P'g

pgY
A

et38a-Jr.mcd

10

\ "'

LiquidFfowInertance (fnductance)
Amountof pressure
droprequired
to increase
frowrate
by 1 uniUsecond
l ,L =

P
/ AO \
\^/

Where:

fr = inertance
(Pal(ms/s2)
p = pressuredrop(pa)
AQ/AI= changein flow

Inertance
definedusingphysicalparameter

,1 -=# (pal(msts2)
Where
A - areaof pipe
p = densityof liquid
| = lengthof pipe
Dead-timeDefayof Liquid- timerequiredto transport
fiquidfromone pointto another

'o=3
et38a-Jr.mcd

11

v=averagevefocityof fluid(m/s)
D - distancetraveled(m)

of 15 C flowsin a
Example1: Oilat a temperature
1 cm diametertubewitha flow rateof 9.42
horizontal,
L/ m in .Tu b el e n g thi s 10 m. F ind:
Number
Reynold's
Flowresistance
Pressuredropin tube
FromAppendixA in text

p = 8809

p : : 0. 160.Pa.sec

rJ
to rv VERT A ut* [rr,r rT s T 0 'SJ Ll'N rTs

d=

lcn";

Q = ( q. azLl*, *) ( t.raL 1x rIs 1 .s /.\/t-/* ;i

(i = I s?Vro 4n n3 / s

o.olrn
CowveCsroq l ^
6ppond i x

= / oo
Avc-Veloqrrv
!" :g z . 3-(l:-I1''I4I
t
^is
Tf (o .o l-\
n J
i---+----7
R"I^olJ! c R=5yd-= (eaqkl:l)gd:lGgt =/,ol-rs(,r".
L:--:---)
( o, iao P".'s)
A
,a

K < Zout f-A-iy$

q 0 r.lrlrlo^JsHrp Eerr^,frAi
Lrr,r54

J_gy

FLow AN\

Patss t-tR6

r-

p":)(1d =l-9S_,_?_a91A.
AN S
Vd
(o.o t'r14

K,--t3i: 1.--=,.{}f:
n

fr

r-r

T d1

P" 's s r a . -t" " ,3 =

-_--*=:-

g .Q= ( e

4
P.--S
/^.) (r , Szxlo ^% )
' / gYioq

d r.',S
111
\P:1a:ltxr"c
.--.-.-.{"

Conv<^.{1o Fsr

oPVp)=L3! / p,r
oz3sx,otQ(r.{sx,.
P '(.

A r,.x
JS

et38a-Jr.mcd

12

Example2: water at 1s c ftowsthrougha commercial

steelpipewitha diameterof 0.4 inchwitha flow rateof
6 gal/min.The lineis 50 ft long. Find:
Reynold's
Number
Resistance
to flow
Pressuredropin pipe
l= eorvf APPINbTXA Lr er - r \ De, , . . :rsr ? Ar v b Vr s c osr Ty
pr*foo o kf I-3
a . 1: o, c oi Po- - s
JV

C onve"* t*^gl,*l^ L,r-r..,rts

tc

Sr

Ltpr-iLs

: fl' aio t L rv.,

d - (0.q,") (o.oZs4
-/,"\
= (61.{
rn3/s/3e^)-3'?Bs3xto(^3/s
Q
/^,")(6.:oBsxros
= lS-L4o nn
/ = (so(*)(o,3o1V ^/G)

= 1! .?tslIP-Tt)
F,^d 4vero1e V e rocr-t
\J lt=
v - l-a,nJt
T(oogor6rn)a

R--ru J
r\.<-

V=q'6e9"'./s
(1::ct nis)(o,oro
= l,a*l^')
Hd
o
a.
,
r-F;ln

R = 1?,{1 o

K > 4ooo
{ rLoW {s TuRRu t-[ruT- r v r t t s T ( , t s a f Rr c r ) oNt Fz t c i* ue7l ( R r - d] a l
p - 1n, rl'R E sr5TA^ JCtA'rb Pr qFs s ut ] - E
bQ oP

