Accounting Principles:

A Business Perspective,
Financial Accounting (Chapters 1 8)
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About This Publication

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1998 Edition
Accounting: A Business Perspective (Irwin/Mcgraw-Hill Series in Principles of Accounting)
[Hardcover] Roger H. Hermanson (Author), James Don Edwards (Author), Michael W.
Maher (Author) Eighth Edition
Hardcover: 944 pages
Publisher: Richard D Irwin; 7 Sub edition (April 1998)
Language: English
ISBN-10: 0075615851
ISBN-13: 978-0075615859
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Preface from the eight edition:

Philosophy and purpose
Imagine that you have graduated from college without taking an accounting course. You are
employed by a company as a sales person, and you eventually become the sales manager of a territory.
While attending a sales managers' meeting, financial results are reviewed by the Vice President of Sales
and terms such as gross margin percentage, cash flows from operating activities, and LIFO inventory
methods are being discussed. The Vice President eventually asks you to discuss these topics as they
relate to your territory. You try to do so, but it is obvious to everyone in the meeting that you do not
know what you are talking about.
Accounting principles courses teach you the "language of business" so you understand terms and
concepts used in business decisions. If you understand how accounting information is prepared, you
will be in an even stronger position when faced with a management decision based on accounting
information.
The importance of transactions analysis and proper recording of transactions has clearly been
demonstrated in some of the recent business failures that have been reported in the press. If the
financial statements of an enterprise are to properly represent the results of operations and the
financial condition of the company, the transactions must be analyzed and recorded in the accounts
following generally accepted accounting principles. The debits and credits are important not only to
accounting majors but also to those entering or engaged in a business career to become managers
because the ultimate effects of these journal entries are reflected in the financial statements. If
expenses are reported as assets, liabilities and their related expenses are omitted from the financial
statements, or reported revenues are recorded prematurely or do not really exist, the financial
statements are misleading. The financial statements are only useful and meaningful if they are fair and
clearly represent the business events of the company.
We wrote this text to give you an understanding of how to use accounting information to analyze
business performance and make business decisions. The text takes a business perspective. We use the
annual reports of real companies to illustrate many of the accounting concepts. You are familiar with
many of the companies we use, such as The Limited, The Home Depot, and Coca-Cola Company.
Gaining an understanding of accounting terminology and concepts, however, is not enough to
ensure your success. You also need to be able to find information on the Internet, analyze various

p. 4 of 433

business situations, work effectively as a member of a team, and communicate your ideas clearly. This
text was developed to help you develop these skills.

Curriculum concerns
Significant changes have been recommended for accounting education. Some parties have
expressed concern that recent accounting graduates do not possess the necessary set of skills to
succeed in an accounting career. The typical accounting graduate seems unable to successfully deal
with complex and unstructured "real world" accounting problems and generally lacks communication
and interpersonal skills. One recommendation is the greater use of active learning techniques in a reenergized classroom environment. The traditional lecture and structured problem solving method
approach would be supplemented or replaced with a more informal classroom setting dealing with
cases, simulations, and group projects. Both inside and outside the classroom, there would be two-way
communication between (1) professor and student and (2) student and student. Study groups would be
formed so that students could tutor other students. The purposes of these recommendations include
enhancing students' critical thinking skills, written and oral communication skills, and interpersonal
skills.
One of the most important benefits you can obtain from a college education is that you "learn how
to learn". The concept that you gain all of your learning in school and then spend the rest of your life
applying that knowledge is not valid. Change is occurring at an increasingly rapid pace. You will
probably hold many different jobs during your career, and you will probably work for many different
companies. Much of the information you learn in college will be obsolete in just a few years. Therefore,
you will be expected to engage in life-long learning. Memorizing is much less important than learning
how to think critically.
With this changing environment in mind, we have developed a text that will lend itself to developing
the skills that will lead to success in your future career in business. The section at the end of each
chapter titled, "Beyond the numbersCritical thinking", provides the opportunity for you to address
unstructured case situations, the analysis of real companies' financial situations, ethics cases, and team
projects. Each chapter also includes one or two Internet projects in the section titled "Using the
InternetA view of the real world". For many of these items, you will use written and oral
communication skills in presenting your results.

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Objectives and overall approach of the eighth

edition
The Accounting Education Change Commission (AECC) made specific recommendations regarding
teaching materials and methods used in the first-year accounting course. As a result, significant
changes have taken place in that course at many universities. The AECC states:
The first course in accounting can significantly benefit those who enter business,
government, and other organizations, where decision-makers use accounting
information. These individuals will be better prepared for their responsibilities if they
understand the role of accounting information in decision-making by managers,
investors, government regulators, and others. All organizations have accountability
responsibilities to their constituents, and accounting, properly used, is a powerful tool in
creating information to improve the decisions that affect those constituents. 1
One of the purposes of the first course should be to recruit accounting majors. To help accomplish
this, the text has a section preceding each chapter entitled, "Careers in accounting".
We retained a solid coverage of accounting that serves business students well regardless of the
majors they select. Those who choose not to major in accounting, which is a majority of those taking
this course, will become better users of accounting information because they will know something
about the preparation of that information.

Approach and organization

Business emphasis
Without actual business experience, business students sometimes lack a frame of reference in
attempting to apply accounting concepts to business transactions. We seek to involve the business
student more in real world business applications as we introduce and explain the subject matter.
"An accounting perspective: Business insight" boxes throughout the text provide

examples of how companies featured in text examples use accounting information every day, or
they provide other useful information.

1 Accounting Education Change Commission, Position Statement No. Two, The First Course in
Account (Torrance, CA, June 1992), pp. 1-2.
p. 6 of 433

 "Accounting perspective: Uses of technology" boxes throughout the text demonstrate

how technology has affected the way accounting information is prepared, manipulated, and
accessed.
Some chapters contain "A broader perspective". These situations, taken from annual reports

of real companies and from articles in current business periodicals such as Accounting Today, and
Management Accounting, relate to subject matter discussed in that chapter or present other
useful information. These real world examples demonstrate the business relevance of accounting.
Real world questions and real world business decision cases are included in almost every

chapter.
The annual report appendix included with this text contains significant portions of the annual

report of The Limited, Inc. Many of the real world questions and business decision cases are based
on this annual report.
Numerous illustrations adapted from Accounting Trends & Techniques show the frequency of

use in business of various accounting techniques. Placed throughout the text, these illustrations
give students real world data to consider while learning about different accounting techniques.
Throughout the text we have included numerous references to the annual reports of many

companies.
Chapters 1-16 contain a section entitled, "Analyzing and using the financial results". This section

discusses and illustrates a ratio or other analysis technique that pertains to the content of the
chapter. For instance, this section in Chapter 4 discusses the current ratio as it relates to a
classified balance sheet.
Some of the chapters contain end-of-chapter questions, exercises, or business decision cases that

require the student to refer to the Annual report appendix and answer certain questions. As stated
earlier, this appendix is included with the text and contains the significant portions of the annual
report of The Limited, Inc.
Each chapter contains a section entitled, "Beyond the numbersCritical thinking". This section

contains business decision cases, annual report analysis problems, writing assignments based on
the Ethical perspective and Broader perspective boxes, group projects, and Internet projects.

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Pedagogy
Students often come into accounting principles courses feeling anxious about learning the subject
matter. Recognizing this apprehension, we studied ways to make learning easier and came up with
some helpful ideas on how to make this edition work even better for students.
Improvements in the text's content reflect feedback from adopters, suggestions by reviewers,

and a serious study of the learning process itself by the authors and editors. New subject matter is
introduced only after the stage has been set by transitional paragraphs between topic headings.
These paragraphs provide students with the reasons for proceeding to the new material and
explain the progression of topics within the chapter.
The Introduction contains a section entitled "How to study the chapters in this text", which

should be very helpful to students.

Each chapter has an "Understanding the learning objectives" section. These "summaries" enable

the student to determine how well the learning objectives were accomplished. We were the first
authors (1974) to ever include Learning objectives in an accounting text. These objectives have
been included at the beginning of the chapter, as marginal notes within the chapter, at the end of
the chapter, and in supplements such as the Test bank, Instructors' resource guide, Computerized
test bank, and Study guide. The objectives are also indicated for each exercise and problem.
Demonstration problems and solutions are included for each chapter, and a different one

appears for each chapter in the Study guide. These demonstration problems help students to
assess their own progress by showing them how problems that focus on the topic(s) covered in the
chapter are worked before students do assigned homework problems.
Key terms are printed for emphasis. End-of-chapter glossaries contain the definition.
Each chapter includes a "Self-test" consisting of true-false and multiple-choice questions. The

answers and explanations appear at the end of the chapter. These self-tests are designed to
determine whether the student has learned the essential information in each chapter.
In the margin beside each exercise and problem, we have included a description of the

requirements and the related Learning objective(s). These descriptions let students know what
they are expected to do in the problem.
Throughout the text we use examples taken from everyday life to relate an accounting concept

being introduced or discussed to students' experiences.

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Ethics
There is no better time to emphasize high ethical standards to students. This text includes many
items throughout the text entitled, "An ethical perspective". These items present situations in which
students are likely to find themselves throughout their careers. They range from resisting pressure by a
superior or a client to do the wrong thing to deciding between alternative corporate behaviors that have
environmental and profit consequences.

End-of-chapter materials
Describing teaching methods, the AECC stated, "Teachers...should place a priority on their
interaction with students and on interaction among students. Students' involvement should be
promoted by methods such as cases, simulations, and group projects..." 2 A section entitled "Beyond the
numbersCritical thinking" at the end of every chapter is designed to implement these
recommendations. Business decision cases require critical thinking in complex situations often based
on real companies. The Annual report analysis section requires analyzing annual reports and
interpreting the results in writing. The Ethics cases require students to respond in writing to situations
they are likely to encounter in their careers. These cases do not necessarily have one right answer. The
Group projects for each chapter teach students how to work effectively in teams, a skill that was
stressed by the AECC and is becoming increasingly necessary for success in business. The Internet
projects teach students how to retrieve useful information from the Internet.
A team approach can also be introduced in the classroom using the regular exercises and problems
in the text. Teams can be assigned the task of presenting their solutions to exercises or problems to the
rest of the class. Using this team approach in class can help re-energize the classroom by creating an
active, informal environment in which students learn from each other. (Two additional group projects
are described in the Instructor's resource guide. These projects are designed to be used throughout the
semester or quarter.)
We have included a vast amount of other resource materials for each chapter within the text from
which the instructor may draw: (1) one of the largest selections of end-of-chapter questions, exercises,
and problems available; (2) several comprehensive review problems that allow students to review all
major concepts covered to that point; and (3) from one to three business decision cases per chapter.
Other key features regarding end-of-chapter material follow.

2Ibid, p.2.
p. 9 of 433

 A uniform chart of accounts appears in a separate file you can download. This uniform chart of

accounts is used consistently throughout the first 11 chapters. We believe students will benefit
from using the same chart of accounts for all homework problems in those chapters.
A comprehensive review problem at the end of Chapter 4 serves as a mini practice set to test all

material covered to that point. Another comprehensive problem at the end of Chapter 19 reviews
the material covered in Chapters 18 and 19. Two comprehensive budgeting problems are also
included as business decision cases at the end of Chapter 23.
Some of the end-of-chapter problem materials (questions, exercises, problems, business decision

cases, other "Beyond the numbers" items, and comprehensive review problems) have been
updated. Each exercise and problem is identified with the learning objective(s) to which it relates.
All end-of-chapter exercises and problems have been traced back to the chapters to ensure that

nothing is asked of a student that does not appear in the book. This feature was a strength of
previous editions, ensuring that instructors could confidently assign problems without having to
check for applicability. Also, we took notes while teaching from the text and clarified problem and
exercise instructions that seemed confusing to our students.

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Table of Contents
1 The Accounting Environment...........................................................................................14
1.1 Learning objectives.........................................................................................................14
1.2 Accounting Defined........................................................................................................15
1.3 Employment opportunities in accounting......................................................................17
1.4 Financial accounting versus managerial accounting......................................................21
1.5 Development of financial accounting standards............................................................23
1.6 Ethical behavior of accountants.....................................................................................25
1.7 Critical thinking and communication skills...................................................................26
1.8 Internet skills..................................................................................................................27
1.9 How to study the chapters in this text............................................................................27
2 Accounting and its use in business decisions...................................................................30
2.1 Learning objectives........................................................................................................30
2.2 A career as an entrepreneur..........................................................................................30
2.3 Forms of business organizations....................................................................................31
2.4 Types of activities performed by business organizations..............................................33
2.5 Financial statements of business organizations............................................................34
2.6 The financial accounting process...................................................................................39
2.7 Underlying assumptions or concepts ...........................................................................40
2.8 Transactions affecting only the balance sheet ..............................................................41
2.9 Transactions affecting the income statement and/or balance sheet ............................45
2.10 Summary of balance sheet and income statement transactions.................................48
2.11 Dividends paid to owners (stockholders).....................................................................49
2.12 Analyzing and using the financial resultsthe equity ratio.........................................52
2.13 Understanding the learning objectives........................................................................53
2.14 Appendix: A comparison of corporate accounting with accounting for a sole
proprietorship and a partnership.........................................................................................54
2.15 Demonstration problem...............................................................................................55
2.16 Solution to demonstration problem.............................................................................57
2.17 Key terms......................................................................................................................58
2.18 Self-test........................................................................................................................60
3 Recording business transactions.......................................................................................77
3.1 Learning objectives.........................................................................................................77
3.2 Salary potential of accountants......................................................................................77
3.3 The account and rules of debit and credit......................................................................79
3.4 Recording changes in assets, liabilities, and stockholders' equity.................................81
p. 11 of 433

3.5 The accounting cycle......................................................................................................86

3.6 The journal.....................................................................................................................87
3.7 The ledger......................................................................................................................90
3.8 The accounting process in operation.............................................................................91
3.9 The use of ledger accounts...........................................................................................105
3.10 Analyzing and using the financial results Horizontal and vertical analyses...........115
3.11 Key terms.....................................................................................................................123
3.12 Self-test.......................................................................................................................124
4 Adjustments for financial reporting................................................................................144
4.1 Learning objectives.......................................................................................................144
4.2 A career as a tax specialist............................................................................................144
4.3 Cash versus accrual basis accounting...........................................................................145
4.4 The need for adjusting entries......................................................................................147
4.5 Classes and types of adjusting entries..........................................................................149
4.6 Adjustments for deferred items....................................................................................151
4.7 Adjustments for accrued items.....................................................................................162
4.8 Effects of failing to prepare adjusting entries..............................................................166
4.9 Analyzing and using the financial resultstrend percentages....................................166
4.10 Understanding the learning objectives.......................................................................167
5 Completing the accounting cycle....................................................................................190
5.1 Learning objectives.......................................................................................................190
5.2 A career in information systems..................................................................................190
5.3 The accounting cycle summarized................................................................................191
5.4 The work sheet..............................................................................................................191
5.5 Preparing financial statements from the work sheet...................................................199
5.6 Journalizing adjusting entries.....................................................................................200
5.7 The closing process.......................................................................................................201
5.8 Accounting systems: From manual to computerized..................................................210
5.9 A classified balance sheet.............................................................................................216
5.10 Analyzing and using the financial results the current ratio...................................223
5.11 Understanding the learning objectives.......................................................................224
6 Accounting theory...........................................................................................................254
6.1 Learning objectives......................................................................................................254
6.2 A career as an accounting professor............................................................................254
6.3 Traditional accounting theory.....................................................................................255
6.4 Underlying assumptions or concepts..........................................................................256
6.5 Other basic concepts....................................................................................................258
6.6 The measurement process in accounting....................................................................259
6.7 The major principles....................................................................................................260
6.8 Modifying conventions (or constraints)......................................................................268
6.9 The financial accounting standards board's conceptual framework project...............270
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6.10 Objectives of financial reporting................................................................................271

6.11 Qualitative characteristics..........................................................................................273
6.12 The basic elements of financial statements................................................................277
6.13 Recognition and measurement in financial statements.............................................279
6.14 Summary of significant accounting policies..............................................................279
6.15 Significant accounting policies..................................................................................280
6.16 Understanding the learning objectives......................................................................283
7 Introduction to inventories and the classified income statement..................................303
7.1 Learning objective .......................................................................................................303
7.2 A career as a CEO.........................................................................................................303
7.3 Two income statements compared Service company and merchandising company
............................................................................................................................................ 305
7.4 Sales revenues..............................................................................................................305
7.5 Cost of goods sold.........................................................................................................313
7.6 Classified income statement........................................................................................324
7.7 Analyzing and using the financial resultsGross margin percentage.........................329
7.8 Understanding the learning objectives........................................................................329
7.9 Appendix: The work sheet for a merchandising company...........................................331
7.10 Key terms...................................................................................................................338
7.11 Self-test.......................................................................................................................340
8 Measuring and reporting inventories.............................................................................359
8.1 Learning objectives......................................................................................................359
8.2 Choosing an accounting career....................................................................................359
8.3 Inventories and cost of goods sold..............................................................................360
8.4 Importance of proper inventory valuation..................................................................361
8.5 Determining inventory cost.........................................................................................363
8.6 Departures from cost basis of inventory measurement..............................................387
8.7 Analyzing and using financial resultsinventory turnover ratio................................395
8.8 Understanding the learning objectives........................................................................395
Alphabetical Index..............................................................................................................427

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1 The Accounting Environment

1.1 Learning objectives
After studying this introduction, you should be able to:

Define accounting.

Describe the functions performed by accountants.

Describe employment opportunities in accounting.

Differentiate between financial and managerial accounting.

Identify several organizations that have a role in the development of financial accounting

standards.
You have embarked on the challenging and rewarding study of accountingan old and timehonored discipline. History indicates that all developed societies require certain accounting records.
Record-keeping in an accounting sense is thought to have begun about 4000 BCE
The record-keeping, control, and verification problems of the ancient world had many
characteristics similar to those we encounter today. For example, ancient governments also kept
records of receipts and disbursements and used procedures to check on the honesty and reliability of
employees.
A study of the evolution of accounting suggests that accounting processes have developed primarily
in response to business needs. Also, economic progress has affected the development of accounting
processes. History shows that the higher the level of civilization, the more elaborate the accounting
methods.
The emergence of double-entry bookkeeping was a crucial event in accounting history. In 1494, a
Franciscan monk, Luca Pacioli, described the double-entry Method of Venice system in his text called
Summa de Arithmetica, Geometric, Proportion et Proportionate (Everything about arithmetic,
geometry, and proportion). Many consider Pacioli's Summa to be a reworked version of a manuscript
that circulated among teachers and pupils of the Venetian school of commerce and arithmetic.
Since Pacioli's days, the roles of accountants and professional accounting organizations have
expanded in business and society. As professionals, accountants have a responsibility for placing public
service above their commitment to personal economic gain. Complementing their obligation to society,
accountants have analytical and evaluative skills needed in the solution of ever-growing world

p. 14 of 433

problems. The special abilities of accountants, their independence, and their high ethical standards
permit them to make significant and unique contributions to business and areas of public interest.
You probably will find that of all the business knowledge you have acquired or will learn, the study
of accounting will be the most useful. Your financial and economic decisions as a student and
consumer involve accounting information. When you file income tax returns, accounting information
helps determine your taxes payable. Understanding the discipline of accounting also can influence
many of your future professional decisions. You cannot escape the effects of accounting information on
your personal and professional life.
Every profit-seeking business organization that has economic resources, such as money, machinery,
and buildings, uses accounting information. For this reason, accounting is called the language of
business. Accounting also serves as the language providing financial information about not-for-profit
organizations such as governments, churches, charities, fraternities, and hospitals. However, this text
concentrates on accounting for business firms.
The accounting system of a profit-seeking business is an information system designed to provide
relevant financial information on the resources of a business and the effects of their use. Information is
relevant if it has some impact on a decision that must be made. Companies present this relevant
information in their financial statements. In preparing these statements, accountants consider the
users of the information, such as owners and creditors, and decisions they make that require financial
information.
As a background for studying accounting, this Introduction defines accounting and lists the
functions accountants perform. In addition to surveying employment opportunities in accounting, it
differentiates between financial and managerial accounting. Because accounting information must
conform to certain standards, we discuss several prominent organizations contributing to these
standards. As you continue your study of accounting in this text, accountingthe language of business
will become your language also. You will realize that you are constantly exposed to accounting
information in your everyday life.