P= KrQt R1.Zkro

F,^rJ {

f^u- To[l e 3.3 p8o

Co .^,rnefrcc*) Sf ee t p rpe

K+'ftS

ke'{ v*een

Vo.lucs

et38a-lr.mcd

6 &.
13

d ro

{ qr
".,,e

Rot /o)ooc

l- 2 crn

Rt < /do,ooo

{*' o,03r fl. o, o zg

Example2 (cont.)
(tsE LtuEAR ;n,rTeAPouA.t)onJfottrnr LA
W\ur,s-T
{ {o r-' K= 4^t f 46
T s [rd b

{ - {** ({r'qls:Sa]
'
r<"l
\LRu"

f r.'.^sl[e ["{w9n
{. o. nJ { b

{ = o o 3 s * (o o z t-o o ,$ /J l

I loo)00o

f .o o3s+(-o,oo2)ftai
/ \T -/

lo,g)o
/6) 0r o

'j

o
f =o -o 3 Z 9
No.^r {'" d K1

K1'

rl to,OtO,6^)S

Kg' 3.6 614Xr or z Po- rln6

f , ^ J Rt

s/rna)G
(-= Z krQ" Z (s,a6r<x rorzP."f osaxlu{n^/s
)
9 " -s
R*' 2, n?1 9 x )0Po

conovlR]

Td ErucLls)\ utNrTs

e)=
P..-s
(e tt rex roe
/-t)(l ,5oxro f:_:_1 - it.
4?

P=K*f

,/ {
"o^1

append r x

( s
P = (i .L a r 4 x r oPr e.- s/ ^. )(: , Z es: x/
^, / , )'
S'24 6xroS

lco.P=
rTS
Co nrvERT TO EnlCLts N ucnt

(
to
Y
L<Lx
P*)
los
(t
'+s
esr/ec): 76,o7 pt t
,
(s
P
drus

et38a-Jr.mcd

14

<

ANs

of 1.83metersand a
Example4: A tankhasa diameter
of the tank
the capacitance
heightof 10 ft. Determine
d.) gasoline
whenit holds:a.)waterb.)oil c.) kerosene

c,) cc=
ft
f
t"\

f ?

-Tr.

A -- U--t,
qJ

= /oooK3l*3

'\ /':

o
-/

c{' (= 5t" n

r,?

-rn/ra-

tr Q63
^)- _ .?.ce rn L
e
."--**--'.

/<31^r),9/ m /sz
/ooo

:o1,Cfl
;--X-*:T-:;t
t/p""
to

:.

" .

r",

cr=
il^;{'Al
1T
{il;;';*m;,/.J

k :i .f 'B$' ;

_ |

e) f : Bod
f
t ln.. cL=-s;"tJ *., =|:rs-r,o
^7,0.i
iltii ^"/_1
2.L 3 r't*
dyf"l
_2

-"- /

n^t/sz\
l4a kq
'J r /'',1{ ? Ft
I
'/

the inertance
of waterin a pipe
Example5: Determine
witha diameterof 2.1 cm anda lengthof 65 meters.

rt,
/

l,'

fr_
A
|

_ (l ooo 1.1I

' / oo, . r k r / ^'

f = c,.Sr'-i
z\,/

:_-----r\-_----l-)-'

)( as

. . , . 4 6 x . t r { 4 r ,z

-) t

- 7 L : IB B v i o 8 P^|(-ld*)
A NS
5
et38a-?r.mcd

15

A,
A.,

lT J"

r.-(,o,9zd:
,{

A. 316x

t 64 m z

ThermalElements
ThermalConduction
andConvection
- opposition
ThermalResistance
to heatflow. Heatflows
fromhightemperature
to lowtemperature
To - Ti
C)=
RT

Watts
wo . I L
rro -t e n i< t ls

I
T-'t

o u,rt s ici e
lo.yerfilm

in=icie
ro.yer-

filr-r

Ru= unitthermalresistance
A - areaof
surface

Rr=+ Kru/

(ro

o--

ri) A
Ru

Resistance
of film layersdependson typeof fluid,
velocityof fluid. Highvelocityflowmakesthinfilm.
cooling."WindChill".
Convection
et38a-!r.mcd