1.2 Accounting Defined

The American Accounting Associationone of the accounting organizations discussed later in this
Introductiondefines accounting as "the process of identifying, measuring, and communicating

p. 15 of 433

economic information to permit informed judgments and decisions by the users of the information". 1
This information is primarily financialstated in money terms. Accounting, then, is a measurement
and communication process used to report on the activities of profit-seeking business organizations
and not-for-profit organizations. As a measurement and communication process for business,
accounting supplies information that permits informed judgments and decisions by users of the data.
The accounting process provides financial data for a broad range of individuals whose objectives in
studying the data vary widely. Bank officials, for example, may study a company's financial statements
to evaluate the company's ability to repay a loan. Prospective investors may compare accounting data
from several companies to decide which company represents the best investment. Accounting also
supplies management with significant financial data useful for decision making.
Reliable information is necessary before decision makers can make a sound decision involving the
allocation of scarce resources. Accounting information is valuable because decision makers can use it
to evaluate the financial consequences of various alternatives. Accountants eliminate the need for a
crystal ball to estimate the future. They can reduce uncertainty by using professional judgment to
quantify the future financial impact of taking action or delaying action.
Although accounting information plays a significant role in reducing uncertainty within the
organization, it also provides financial data for persons outside the company. This information tells
how management has discharged its responsibility for protecting and managing the company's
resources. Stockholders have the right to know how a company is managing its investments. In
fulfilling this obligation, accountants prepare financial statements such as an income statement, a
statement of retained earnings, a balance sheet, and a statement of cash flows. In addition, they
prepare tax returns for federal and state governments, as well as fulfill other governmental filing
requirements.
Accounting is often confused with bookkeeping. Bookkeeping is a mechanical process that records
the routine economic activities of a business. Accounting includes bookkeeping but goes well beyond it
in scope. Accountants analyze and interpret financial information, prepare financial statements,
conduct audits, design accounting systems, prepare special business and financial studies, prepare
forecasts and budgets, and provide tax services.
Specifically the accounting process consists of the following groups of functions (see Exhibit 1
below):
1 American Accounting Association, A Statement of Basic Accounting Theory (Evanston, III.,
1966), p. 1.
p. 16 of 433

 Accountants observe many events (or activities) and identify and measure in financial terms

(dollars) those events considered evidence of economic activity. (Often, these three functions are
collectively referred to as analyze.) The purchase and sale of goods and services are economic
events.
Next, the economic events are recorded, classified into meaningful groups, and summarized.
Accountants report on economic events (or business activity) by preparing financial statements

and special reports. Often accountants interpret these statements and reports for various groups
such as management, investors, and creditors. Interpretation may involve determining how the
business is performing compared to prior years and other similar businesses.

1.3 Employment opportunities in accounting

During the last half-century, accounting has gained the same professional status as the medical and
legal professions. Today, the accountants in the United States number well over a million. In addition,
several million people hold accounting-related positions. Typically, accountants provide services in
various branches of accounting. These include public accounting, management (industrial) accounting,
governmental or other not-for-profit accounting, and higher education. The demand for accountants
will likely increase dramatically in the future. This increase is greater than for any other profession.
You may want to consider accounting as a career.
Public accounting firms offer professional accounting and related services for a fee to
companies, other organizations, and individuals. An accountant may become a Certified Public
Accountant (CPA) by passing an examination prepared and graded by the American Institute of
Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). The exam is administered by computer. In addition to passing
the exam, CPA candidates must meet other requirements, which include obtaining a state license.
These requirements vary by state. A number of states require a CPA candidate to have completed
specific accounting courses and earned a certain number of college credits (five years of study in many
states); worked a certain number of years in public accounting, industry, or government; and lived in
that state a certain length of time before taking the CPA examination. As of the year 2000, five years of
course work were required to become a member of the AICPA.
After a candidate passes the CPA examination, some states (called one-tier states) insist that the
candidate meet all requirements before the state grants the CPA certificate and license to practice.
Other states (called two-tier states) issue the CPA certificate immediately after the candidate passes the
exam. However, these states issue the license to practice only after all other requirements have been
met. CPAs who want to renew their licenses to practice must stay current through continuing
p. 17 of 433

professional education programs and must prove that they have done so. No one can claim to be a CPA
and offer the services normally provided by a CPA unless that person holds an active license to
practice.

Exhibit 1: Functions performed by accountants

p. 18 of 433

The public accounting profession in the United States consists of the Big-Four international CPA
firms, several national firms, many regional firms, and numerous local firms. The Big-Four firms
include Deloitte & Touche, Ernst & Young, KPMG, and Pricewaterhouse Coopers. At all levels, these
public accounting firms provide auditing, tax, and, for nonaudit clients, management advisory (or
consulting) services.
Auditing A business seeking a loan or attempting to have its securities traded on a stock exchange
usually must provide financial statements to support its request. Users of a company's financial
statements are more confident that the company is presenting its statements fairly when a CPA has
audited the statements. For this reason, companies hire CPA firms to conduct examinations
(independent audits) of their accounting and related records. Independent auditors of the CPA
firm check some of the company's records by contacting external sources. For example, the accountant
may contact a bank to verify the cash balances of the client. After completing a company audit,
independent auditors give an independent auditor's opinion or report. (For an example of an
auditor's opinion, see The Limited, Inc. annual report in the Annual report appendix at the end of the
text.) This report states whether the company's financial statements fairly (equitably) report the
economic performance and financial condition of the business. As you will learn in the next section,
auditors within a business also conduct audits, which are not independent audits. Currently auditing
standards are established by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board.
In 2002 The Sarbanes-Oxley Act was passed. The Act was passed as one result of the large losses to
the employees and investors from accounting fraud situations involving companies such as Enron and
WorldCom. The Act created the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board. The Board consists of
five members appointed and overseen by the Securities and Exchange Commission. The Board
oversees and investigates the audits and auditors of public companies and can sanction both firms and
individuals for violations of laws, regulations, and rules. The Chief Executive Officer and Chief
Financial Officer of a public company must now certify the company's financial statements. Corporate
audit committees, rather than the corporate management, are now responsible for hiring,
compensating, and overseeing the external auditors.
Tax services CPAs often provide expert advice on tax planning and preparing federal, state, and
local tax returns. The objective in preparing tax returns is to use legal means to minimize the taxes
paid. Almost every major business decision has a tax impact. Tax planning helps clients know the tax
effects of each financial decision.
Management advisory (or consulting) services Before Sarbanes-Oxley management advisory
services were the fastest growing service area for most large and many smaller CPA firms. Management
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frequently identifies projects for which it decides to retain the services of a CPA. However, the
Sarbanes-Oxley Act specifically prohibits providing certain types of consulting services to a publiclyheld company by its external auditor. These services include bookkeeping, information systems design
and implementation, appraisals or valuation services, actuarial services, internal audits, management
and human resources services, broker/dealer and investment services, and legal or expert services
related to audit services. Accounting firms can perform many of these services for publicly held
companies they do not audit. Other services not specifically banned are allowed if pre-approved by the
company's audit committee.
In contrast to public accountants, who provide accounting services for many clients, management
accountants provide accounting services for a single business. In a company with several management
accountants, the person in charge of the accounting activity is often the controller or chief financial
officer.
Management accountants may or may not be CPAs. If management accountants pass an
examination prepared and graded by the Institute of Certified Management Accountants (ICMA) and
meet certain other requirements, they become Certified Management Accountants (CMAs). The
ICMA is an affiliate of the Institute of Management Accountants, an organization primarily consisting
of management accountants employed in private industry.
A career in management accounting can be very challenging and rewarding. Many management
accountants specialize in one particular area of accounting. For example, some may specialize in
measuring and controlling costs, others in budgeting (the development of plans for future operations),
and still others in financial accounting and reporting. Many management accountants become
specialists in the design and installation of computerized accounting systems. Other management
accountants are internal auditors who conduct internal audits. They ensure that the company's
divisions and departments follow the policies and procedures of management. This last group of
management accountants may earn the designation of Certified Internal Auditor (CIA). The
Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) grants the CIA certificate to accountants after they have successfully
completed the IIA examination and met certain other requirements.
Many accountants, including CPAs, work in governmental and other not-for-profit
accounting. They have essentially the same educational background and training as accountants in
public accounting and management accounting.
Governmental agencies at the federal, state, and local levels employ governmental accountants.
Often the duties of these accountants relate to tax revenues and expenditures. For example, Internal
Revenue Service employees use their accounting backgrounds in reviewing tax returns and
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investigating tax fraud. Government agencies that regulate business activity, such as a state public
service commission that regulates public utilities (e.g. telephone company, electric company), usually
employ governmental accountants. These agencies often employ governmental accountants who can
review and evaluate the utilities' financial statements and rate increase requests. Also, FBI agents
trained as accountants find their accounting backgrounds useful in investigating criminals involved in
illegal business activities, such as drugs or gambling.
Not-for-profit organizations, such as churches, charities, fraternities, and universities, need
accountants to record and account for funds received and disbursed. Even though these agencies do
not have a profit motive, they should operate efficiently and use resources effectively.
Approximately 10,000 accountants are employed in higher education. The activities of these
academic accountants include teaching accounting courses, conducting scholarly and applied
research and publishing the results, and performing service for the institution and the community.
Faculty positions exist in two-year colleges, four-year colleges, and universities with graduate
programs. A significant shortage of accounting faculty has developed due to the retirement beginning
in the late 1990s of many faculty members. Starting salaries will continue to rise significantly because
of the shortage. You may want to talk with some of your professors about the advantages and
disadvantages of pursuing an accounting career in higher education.
A section preceding each chapter, entitled "Careers in accounting", describes various accounting
careers. You might find one that you would like to pursue.

1.4 Financial accounting versus managerial accounting

An accounting information system provides data to help decision makers both outside and inside
the business. Decision makers outside the business are affected in some way by the performance of the
business. Decision makers inside the business are responsible for the performance of the business. For
this reason, accounting is divided into two categories: financial accounting for those outside and
managerial accounting for those inside.
Financial accounting information appears in financial statements that are intended primarily for
external use (although management also uses them for certain internal decisions). Stockholders and
creditors are two of the outside parties who need financial accounting information. These outside
parties decide on matters pertaining to the entire company, such as whether to increase or decrease
their investment in a company or to extend credit to a company. Consequently, financial accounting
information relates to the company as a whole, while managerial accounting focuses on the parts or
segments of the company.
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Management accountants in a company prepare the financial statements. Thus, management

accountants must be knowledgeable concerning financial accounting and reporting. The financial
statements are the representations of management, not the CPA firm that performs the audit.
The external users of accounting information fall into six groups; each has different interests in the
company and wants answers to unique questions. The groups and some of their possible questions are:
Owners and prospective owners. Has the company earned satisfactory income on its total

investment? Should an investment be made in this company? Should the present investment be
increased, decreased, or retained at the same level? Can the company install costly pollution
control equipment and still be profitable?
Creditors and lenders. Should a loan be granted to the company? Will the company be able

to pay its debts as they become due?

Employees and their unions. Does the company have the ability to pay increased wages? Is

the company financially able to provide long-term employment for its workforce?
Customers. Does the company offer useful products at fair prices? Will the company survive

long enough to honor its product warranties?

Governmental units. Is the company, such as a local public utility, charging a fair rate for its

services?
General public. Is the company providing useful products and gainful employment for citizens

without causing serious environmental problems?

General-purpose financial statements provide much of the information needed by external users of
financial accounting. These financial statements are formal reports providing information on a
company's financial position, cash inflows and outflows, and the results of operations. Many
companies publish these statements in annual reports. (See The Limited, Inc., annual report in the
Annual report appendix.) The annual report also contains the independent auditor's opinion as to
the fairness of the financial statements, as well as information about the company's activities, products,
and plans.
Financial accounting information is historical in nature, reporting on what has happened in the
past. To facilitate comparisons between companies, this information must conform to certain
accounting standards or principles called generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
These generally accepted accounting principles for businesses or governmental organizations have
developed through accounting practice or been established by an authoritative organization. We
describe several of these authoritative organizations in the next major section of this Introduction.

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Managerial accounting information is for internal use and provides special information for the
managers of a company. The information managers use may range from broad, long-range planning
data to detailed explanations of why actual costs varied from cost estimates. Managerial accounting
information should:
Relate to the part of the company for which the manager is responsible. For example, a

production manager wants information on costs of production but not of advertising.

Involve planning for the future. For instance, a budget would show financial plans for the

coming year.
Meet two tests: the accounting information must be useful (relevant) and must not cost more to

gather and process than it is worth.

Managerial accounting generates information that managers can use to make sound decisions. The
four major types of internal management decisions are:
Financial decisionsdeciding what amounts of capital (funds) are needed to run the business

and whether to secure these funds from owners (stockholders) or creditors. In this sense, capital
means money used by the company to purchase resources such as machinery and buildings and to
pay expenses of conducting the business.
Resource allocation decisionsdeciding how the total capital of a company is to be

invested, such as the amount to be invested in machinery.

Production decisionsdeciding what products are to be produced, by what means, and

when.
Marketing decisionssetting selling prices and advertising budgets; determining the location

of a company's markets and how to reach them.

1.5 Development of financial accounting standards

Several organizations are influential in the establishment of generally accepted accounting
principles (GAAP) for businesses or governmental organizations. These are the American Institute of
Certified Public Accountants, the Financial Accounting Standards Board, the Governmental
Accounting Standards Board, the Securities and Exchange Commission, the American Accounting
Association, the Financial Executives Institute, and the Institute of Management Accountants. Each
organization has contributed in a different way to the development of GAAP.
The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) is a professional organization of
CPAs. Many of these CPAs are in public accounting practice. Until recent years, the AICPA was the
dominant organization in the development of accounting standards. In a 20-year period ending in
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1959, the AICPA Committee on Accounting Procedure issued 51 Accounting Research Bulletins
recommending certain principles or practices. From 1959 through 1973, the committee's successor, the
Accounting Principles Board (APB), issued 31 numbered Opinions that CPAs generally are
required to follow. Through its monthly magazine, the Journal of Accountancy, its research division,
and its other divisions and committees, the AICPA continues to influence the development of
accounting standards and practices. Two of its committeesthe Accounting Standards Committee and
the Auditing Standards Committeeare particularly influential in providing input to the Financial
Accounting Standards Board (the current rule-making body) and to the Securities and Exchange
Commission and other regulatory agencies.
In 1973, an independent, seven-member, full-time Financial Accounting Standards Board
(FASB) replaced the Accounting Principles Board. The FASB has issued numerous Statements of
Financial Accounting Standards. The old Accounting Research Bulletins and Accounting Principles
Board Opinions are still effective unless specifically superseded by a Financial Accounting Standards
Board Statement. The FASB is the private sector organization now responsible for the development of
new financial accounting standards.
The Emerging Issues Task Force of the FASB interprets official pronouncements for general
application by accounting practitioners. The conclusions of this task force must also be followed in
filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission.
In 1984, the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) was established with a
full-time chairperson and four part-time members. The GASB issues statements on accounting and
financial reporting in the governmental area. This organization is the private sector organization now
responsible for the development of new governmental accounting concepts and standards. The GASB
also has the authority to issue interpretations of these standards.
Created under the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934, the Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC) is a government agency that administers important acts dealing with the
interstate sale of securities (stocks and bonds). The SEC has the authority to prescribe accounting and
reporting practices for companies under its jurisdiction. This includes virtually every major US
business corporation. Instead of exercising this power, the SEC has adopted a policy of working closely
with the accounting profession, especially the FASB, in the development of accounting standards. The
SEC indicates to the FASB the accounting topics it believes the FASB should address.
Consisting largely of accounting educators, the American Accounting Association (AAA) has
sought to encourage research and study at a theoretical level into the concepts, standards, and
principles of accounting. One of its quarterly magazines, The Accounting Review, carries many articles
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reporting on scholarly accounting research. Another quarterly journal, Accounting Horizons, reports
on more practical matters directly related to accounting practice. A third journal, Issues in Accounting
Education, contains articles relating to accounting education matters. Students may join the AAA as
associate members by contacting the American Accounting Association, 5717 Bessie Drive, Sarasota,
Florida 34233.
The Financial Executives Institute is an organization established in 1931 whose members are
primarily financial policy-making executives. Many of its members are chief financial officers (CFOs)
of very large corporations. The role of the CFO has evolved in recent years from number cruncher to
strategic planner. These CFOs played a major role in restructuring American businesses in the early
1990s. Slightly more than 14,000 financial officers, representing approximately 7,000 companies in
the United States and Canada, are members of the FEI. Through its Committee on Corporate
Reporting (CCR) and other means, the FEI is very effective in representing the views of the private
financial sector to the FASB and to the Securities and Exchange Commission and other regulatory
agencies.
The Institute of Management Accountants (formerly the National Association of Accountants)
is an organization with approximately 70,000 members, consisting of management accountants in
private industry, CPAs, and academics. The primary focus of the organization is on the use of
management accounting information for internal decision making. However, management accountants
prepare the financial statements for external users. Thus, through its Management Accounting
Practices (MAP) Committee and other means, the IMA provides input on financial accounting
standards to the Financial Accounting Standards Board and to the Securities and Exchange
Commission and other regulatory agencies.
Many other organizations such as the Financial Analysts Federation (composed of investment
advisers and investors), the Securities Industry Associates (composed of investment bankers), and CPA
firms have committees or task forces that respond to Exposure Drafts of proposed FASB Statements.
Their reactions are in the form of written statements sent to the FASB and testimony given at FASB
hearings. Many individuals also make their reactions known to the FASB.

1.6 Ethical behavior of accountants

Several accounting organizations have codes of ethics governing the behavior of their members. For
instance, both the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and the Institute of Management
Accountants have formulated such codes. Many business firms have also developed codes of ethics for
their employees to follow.
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Ethical behavior involves more than merely making sure you are not violating a code of ethics. Most
of us sense what is right and wrong. Yet get-rich-quick opportunities can tempt many of us. Almost any
day, newspaper headlines reveal public officials and business leaders who did not do the right thing.
Greed won out over their sense of right and wrong. These individuals followed slogans such as: "Get
yours while the getting is good"; "Do unto others before they do unto you"; and "You have done wrong
only if you get caught". More appropriate slogans might be: "If it seems too good to be true, it usually
is"; "There are no free lunches"; and the golden rule, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto
you".
An accountant's most valuable asset is an honest reputation. Those who take the high road of ethical
behavior receive praise and honor; they are sought out for their advice and services. They also like
themselves and what they represent. Occasionally, accountants do take the low road and suffer the
consequences. They sometimes find their names mentioned in The Wall Street Journal and news
programs in an unfavorable light, and former friends and colleagues look down on them. Some of these
individuals are removed from the profession. Fortunately, the accounting profession has many leaders
who have taken the high road, gained the respect of friends and colleagues, and become role models for
all of us to follow.
Many chapters in the text include an ethics case entitled, "An ethical perspective". We know you will
benefit from thinking about the situational ethics in these cases. Often you will not have much
difficulty in determining "right and wrong". Instead of making the cases "close calls", we have
attempted to include situations business students might actually encounter in their careers.

1.7 Critical thinking and communication skills

Accountants in practice and business executives have generally been dissatisfied with accounting
graduates' ability to think critically and to communicate their ideas effectively. The Accounting
Education Change Commission has recommended that changes be made in the education of
accountants to remove these complaints.
To address these concerns, we have included a section at the end of each chapter entitled, "Beyond
the numbersCritical thinking". In that section, you are required to work relatively unstructured
business decision cases, analyze real-world annual report data, write about situations involving ethics,
and participate in group projects. Most of the other end-of-chapter materials also involve analysis and
written communication of ideas.
In some of the cases, (analysis, ethics situations, and group projects), you are asked to write a
memorandum regarding the situation. In writing such a memorandum, identify your role (auditor,
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consultant), the audience (management, stockholders, and creditors), and the task (the specific
assignment). Present your ideas clearly and concisely.
The purpose of the group projects is to assist you in learning to listen to and work with others.
These skills are important in succeeding in the business world. Team players listen to the views of
others and work cohesively with them to achieve group goals.

1.8 Internet skills

The Internet is a fact of life. It is important for accountants and students to be able to use the
Internet to find relevant information. Thus, each chapter contains approximately two Internet projects
related to accounting. Your instructor might assign some of these, or you could pursue them on your
own.

1.9 How to study the chapters in this text

In studying each chapter:
Begin by reading the learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter.
Read "Understanding the learning objectives" at the end of the chapter for a preview of the

chapter content.
Read the chapter content. Each exercise at the end of the chapters identifies the learning

objective(s) to which it pertains. If you learn best by reading about a concept and then working a
short exercise that illustrates that concept, work the exercises as you read the chapter.
Reread "Understanding the learning objectives" to determine if you have achieved each

objective.
Study the Key terms to see if you understand each term. If you do not understand a certain term,

refer to the page indicated to read about the term in its original context.
Take the Self-test and then check your answers with those at the end of the chapter.
Work the Demonstration problem to further reinforce your understanding of the chapter

content. Then, compare your solution to the correct solution that follows immediately.
Look over the questions at the end of the chapter and think out an answer to each one. If you

cannot answer a particular question, refer back into the chapter for the needed information.
Work at least some of the exercises at the end of the chapter.
Work the Problems assigned by your instructor, using the forms available. They can be

downloaded from the publisher's website (www.freeloadpress.com).

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 Study the items in the "Beyond the numbersCritical thinking" section and the "Using the

InternetA view of the real world" section at the end of each chapter to relate what you have
learned to real-world situations.
Work the Study guide for the chapter. The Study guide is a supplement that contains (for each

chapter) Learning objectives; Demonstration problem and solution (different from the one in the
text); Matching, Completion, True-false, and Multiple-choice questions; and Solutions to all
questions and exercises in the study guide. The Study guide can be downloaded from the
publisher's website (www.freeloadpress.com).
If you perform each of these steps for each chapter, you should do well in the course. Remember
that a knowledge of accounting will serve you well regardless of the career you pursue.

International accounting standards

In recent years, there has been a movement to develop a single set of global accounting
standards for use around the world. Proponents of this movement say that it will boost
cross-border investment, deepen international capital markets and save multinational
companies, who must currently report under multiple systems, a lot of time and
money. The International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) Foundation was
established as an independent, not-for profit, private sector organisation to work
towards this goal. It seeks to develop a globally accepted set of financial reporting
standards (IFRSs) under the direction of its standards-setting body, the International
Accounting Standards Board (IASB).

The AICPA (as well as the other entities

mentioned above) supports this effort and, as of early 2010, states on its website that:
The growing acceptance of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) as a
basis for U.S. financial reporting represents a fundamental change for the U.S.
accounting profession. Today approximately 113 countries require or allow the use of
IFRS for the preparation of financial statements by publicly held companies. In the
United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has been taking steps to
set a date to allow U.S. public companies to use IFRS, and perhaps make its adoption
mandatory. In fact, on November 14, 2008, the SEC released for public comment a
proposed roadmap with a timeline and key milestones for adopting IFRS beginning in
2014. Clearly, many new issues can emerge between now and 2014, but the direction
seems to be clear.

The AICPA has a link on its website to a page with current

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information on the planned migration to IFRS. You might like to check it out from
time to time at http://www.ifrs.com/Backgrounder_Get_Ready.html. There is also a
wealth of information on the IFRS website at http://ifrs.org.

Students from countries other than the US should check the website of the professional
accounting organization in your country for an update on the current status. For example, if
you go to the website of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India at http://icai.org and
search on IFRS you will find a number of links to documents covering the planned migration
to IFRS in India.

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2 Accounting and its use in business decisions

2.1 Learning objectives

Identify and describe the three basic forms of business organizations.

Distinguish among the three types of activities performed by business organizations.

Describe the content and purposes of the income statement, statement of retained earnings,

balance sheet, and statement of cash flows.

State the basic accounting equation and describe its relationship to the balance sheet.

Using the underlying assumptions or concepts, analyze business transactions and determine

their effects on items in the financial statements.

Prepare an income statement, a statement of retained earnings, and a balance sheet.

Analyze and use the financial resultsthe equity ratio.

2.2 A career as an entrepreneur

When todays college students are polled about their long-term career choice, a surprisingly large
number respond that they wish to someday own and manage their own business. In fact, the aspiration
to start a business, to be an entrepreneur, is nearly universal. It is widely acknowledged that a degree in
accounting offers many advantages to a would-be entrepreneur. In fact, if you ask owners of small
businesses which skill they wish they had more expertise in, they will very frequently reply
accounting. No matter what the business may be, the owner and/or manager must be able to
understand the accounting and financial consequences of business decisions.
Most successful entrepreneurs have learned that it takes a lot more than a great marketing idea or
product innovation to make a successful business. There are many steps involved before an idea
becomes a successful and rewarding business. Entrepreneurs must be able to raise capital, either from
banks or investors. Once a business has been launched, the entrepreneur must be a managera
manager of people, inventory, facilities, customer relationships, and relationships with the very banks
and investors that provided the capital. Business owners quickly learn that in order to survive they
need to be well-rounded, savvy individuals who can successfully manage these diverse relationships.
An accounting education is ideal for providing this versatile background.
In addition to providing a good foundation for entrepreneurship in any business, an accounting
degree offers other ways of building your own business. For example, a large percentage of public
accountants work as sole proprietorsbuilding and managing their own professional practice. This can
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be a very rewarding career, working closely with individuals and small businesses. One advantage of
this career is that you can establish your practice in virtually any location ranging from large cities to
rural settings. Finally, many accountants who have gained specialized expertise and experience in a
particular field start their own practice as consultants. Expertise such as this, which may be in a field
outside of traditional accounting practice, can generate billing rates well in the excess of USD 100 an
hour.
The introduction to this text provided a background for your study of accounting. Now you are
ready to learn about the forms of business organizations and the types of business activities they
perform. This chapter presents the financial statements used by businesses. These financial statements
show the results of decisions made by management. Investors, creditors, and managers use these
statements in evaluating managements past decisions and as a basis for making future decisions.
In this chapter, you also study the accounting process (or accounting cycle) that accountants use to
prepare those financial statements. This accounting process uses financial data such as the records of
sales made to customers and purchases made from suppliers. In a systematic manner, accountants
analyze, record, classify, summarize, and finally report these data in the financial statements of
businesses. As you study this chapter, you will begin to understand the unique, systematic nature of
accountingthe language of business.

2.3 Forms of business organizations

Accountants frequently refer to a business organization as an accounting entity or a business
entity. A business entity is any business organization, such as a hardware store or grocery store, that
exists as an economic unit. For accounting purposes, each business organization or entity has an
existence separate from its owner(s), creditors, employees, customers, and other businesses. This
1

separate existence of the business organization is known as the business entity concept. Thus, in
the accounting records of the business entity, the activities of each business should be kept separate
from the activities of other businesses and from the personal financial activities of the owner(s).
Assume, for example, that you own two businesses, a physical fitness center and a horse stable.
According to the business entity concept, you would consider each business as an independent
business unit. Thus, you would normally keep separate accounting records for each business. Now

1 When first studying any discipline, students encounter new terms. Usually these terms are set in
bold. The boldface color terms are also listed and defined at the end of each chapter (see Key
terms).
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assume your physical fitness center is unprofitable because you are not charging enough for the use of
your exercise equipment. You can determine this fact because you are treating your physical fitness
center and horse stable as two separate business entities. You must also keep your personal financial
activities separate from your two businesses. Therefore, you cannot include the car you drive only for
personal use as a business activity of your physical fitness center or your horse stable. However, the use
of your truck to pick up feed for your horse stable is a business activity of your horse stable.
As you will see shortly, the business entity concept applies to the three forms of businessessingle
proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations. Thus, for accounting purposes, all three business
forms are separate from other business entities and from their owner(s). Since most large businesses
are corporations, we use the corporate approach in this text and include only a brief discussion of
single proprietorships and partnerships.
A single proprietorship is an unincorporated business owned by an individual and often
managed by that same person. Single proprietors include physicians, lawyers, electricians, and other
people in business for themselves. Many small service businesses and retail establishments are also
single proprietorships. No legal formalities are necessary to organize such businesses, and usually
business operations can begin with only a limited investment.
In a single proprietorship, the owner is solely responsible for all debts of the business. For
accounting purposes, however, the business is a separate entity from the owner. Thus, single
proprietors must keep the financial activities of the business, such as the receipt of fees from selling
services to the public, separate from their personal financial activities. For example, owners of single
proprietorships should not enter the cost of personal houses or car payments in the financial records of
their businesses.
A partnership is an unincorporated business owned by two or more persons associated as
partners. Often the same persons who own the business also manage the business. Many small retail
establishments and professional practices, such as dentists, physicians, attorneys, and many CPA
firms, are partnerships.
A partnership begins with a verbal or written agreement. A written agreement is preferable because
it provides a permanent record of the terms of the partnership. These terms include the initial
investment of each partner, the duties of each partner, the means of dividing profits or losses between
the partners each year, and the settlement after the death or withdrawal of a partner. Each partner may
be held liable for all the debts of the partnership and for the actions of each partner within the scope of
the business. However, as with the single proprietorship, for accounting purposes, the partnership is a
separate business entity.
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A corporation is a business incorporated under the laws of a state and owned by a few
stockholders or thousands of stockholders. Almost all large businesses and many small businesses are
incorporated.
The corporation is unique in that it is a separate legal business entity. The owners of the corporation
are stockholders, or shareholders. They buy shares of stock, which are units of ownership, in the
corporation. Should the corporation fail, the owners would only lose the amount they paid for their
stock. The corporate form of business protects the personal assets of the owners from the creditors of
the corporation.

Stockholders do not directly manage the corporation. They elect a board of directors to represent
their interests. The board of directors selects the officers of the corporation, such as the president and
vice presidents, who manage the corporation for the stockholders.
Accounting is necessary for all three forms of business organizations, and each company must
follow generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Since corporations have such an important
impact on our economy, we use them in this text to illustrate basic accounting principles and concepts.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

Although corporations constitute about 17 per cent of all business organizations, they
account for almost 90 per cent of all sales volume. Single proprietorships constitute
about 75 per cent of all business organizations but account for less than 10 per cent of
sales volume.

2.4 Types of activities performed by business organizations

The forms of business entities discussed in the previous section are classified according to the type
of ownership of the business entity. Business entities can also be grouped by the type of business
activities they performservice companies, merchandising companies, and manufacturing companies.
Any of these activities can be performed by companies using any of the three forms of business
organizations.

2 When individuals seek a bank loan to finance the formation of a small corporation, the bank often
requires those individuals to sign documents making them personally responsible for repaying the
loan if the corporation cannot pay. In this instance, the individuals can lose their original
investments plus the amount of the loan they are obligated to repay.
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 Service companies perform services for a fee. This group includes accounting firms, law

firms, and dry cleaning establishments. The early chapters of this text describe accounting for
service companies.
Merchandising companies purchase goods that are ready for sale and then sell them to

customers. Merchandising companies include auto dealerships, clothing stores, and

supermarkets. We begin the description of accounting for merchandising companies in
Chapter 6.
Manufacturing companies buy materials, convert them into products, and then sell the

products to other companies or to the final consumers. Manufacturing companies include steel
mills, auto manufacturers, and clothing manufacturers.
All of these companies produce financial statements as the final end product of their accounting
process. These financial statements provide relevant financial information both to those inside the
companymanagementand to those outside the companycreditors, stockholders, and other
interested parties. The next section introduces four common financial statementsthe income
statement, the statement of retained earnings, the balance sheet, and the statement of cash flows.

2.5 Financial statements of business organizations

Business entities may have many objectives and goals. For example, one of your objectives in
owning a physical fitness center may be to improve your physical fitness. However, the two primary
objectives of every business are profitability and solvency. Profitability is the ability to generate
income. Solvency is the ability to pay debts as they become due. Unless a business can produce
satisfactory income and pay its debts as they become due, the business cannot survive to realize its
other objectives.
There are four basic financial statements. Together they present the profitability and strength of a
company. The financial statement that reflects a companys profitability is the income statement.
The statement of retained earnings shows the change in retained earnings between the beginning
and end of a period (e.g. a month or a year). The balance sheet reflects a companys solvency and
financial position. The statement of cash flows shows the cash inflows and outflows for a company
over a period of time. The headings and elements of each statement are similar from company to
company. You can see this similarity in the financial statements of actual companies in the appendix of
this textbook.
The income statement, sometimes called an earnings statement, reports the profitability of a
business organization for a stated period of time. In accounting, we measure profitability for a period,
p. 34 of 433

such as a month or year, by comparing the revenues earned with the expenses incurred to produce
these revenues. Revenues are the inflows of assets (such as cash) resulting from the sale of products
or the rendering of services to customers. We measure revenues by the prices agreed on in the
exchanges in which a business delivers goods or renders services. Expenses are the costs incurred to
produce revenues. Expenses are measured by the assets surrendered or consumed in serving
customers. If the revenues of a period exceed the expenses of the same period, net income results.
Thus,
Net income = Revenues Expenses
Net income is often called the earnings of the company. When expenses exceed revenues, the
business has a net loss, and it has operated unprofitably.
In Exhibit 2, Part A shows the income statement of Metro Courier, Inc., for July 2010. This
corporation performs courier delivery services of documents and packages in San Diego in the state of
California, USA.
Metros income statement for the month ended 2010 July 31, shows that the revenues (or delivery
fees) generated by serving customers for July totaled USD 5,700. Expenses for the month amounted to
USD 3,600. As a result of these business activities, Metros net income for July was USD 2,100. To
determine its net income, the company subtracts its expenses of USD 3,600 from its revenues of USD
5,700. Even though corporations are taxable entities, we ignore corporate income taxes at this point.
One purpose of the statement of retained earnings is to connect the income statement and the
balance sheet. The statement of retained earnings explains the changes in retained earnings
between two balance sheet dates. These changes usually consist of the addition of net income (or
deduction of net loss) and the deduction of dividends.
Dividends are the means by which a corporation rewards its stockholders (owners) for providing it
with investment funds. A dividend is a payment (usually of cash) to the owners of the business; it is a
distribution of income to owners rather than an expense of doing business. Corporations are not
required to pay dividends and, because dividends are not an expense, they do not appear on the income
statement.
The effect of a dividend is to reduce cash and retained earnings by the amount paid out. Then, the
company no longer retains a portion of the income earned but passes it on to the stockholders.
Receiving dividends is, of course, one of the primary reasons people invest in corporations.
The statement of retained earnings for Metro Courier, Inc., for July 2010 is relatively simple (see
Part B of Exhibit 2). Organized on June 1, Metro did not earn any revenues or incur any expenses
during June. So Metros beginning retained earnings balance on July 1 is zero. Metro then adds its USD
p. 35 of 433

2,100 net income for July. Since Metro paid no dividends in July, the USD 2,100 would be the ending
balance of retained earnings. See below.
A. Income Statement
METRO COURIIER INC
Income Statement For the Month Ended
2010 July 31
Revenues:
Service
$
5,700
revenue
Expenses:
Salaries
$
2,600
expense
Rent expense
400
Gas and oil
600
expense
Total
3,600
expenses
Net income
$
2,100 (A)
B. Statement of Retained Earnings
METRO COURIER , INC.
Statement of Retained Earnings
For the Month Ended 2010 July 31
Retained earnings, July 1 -0Add: Net income for July (A)2,100
Retained earnings, July 31 $
2,100 (B)
C. Balance Sheet
METRO COURIER, INC.
Balance Sheet
2010 July 31
Assets
Cash

Account receivables
Trucks
Office equipment

Liabilities and Stockholder's Equity

15,500 Liabilities:
700 Accounts payable
20,000 Notes payable
2,500 Total liabilities
Stockholders equity:

$
$

600
6,000
6,600

Capital stock

30,000

Retained earnings
Total stockholders' equity
Total assets

38,700 Total liabilities and stockholders' equity

(B)2,100
$

32,100

38,700

Exhibit 2:
Next, Metro carries this USD 2,100 ending balance in retained earnings to the balance sheet (Part
C). If there had been a net loss, it would have deducted the loss from the beginning balance on the
statement of retained earnings. For instance, if during the next month (August) there is a net loss of

p. 36 of 433

USD 500, the loss would be deducted from the beginning balance in retained earnings of USD 2,100.
The retained earnings balance at the end of August would be USD 1,600.
Dividends could also have affected the Retained Earnings balance. To give a more realistic
illustration, assume that (1) Metro Courier, Inc.s net income for August was actually USD 1,500
(revenues of USD 5,600 less expenses of USD 4,100) and (2) the company declared and paid dividends
of USD 1,000. Then, Metros statement of retained earnings for August would be:
METRO COURIER, INC.
Statement of Retained Earnings
For the Month Ended 2010 August 31
Retained earnings, August 1..........................
Add: Net income for August.....................
Total..........................................
Less: Dividends...................................
Retained earnings, August 31........................