16

Watts

FilmConductance h =

1
R fit*

Calledfilmcoefficient

NaturalConvection
In Air
Filmcoefficients:
surfacefacingup
a). Horizontal
h =2 .5 ' Td''U
To = temperature
differencebetweenwall and fluid
a). Horizontal
surfacefacingdown
h = 1 .32'T d''U
a). verticalsurfaces
h = 1 .78'T d''u
Naturalconvection
in stillwater

n=2 .2 6 - ( t* * 3 4 .3 To
) u
T* = watertemperature

et38a-Jr'.mcd

17

Forcedconvection-air
againstsmoothsurfacesand
insidepipes
l.O'v ai f : a'.,r.tm
S

m
vair>OU;

h =4 .5 4 + 4 .1.v

air

h= T .T S.v
" i ro .7 5

Usingthe naturafconvection
in air formulas
equotion

Att sicies
uis e e q u o ti o n
C

it

I
I
I
I
I
)-

e q u o ti o n
b

Thermalresistance
of innersolidlayersgivenby
Rui =;

K-m2/W

Where: Xi= thicknessof i-thmaterial

ki = thermalconuctivity
of material
(seeappendixin text)
et38a-3r.mcd

18

wallis the sum of inside

Unitresistance
of a composite
and outsidefilmresistances
andthe resistances
comprising
thewall.
Seriesresistance
analogy
Temperature
analogous
to voltages
-t
ocrli

/l

I/n

x/k

I/1,,
__{]

R,,=
L'

1'

x1
+

ho

k1

/\
.r I1

R r=

x2
r....

'A\ho

kn

r-

k2

1'

K-m2lW

hi

x2
+

k1
\/

k2

x1

''l -

xn

xnr !
kn

1\
'
hi/

Kl/

- increase
ThermalCapacitance
in heatrequired
to make
(Sl unitJ/K)
a unitchangein temperature
HeatCapacity(specificheat\- heatrequiredto raise
temperature
of 1 kg of materialby 1 K.
C T= f f l' S T

Where: Cr = thermalcaPacitance
m = mass (kg)
Sr = heat capacity(J/kg)
et38a-?r.mcd

19

Example1: A wallsectionshownbelowhas 2 layers:

steel1 cm thick,and insulation
2 cm thick. still Waterat
45 C is insidethe wall.The temperature
difference
betweenthe waterandthe innerwallis estimatedto be
10 c- The outerwallis surrounded
by air at a
temperature
of 85 c that has a vefocityof 6 m/s.The
waffdimensionsare2 m x 3 m. Determine
the unit
thermalresistance,
the totalthermalresistance,
the total
heatflow,the directionof heatflow.
F,., d l(, ct', J Kz { ..,",'.
App' e^qlr A
r
s t eel R, = nS w f n,' R

-- wr:tt
n (i -[P r-i (i l ::t

,/

l' ' i: i, ^ [ o * , o " r K a . o . o 3 G

Jn:

' ' 3 \ \ - i r- sii;,r e

---

iiiilr
'?:
lttrr luy?t

Zrnx3rn

t{=

.>'

lJ.-',":,itl-.p

lril

Ir .i'

fir .

l. .:d .,( a r ,+ l' "ft)T"

- T; = 4s C

<J

J a= / oq.

h ^ . z .z c (tl 3 { 3 )= gS gz* /* r-o

'

r)u .tr,,l e{ i t - c oe{ { , c r *n i

r /'

= ('ora

r <J<z {. I n", Co ({, c, *n-,-l

l {. ) y t - , r .

'-

W/ * -, <

( r r'r-{l

Co rrv -c-$,
"6
^.d
>4.L.^/s
Vo ," =6 rn /s

Ltse

ho, ? 75 uo,1t. . 7,?f (6

X f= O. o | /h

n = D
k-

':"
A

-/-)"'"= ig.rr -/*.-g

K *= O, Oo t) GS + O, ooo LZ1_{ O,.Sf 5G + d, o33CSC

[ ' - t &l

d - , --o.oLrvriR* =oSg iJ
'

n,z_

8$

. os er z __K _rl J _ v !_ Io
.a g s C tK/w l ty :
-----:- '--'-:
L:'--

\e rYr
*aG
!