$2,100
1,500
$3,600
1,000
$2,600

The balance sheet, sometimes called the statement of financial position, lists the companys
assets, liabilities, and stockholders equity (including dollar amounts) as of a specific moment in time.
That specific moment is the close of business on the date of the balance sheet. Notice how the heading
of the balance sheet differs from the headings on the income statement and statement of retained
earnings. A balance sheet is like a photograph; it captures the financial position of a company at a
particular point in time. The other two statements are for a period of time. As you study about the
assets, liabilities, and stockholders equity contained in a balance sheet, you will understand why this
financial statement provides information about the solvency of the business.
Assets are things of value owned by the business. They are also called the resources of the
business. Examples include cash, machines, and buildings. Assets have value because a business can
use or exchange them to produce the services or products of the business. In Part C of Exhibit 2 the
assets of Metro Courier, Inc., amount to USD 38,700. Metros assets consist of cash, accounts
receivable (amounts due from customers for services previously rendered), trucks, and office
equipment.
Liabilities are the debts owed by a business. Typically, a business must pay its debts by certain
dates. A business incurs many of its liabilities by purchasing items on credit. Metros liabilities consist
of accounts payable (amounts owed to suppliers for previous purchases) and notes payable
(written promises to pay a specific sum of money) totaling USD 6,600.

3 Most notes bear interest, but in this chapter we assume that all notes bear no interest. Interest is
an amount paid by the borrower to the lender (in addition to the amount of the loan) for use of the
money over time.
p. 37 of 433

Metro Courier, Inc., is a corporation. The owners interest in a corporation is referred to as

stockholders equity. Metros stockholders equity consists of (1) USD 30,000 paid for shares of
capital stock and (2) retained earnings of USD 2,100. Capital stock shows the amount of the owners
investment in the corporation. Retained earnings generally consists of the accumulated net income
of the corporation minus dividends distributed to stockholders. We discuss these items later in the
text. At this point, simply note that the balance sheet heading includes the name of the organization
and the title and date of the statement. Notice also that the dollar amount of the total assets is equal to
the claims on (or interest in) those assets. The balance sheet shows these claims under the heading
Liabilities and Stockholders Equity.
Management is interested in the cash inflows to the company and the cash outflows from the
company because these determine the companys cash it has available to pay its bills when due. The
statement of cash flows shows the cash inflows and cash outflows from operating, investing, and
financing activities. Operating activities generally include the cash effects of transactions and other
events that enter into the determination of net income. Investing activities generally include business
transactions involving the acquisition or disposal of long-term assets such as land, buildings, and
equipment. Financing activities generally include the cash effects of transactions and other events
involving creditors and owners (stockholders).
Chapter 16 describes the statement of cash flows in detail. Our purpose here is to merely introduce
this important financial statement. Normally, a firm prepares a statement of cash flows for the same
time period as the income statement. The following statement, however, shows the cash inflows and
outflows for Metro Courier, Inc., since it was formed on 2010 June 1. Thus, this cash flow statement is
for two months.
METRO COURIER, INC.
Statement of Cash Flows
For the Two-Month Period Ended 2010 July 31
Cash flows from operating activities:
Net income..........................................................................

$2.100

Adjustments to reconcile net income to net cash provided by operating activities:

Increase in accounts receivable......................................
(700)
Increase in accounts payable.........................................
Net cash provided by operating activities.................

600
$2,000

Cash flows from investing activities:

Purchase of trucks................................................................

$(20,000)

Purchase of office equipment................................................

(2,500)

Net cash used by investing activities...............................

(22,500)

Cash flows from financing activities:

Proceeds from notes payable.................................................

$6,000

Proceeds from sale of capital stock........................................

30,000

p. 38 of 433

Net cash provided by financing activities.........................

Net increase in cash.....................................................................

36,000
$15,500

At this point in the course, you need to understand what a statement of cash flows is rather than
how to prepare it. We do not ask you to prepare such a statement until you have studied Chapter 16.
The income statement, the statement of retained earnings, the balance sheet, and the statement of
cash flows of Metro Courier, Inc., show the results of managements past decisions. They are the end
products of the accounting process, which we explain in the next section. These financial statements
give a picture of the solvency and profitability of the company. The accounting process details how this
picture was made. Management and other interested parties use these statements to make future
decisions. Management is the first to know the financial results; then, it publishes the financial
statements to inform other users. The most recent financial statements for most companies can be
found on their websites under Investor Relations or some similar heading.

2.6 The financial accounting process

In this section, we explain the accounting equationthe framework for the entire accounting
process. Then, we show you how to recognize a business transaction and describe underlying
assumptions that accountants use to record business transactions. Next you learn how to analyze and
record business transactions.
In the balance sheet presented in Exhibit 2 (Part C), the total assets of Metro Courier, Inc., were
equal to its total liabilities and stockholders equity. This equality shows that the assets of a business
are equal to its equities; that is,
Assets = Equities
Assets were defined earlier as the things of value owned by the business, or the economic resources
of the business. Equities are all claims to, or interests in, assets. For example, assume that you
purchased a new company automobile for USD 15,000 by investing USD 10,000 in your own
corporation and borrowing USD 5,000 in the name of the corporation from a bank. Your equity in the
automobile is USD 10,000, and the banks equity is USD 5,000. You can further describe the USD
5,000 as a liability because you owe the bank USD 5,000. If you are a corporation, you can describe
your USD 10,000 equity as stockholders equity or interest in the asset. Since the owners in a
corporation are stockholders, the basic accounting equation becomes:
Assets A = Liabilities L + Stockholders Equity SE
From Metros balance sheet in Exhibit 2 (Part C), we can enter in the amount of its assets, liabilities,
and stockholders equity:

p. 39 of 433

A = L + SE
USD 38,700 = USD 6,600 + USD 32,100
Remember that someone must provide assets or resourceseither a creditor or a stockholder.
Therefore, this equation must always be in balance.
You can also look at the right side of this equation in another manner. The liabilities and
stockholders equity show the sources of an existing group of assets. Thus, liabilities are not only claims
against assets but also sources of assets.
Together, creditors and owners provide all the assets in a corporation. The higher the proportion of
assets provided by owners, the more solvent the company. However, companies can sometimes
improve their profitability by borrowing from creditors and using the funds effectively. As a business
engages in economic activity, the dollar amounts and composition of its assets, liabilities, and
stockholders equity change. However, the equality of the basic accounting equation always holds.
An accounting transaction is a business activity or event that causes a measurable change in the
accounting equation, Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders equity. An exchange of cash for merchandise
is a transaction. The exchange takes place at an agreed price that provides an objective measure of
economic activity. For example, the objective measure of the exchange may be USD 5,000. These two
factorsevidence and measurementmake possible the recording of a transaction. Merely placing an
order for goods is not a recordable transaction because no exchange has taken place.
A source document usually supports the evidence of the transaction. A source document is any
written or printed evidence of a business transaction that describes the essential facts of that
transaction. Examples of source documents are receipts for cash paid or received, checks written or
received, bills sent to customers for services performed or bills received from suppliers for items
purchased, cash register tapes, sales tickets, and notes given or received. We handle source documents
constantly in our everyday life. Each source document initiates the process of recording a transaction.

2.7 Underlying assumptions or concepts

In recording business transactions, accountants rely on certain underlying assumptions or
concepts. Both preparers and users of financial statements must understand these assumptions:
Business entity concept (or accounting entity concept). Data gathered in an

accounting system relates to a specific business unit or entity. The business entity concept
assumes that each business has an existence separate from its owners, creditors, employees,
customers, other interested parties, and other businesses.

p. 40 of 433

 Money measurement concept. Economic activity is initially recorded and reported in a

common monetary unit of measurethe dollar in the United States. This form of measurement
is known as money measurement.
Exchange-price (or cost) concept (principle). Most of the amounts in an accounting

system are the objective money prices determined in the exchange process. As a result, we
record most assets at their acquisition cost. Cost is the sacrifice made or the resources given
up, measured in money terms, to acquire some desired thing, such as a new truck (asset).
Going-concern (continuity) concept. Unless strong evidence exists to the contrary,

accountants assume that the business entity will continue operations into the indefinite future.
Accountants call this assumption the going-concern or continuity concept. Assuming that the
entity will continue indefinitely allows accountants to value long-term assets, such as land, at
cost on the balance sheet since they are to be used rather than sold. Market values of these
assets would be relevant only if they were for sale. For instance, accountants would still record
land purchased in 1988 at its cost of USD 100,000 on the 2010 December 31, balance sheet
even though its market value has risen to USD 300,000.
Periodicity (time periods) concept. According to the periodicity (time periods) concept

or assumption, an entitys life can be meaningfully subdivided into time periods (such as
months or years) to report the results of its economic activities.
Now that you understand business transactions and the five basic accounting assumptions, you are
ready to follow some business transactions step by step. To begin, we divide Metros transactions into
two groups: (1) transactions affecting only the balance sheet in June, and (2) transactions affecting the
income statement and/or the balance sheet in July. Note that we could also classify these transactions
as operating, investing, or financing activities, as shown in the statement of cash flows.

2.8 Transactions affecting only the balance sheet

Since each transaction affecting a business entity must be recorded in the accounting records,
analyzing a transaction before actually recording it is an important part of financial accounting. An
error in transaction analysis results in incorrect financial statements.
To illustrate the analysis of transactions and their effects on the basic accounting equation, the
activities of Metro Courier, Inc., that led to the statements in Exhibit 2 follow. The first set of
transactions (for June), 1a, 2a, and so on, are repeated in the summary of transactions, Exhibit 3 (Part
A). The second set of transactions (for July) (1b6b) are repeated in Exhibit 4 (Part A).

p. 41 of 433

2.8.1 1a. Owners invested cash

When Metro Courier, Inc., was organized as a corporation on 2010 June 1, the company issued
shares of capital stock for USD 30,000 cash to Ron Chaney, his wife, and their son. This transaction
increased assets (cash) of Metro by USD 30,000 and increased equities (the capital stock element of
stockholders equity) by USD 30,000. Consequently, the transaction yields the following basic
accounting equation:
Assets
Transaction

Explanation
Beginning
balances
Stockholder
s invested
cash
Balance
after
transaction

1a

Accounts
Receivable

Cash

$ -030,000

$ -0-

=Liabilities +
Trucks

$ -0-

Office
Equipment

Accounts
Payable

$ -0-

Stockholders' Equity

Notes
Payable
+

= $ -0-

Capital
Stock
$ -030,000

$ -0-

$ 30,000

$ 30,000

Increased
by
$30,000

Increased by
$30,000

2.8.2 2a. Borrowed money

The company borrowed USD 6,000 from Chaneys father. Chaney signed the note for the company.
The note bore no interest and the company promised to repay (recorded as a note payable) the amount
borrowed within one year. After including the effects of this transaction, the basic accounting equation
is:
Transaction

2a

Explanation
Balances
before
transaction
Borrowed
money
Balance
after
transaction

Cash
$ 30,000

Assets
Accounts
Trucks
Receivable
$ -0-

$ -0-

Office
Equipment
$ -0-

= Liabilities +
Accounts
Notes
Payable
Payable
= $ -0-

$ -0-

6,000
$ 36,000
Increased by
$6,000

Stockholder's Equity
Capital
+ Stock
$ 30,000

6,000
=

$ 6,000

+ $ 30,000

Increased by
$6,000

2.8.3 3a. Purchased trucks and office equipment for cash

Metro paid USD 20,000 cash for two used delivery trucks and USD 1,500 for office equipment.
Trucks and office equipment are assets because the company uses them to earn revenues in the future.
Note that this transaction does not change the total amount of assets in the basic equation but only
changes the composition of the assets. This transaction decreased cash and increased trucks and office

p. 42 of 433

equipment (assets) by the total amount of the cash decrease. Metro received two assets and gave up
one asset of equal value. Total assets are still USD 36,000. The accounting equation now is:
Assets
Cash

Accounts
Receivable

$ 36,000

$ -0-

$ -0-

(21,500)
$

Trucks

14,500

Decreased
by
$21,500

Office
Equipment

Accounts
Payable

$ -0- =

$ -0-

20,000

1,500

$ 20,000

$ 1,500 =

Stockholders'
Equity

Liabilities +
Notes
Payable

Capital
+ Stock

$ 6,000

+ $ 30,000

$ 6,000

+ $ 30,000

Increased
Increased by
by
$1,500
$20,000

2.8.4 4a. Purchased office equipment on account (for credit)

Metro purchased an additional USD 1,000 of office equipment on account, agreeing to pay within
10 days after receiving the bill. (To purchase an item on account means to buy it on credit.) This
transaction increased assets (office equipment) and liabilities (accounts payable) by USD 1,000. As
stated earlier, accounts payable are amounts owed to suppliers for items purchased on credit. Now you
can see the USD 1,000 increase in the assets and liabilities as follows:
Assets
Cash
$

14,500

14,500

Accounts
Receivable

= Liabilities

+
Stockholders' Equity
Notes
Capital
Trucks
Office Equipment Accounts Payable
Payable +
Stock
$ 20,000
$ 1,500 =
$ 6,000
$ 30,000
1,000
$ 20,000

$ 2,500 =
Increased by
$1,000

1,000
$

1,000

$ 6,000 +

$ 30,000

Increased by
$1,000

2.8.5 5a. Paid an account payable

Eight days after receiving the bill, Metro paid USD 1,000 for the office equipment purchased on
account (transaction 4a). This transaction reduced cash by USD 1,000 and reduced accounts payable
by USD 1,000. Thus, the assets and liabilities both are reduced by USD 1,000, and the equation again
balances as follows:

p. 43 of 433

Transaction

5a

Explanatio
n
Balances
before
transaction
Paid an
account
payable
Balance
after
transaction

Cash

Assets
Accounts
Trucks
Receivable

$ 14,500

$ -0-

$ 20,000

Office
Equipment

= Liabilities +
Accounts
Notes
Payable
Payable

$ 2,500 =

(1,000)
$ 13,500

1,000

+ Capital Stock

$ 6,000

+ $30,000

$ 6,000

+$30,000

(1,000)
$ -0-

$ 20,000

$ 2,500

Decreased
by
$1,000
A. Summary of Transactions

$ -0-

Decreased
by
$1,000

METRO COURIER, INC.

Summary of Transactions
Month of June 2010
Assets

Transaction

Stockholders equity

Explanation

1a

Beginning balances
Stockholders invested cash

2a

Borrowed money

3a

Purchased trucks and office equipment for cash

4a

Purchased office equipment on account

Cash
$ -0
30,000

=Liabilities +

Accounts
Trucks
Receivable
$ -0$ -0-

Office
Accounts
Notes
Equipment Payable Payable
$ -0= $ -0- $ -0-

30,000
6,000
$ 36,000
(21,500)

20,000

1,500

$ 14,500

$20,000

$ 14,500

$20,000

Stockholders'
Equity
Capital
+ Stock
$ -030,000

$ 30,000

Paid an account payable

(1,000)
End-of-month balances
$ 13,500(A)
$ -0- $20,000(B)
B. Balance Sheet
METRO COURIER, INC.
Balance Sheet
2010 June 30
Assets
Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

=
=

6,000
$6000

+$30,000

$ 1,500
1,000

= $
1,000 $

6,000
6,000

+ $ 30,000
+ $ 30,000

$ 2,500

= $ 1,000 $

6,000

+ $ 30,000

(1,000)
= $ -0$6,000(D)

+ $ 30,000(E)

5a

Cash

$ 2,500(C)

(A) $ 13,500 Liabilities:

Trucks

(B) 20,000

Office equipment

(C)2,500

Notes Payable
Total Liabilities
Stockholders'
equity:
Capital stock

Total assets

Total liabilities
$ 36,000 and stockholders'
equity

(D) $6,000
$ 6,000

(E) 30,000
$ 36,000

Exhibit 3: Balance Sheet

Exhibit 3, Part A, is a summary of transactions prepared in accounting equation form for June. A
summary of transactions is a teaching tool used to show the effects of transactions on the
accounting equation. Note that the stockholders equity has remained at USD 30,000. This amount

p. 44 of 433

changes as the business begins to earn revenues or incur expenses. You can see how the totals at the
bottom of Part A of Exhibit 3 tie into the balance sheet shown in Part B. The date on the balance sheet
is 2010 June 30. These totals become the beginning balances for July 2010.
Thus far, all transactions have consisted of exchanges or acquisitions of assets either by borrowing
or by owner investment. We used this procedure to help you focus on the accounting equation as it
relates to the balance sheet. However, people do not form a business only to hold existing assets. They
form businesses so their assets can generate greater amounts of assets. Thus, a business increases its
assets by providing goods or services to customers. The results of these activities appear in the income
statement. The section that follows shows more of Metros transactions as it began earning revenues
and incurring expenses.

2.9 Transactions affecting the income statement and/or balance

sheet
To survive, a business must be profitable. This means that the revenues earned by providing goods
and services to customers must exceed the expenses incurred.
In July 2010, Metro Courier, Inc., began selling services and incurring expenses. The explanations
of transactions that follow allow you to participate in this process and learn the necessary accounting
procedures.