i'r

ttow
et 3s ak . m c d 2 0 f . - { c o t
rurTs
1YoTC.: A T Lt

'.'-r

-I-o
I^ _

Rr

C oQ K

Cris._ 45) C

-t "'{ t
1 tr c.- tl

,l4o 6 \Ar{

o .o ) e 5 1 K/w
1-leo
&K
--=

Example2: Determine
for eachof
the thermalresistance
in
the followingfilmconditions:
a.) Naturalconvection
stillair of
surfaceTo = 20 C. b.) Natural
convectionin stillwaterwhereTo = 30 C and T* is 20 C
c.) Forcedconvectionin air withvelocityof 4 mls.
a,)

Co^ug"1,),oA tti"

N".{r-l

Crr Ven{rc-c^lS"Gcq-

Lr
t:
=
zo
c
?
B
(
z
fo
r
f. /,? a L '
I
h= 3 ra < 1w /^ .-<

* : -* l

n .,^
Zc6
*-.7d+I
.,o
Ru.f
|

i.rlr

L r .' l,r " i,e

r

c o r \ v e q { 1 a "r *r { h Sf r ll

Nq. t t , t r " . i

Td= 3o l- = Z o C

t
h . z.ze(r*+ 3{ ,)lr."

h , L,L u( z o + 34, r ) ( : , ) o'

. Z Za (sq 3) G o)o't
f".,
h= Q\L.L \u / r v " ' H.
I : O . O ot { 9 K-'Yw I n nrt
R.(^- h
!
l_ s _

- __._,__{ 1

C)

F onc <-d Cu ^ .,".-t)oy r Air

Vo,,-t4 "^/s

h=4

Vo, "S < t' 6^lt

S4 r{,lva,"

h . "t,s{ r -{,t (q) '' Zo.?q r^-,/,,"1C

C- *t/w

A\ r s
:*

et38a-3r.mcd

21

Mechanical
Elements
= friction
Mechanical
resistance
Opposition
to motion.Forcerequiredto increase
velocity.
Viscousfriction- frictionof motion.Relatedto velocity
Coulombfriction- forceindependent
of velocity
Exampleof viscousfriction- shockabsorber,dashpot
linear
v i s c o u s fr i c tion
Non-linear
viscousfriction
At

p
-o-F
Rm=B=u
B=

AF

N-s/ m

g=9F
dt

Av

g pointusetangentlineto findapprox.B
Mechanical
- changein
Capacitance
lengthof springrequired
to makeunit
increasein force. Inversespring
constant
1 N/m
(\
"t=K

Mechanical
inertia(mass)- force
requiredto makeunitincreasein
acceleration
t-rAavv e -m' ^
At
et38a-3r.mcd

F= m . -

dv

dt

Mechanical
Dead-time
- timerequiredto transport
materialfromone placeto another
D
d=;

Where D - distance
v = velocityof material
Example1: A mechanical
systemconsistsof a sliding
loadand a shockabsorber.Theforceversusvelocity
curveis shownbelow

Testdata
Run F(N)

F
o
((e

a
b

7. 1
9. 6

v(m/s)
10. 5
15.75

Determine
R, and
coulombfriction
A(:

t r sE

F = F.* ;";''c_'Y

F - F , . S - ( u- v ) >
F^?.,. e* (v- r,,s)
F-1"t" o . 41c z v *s
F -- o .q l LLV + a. / r u

et38a-Jr.mcd

23

B=R^=
A, r:;

p o ,^ -[ :i " , ;e
o-{'L"'''

ro ,s )
r.ft{l}uquF.-z

fe
r
,C

o.{? 6Z N-tlr"r
A,us

t' I Ni

Modefing
Physicaf
Systems
Linearsystems- modefed
withfinear
differential
equations
Derivatives
capturehowsystemvariables
changewithtime
Definition
LinearDifferential
Equation
- a linearcombination
of
derivatives
of an unknownfunctionand the unknown
function
Example seriesRL circuit.what doescurrentdo
overtime
.l

L ai (t) + R .i (t)=0
ot
VL

To solve- find how i varies

withtime-i(t)
Cando analytically
or
numericaf
ly
et 38 a 3 rl .p p t

MorecompfexDifferentiaf
Equations
Canhavehigherorderderivatives.
.. 2, 3, 4...etc.
d2
d12

i ( t) + 2 . d

dr

i ( t ) - 7 . i ( r ) =0

2ndorder-tinearoDE (ordinary
differentiar
equation)
d2
d 12

d
3 '----f
dt

.i - i 2 = 0

= i(t)
'