2.9.1 1b. Earned service revenue and received cash

As its first transaction in July, Metro performed delivery services for customers and received USD
4,800 cash. This transaction increased an asset (cash) by USD 4,800. Stockholders equity (retained
earnings) also increased by USD 4,800, and the accounting equation was in balance.
The USD 4,800 is a revenue earned by the business and, as such, increases stockholders equity (in
the form of retained earnings) because stockholders prosper when the business earns profits. Likewise,
if the corporation sustains a loss, the loss would reduce retained earnings.
Revenues increase the amount of retained earnings while expenses and dividends decrease them.
(In this first chapter, we show all of these items as immediately affecting retained earnings. In later
chapters, the revenues, expenses, and dividends are accounted for separately from retained earnings
during the accounting period and are transferred to retained earnings only at the end of the accounting
period as part of the closing process described in Chapter 4.) The effects of this USD 4,800 transaction
on the financial position of Metro are:

p. 45 of 433

Metro would record the increase in stockholders equity brought about by the revenue transaction
as a separate account, retained earnings. This does not increase capital stock because the Capital Stock
account increases only when the company issues shares of stock. The expectation is that revenue
transactions will exceed expenses and yield net income. If net income is not distributed to
stockholders, it is in fact retained. Later chapters show that because of complexities in handling large
numbers of transactions, revenues and expenses affect retained earnings only at the end of an
accounting period. The preceding procedure is a shortcut used to explain why the accounting equation
remains in balance.
Transac
tion

Explanation

Cash

Beginning balances
(Exhibit 3)
Earned service revenue
and received cash
Balances after transaction

1b

13,500

Assets
Accounts
Trucks
Receivable
$ -0-

$ 20,000

Office
Equipment
$ 2,500 =

=Liabilities +
Accounts
Notes
Payable
Payable
$ -0-

6,000

Stockholders' Equity
Capital + Retained
Stock
Earnings
$ 30,000

$ -0-

4,800
$

4,800

18,300

$ 20,000

$ 2,500 =

6,000

Increased by
$4,800

+ $ 30,000 $ 4,800
Increased
by
$4,800

2.9.2 2b. Service revenue earned on account (for credit)

Metro performed courier delivery services for a customer who agreed to pay USD 900 at a later
date. The company granted credit rather than requiring the customer to pay cash immediately. This is
called earning revenue on account. The transaction consists of exchanging services for the customers
promise to pay later. This transaction is similar to the preceding transaction in that stockholders
equity (retained earnings) increases because the company has earned revenues. However, the
transaction differs because the company has not received cash. Instead, the company has received
another asset, an account receivable. As noted earlier, an account receivable is the amount due from a
customer for goods or services already provided. The company has a legal right to collect from the
customer in the future. Accounting recognizes such claims as assets. The accounting equation,
including this USD 900 item, is as follows:
Assets
Transac
Explanation
tion

2b

Balances before
transaction
Earned service
revenue on account
Balances after transaction

Cash

Accounts
Receivable

$
18,300

Trucks

Liabilities
Office
Accounts
Equipment Payable

Notes
Payable

Stockholders' +
Equity
Capital
Retained
+
Earnings
Stock

$ 20,000 $ 2,500 =

$ 6,000 $ 30,000

$ 20,000 $ 2,500 =

+$
30,000

$900
$
18,300

$900
Increased by
$900

4,800
900

$ 6,000

$5,700
Increased
by
$900

p. 46 of 433

2.9.3 3b. Collected cash on accounts receivable

Metro collected USD 200 on account from the customer in transaction 2b. The customer will pay
the remaining USD 700 later. This transaction affects only the balance sheet and consists of giving up a
claim on a customer in exchange for cash. The transaction increases cash by USD 200 and decreases
accounts receivable by USD 200. Note that this transaction consists solely of a change in the
composition of the assets. When the company performed the services, it recorded the revenue.
Therefore, the company does not record the revenue again when collecting the cash.
Assets
Transact Explanation
ion

Cash

Balances before
transaction
3b

Accounts
Receivable
18,300

Trucks

900 $

Collected cash
on account

200

(200)

Balances after
transaction

18,500

$700

Increased by
$200

=Liabilities +
Office
Equipment

Accounts
Payable

Stockholders' +Equity

Notes Payable

+ Capital
Stock

20,000

$ 2,500
=

$ 6,000

$ 30,000

20,000

$ 2,500
=

$ 6,000

+ $ 30,000

Decreased by
$200

2.9.4 4b. Paid salaries

Metro paid employees USD 2,600 in salaries. This transaction is an exchange of cash for employee
services. Typically, companies pay employees for their services after they perform their work. Salaries
(or wages) are costs companies incur to produce revenues, and companies consider them an expense.
Thus, the accountant treats the transaction as a decrease in an asset (cash) and a decrease in
stockholders equity (retained earnings) because the company has incurred an expense. Expense
transactions reduce net income. Since net income becomes a part of the retained earnings balance,
expense transactions also reduce the retained earnings.
Assets
Cash
$

18,500
(2,600)
$ 15,900

Accounts
Receivable

Trucks

Office
Equipment

= Liabilities +
Accounts
Notes
Payable
Payable +

Stockholders' Equity
Capital Stock

700

$ 20,000

$ 2,500 =

$6,000

$ 30,000

700

$ 20,000

$ 2,500 =

$6,000 +

$ 30,000

Decreased by
$2,600

Retained Earnings
$

5,700
(2,600)
$ 3,100

Decreased by
$2,600

2.9.5 5b. Paid rent

In July, Metro paid USD 400 cash for office space rental. This transaction causes a decrease in cash
of USD 400 and a decrease in retained earnings of USD 400 because of the incurrence of rent expense.
Transaction 5b has the following effects on the amounts in the accounting equation:
p. 47 of 433

Assets
Cash

Accounts Receivable

$ 15,900
(400)
$ 15,500
Decreased by
$400

700

700

= Liabilities +
Stockholders' Equity
Office
Accounts Notes
Retained
+ Capital Stock
Equipment Payable Payable
Earnings
$ 3,100
$ 20,000
$ 2,500 =
$ 6,000
$ 30,000
(400)
$ 20,000
$ 2,500 =
$ 6,000
+ $ 30,000
$ 2,700
Decreased by
$400
Trucks

2.9.6 6b. Received bill for gas and oil used

At the end of the month, Metro received a USD 600 bill for gas and oil consumed during the month.
This transaction involves an increase in accounts payable (a liability) because Metro has not yet paid
the bill and a decrease in retained earnings because Metro has incurred an expense. Metros accounting
equation now reads:
Assets

$ 15,500

700

=Liabilities +
Stockholders' +Equity
Office
Accounts Payable Notes Payable Capital + Stock Retained Earnings
Equipment
$ 20,000
$ 2,500 =
$ 6,000
$ 30,000
$
2,700

$ 15,500

700

$ 20,000

Cash

Accounts Receivable

Trucks

600
$ 2,500 =

600

(600)
$ 6,000

+ $ 30,000

Increased by
$600

2,100

Decreased by
$600

2.10 Summary of balance sheet and income statement

transactions
Part A of Exhibit 4 summarizes the effects of all the preceding transactions on the assets, liabilities,
and stockholders equity of Metro Courier, Inc., in July. The beginning balances are the ending
balances in Part A of Exhibit 3. The summary shows subtotals after each transaction; these subtotals
are optional and may be omitted. Note how the accounting equation remains in balance after each
transaction and at the end of the month.
The ending balances in each of the columns in Part A of Exhibit 4 are the dollar amounts in Part B
and those reported earlier in the balance sheet in Part C of Exhibit 2. The itemized data in the Retained
Earnings column are the revenue and expense items in Part C of Exhibit 4 and those reported earlier in
the income statement in Part A of Exhibit 2. The beginning balance in the Retained Earnings column
(USD 0) plus net income for the month (USD 2,100) is equal to the ending balance in retained earnings
(USD 2,100) shown earlier in Part B of Exhibit 2. Remember that the financial statements are not an
end in themselves, but are prepared to assist users of those statements to make informed decisions.
Throughout the text we show how people use accounting information in decision making.

p. 48 of 433

2.11 Dividends paid to owners (stockholders)

Stockholders equity is (1) increased by capital contributed by stockholders and by revenues earned
through operations and (2) decreased by expenses incurred in producing revenues. The payment of
cash or other assets to stockholders in the form of dividends also reduces stockholders equity. Thus, if
the owners receive a cash dividend, the effect would be to reduce the retained earnings part of
stockholders equity; the amount of dividends is not an expense but a distribution of income.

An ethical perspective: State university

James Stevens was taking an accounting course at State University. Also, he was
helping companies find accounting systems that would fit their information needs. He
advised one of his clients to acquire a software computer package that could record the
business transactions and prepare the financial statements. The licensing agreement
with the software company specified that the basic charge for one site was USD 4,000
and that USD 1,000 must be paid for each additional site where the software was used.
James was pleased that his recommendation to acquire the software was followed.
However, he was upset that management wanted him to install the software at eight
other sites in the company and did not intend to pay the extra USD 8,000 due the
software company. A member of management stated, The software company will
never know the difference and, besides, everyone else seems to be pirating software. If
they do find out, we will pay the extra fee at that time. Our expenses are high enough
without paying these unnecessary costs. James believed he might lose this client if he
did not do as management instructed.

p. 49 of 433

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

Accountants and others can access the home pages of companies to find their annual
reports and other information, home pages of CPA firms to find employment
opportunities and services offered, and home pages of government agencies,
universities, and any other agency that has established a home page. By making onscreen choices you can discover all kinds of interesting information about almost
anything. You can access libraries, even in foreign countries, newspapers, such as The
Wall Street Journal, and find addresses and phone numbers of anyone in the nation.
We have included some Internet Projects at the end of the chapters to give you some
experience at surfing the net for accounting applications.

p. 50 of 433

A. Summary of Transactions
METRO COURIER, INC.
Summary of Transactions
Month of July 2010
Assets
Transaction

1b

Explanation

Cash

Beginning balances (Illustration

1.2)
Earned service revenue and
received cash

$
13,500

-Liabilities
Accounts
Receiv- Trucks
able
$ -0-

Collected cash on account

4b

Paid salaries

5b

6b

$ -0-

$ 20,000 $ 2,500 =

$ 6,000 +

$ 30,000

$ -0-

$ 30,000

$ 4,800

$ 900

900(B)
$ 20,000 $ 2,500 =

$ 6,000 +

$ 30,000

$ 20,000 $ 2,500 =

$ 6,000 +

$ 30,000

$ 5,700

(200)
$ 700

$ 5,700
(2,600)(C)

$ 700

$ 20,000 $ 2,500 =

$ 6,000 +

$ 30,000

$ 700

$ 20,000 $ 2,500 =

$ 6,000 +

$ 30,000

$ 3,100
(400)(D)

Received bill for gas and oil used

$ 2,700

600
$15,500(
$
$ 700(G)
F)
20,000(H)

End-of-month balances

$ 6,000 +

Retained
Earnings

900
$
18,300
200
$
18,500
(2,600)
$
15,900
(400)
$
15,500

Paid rent

Notes Payable Capital

+
Stock

4,800(A)

Earned service revenue on account

3b

$ 20,000 $ 2,500 =

Stockholders' Equity

4,800
$
18,300

2b

Office
Accounts
Equipment Payable

$38,700

$ 2,500

=(I)

600(J)

$6,600

(600)(E)

+
(K)

$ 6,000

$ 30,000(L)

$ 2,100(M)

$32,100

B. Balance Sheet

Assets
Cash

METRO COURIER, INC.

Balance Sheet
2010 July 31
Liabilities and Stockholders'
(F)$15,500 Liabilities:

Accounts receivable (G)700

Accounts payable

(J)$600

Trucks

(H)20,000

Notes payable

(K)6,000

Office equipment

(I)2,500

Total liabilities Stockholders' equity $6,600

Total assets

$38,700

Capital stock

(L)$30,000

Retained earnings
Total stockholders'
equity
Total liabilities and
stockholders' equity

(M)2,100
$32,100
$38,700

C. Income Statement
METRO COURIER, INC.
Income Statement
For the Month Ended 2010 July 31
Revenues:
Service revenue

(A+B)$ 5,700

Expenses:

p. 51 of 433

Salaries expense

(C)$ 2,600

Rent expense

(D)400

Gas & oil expense

(F)600

Total expenses

3,600

Net income

$ 2,100

Exhibit 4:

2.12 Analyzing and using the financial resultsthe equity ratio

The two basic sources of equity in a company are stockholders and creditors; their combined
interests are called total equities. To find the equity ratio, divide stockholders equity by total equities
or total assets, since total equities equals total assets. In formula format:
Equity ratio=

Stockholders ' equity

Total equities

The higher the proportion of equities (or assets) supplied by the owners, the more solvent the
company. However, a high portion of debt may indicate higher profitability because quite often the
interest rate on debt is lower than the rate of earnings realized from using the proceeds of the debt.
An example illustrates this concept: Suppose that a company with USD 100,000 in assets could
have raised the funds to acquire those assets in these two ways:
Case 1
Assets................$100,000 Liabilities.........................$20,000
Stockholders' equity............$80,000
Case 2
Assets................$100,000 Liabilities.........................$80,000
Stockholders' equity............$20,000

When a company suffers operating losses, its assets decrease. In Case 1, the assets would have to
shrink by 80 per cent before the liabilities would equal the assets. In Case 2, the assets would have to
shrink only 20 per cent before the liabilities would equal the assets. When the liabilities exceed the
assets, the company is said to be insolvent. Therefore, creditors are safer in Case 1 and will more
readily lend money to the company.
However, if funds borrowed at 10 per cent are used to produce earnings at a 20 per cent rate, Case 2
is preferable in terms of profitability. Therefore, owners are better off in Case 2 if the borrowed funds
can earn more than they cost.
Next, we examine the recent equity ratios of some actual companies:
Stockholders'
Equity ($ millions)
Johnson & Johnson
$ 23,734
3M Corporation
6,166
General Electric Company 53,597
Name of Company

Total Equities ($ millions) Equity Ratio

$ 37,053
15,205
460,097

64.1%
40.6
11.6

p. 52 of 433

As you can see from the preceding data, the equity ratios of actual companies vary widely.
Companies such as Johnson & Johnson and 3M Corporation employ a higher proportion of
stockholders equity (a lower proportion of debt) than GE in an effort to have stronger balance sheets
(more solvency). GE employs a greater proportion of debt, possibly in an attempt to increase
profitability. Every company must strike a balance between solvency and profitability to ensure longrun survival. The correct balance between proportions of stockholder and creditor equities depends on
the industry, general business conditions, and management philosophy.
Chapter 1 has introduced two important components of the accounting processthe accounting
equation and the business transaction. In Chapter 2, you learn about debits and credits and how
accountants use them in recording transactions. Understanding how data are accumulated, classified,
and reported in financial statements helps you understand how to use financial statement data in
making decisions.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

When you apply for your first job after graduation, prospective employers will expect
you to know how to use a PC to perform many tasks. Therefore, before you graduate
you should be able to use word processing, spreadsheet, and database software. You
should be able to use the Internet to find useful information. In many universities, you
can learn these skills in courses taken for credit. If your school does not offer credit
courses, take noncredit courses or attend a training center.

2.13 Understanding the learning objectives

A single proprietorship is an unincorporated business owned by an individual and often

managed by that individual.

A partnership is an unincorporated business owned by two or more persons associated as

partners and is often managed by them.

A corporation is a business incorporated under the laws of a state and owned by a few

stockholders or by thousands of stockholders.

Service companies perform services for a fee.
Merchandising companies purchase goods that are ready for sale and then sell them to

customers.

p. 53 of 433

 Manufacturing companies buy materials, convert them into products, and then sell the

products to other companies or to final customers.

The income statement reports the revenues and expenses of a company and shows the

profitability of that business organization for a stated period of time.

The statement of retained earnings shows the change in retained earnings between the

beginning of the period (e.g. a month) and its end.

The balance sheet lists the assets, liabilities, and stockholders equity (including dollar

amounts) of a business organization at a specific moment in time.

The statement of cash flows shows the cash inflows and cash outflows for a company for a

stated period of time.

The accounting equation is Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders equity.
The left side of the equation represents the left side of the balance sheet and shows things of

value owned by the business.

The right side of the equation represents the right side of the balance sheet and shows who

provided the funds to acquire the things of value (assets).

Some transactions affect only balance sheet items: assets (such as cash,

receivable, and equipment), liabilities (such as accounts payable and

accounts

notes payable), and

stockholders equity (capital stock). Other transactions affect both balance sheet items and
income statement items (revenues, expenses, and eventually retained earnings).
Exhibit 3 (Part A) and Exhibit 4 (Part A) show the effects of business transactions on the

accounting equation.
The income statement appears in Exhibit 2 (Part A) and Exhibit 4 (Part C).
The statement of retained earnings appears in Exhibit 2 (Part B).
The balance sheet appears in Exhibit 2 (Part C) and Exhibit 4 (Part B).
The equity ratio is the stockholders equity divided by total equities (or total assets).
The equity ratio shows the percentage that assets would have to shrink before a company would

become insolvent (liabilities exceed assets).

2.14 Appendix: A comparison of corporate accounting with

accounting for a sole proprietorship and a partnership
Some textbook authors use a sole proprietorship and a partnership form of business ownership to
illustrate accounting concepts and practices. In a survey of users and nonusers of our text, we learned
that the majority preferred the corporate approach because most students will probably work for or
p. 54 of 433

invest in corporations. Also, many small businesses operate as corporations because of the investors
desire for limited liability.
This appendix briefly describes the differences in accounting for these three forms of business
ownership. The major difference is in the stockholders equity or owners equity section of the balance
sheet.
As you learned in this chapter, the stockholders equity section of the balance sheet for a
corporation consists of capital stock and retained earnings. The owners equity section of the balance
sheet for a sole proprietorship consists only of the owners capital account. The owners equity section
of a partnership is similar to that of a single proprietorship except that it shows a capital account and
its balance for each partner.
Corporation
Stockholders'
equity:
Capital stock...$100,000
Retained

Sole Proprietorship
Owner's equity:
John Smith,
Capital....$150,000

Partnership
Partners' capital:
John Smith,
Capital............ $75,000
Sam Jones,

earnings..... 50,000

Capital............ 75,000

Total..................$150,000 $150,000

$150,000

The stockholders equity section of a corporate balance sheet can become more complex as you will
see later in the text. However, the items in the owners equity section of the balance sheets of a sole
proprietorship and a partnership always remain as just shown. In a sole proprietorship, the owners
capital balance consists of the owners investments in the business, plus cumulative net income since
the beginning of the business, less any amounts withdrawn by the owner. Thus, all of the amounts in
the various stockholders equity accounts for a corporation are in the owners capital account in a single
proprietorship. In a partnership, each partners capital account balance consists of that partners
investments in the business, plus that partners cumulative share of net income since that partner
became a partner, less any amounts withdrawn by that partner.
The Dividends account in a corporation is similar to an owners drawing account in a single
proprietorship. These accounts both show amounts taken out of the business by the owners. In a
partnership, each partner has a drawing account. Accountants treat asset, liability, revenue, and
expense accounts similarly in all three forms of organization.