2ndordernon-finear
d2

sin( v) + v=0
d1 2 ")
2ndordernon_finear
when right-hand
side(RHs)is 0, equation
cared
homogeneous.
fmpfiesno outsidestimuration.
et 38a3 rl .p p t

Examples
homogeneous

R=10k

No currentsourceafterthe switch
is thrown.

non-homogeneous

R=10k

Energizerelaywiththe currentsource
Currentsourcedrivesthesystem.
et38a3rl.ppt

Differential
equations
for
controf
Equations
haveconstant
coefficients
andare
finear.
Singleinputstimulation
r(t)
Singleoutputvariable
x(t)

tr# x(t)
+ +
+
^rfix(t) '', },ot)+aox(t)=bo'r(t)
an.....e2,?.t?oand boare constants

Whatcanr(t)be?
constant-5,3, 10
ramp
3t,-10t,0.2t-3
sin/cos 100sin(cot),
-Scos(rot+O)
w andq are
constants
Unit-step
(squarewave)
v(t)

et38a3rl.ppt

= 1 afterto
0 before

Examples
ldentifywhichof the following
equations
are
linearandwhicharenon-homogeneous

efrx(t)+x(t)2=0
rt 2

/d \
I -v l * s i n ( v )=0

\ dt I

o.{ v
dt

* 2- v = V , . ,.,.s i n (rtl t)

t
4.

d2

de

i-2.

-l

dt

7 - a- | o .e T, =0

rfri(t)* R .i ( t) =0
et38a3r1.ppt

Characteristics
of LinearSvstems
1.)Multiplying
by constantis reflected
thoughsystem.
lf inputr(t)givesoutputx(t)then,
K (r(t))givesK (x(t))
l/O proportional

2.)Superposition
fromcircuits
holds
lf input11(t) givesy1(t)and
inputr2(t)givesy2(t)then
totaloutputto inputsis
rl (t)+r2(t)= y1(t)+y2(t)
input
Totaloutputis the sumof the individual
responses.

andsinesteady-state
Fromcircuits- transients

et 3 8 a 3 rl .p p t

Deriving
Dynamic
Equations
Input/output
relationsh
ips
Dynamics
represented
by integrals
andderivatives
Electrical
elements:Resistance
R ohms

i(t) ->
r e _ - -{)
+

v(t)

Definingequations v( t) = R.i ( t)
i(t)=e.i(t)

]-=c
R

lnductance(henrys)

i(t);=m
+

L
v(t)

initialcurrent
at startof time

Defining
equations

(t)=r-1rttli(o=r[t (t)d-i(6)
L .,
dt
0

et 3 8 a 3 rl .p p t

LumpedCircuitElements:
capacitance
(farads)
Capacitance

i(t)
v(t)
Defining
equations

i ( t ) =e {v( t)
dt

initialvoltageat
starttime

v(t)=:
i(t) dt + v(0)
I;

All fawfrom circuittheoryholdfor the analysisof

lumpedcircuits.KCL,KVL,meshanalysis,
nodal
analysiscan all be performed.Substitute
the
appropriate
integralor derivative
intothe meshor
nodalformulation.
Whenthe currentor voltagein a circuitelement
involvesthe two currentsor voltages,the derivative
or
integraltakethe difference
of the voltagesor currents

et38a3rl.ppt

Example
Writemeshequations
forthecircuitbelowusingthe
lumpedcircuitelementrepresentations

v(t)

KVLaroundmesh1
-v(t) + L -ld.

dt

' - Li

t(t), nrii 1(t) i2(t)l=O

1(t ) +R r ( il t t l i 2 ( t ) ) = u ( t )

KVLaroundmesh2

,,,f't

i ( t)d + ( o ) + RZ'i2(t)=0
nr(i2(t)-i1 (t))
-; l,
in unknown
functions
equations
systemof integral-differential
i.,(t)and ir(t)
9

et38a3rl.ppt

Self-regulating
tanksystem
Needrelationship
for how
levelchangeswithtime.
Derivedifferential
equation

T-

av =(o ,n - o ort
).lt
levelchange

-l-

.A v

RL

Ah= - -

ort) 'a t
AA

averagelevelchangeovertime intervalAt

- o out )
( o , n - o o u t)
(
o
d
h
>
o
_
-=
takelimitAt
'n A
At
A
dt
Ah

Assumelaminarflow for simplicity.Qortdeterminedby p of

ta n k.

P = R L .Qo u t
P
=Q out
RL
l0

et38a3rl.ppt

P = p g. h

Combine
t hesetw o
equations
andsolve
for Qorl

TJ=Qout

tanksystem(cont.)
Self-regulating

dh

(o,""+)

d h=\/o
dt

-=

A'n

dt

p'g lr \

* t* /

bringalltermswith
h or derivativeof h
to oneside

dh

throughby
multiply
coefficienton h
findingh(t)
Remember

+ *h =p's
I ! e in
f\ *t
p'go )
/ dt

dt

+ ( ,n

\.n=Qin

rR
I 'Ar
\-t

of the liquidheight.considerit alongwith

Q,nis independent
to be constant
density,areaandflowresistance

R r-'A

Let
L=-

p' g

r + + h =G.ei n
dt

R1
r^L
Ll=-

p'g

that
equation
non-homogeneous
howheightof liquidin
determines
tankvarieswithtime

Shutoff valueto findnaturalresponseof tankfor someinital

height
II

et38a3rl.PPt

Non-regulating
Tank
Outputflow is fixedby pumpflow rate.lt is independent
of the
liquidheightin tank.
Qin

_--

-f_

AV= (o,n Q out) o,

Ah =
A

Define

rt

At=tr -to

^'i'
I
|

h(t1)

Ah (t)= h (tr)-h(to)

YI

Ah

-=

At

- o ou t)

(o

'n A

d h (o ' n oout)
dt

A
''
[t

ldt
t

.J o

t2

takelimitAt ->

et38a3rl.ppt

Righthandsideis independent
of h. To solveintegrateboth
sideswithrespectto t
t1

dh

d t=
|
jt 0

Itei n-oout)

dt

Non-reg
ulatingTank (cont.)
FromCalculus

h(t r )

, \ [t,
h( t o) = |
I

I t ei n-oout )

dt

;t O

Ah ( t) =

Note:Righthand
sideis not a function
1
O out Tdt of t . t t -isa1a co n sta n t
t
n
;.\Q
andcanbe t ake n
out of the integral

Ir t r'
i
i t.

i o

Changein heightdependson the difference

in flowsandthe
is applied.
timethatthe difference
lf Qinis not a constantbutchangeswithtime,the formula
belowmodelsthe responseof the tanksystem

A h ( t) =
["

J to

l3

et38a3rl.ppt

-t )o out) dt
;
n
(
t
Q
I

Solutiontechniques:convertall equations
intoderivatives
only. Approximate
derivatives
usingmathematical
methods
calculateapproximate
derivative
valuesfor somesmall
incrementin time. Resultsarea listof computedpoints
thatapproximate
variableovera timeinterval.Graph
thesepointsto see systemresponse
LiquidFilledThemometer

f.

T" = fluidtemperature
T, = measuredtemperature
Cr, = thermalcapacitance
of
themometer

cr,

AQ =

(r

"

Howdoesmeasuredtemperature
changewithtime. Heattransfered
to themometer
dependson AT,
R, andtimeinterval

- r m ) lt
RT

AQ

definitionof thermalcapacitance

A l m=,^ ^ Q

uT m

r;

AT , , "'=-T m

(r" - rm) lt

-=

^Q

"T m

R Ic Tt

(r" - rm) lt
a Tm =
R lc T*
14

et 3 8 a 3 r1 .p p t

(cont.)
LiquidFilledThemometer
Determine
the averagechangein temperature
A r l 1 1 (t , - rl11)
=
At
RT CT '
take limitAt --

0
d r ]n
dt

(t "

- r111)

RT CT '