2.15 Demonstration problem

On 2010 June 1, Green Hills Riding Stable, Incorporated, was organized. The following transactions
occurred during June:
June 1 Shares of capital stock were issued for USD 10,000 cash.

p. 55 of 433

4 A horse stable and riding equipment were rented (and paid for) for the month at a cost of USD
1,200.
8 Horse feed for the month was purchased on credit, USD 800.
15 Boarding fees of USD 3,000 for June were charged to those owning horses boarded at the stable.
(Fee is due on July 10.)
20 Miscellaneous expenses of USD 600 were paid.
29 Land was purchased from a savings and loan association by borrowing USD 40,000 on a note
from that association. The loan is due to be repaid in five years. Interest payments are due at the end of
each month beginning July 31.
30 Salaries of USD 700 for the month were paid.
30 Riding and lesson fees were billed to customers in the amount of USD 2,800. (Fees are due on
July 10.)
Prepare a summary of the preceding transactions. Use columns headed Cash, Accounts Receivable,
Land, Accounts Payable, Notes Payable, Capital Stock, and Retained Earnings. Determine balances
after each transaction to show that the basic accounting equation is in balance.
Prepare an income statement for June 2010.
Prepare a statement of retained earnings for June 2010.
Prepare a balance sheet as of 2010 June 30.

p. 56 of 433

2.16 Solution to demonstration problem

a.
Assets
Date
June
1
4

Explanation

Cash

Capital stock issued

$ 10,000

Rent expense

(1,200)

GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED

Summary of Transactions
Month of June 2010
=
Liabilities +
Accounts
Accounts
Land
Receivable
Payable

Feed expense

15

Boarding fees

$ 8,800
$ 8,800
20

Miscellaneous
expenses

29

30

Salaries paid

30

Riding and lesson

fees billed

$ 10,000

+ $ 10,000
$

800

800

+ $ 10,000

800

+ $ 10,000

3,000

3,000

3,000

800

1,000

(600)

3,000

400

+ $ 10,000

400

$ 40,000

$ 40,000 =

800

$ 40,000

(700)
$

3,000

$ 40,000 =

800

$ 40,000

+ $ 10,000

$ 40,000

800

$ 40,000

+ $ 10,000

2,800
$ 7,500

+ $ 10,000

(700)
$ 7,500

$ (2,000)
3,000

$ 40,000
$ 8,200

$ (1,200)
(800)

(600)
$ 8,200

Purchased land by
borrowing

Stockholders Equity
Capital +
Retained
Stock
Earnings

$ (1,200)

$ 8,800
8

Notes
Payable

5,800

(300)

2,800
$

2,500

b)
GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATE
Income Statement
For the Month Ended 2010 June 30
Revenues:
Horse boarding fees revenue

Riding and lesson fee revenue

2,800

3,000

Total revenues

5,800

Expenses:
Rent expense

Feed expense

800

Salaries expense

700

Miscellaneous expense

600

Total expenses
Net income

1,200

3,300
$

2,500

c)
GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED
Statement of Retained Earnings
For the Month Ended 2010 June 30
Retained earnings, June 1
$ -0Add: Net income for June
2,500
Total
$ 2,500
Less: Dividends
-0Retained earnings, June 30
$ 2,500

p. 57 of 433

d)

Cash

GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATE

Balance Sheet
2010 June 30
Assets
$

Accounts receivable

7,500
5,800

Land

40,000

Total assets

53,300

Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

Liabilities:
Accounts payable

Noted payable

800
40,000

Total liabilities

40,800

Stockholders' equity:
Capital stock
Retained earnings
Total stockholders' equity
Total liabilities and stockholders' equity

$ 10,000
2,500
$

12,500

$53,300.00

2.17 Key terms

Accounting equation Assets = Equities; or Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders equity.
Accounts payable Amounts owed to suppliers for goods or services purchased on credit.
Accounts receivable Amounts due from customers for services already provided.
Assets Things of value owned by the business. Examples include cash, machines, and buildings.
To their owners, assets possess service potential or utility that can be measured and expressed in
money terms.
Balance sheet Financial statement that lists a companys assets, liabilities, and stockholders
equity (including dollar amounts) as of a specific moment in time. Also called a statement of
financial position.
Business entity concept (or accounting entity concept) The separate existence of the
business organization.
Capital stock The title given to an equity account showing the investment in a business
corporation by its stockholders.
Continuity See going-concern concept.
Corporation Business incorporated under the laws of one of the states and owned by a few
stockholders or by thousands of stockholders.
Cost Sacrifice made or the resources given up, measured in money terms, to acquire some
desired thing, such as a new truck (asset).
Dividend Payment (usually of cash) to the owners of a corporation; it is a distribution of
income to owners rather than an expense of doing business.
Entity A business unit that is deemed to have an existence separate and apart from its owners,
creditors, employees, customers, other interested parties, and other businesses, and for which
accounting records are maintained.
p. 58 of 433

Equities Broadly speaking, all claims to, or interests in, assets; includes liabilities and
stockholders equity.
Equity ratio A ratio found by dividing stockholders equity by total equities (or total assets).
Exchange-price (or cost) concept (principle) The objective money prices determined in
the exchange process are used to record most assets.
Expenses Costs incurred to produce revenues, measured by the assets surrendered or
consumed in serving customers.
Going-concern (continuity) concept The assumption by the accountant that unless strong
evidence exists to the contrary, a business entity will continue operations into the indefinite
future.
Income statement Financial statement that shows the revenues and expenses and reports the
profitability of a business organization for a stated period of time. Sometimes called an earnings
statement.
Liabilities Debts owed by a businessor creditors equity. Examples: notes payable, accounts
payable.
Manufacturing companies Companies that buy materials, convert them into products, and
then sell the products to other companies or to final customers.
Merchandising companies Companies that purchase goods ready for sale and sell them to
customers.
Money measurement concept Recording and reporting economic activity in a common
monetary unit of measure such as the dollar.
Net income Amount by which the revenues of a period exceed the expenses of the same period.
Net loss Amount by which the expenses of a period exceed the revenues of the same period.
Notes payable Amounts owed to parties who loan the company money after the owner signs a
written agreement (a note) for the company to repay each loan.
Partnership An unincorporated business owned by two or more persons associated as
partners.
Periodicity (time periods) concept An assumption that an entitys life can be meaningfully
subdivided into time periods (such as months or years) for purposes of reporting its economic
activities.
Profitability Ability to generate income. The income statement reflects a companys
profitability.
Retained earnings Accumulated net income less dividend distributions to stockholders.
Revenues Inflows of assets (such as cash) resulting from the sale of products or the rendering
of services to customers.
Service companies Companies (such as accounting firms, law firms, or dry cleaning
establishments) that perform services for a fee.
Single proprietorship An unincorporated business owned by an individual and often
managed by that individual.
Solvency Ability to pay debts as they become due. The balance sheet reflects a companys
solvency.
Source document Any written or printed evidence of a business transaction that describes the
essential facts of that transaction, such as receipts for cash paid or received.

p. 59 of 433

Statement of cash flows Financial statement showing cash inflows and outflows for a
company over a period of time.
Statement of retained earnings Financial statement used to explain the changes in retained
earnings that occurred between two balance sheet dates.
Stockholders equity The owners interest in a corporation.
Stockholders or shareholders Owners of a corporation; they buy shares of stock, which are
units of ownership, in the corporation.
Summary of transactions Teaching tool used in Chapter 1 to show the effects of transactions
on the accounting equation.
Transaction A business activity or event that causes a measurable change in the items in the
accounting equation, Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders equity.

2.18 Self-test
2.18.1

True-False

Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.

The three forms of business organizations are single proprietorship, partnership, and trust.
The three types of business activity are service, merchandising, and manufacturing.
The income statement shows the profitability of the company and is dated as of a particular date,
such as 2010 December 31.
The statement of retained earnings shows both the net income for the period and the beginning and
ending balances of retained earnings.
The balance sheet contains the same major headings as appear in the accounting equation.

2.18.2

Multiple-choice

Select the best answer for each of the following questions.

The ending balance in retained earnings is shown in the:
a. Income statement.
b. Statement of retained earnings.
c. Balance sheet.
d. Both (b) and (c).
Which of the following is not a correct form of the accounting equation?
a. Assets = Equities.
b. Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders equity.
c. Assets Liabilities = Stockholders equity.
d. Assets + Stockholders equity = Liabilities.

p. 60 of 433

Which of the following is not one of the five underlying assumptions or concepts mentioned in the
chapter?
a. Exchange-price concept.
b. Inflation accounting concept.
c. Business entity concept.
d. Going-concern concept.
When the stockholders invest cash in the business, what is the effect?
a. Liabilities increase and stockholders equity increases.
b. Both assets and liabilities increase.
c. Both assets and stockholders equity increase.
d. None of the above.
When services are performed on account, what is the effect?
a. Both cash and retained earnings decrease.
b. Both cash and retained earnings increase.
c. Both accounts receivable and retained earnings increase.
d. Accounts payable increases and retained earnings decreases.
Now turn to Answers to self-test at the end of your chapter to check your answers.

2.18.3

Questions
Accounting has often been called the language of business. In what respects would you
agree with this description? How might you argue that this description is deficient?

Define asset, liability, and stockholders equity.

How do liabilities and stockholders equity differ? How are they similar?

How do accounts payable and notes payable differ? How are they similar?

Define revenues. How are revenues measured?

Define expenses. How are expenses measured?

What is a balance sheet? On what aspect of a business does the balance sheet provide
information?

What is an income statement? On what aspect of a business does this statement provide
information?

What information does the statement of retained earnings provide?

Identify the three types of activities shown in a statement of cash flows.

What is a transaction? What use does the accountant make of transactions? Why?
p. 61 of 433

What is the accounting equation? Why must it always balance?

Give an example from your personal life that illustrates your use of accounting
information in reaching a decision.

You have been elected to the governing board of your church. At the first meeting you
attend, mention is made of building a new church. What accounting information would
the board need in deciding whether or not to go ahead?

A company purchased equipment for USD 2,000 cash. The vendor stated that the
equipment was worth USD 2,400. At what amount should the equipment be recorded?

What is meant by money measurement?

Of what significance is the exchange-price (or cost) concept? How is the cost to acquire
an asset determined?

What effect does the going-concern (continuity) concept have on the amounts at which
long-term assets are carried on the balance sheet?

Of what importance is the periodicity (time periods) concept to the preparation of

financial statements?

Describe a transaction that would:

Increase both an asset and capital stock.

Increase both an asset and a liability.

Increase one asset and decrease another asset.

Decrease both a liability and an asset.

Increase both an asset and retained earnings.

Decrease both an asset and retained earnings.

Increase a liability and decrease retained earnings.

Decrease both an asset and retained earnings.

Identify the causes of increases and decreases in stockholders equity

Real world question: Refer to the 2000 financial statements of The Limited in the
Annual Report Appendix at the back of the text. What were the net income or loss
amounts in the latest three years? Discuss the meaning of the changes after reading
managements discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations.

Real world question: Refer to the financial statements of The Limited in the Annual
Report Appendix. Has the solvency of the company improved from one year to the next?
Discuss.

p. 62 of 433

2.18.4

Exercises

Exercise A Match the descriptions in Column B with the appropriate terms in Column A.
Column A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Corporation.
Merchandising company.
Partnership.
Manufacturing company.
Service company.
Single proprietorship.

Column B
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

An unincorporated business owned by an individual.

The form of organization used by most large businesses.
Buys raw materials and converts them into finished products.
Buys goods in their finished form and sells them to
customers in that same form.
An unincorporated business with more than one owner.
Performs services for a fee.

Exercise B Assume that retained earnings increased by USD 3,600 from 2010 June 30, to 2011
June 30. A cash dividend of USD 300 was declared and paid during the year.
a. Compute the net income for the year.
b. Assume expenses for the year were USD 9,000. Compute the revenue for the year.
Exercise C On 2010 December 31, Perez Company had assets of USD 150,000, liabilities of USD
97,500, and capital stock of USD 30,000. During 2011, Perez earned revenues of USD 45,000 and
incurred expenses of USD 33,750. Dividends declared and paid amounted to USD 3,000.
a. Compute the companys retained earnings on 2010 December 31.
b. Compute the companys retained earnings on 2011 December 31.
Exercise D At the start of the year, a company had liabilities of USD 50,000 and capital stock of
USD 150,000. At the end of the year, retained earnings amounted to USD 135,000. Net income for the
year was USD 45,000, and USD 15,000 of dividends were declared and paid. Compute retained
earnings and total assets at the beginning of the year.
Exercise E For each of the following events, determine if it has an effect on the specific items (such
as cash) in the accounting equation. For the events that do have an effect, present an analysis of the
transaction showing its two sides or dual nature.
a. Purchased equipment for cash, USD 12,000.
b. Purchased a truck for USD 40,000, signed a note (with no interest) promising payment in 10
days.
c. Paid USD 1,600 for the current months utilities.
d. Paid for the truck purchased in (b).
e. Employed Mary Childers as a salesperson at USD 1,200 per month. She is to start

work

next

week.

p. 63 of 433

f. Signed an agreement with a bank in which the bank agreed to lend the company up to USD
200,000 any time within the next two years.
Exercise F Bradley Company, engaged in a courier service business, completed the following
selected transactions during July 2010:
a. Purchased office equipment on account.
b. Paid an account payable.
c. Earned service revenue on account.
d. Borrowed money by signing a note at the bank.
e. Paid salaries for month to employees.
f. Received cash on account from a charge customer.
g. Received gas and oil bill for month.
h. Purchased delivery truck for cash.
i. Declared and paid a cash dividend.
Using a tabular form similar to Exhibit 4 (Part A), indicate the effect of each transaction on the
accounting equation using (+) for increase and () for decrease. No dollar amounts are needed, and
you need not fill in the Explanation column.
Exercise G Indicate the amount of change (if any) in the stockholders equity balance based on
each of the following transactions:
a. The stockholders invested USD 100,000 cash in the business by purchasing capital stock.
b. Land costing USD 40,000 was purchased by paying cash.
c. The company performed services for a customer who agreed to pay USD 18,000 in one month.
d. Paid salaries for the month, USD 12,000.
e. Paid USD 14,000 on an account payable.
Exercise H Give examples of transactions that would have the following effects on the items in a
firms financial statements:
a. Increase cash; decrease some other asset.
b. Decrease cash; increase some other asset.
c. Increase an asset; increase a liability.
d. Decrease retained earnings; decrease an asset.
e. Increase an asset other than cash; increase retained earnings.
f. Decrease an asset; decrease a liability.
Exercise I Which of the following transactions results in a decrease in retained earnings? Why?
a. Employees were paid USD 20,000 for services received during the month.
p. 64 of 433

b. USD 175,000 was paid to acquire land.

c. Paid an USD 18,000 note payable. No interest was involved.
d. Paid a USD 200 account payable.
Exercise J Assume that the following items were included in the Retained Earnings column in the
summary of transactions for Cinck Company for July 2010:
Salaries expense
Service revenue
Gas and oil expense
Rent expense
Dividends paid

$120,000
300,000
27,000
48,000
40,000

Prepare an income statement for July 2010.

Exercise K Given the following facts, prepare a statement of retained earnings for Brindle
Company, a tanning salon, for August 2010:
Balance in retained earnings at end of July, USD 188,000.
Dividends paid in August, USD 63,600.
Net income for August, USD 72,000.
The column totals of a summary of transactions for Speedy Printer Repair, Inc., as of 2010
December 31, were as follows:
Accounts payable
Accounts receivable
Capital stock
Cash
Land
Building
Equipment
Notes payable
Retained earnings

$60,000
90,000
100,000
40,000
80,000
50,000
30,000
20,000
?

Prepare a balance sheet. We have purposely listed the accounts out of order.
Exercise M Merck & Co., Inc. is a world leader in the discovery, development, manufacture and
marketing of a broad range of human and animal health products. The company, which has 70,000
employees, spends over USD 2 billion every year on the research and development of new drugs. As of
the end of 2, its 2.2 billion shares are valued in the stock market for a total of USD 132 billion. Given
the following data for Merck, calculate the equity ratios for 2003 and 2002. Then comment on the
results.
2003

2002

Stockholders' equity

USD 14,832,400,000

USD 13,241,600,000

Total equities

USD 39,910,400,000

USD 35,634,900,000

p. 65 of 433

2.18.5

Problems

Problem A Lakewood Personal Finance Company, which provides financial advisory services,
engaged in the following transactions during May 2010:
May 1Received USD 300,000 cash for shares of capital stock issued when company was organized.
2 The company borrowed USD 40,000 from the bank on a note.
7 The company bought USD 182,400 of computer equipment for cash.
11 Cash received for services performed to date was USD 15,200.
14 Services performed for a customer who agreed to pay within a month were USD 10,000.
15 Employee wages were paid, USD 13,200.
19 The company paid USD 14,000 on the note to the bank.
31 Interest paid to the bank for May was USD 140. (Interest is an expense, which reduces retained
earnings.)
31 The customer of May 14 paid USD 3,200 of the amount owed to the company.
31 An order was received from a customer for services to be rendered next week, which will be
billed at USD 12,000.
Prepare a summary of transactions (see Part A of Exhibit 4). Use money columns headed Cash,
Accounts Receivable, Equipment, Notes Payable, Capital Stock, and Retained Earnings. Determine
balances after each transaction to show that the accounting equation balances.
Problem B Reliable Lawn Care Service, Inc., a company that takes care of lawns and shrubbery of
personal residences, engaged in the following transactions in April 2010:
Apr.1 The company was organized and received USD 400,000 cash from the owners in exchange for
capital stock issued.
4 The company bought equipment for cash, USD 101,760.
9 The company bought additional mowing equipment that cost USD 9,120 and agreed to pay for it
in 30 days.
15 Cash received for services performed to date was USD 3,840.
16 Amount due from a customer for services performed totaled USD 5,280.
30 Of the receivable (see April 16), USD 3,072 was collected in cash.
30 Miscellaneous operating expenses of USD 6,240 were paid during the month.
30 An order was placed for miscellaneous equipment costing USD 28,800.
a. Prepare a summary of transactions (see Part A of Exhibit 4). Use money columns headed Cash,
Accounts Receivable, Equipment, Accounts Payable, Capital Stock, and Retained Earnings. Determine
balances after each transaction to show that the basic accounting equation balances.
p. 66 of 433

b. Prepare a balance sheet as of April 30.

Problem C Analysis of the transactions of the Moonlight Drive-In Theater for June 2010 disclosed
the following:
Ticket revenue

USD 180000

Equipment rent expense

50000

Film rent expense

53400

Concession revenue

29600

Advertising expense

18600

Salaries expense

60000

Utilities expense

14100

Cash dividends declared and paid

12000

Balance sheet amounts at June 30 include the following:

Cash

USD 140,000

Land

148000

Accounts payable

87600

Capital stock

114000

Retained earnings as of 2010 June 1

84900

a. Prepare an income statement for June 2010.

b. Prepare a statement of retained earnings for June 2010.
c. Prepare a balance sheet as of 2010 June 30.
d. How solvent does this company appear to be?

p. 67 of 433

Problem D Little Folks Baseball, Inc., was formed by a group of parents to meet a need for a place
for kids to play baseball. At the beginning of its second year of operations, its balance sheet appeared as
follows:
LITTLE FOLKS BASEBALL
Balance Sheet 2010 April 30
Assets
Cash

Accounts Receivable

80,000

56,000

Land

600,000

Total assets

736,000

64,000

Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

Liabilities:
Accounts payable
Stockholders' Equity:
Capital stock
Retained earnings
Total liabilities and stockholders' equity

$ 400,000
272,000
672,000
$ 736,000

The summarized transactions for May 2010 are as follows:

a. Issued additional capital stock for cash, USD 200,000.
b. Collected USD 80,000 on accounts receivable.
c. Paid USD 64,000 on accounts payable.
d. Received membership fees from parents (nonrefundable): in cash, USD 260,000; and on
account, USD 120,000.
e. Incurred operating expenses: for cash, USD 60,000; and on account, USD 160,000.
f. Paid dividends of USD 16,000.
g. Purchased more land for cash, USD 96,000.
h. Placed an order for new equipment expected to cost USD 120,000.
a. Prepare a summary of transactions (see Part A of Exhibit 4) using column headings as given in
the balance sheet. Determine balances after each transaction.
b. Prepare an income statement for May 2010.
c. Prepare a statement of retained earnings for May 2010.
d. Prepare a balance sheet as of 2010 May 31.
The balance sheets for 2010 May 31, and 2010 April 30, and the income statement for May of the
Target-Line Golf Driving Range follow. (Common practice is to show the most recent period first.)

p. 68 of 433

TARGET-LINE GOLF DRIVING RANGE

Comparative Balance Sheet
May 31, April 30,
2010

2010

Assets
Cash
Land
Total assets
Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity
Accounts payable
Capital stock
Retained earnings
Total liabilities and stockholders' equity
TARGET-LINE GOLF DRIVING RANGE
Income Statement
For the Month Ended 2010 May 31
Revenues:

$56,400 $46,800
163,200 144,000
$219,600 $190,800
$18,000 $27,600
144,000 144,000
57,600
19,200
$219,600 $190,800

Service revenue

$64,000

Expenses:
Salaries expense
Equipment rental expense
Net income

$16,000
9,600

25,600
$38,400

All revenues earned are on account.