Get all T, and its derivatives

on one sideof the equation
Ta

fm

R T .c T,

R T.c T,

d T,

dt

Tm

Ta

R T'C T ,

R T 'C T ,

d T,
I

dt

RT'CT,

dT ,-,

*T m=T a

"
Thisis similarin formto the self-regulating
tankequation
Thisis a non-homogeneous
differential
equationthatdescribes
howthe measuredtemperature
changeswithtime

l5

et38a3r1.ppt

Mechanical
Systems
Pneumatic
ControlValuePosition
Determine
howthe positionof a air actuatedcontrolvalue
changeswithtimeafterpressureis applied
Schematic
of value
(Seetextp.116for details)

F" = P"(A)= inputair force

All forcesmustbalanceat each

instance
in timeso:
F" = F, (t)+ Fn(t)+ F.(t)
Where Fr(t)= inertialforce
Fn(t)= viscousfriction
force
Fc(t)= springforce
Needequationthatrelatesposition,

x to time
F l= m'a
v= d x
dt
Inertialforce
F ; = IT1'

d2

de

l6

et38a3rl.ppt

d2

dt

dt 2

il=__[=_

Pneumatic
(cont.)
ControlValuePosition,
fnertialforce

,2
o
Fl=m
x
dt z

Acceleration
is secondderivative
of position,x
Frictionforce
/\

icl

F R=B .v =B{l * ) \
\d t I
Viscousfrictionfor laminarflowis porportional
to the velocity.
Velocityis the rateof changeof position
Springforce

X =C'.F C

FC =:1
"m

-m

- L =*

f , c r ) : l< ,x ( + ) = r !* c tr J t
Forcefromspringis porportional
to its length,x. C, is spring
capacitance,
k = springconstant.
,2

F " = t.t=

d t2

r.

x, B.'1*,. =1 .*
\ dt /
C,

Fa is constant.Equationdescribes
howpositionchangeswith
time. Secondorderequation.
17

et38a3r1.ppt

Simulating
differentiation
with
OPAMPs
Userulesof circuitanalysis
andidealOPAMPsto findthe
inpuUoutput
relationship
forthecircuitbelow.
Rulesof OPAMPS

+
C

i,n +

5.r^

if

no currentflowsinto
OPAMP
V-=V*

Crl rre""1.S

Usenodalanalysisat inverting
nodeof OP AMP

= -,tE1) , . \
.,l-,^(t)+ ,tq(t.) = g ->, .1,,",(1)
/c( t) :
)n e

Li^(+) = i$o) Cutr.e^1

(
o
t
culce"'-[S | 1 errn5
Ce{
^
^e
Vo [1 c'te-

-v-c\)
. $ e,^(i)
.{,^cr).
/r (t\ - Vo(r)- V-(t)
(r
..\

18

et38a3rl.ppt

du

(t
V;^(*)
U
=
\.(t)
l.

;
o
ita"v-(it" t":-iffi?.[

.c#u,^(r)=
H
lo t

t/'(.t)
-R(c#V,;(t)'
I
I

J rn,iu
__9_e):v-e
=
-v-({)) Pg
c ?r (v,^(t)
I

.r
L +uc(r)

/ot^-{P*
Jr' rnpt'u*

-Rrc
+ry^(t)
17.c'*).
7

u-{p*l

inP'*{

Proportional
Control
Action
Basiccontrolloop

Simplest
formof controller
- amplifyerrorandapply
signalto theprocess
through
finalcontrolelement.
Example:Dc motorspeedcontrol
controlvariable= motorspeed
= speedtransducer
sensor/signal
conditioning
setpoint= desiredspeed
= variable
finalcontrolelement
dc voltagesupply
controlvariable= motorterminal
voltage
= dc voltagecontrolvoltage
manipulated
variable

et438a-5.ppt

Thecontrolrefationship
for proportional
control
Amplifyerrorandsendto finalcontrolelement.
Co=Koe*Co