State the probable cause(s) of the change in each of the balance sheet accounts from April 30 to
2010 May 31.

2.18.6

Alternate problems

Alternate problem A Preston Auto Paint Company had the temporary free use of an old building
and completed the following transactions in September 2010:
Sept. 1 The company was organized and received USD 100,000 cash from the issuance of capital
stock.
5 The company bought painting and sanding equipment for cash at a cost of USD 25,000.
7 The company painted the auto fleet of a customer who agreed to pay USD 8,000 in one week.
The customer furnished the special paint.
14 The company received the USD 8,000 from the transaction of September 7.
20 Additional sanding equipment that cost USD 2,800 was acquired today; payment was postponed
until September 28.
28 USD 2,400 was paid on the liability incurred on September 20.
30 Employee salaries for the month, USD 2,200, were paid.
30 Placed an order for additional painting equipment advertised at USD 20,000.
Prepare a summary of transactions (see Part A of Exhibit 4) for the company for these transactions.
Use money columns headed Cash, Accounts Receivable, Equipment, Accounts Payable, Capital Stock,
p. 69 of 433

and Retained Earnings. Determine balances after each transaction to show that the basic accounting
equation balances.
Alternate problem B Quick-Start Home Repair Company completed the following transactions
in June 2010:
June 1 The company was organized and received USD 200,000 cash from the issuance of capital
stock.
4 The company paid USD 48,000 cash for a truck.
7 The company borrowed USD 10,000 from its bank on a note.
9 Cash received for repair services performed was USD 4,500.
12 Expenses of operating the business so far this month were paid in cash, USD 3,400.
18 Repair services performed for a customer who agreed to pay within a month amounted to USD
5,400.
25 The company paid USD 4,065 on its loan from the bank, including USD 4,050 of principal and
USD 15 of interest. (The principal is the amount of the loan. Interest is an expense, which reduces
retained earnings.)
30 Miscellaneous expenses incurred in operating the business from June 13 to date were USD 3,825
and were paid in cash.
30 An order (contract) was received from a customer for repair services to be performed tomorrow,
which will be billed at USD 3,000.
a. Prepare a summary of transactions (see Part A of Exhibit 4). Include money columns for Cash,
Accounts Receivable, Trucks, Notes Payable, Capital Stock, and Retained Earnings. Determine
balances after each transaction to show that the basic accounting equation balances.
b. Prepare a balance sheet as of 2010 June 30.
Alternate problem C Following are summarized transaction data for Luxury Apartments, Inc.,
for the year ending 2010 June 30. The company owns and operates an apartment building.

p. 70 of 433

Rent revenue from building owned

USD 150,000

Building repairs

2870

Building cleaning, labor cost

3185

Property taxes on the building

4000

Insurance on the building

1225

Commissions paid to rental agent

5000

Legal and accounting fees (for preparation of

1260

tenant leases)
Utilities expense

8225

Cost of new awnings (installed on June 30, will

5000

last 10 years)
Of the USD 150,000 rent revenue, USD 5,000 was not collected in cash until 2010 July 5.
Prepare an income statement for the year ended 2010 June 30.
Alternate problem D The following data are for Central District Parking Corporation:
CENTRAL DISTRICT PARKING CORPORATION
Balance Sheet
2010 October 1
Assets
Cash
Accounts Receivable
Total assets

$
344,00
0
18,000
$
362,00
0

Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

Accounts payable
Capital stock
Retained earnings
Total liabilities and stockholders' equity

$
94,000
232,00
0
36,000
$
362,00
0

The summarized transactions for October 2010 are as follows:

p. 71 of 433

Oct.1 The accounts payable owed as of September 30 (USD 94,000) were paid.
1 The company paid rent for the premises for October, USD 19,200.
7 The company received cash of USD 4,200 for parking by daily customers during the week.
10 The company collected USD 14,400 of the accounts receivable in the balance sheet at September
30.
14 Cash receipts for the week from daily customers were USD 6,600.
15 Parking revenue earned but not yet collected from fleet customers was USD 6,000.
16 The company paid salaries of USD 2,400 for the period October 115.
19 The company paid advertising expenses of USD 1,200 for October.
21 Cash receipts for the week from daily customers were USD 7,200.
24 The company incurred miscellaneous expenses of USD 840. Payment will be due November 10.
31 Cash receipts for the last 10 days of the month from daily customers were USD 8,400.
31 The company paid salaries of USD 3,000 for the period October 1631.
31 Billings to monthly customers totaled USD 21,600 for October.
31 Paid cash dividends of USD 24,000.
a. Prepare a summary of transactions (see Part A of Exhibit 4) using column headings as given in
the preceding balance sheet. Determine balances after each transaction.
b. Prepare an income statement for October 2010.
c. Prepare a statement of retained earnings for October 2010.
d. Prepare a balance sheet as of 2010 October 31.
Alternate problem E The following balance sheets for 2010 June 30, and 2010 May 31, and the
income statement for June are for Beach Camping Trailer Storage, Inc. (Common practice is to show
the most recent period first.)
BEACH CAMPING TRAILER STOR AGE, INC
Comparative Balance Sheet
June 30,
2010

May 31,
2010

Assets
Cash
$ 52,000
Accounts receivable
24,000
Land
36,000
Total assets
$
112,000
Liabilities and Stockholders'
Equity
Accounts payable
$
18,000
Capital stock
60,000
Retained earnings
34,000
Total liabilities and stockholders' equity
$ 112,000
BEACH CAMPING TRAILER STORAGE, INC. ,
Income Statement For the Month Ended 2010 June 3
Revenues:

$
$
$
$

60,000
-036,000
96,000
24,000
60,000
12,000
96,000

p. 72 of 433

Service revenue

100,000

72,000
28,000

Expenses:
Salaries expense
Supplies bought and used
Net income

48,000
24,000

A cash dividend of USD 6,000 was declared and paid in June.

State the probable causes of the changes in each of the balance sheet accounts from May 31 to 2010
June 30.

2.18.7

Beyond the numberscritical thinking

Business decision case A Upon graduation from high school, Jim Crane went to work for a
builder of houses and small apartment buildings. During the next six years, Crane earned a reputation
as an excellent employeehardworking, dedicated, and dependablein the light construction industry.
He could handle almost any job requiring carpentry, electrical, or plumbing skills.
Crane then decided to go into business for himself under the name Jims Fix-It Shop, Inc. He
invested cash, some power tools, and a used truck in his business. He completed many repair and
remodeling jobs for homeowners and apartment owners. The demand for his services was so large that
he had more work than he could handle. He operated out of his garage, which he had converted into a
shop, adding several new pieces of power woodworking equipment.
Now, two years after going into business for himself, Crane must decide whether to continue in his
own business or to accept a position as construction supervisor for a home builder. He has been offered
an annual salary of USD 50,000 and a package of fringe benefits (medical and hospitalization
insurance, pension contribution, vacation and sick pay, and life insurance) worth approximately USD
8,000 per year. The offer is attractive to Crane. But he dislikes giving up his business since he has
thoroughly enjoyed being his own boss, even though it has led to an average workweek well in excess of
the standard 40 hours
Suppose Crane comes to you for assistance in gathering the information needed to help him make a
decision. He brings along the accounting records that have been maintained for his business by an
experienced accountant. Using logic and your own life experiences, indicate the nature of the
information Jim needs if he is to make an informed decision. Pay particular attention to the
information likely to be found in his business accounting records. Does the accounting information
available enter directly into the decision? Write a memorandum to Jim describing the information he
will need to make an informed decision. The memos headings should include Date, To, From, and
Subject. (See the format in Group Project E below.)

p. 73 of 433

Annual report analysis B Recall that in this chapter we showed that the equity ratio is calculated
by dividing stockholders equity by total equities (or total assets). Another format for analyzing
solvency is to divide total debt by total equities. This latter calculation tells the proportion of assets
financed by debt rather than the proportion of assets financed by stockholders equity. These two ratios
are complements and must add to 100 per cent. Thus, if 25 per cent of assets were financed by debt, 75
per cent were financed by stockholders equity.
Using the following historical data from Gateway, calculate the total-debt-to total-capital ratio for
each year.

Total
liabilities

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

USD

USD

USD

USD

USD

USD

USD

857,870

568,492

394,545

1,772,205

1,937,570

1,546,005

1,109,337

(000's)
Total

2380339

2017118

1344375

930044

815541

555519

376035

stockholder
s equity
Study these amounts and comment on the solvency of the company. Is there a trend in the
companys solvency over time? Gateway has experienced tremendous growth in stockholders equity
during the past six years, but has also increased liabilities significantly. Could Gateway have grown this
much without increasing liabilities?
Annual report analysis C Look at The Limited, Inc., annual report in the Annual report
appendix. In that report you will find a letter outlining Managements responsibilities concerning the
financial statements, as well as the report of the independent auditors.
Write answers to the following questions:
Who is responsible for preparing the financial statements?
Of what importance is the internal audit?
What is the role of the audit committee?
Why are no officers or employees on the audit committee?
What is the responsibility of the external independent auditor?

Does the independent auditor have absolute assurance that the financial statements are free of
material misstatement?

p. 74 of 433

To what extent does the independent auditor examine evidence?

Ethics case- writing experience D Refer to An ethical perspective: State university. Write a
short essay discussing the alternatives James Stevens could pursue and the likely outcomes of those
alternatives. Which of the alternatives you have discussed would you recommend?
Group project E In teams of two or three students, interview a businessperson in your
community. Ask how that person uses accounting information in making business decisions and obtain
specific examples. Each team should write a memorandum to the instructor summarizing the results of
the interview. Information contained in the memo should include:
Date:
To:
From:
Subject:
Content of the memo must include the name and title of the person interviewed, name of the
company, date of the interview, examples of the use of accounting information for decision
making, and any other pertinent information.
Group project F With a team composed of one or two other students, conceive of a business that
you would like to form after graduation. Then describe approximately 1520 transactions that the
business might undertake in its first month of operations. Prepare a summary of transactions showing
how each transaction affects the accounting equation. Identify each asset, liability, and stockholders
equity item in your summary of transactions. For instance, instead of grouping all assets in one
number, show cash, accounts receivable, and so on in your accounting equation.
Group project G With a team of one or two other students and using library sources, write a
paper on the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, their services to members, and their
activities. Be careful to cite sources for your information. Direct quotes should be labeled as such and
should be single-spaced and indented if relatively long or in quote marks and not indented if relatively
short. To quote without giving the source is plagiarism and should be avoided at all costs.

2.18.8

Using the InternetA view of the real world

Visit the following website for Nokia:

http://www.nokia.com
Write a short paper describing company information, products and services, and support available
for their products.
Visit the following website for Ford Motor Company:
p. 75 of 433

http://www.ford.com
When the web page appears, search for Investor Information and then locate the Ford Motor
Company Annual Report. Based on your investigation, write a short paper describing the general
content of the annual report.

2.18.9
2.18.9.1

Answers to self-test
True-False

False. Corporation, not trust, is the third form.

True. The accounting for all three of these is covered in this text.
False. The income statement is dated using a period of time, such as For the Year Ended
2010 December 31.
True. In addition, the statement of retained earnings shows dividends declared.
True. Both show assets, liabilities, and stockholders equity.

2.18.9.2

Multiple-choice

d. The ending balance in retained earnings is shown in both the statement of retained earnings
and in the balance sheet.
d. This form of the equation would not balance.
b. The inflation accounting concept was not one of the ones discussed. The other two were the
money measurement concept and the periodicity concept.
c. When the stockholders invest cash, assets and stockholders equity increase.
c. The performance of services on account increases both accounts receivable and retained
earnings.

p. 76 of 433

3 Recording business transactions

3.1 Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Use the account as the basic classifying and storage unit for accounting information.

Express the effects of business transactions in terms of debits and credits to different types of

accounts.

List the steps in the accounting cycle.

Record the effects of business transactions in a journal.

Post journal entries to the accounts in the ledger.

Prepare a trial balance to test the equality of debits and credits in the journalizing and

posting process.

Analyze and use the financial resultshorizontal and vertical analyses.

3.2 Salary potential of accountants

Selecting a major represents much more than the choice of courses a student takes in college. To a
significant degree, the student's major, along with academic performance, will determine the career
paths available upon graduation. Few professionals would recommend a specific career choice based
solely on salaries. However, as students select their major and map out their career path, it is
important that they make informed decisions with respect to the potential financial rewards of the
various options. Outlined below is information on selected salaries for many accounting-related
careers. These salaries, current as of 2009, should be viewed only as guidelines. Salaries at all levels
can vary significantly between locations. Also, one should add 10 to 15 per cent to the listed salary for
professional certifications (such as the CPA) or for a graduate degree (Masters of Accounting or MBA).

p. 77 of 433

Salaries for Public Accounting, Non-Partners

Position
Large CPA Firms:
Starting Salaries
Salary between 1-3 years
Manager/Director
Small CPA Firms:

Salary Range
$35,750 - $42,500
$41,000 - $51,250
$77,750 - $119,000

Starting Salaries
Salary between 1-3 years
Manager/Director

$29,500 - $36,250
$33,750 - $42,500
$62,750 - $84,500

Salaries for Corporate Accounting

- Large Corporations

Position
Chief Financial Officer/Treasurer
Vice President, Finance
Director of Finance
Director of Accounting
Controller
Assistant Controller
Tax Director
Tax Manager
Audit Director
General Accounting - Manager
General Accounting - 1-3 years experience
General Accounting - starting salary

Salary Range
$244,500 - $347,000
$189,000 - $293,500
$121,500 - $178,250
$115,250 - $157,500
$105,750 - $147,250
$89,750 - $114,750
$117,000 - $209,750
$78,000 - $113,750
$127,750 - $200,750
$61,250 - $83,250
$37,500 - $48,750
$31,750 - $39,750

Students interested in a career in accounting and finance can find detailed information for these
and many other accounting related careers at Robert Half (www.roberthalf.com). Also, accounting
professors are generally familiar with starting salaries and job opportunities for accounting graduates,
so you may want to address more specific questions about potential careers and salaries with them.
In Chapter 1, we illustrated the income statement, statement of retained earnings, balance sheet,
and statement of cash flows. These statements are the end products of the financial accounting process,
which is based on the accounting equation. The financial accounting process quantifies past
management decisions. The results of these decisions are communicated to usersmanagement,
creditors, and investorsand serve as a basis for making future decisions.
The raw data of accounting are the business transactions. We recorded the transactions in Chapter 1
as increases or decreases in the assets, liabilities, and stockholders' equity items of the accounting
equation. This procedure showed you how various transactions affected the accounting equation.
When working through these sample transactions, you probably suspected that listing all transactions
as increases or decreases in the transactions summary columns would be too cumbersome in practice.
Most businesses, even small ones, enter into many transactions every day. Chapter 2 teaches you how
to actually record business transactions in the accounting process.
To explain the dual procedure of recording business transactions with debits and credits, we
introduce you to some new tools: the T-account, the journal, and the ledger. Using these tools, you can
follow a company through its various business transactions. Like accountants, you can use a trial
balance to check the equality of your recorded debits and credits. This is the double-entry accounting
p. 78 of 433

system that the Franciscan monk, Luca Pacioli, described centuries ago. Understanding this system
enables you to better understand the content of financial statements so you can use the information
provided to make informed business decisions.

3.3 The account and rules of debit and credit

A business may engage in thousands of transactions during a year. An accountant classifies and
summarizes the data in these transactions to create useful information.
Steps in recording business transactions
Look at Exhibit 5 to see the steps in recording and posting the effects of a business transaction. Note
that source documents provide the evidence that a business transaction occurred. These source
documents include such items as bills received from suppliers for goods or services received, bills sent
to customers for goods sold or services performed, and cash register tapes. The information in the
source document serves as the basis for preparing a journal entry. Then a firm posts (transfers) that
information to accounts in the ledger.
You can see from Exhibit 5 that after you prepare the journal entry, you post it to the accounts in
the ledger. However, before you can record the journal entry, you must understand the rules of debit
and credit. To teach you these rules, we begin by studying the nature of an account.
Fortunately, most business transactions are repetitive. This makes the task of accountants
somewhat easier because they can classify the transactions into groups having common characteristics.
For example, a company may have thousands of receipts or payments of cash during a year. As a result,
a part of every cash transaction can be recorded and summarized in a single place called an account.
An account is a part of the accounting system used to classify and summarize the increases,
decreases, and balances of each asset, liability, stockholders' equity item, dividend, revenue, and
expense. Firms set up accounts for each different business element, such as cash, accounts receivable,
and accounts payable. Every business has a Cash account in its accounting system because knowledge
of the amount of cash on hand is useful information.
Accountants may differ on the account title (or name) they give the same item. For example, one
accountant might name an account Notes Payable and another might call it Loans Payable. Both
account titles refer to the amounts borrowed by the company. The account title should be logical to
help the accountant group similar transactions into the same account. Once you give an account a title,
you must use that same title throughout the accounting records.
The number of accounts in a company's accounting system depends on the information needs of
those interested in the business. The main requirement is that each account provides information
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useful in making decisions. Thus, one account may be set up for all cash rather than having a separate
account for each form of cash (coins on hand, currency on hand, and deposits in banks). The amount of
cash is useful information; the form of cash often is not.
To illustrate recording the increases and decreases in an account, texts use the T-account, which
looks like a capital letter T. The name of the account, such as Cash, appears across the top of the T. We
record increases on one side of the vertical line of the T and decreases on the other side. A T-account
appears as follows:

An accounting perspective: Business insight

Have you ever considered starting your own business? If so, you will need to
understand accounting to successfully run your business. To know how well your
business is doing, you must understand and analyze financial statements. Accounting
information also tells you why you are performing as reported. If you are in business
to sell or develop a certain product or perform a specific service, you cannot operate
profitably or consider expanding unless you base your business decisions on
accounting information.