Where Co= thecontroller

output
Co= thecontroller
outputwithe =0
Ko= the proportional
gain
e = thecontrolerror
e=SP-Measurement,
e = errorsignal
SP = setpoint
value
= sensormeasurement
Measurement
e canbe positive
or negative
e usedto takecorrective
action
> sP e negative- outputdecreases
Measurement
< sP e positive
Measurement
- outputincreases
Practical
controller
outputdeviceshavelimitson
Coandfinalcontrolelement.
Examples:
flowvalueposition
motorpowersupply
2

et438a-5.ppt

Controller
GainPlots
Co

nuTPuT
MAXCI]NTRSLIIUTPUT

e
TNPUT

MTN,CIINTRTIL
t]UTPUT

PRIIPIIRTISNAL
BAND

Proportional
bandlimitsof controloutput.
Determined
by valueof Kp.
At higherKo,e produces
morecorrectionbut
reducesthe rangebetween
limits
controller

t-

/Kt
I

i/

K1>K2>K3

FfUTtrRTIT{{-BAND

et438a-5.ppt

FindingKpandthe Proportional
Band
Kp=

AOutput
SP - Measurement

KP=

AOutput
Ae

gain- changein output/changein error

Proportional
proportional
Increasing
gaindecreases
proportional
band (PB). In termsof percent.
1
%P B = - r c }%
Kp

proportional
%PBinversely
to Kp
E X amp l e :

( o L . + p . a ' ti /s vd 6 ,: P Ar n F L i,r .1 ty li**.' J fiy,t,r/,arc.*ron

vLr'
*o'
F,^*iKf, ,nd o/opB
A g :

oAF B
=*
r\r

^{ "

.? Yd,r,

,,t

_ /1

!;:: *:

.,

A o "f p wf

Kp= T6-

=:#\

.J

-t

/s

A"ld"{p'at'

Ae+
3oqoz)=6
4o.-ip,-t(o.2")'
i
a/oPB r(r'ci r'uro!40,.?prcl %PB=t('*%)'St?"
f,^J
=> ela (p - 4 or*-lflrrt .+> 6 (a] ='t/Z V o*]p"tJ r-4"1Q-

4 et438a-5.pptGre..ts--

e rcoc (,an 6e L""d leJ

bef-e

Tf,Cutpu

=t = s ''ffi'

/o o |- { < ," " 7) = loi-

Bqsed o"' ti,r,J.rY, 4,lro^1elo de (1,.-n#s

{;ll
Sel KF":'l-

., ,-\

Sotarc-.-ftrn

Proportional
GainandProportional
Band
Example.Continued
Decreasing
%PB(increasing
Ko) causesa smaller
errorsignalto causethecontroller
to reachits limits
oA rG r r v A L

o / " P & = 1 6o lo

becreeqtq. o/* Ffr

to

Urr&rp r-r;uN0r

tl

t6 fd c

cc" .ia s $ ,co + o vo *.f

*tsvdq

loo/u

'lr

0r " o( r G ir uALAe Cor "es t +"

ggr el r ; r u L t r v r ' t t , r /o o /o
. ,, '6"!;t''"i= )t
+
%fg=
tr
'/r0",Kp=to
F r^d

Ae

r n p r a , * - / h " - * P^ .d t,tce s

ftice xlo .r .*p a - t

A oui"pl.r'f'"* 3sr m 4v

jll

-n e, --

K NP

n o ' + P:l ::
4 e g p = 4 0 ,* tp u t
Ae,

So lv e { o, - Ae'
ds ",

/ J owip* _
}
Kp

Ae. #t=
P.oF.{,o-,-1C i.,on 1e s

et438a-5.ppt

s v (o'.1

Characteristics
of Proportional
Control
Co=Koe*Co
conrno(
'o

Controlformula
out

aaoa

lfe-0thenCo=Co

lf e not= Q,thenfor everyunitof errorKe(e)unitsof

correction
areadded/subtracted
to controloutput.
Thereis a bandof steady-state
errorabout0 that
hasa magnitude
of PB%wheretheoutputis not
saturated.
et438a-5.ppt

Offsetand residualerror
residualerror- alsoknownas steady-state
error.
Proportional
controlalwaysproducesa steady-state
or residual
errorwhena changein the processoccurs
Load
change

contnol out

%
+ 15
bias

0,1

vennon

error

lf theloadchangeis permanent,
thentheerroris
permanent.Increasing
Kodecreases
steady-state
errorbe cannoteliminate
it.
lf loadchangeis transient,thenerrorreturnsto bias
value,0.
7

et438a-5.ppt

Effectsof Increased
Gainon errorand
stability.
Highgainreducessteady-state
errorbutlncreases
chancesof instability
Example
f.*

Kp"2

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