Exhibit 5: The steps in recording and posting the effects of a business transaction
In Chapter 1, you saw that each business transaction affects at least two items. For example, if you
an ownerinvest cash in your business, the company's assets increase and its stockholders' equity
increases. This result was illustrated in the summary of transactions in Exhibit 1.3. In the following

p. 80 of 433

sections, we use debits and credits and the double-entry procedure to record the increases and
decreases caused by business transactions.
Accountants use the term debit instead of saying, "Place an entry on the left side of the T-account".
They use the term credit for "Place an entry on the right side of the T-account". Debit (abbreviated
Dr.) simply means left side; credit (abbreviated Cr.) means right side. 1 Thus, for all accounts a debit
entry is an entry on the left side, while a credit entry is an entry on the right side.
Any Account
Left, or
debit, side

Right, or
credit, side

After recognizing a business event as a business transaction, we analyze it to determine its increase
or decrease effects on the assets, liabilities, stockholders' equity items, dividends, revenues, or
expenses of the business. Then we translate these increase or decrease effects into debits and credits.
In each business transaction we record, the total dollar amount of debits must equal the total dollar
amount of credits. When we debit one account (or accounts) for USD 100, we must credit another
account (or accounts) for a total of USD 100. The accounting requirement that each transaction be
recorded by an entry that has equal debits and credits is called double-entry procedure, or duality.
This double-entry procedure keeps the accounting equation in balance.
The dual recording process produces two sets of accountsthose with debit balances and those with
credit balances. The totals of these two groups of accounts must be equal. Then, some assurance exists
that the arithmetic part of the transaction recording process has been properly carried out. Now, let us
actually record business transactions in T-accounts using debits and credits.

3.4 Recording changes in assets, liabilities, and stockholders'

equity
While recording business transactions, remember that the foundation of the accounting process is
the following basic accounting equation:
Assets =Liabilities+Stockholders ' Equity

Recording transactions into the T-accounts is easier when you focus on the equal sign in the
accounting equation. Assets, which are on the left of the equal sign, increase on the left side of the Taccounts. Liabilities and stockholders' equity, to the right of the equal sign, increase on the right side of
the T-accounts. You already know that the left side of the T-account is the debit side and the right side

1The abbreviations Dr. and Cr. are based on the Latin words debere and credere. A synonym
for debit an account is charge an account.
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is the credit side. So you should be able to fill in the rest of the rules of increases and decreases by
deduction, such as:
Assets
Debit for
increases

=
Credit for
decreases

Liabilities
Debit for
decreases

Credit for
increases

+ Stockholders' Equity
Debit for
Credit for
decreases
increases

To summarize:
Assets increase by debits (left side) to the T-account and decrease by credits (right side) to the T-

account.
Liabilities and stockholders' equity decrease by debits (left side) to the T-account and increase

by credits (right side) to the T-account.

Applying these two rules keeps the accounting equation in balance. Now we apply the debit and
credit rules for assets, liabilities, and stockholders' equity to business transactions.
Assume a corporation issues shares of its capital stock for USD 10,000 in transaction 1. (Note the
figure in parentheses is the number of the transaction and ties the two sides of the transaction
together.) The company records the receipt of USD 10,000 as follows:
(Dr.)
(1)

Cash
10,000

(Cr)

(Dr.)

Capital Stock
(1)

(Cr
10,000

This transaction increases the asset, cash, which is recorded on the left side of the Cash account.
Then, the transaction increases stockholders' equity, which is recorded on the right side of the Capital
Stock account.
Assume the company borrowed USD 5,000 from a bank on a note (transaction 2). A note is an
unconditional written promise to pay to another party (the bank) the amount owed either when
demanded or at a specified date, usually with interest at a specified rate. The firm records this
transaction as follows:
(Dr.)

Cash

(1)

(Cr)

(Dr.)

Notes Payable
(2)

(Cr)
5,000

(2)

10,000
5,000

Observe that liabilities, Notes Payable, increase with an entry on the right (credit) side of the
account.
Recording changes in revenues and expenses In Chapter 1, we recorded the revenues and
expenses directly in the Retained Earnings account. However, this is not done in practice because of
the volume of revenue and expense transactions. Instead, businesses treat the expense accounts as if
they were subclassifications of the debit side of the Retained Earnings account, and the revenue
accounts as if they were subclassifications of the credit side. Since firms need the amounts of revenues

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and expenses to prepare the income statement, they keep a separate account for each type of revenue
and expense. The recording rules for revenues and expenses are:
Record increases in revenues on the right (credit) side of the T-account and decreases on the

left (debit) side. The reasoning behind this rule is that revenues increase retained earnings, and
increases in retained earnings are recorded on the right side.
Record increases in expenses on the left (debit) side of the T-account and decreases on the

right (credit) side. The reasoning behind this rule is that expenses decrease retained earnings,
and decreases in retained earnings are recorded on the left side.
To illustrate these rules, assume the same company received USD 1,000 cash from a customer for
services rendered (transaction 3). The Cash account, an asset, increases on the left (debit) side of the Taccount; and the Service Revenue account, an increase in retained earnings, increases on the right
(credit) side.

(Dr.)

Cash

(1)

10,000

(2)

5,000

(3)

1,000

(Cr)

(Dr.)

Service Revenue
(3)

(Cr)
1,000

Now assume this company paid USD 600 in salaries to employees (transaction 4). The Cash
account, an asset, decreases on the right (credit) side of the T-account; and the Salaries Expense
account, a decrease in retained earnings, increases on the left (debit) side.2
(Dr)

Cash

(1)

10,000

(2)

5,000

(3)

1,000

(4)

(Cr)
600

(Dr.)
(4)

Salaries Expense
600

(Cr)

Recording changes in dividends Since dividends decrease retained earnings, increases appear on the left side of the
Dividends account and decreases on the right side. Thus, the firm records payment of a USD 2,000 cash dividend (transaction
5) as follows:
(Dr)

(Cr)

Cash

(1)

10,000

(4)

600

(2)

5,000

(5)

2,000

(3)

1,000

(Dr.)
(5)

Dividends3
2,000

(Cr)

2Certain deductions are normally taken out of employees' pay for social security taxes, federal and
state withholding, and so on. Those deductions are ignored here.
p. 83 of 433

At the end of the accounting period, the accountant transfers any balances in the expense, revenue,
and Dividends accounts to the Retained Earnings account. This transfer occurs only after the
information in the expense and revenue accounts has been used to prepare the income statement. We
discuss and illustrate this step in Chapter 4.
To determine the balance of any T-account, total the debits to the account, total the credits to the
account, and subtract the smaller sum from the larger. If the sum of the debits exceeds the sum of the
credits, the account has a debit balance. For example, the following Cash account uses information
from the preceding transactions. The account has a debit balance of USD 13,400, computed as total
debits of USD 16,000 less total credits of USD 2,600.
(Dr.)
(1)
(2)
(3)

Cash
10,000
5,000
1,000

(Cr)
600
2,000

(4)
(5)

16,000

Dr. bal

2,600

13,400

If, on the other hand, the sum of the credits exceeds the sum of the debits, the account has a credit
balance. For instance, assume that a company has an Accounts Payable account with a total of USD
10,000 in debits and USD 13,000 in credits. The account has a credit balance of USD 3,000, as shown
in the following T-account:
(Dr.)
10,000

Accounts Payable
7,000
6,000

10,000

(Cr)

13,000
Cr. bal

3,000

Normal balances Since debits increase asset, expense, and dividend accounts, they normally have
debit (or left-side) balances. Conversely, because credits increase liability, capital stock, retained
earnings, and revenue accounts, they normally have credit (or right-side) balances.
The following chart shows the normal balances of the seven accounts we have used:
Types of Accounts
Assets
Liabilities

Normal

Balances

Debit
X

Credit
X

3As we illustrate later in the text, some companies debt dividends directly to the Retained Earnings
account rather than to a Dividends account.
p. 84 of 433

Stockholders' Equity
Capital Stock

Retained earnings

Dividends

Expenses

Revenues

At this point, you should memorize the six rules of debit and credit. Later, as you proceed in your
study of accounting, the rules will become automatic. Then, you will no longer ask yourself, "Is this
increase a debit or credit?"
Asset accounts increase on the debit side, while liability and stockholders' equity accounts increase
on the credit side. When the account balances are totaled, they conform to the following independent
equations:
Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders' Equity
Debits = Credits
The arrangement of these two formulas gives the first three rules of debit and credit:
Increases in asset accounts are debits; decreases are credits.
Decreases in liability accounts are debits; increases are credits.
Decreases in stockholders' equity accounts are debits; increases are credits.
Assets

Liabilities

Stockholder's Equity

Stockholders' Equity Account(s)

Asset Accounts
Debit*
Credit

Liability Accounts
Debit
Credit*

+
Debit

(Capital Stock and Retained Earnings)

Credit*

Debit

Credit

Debit

Credit

Debit

+
Credit

for

for

for

for

for

for

increase

decrease

decrease

increase

decrease

increase

Expense Accounts
Debits

Credits

and Dividends Account

Revenue Accounts

1. Increase assets.

1.

Decreases assets.

Debit*

Credit

Debit

Credit*

2. Decrease liabilities.

Increase liabilities.

3. Decrease

3.

Increase

stockholders' equity.

Debit

Credit

Debit

Credit

stockholders' equity.
4. Decrease revenues.

4.

Increase revenues.

for

for

for

for

5. Increase expenses.

5.

Decrease expenses.

increase

decrease

decrease

increase

6. Increase dividends.

6.

Decrease dividends.

Exhibit 6: Rules of debit and credit

The debit and credit rules for expense and Dividends accounts and for revenue accounts follow
logically if you remember that expenses and dividends are decreases in stockholders' equity and
revenues are increases in stockholders' equity. Since stockholders' equity accounts decrease on the
p. 85 of 433

debit side, expense and Dividend accounts increase on the debit side. Since stockholders' equity
accounts increase on the credit side, revenue accounts increase on the credit side. The last three debit
and credit rules are:
Decreases in revenue accounts are debits; increases are credits.
Increases in expense accounts are debits; decreases are credits.
Increases in Dividends accounts are debits; decreases are credits.

In Exhibit 6, we depict these six rules of debit and credit. Note first the treatment of expense and
Dividends accounts as if they were subclassifications of the debit side of the Retained Earnings
account. Second, note the treatment of the revenue accounts as if they were subclassifications of the
credit side of the Retained Earnings account. Next, we discuss the accounting cycle and indicate where
steps in the accounting cycle are discussed in Chapters 2 through 4.

3.5 The accounting cycle

The accounting cycle is a series of steps performed during the accounting period (some
throughout the period and some at the end) to analyze, record, classify, summarize, and report useful
financial information for the purpose of preparing financial statements. Before you can visualize the
eight steps in the accounting cycle, you must be able to recognize a business transaction. Business
transactions are measurable events that affect the financial condition of a business. For example,
assume that the owner of a business spilled a pot of coffee in her office or broke her leg while skiing.
These two events may briefly interrupt the operation of the business. However, they are not
measurable in terms that affect the solvency and profitability of the business.
Business transactions can be the exchange of goods for cash between the business and an external
party, such as the sale of a book, or they can involve paying salaries to employees. These events have
one fundamental criterion: They must have caused a measurable change in the amounts in the
accounting equation, Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders' Equity. The evidence that a business event
has occurred is a source document such as a sales ticket, check, and so on. Source documents are
important because they are the ultimate proof of business transactions. 4
After you have determined that an event is a measurable business transaction and have adequate
proof of this transaction, mentally analyze the transaction's effects on the accounting equation. You

4Many companies send and receive source documents electronically, rather than on paper. In such
an electronic computer environment, source documents might exist only in the computer databases
of the two parties involved in the transaction.
p. 86 of 433

learned how to do this in Chapter 1. This chapter and Chapters 3 and 4 describe the other steps in the
accounting cycle. The eight steps in the accounting cycle and the chapters that discuss them are:
Analyze transactions by examining source documents (Chapters 1 and 2).
Journalize transactions in the journal (Chapter 2).
Post journal entries to the accounts in the ledger (Chapter 2).
Prepare a trial balance of the accounts (Chapter 2) and complete the work sheet (Chapter 4).

(This step includes adjusting entries from Chapter 3.)

Prepare financial statements (Chapter 4).
Journalize and post adjusting entries (Chapters 3 and 4).
Journalize and post closing entries (Chapter 4).
Prepare a post-closing trial balance (Chapter 4).

This listing serves as a preview of what you will study in Chapters 2-4. Notice that firms perform the
last five steps at the end of the accounting period. Step 5 precedes steps 6 and 7 because management
needs the financial statements at the earliest possible date. After the statements have been delivered to
management, the adjusting and closing entries can be journalized and posted. In Exhibit 7, we diagram
the eight steps in the accounting cycle.
You can perform many of these steps on a computer with an accounting software package. However,
you must understand a manual accounting system and all of the steps in the accounting cycle to
understand what the computer is doing. This understanding removes the mystery of what the
computer is doing when it takes in raw data and produces financial statements.

3.6 The journal

In explaining the rules of debit and credit, we recorded transactions directly in the accounts. Each
ledger (general ledger) account shows only the increases and decreases in that account. Thus, all the
effects of a single business transaction would not appear in any one account. For example, the Cash
account contains only data on changes in cash and does not show how the cash was generated or how it
was spent. To have a permanent record of an entire transaction, the accountant uses a book or record
known as a journal.
A journal is a chronological (arranged in order of time) record of business transactions. A journal
entry is the recording of a business transaction in the journal. A journal entry shows all the effects of a
business transaction as expressed in debit(s) and credit(s) and may include an explanation of the
transaction. A transaction is entered in a journal before it is entered in ledger accounts. Because each

p. 87 of 433

transaction is initially recorded in a journal rather than directly in the ledger, a journal is called a book
of original entry.
A business usually has more than one journal. Chapter 4 briefly describes several special journals.
In this chapter, we use the basic form of journal, the general journal. As shown in Exhibit 8, a general
journal contains the following columns:

Exhibit 7: Steps in the accounting cycle

p. 88 of 433

MICROTRAIN COMPANY General Journal

Date

Account Titles and Explanation

2010 Nov. 28

Cash (+A)

Post.
Ref.
100

Capital Stock (+SE)

300

Debit

Credit

5 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0

Stockholders invested $50,000 cash in business.

Exhibit 8: Journal entry

Date column. The first column on each journal page is for the date. For the first journal

entry on a page, this column contains the year, month, and day (number). For all other journal
entries on a page, this column contains only the day of the month, until the month changes.
Account titles and explanation column. The first line of an entry shows the account

debited. The second line shows the account credited. Notice that we indent the credit account
title to the right. For instance, in Exhibit 8 we show the debit to the Cash account and then the
credit to the Capital Stock account. Any necessary explanation of a transaction appears on the
line(s) below the credit entry and is indented halfway between the accounts debited and
credited. A journal entry explanation should be concise and yet complete enough to describe
fully the transaction and prove the entry's accuracy. When a journal entry is self-explanatory,
we omit the explanation.
Posting reference column. This column shows the account number of the debited or

credited account. For instance, in Exhibit 8, the number 100 in the first entry means that the
Cash account number is 100. No number appears in this column until the information has
been posted to the appropriate ledger account. We discuss posting later in the chapter.
Debit column. In the debit column, the amount of the debit is on the same line as the title

of the account debited.

Credit column. In the credit column, the amount of the credit is on the same line as the

title of the account credited.

An account perspective: Uses of technology

Preparing journal entries in a computerized system is different than in a manual
system. The computer normally asks for the number of the account to be debited. After
you type the account number, the computer shows the account title in its proper
position. The cursor then moves to the debit column and waits for you to enter the

p. 89 of 433

amount of the debit. Then it asks if there are more debits. If not, the computer
prompts you for the account number of the credit. After you type the account number,
the computer supplies the account name of the credit and enters the same amount
debited as the credit. When there is more than one credit, you can override the
amount and enter the correct amount. Then you would enter the other credit in the
same way. If your debits and credits are not equal, the computer warns you and makes
you correct the error. You can supply an explanation for the entry from a standard list
or type it in. As you enter the journal entries, the computer automatically posts them
to the ledger accounts. At any time, you can have the computer print a trial balance.
A summary of the functions and advantages of using a journal follows:
The journal
Records transactions in chronological order.
Shows the analysis of each transaction in debits and credits.
Supplies an explanation of each transaction when necessary.
Serves as a source for future reference to accounting transactions.
Eliminates the need for lengthy explanations from the accounts.
Makes possible posting to the ledger at convenient times.
Assists in maintaining the ledger in balance because the debit(s) must always equal the credit(s)

in each journal entry.

Aids in tracing errors when the ledger is not in balance.

3.7 The ledger

A ledger (general ledger) is the complete collection of all the accounts of a company. The ledger
may be in loose-leaf form, in a bound volume, or in computer memory.
Accounts fall into two general groups: (1) balance sheet accounts (assets, liabilities, and
stockholders' equity) and (2) income statement accounts (revenues and expenses). The terms real
accounts and permanent accounts also refer to balance sheet accounts. Balance sheet accounts are real
accounts because they are not subclassifications or subdivisions of any other account. They are
permanent accounts because their balances are not transferred (or closed) to any other account at
the end of the accounting period. Income statement accounts and the Dividends account are nominal
accounts because they are merely subclassifications of the stockholders' equity accounts. Nominal
literally means "in name only". Nominal accounts are also called temporary accounts because they
p. 90 of 433

temporarily contain revenue, expense, and dividend information that is transferred (or closed) to the
Retained Earnings account at the end of the accounting period.
The chart of accounts is a complete listing of the titles and numbers of all the accounts in the
ledger. The chart of accounts can be compared to a table of contents. The groups of accounts usually
appear in this order: assets, liabilities, stockholders' equity, dividends, revenues, and expenses.
Individual accounts are in sequence in the ledger. Each account typically has an identification
number and a title to help locate accounts when recording data. For example, a company might
number asset accounts, 100-199; liability accounts, 200-299; stockholders' equity accounts and
Dividends account, 300-399; revenue accounts, 400-499; and expense accounts, 500-599. We use this
numbering system in this text. The uniform chart of accounts used in the first 11 chapters appears in a
separate file at the end of the text. You should print that file and keep it handy for working certain
problems and exercises. Companies may use other numbering systems. For instance, sometimes a
company numbers its accounts in sequence starting with 1, 2, and so on. The important idea is that
companies use some numbering system.
Now that you understand how to record debits and credits in an account and how all accounts
together form a ledger, you are ready to study the accounting process in operation.

3.8 The accounting process in operation

MicroTrain Company is a small corporation that provides on-site personal computer software
training using the clients' equipment. The company offers beginning through advanced training with
convenient scheduling. A small fleet of trucks transports personnel and teaching supplies to the clients'
sites. The company rents a building and is responsible for paying the utilities.
We illustrate the capital stock transaction that occurred to form the company (in November) and
the first month of operations (December). The accounting process used by this company is similar to
that of any small company. The ledger accounts used by MicroTrain Company are:

p. 91 of 433

Acct. Account Title No.

Description

100

Cash

Bank deposits and cash on hand.

103

Accounts Receivable

Amounts owed to the company by customers.

107

Supplies on Hand

Items such as paper, envelopes, writing materials, and other

materials used in performing training services for customers or
in doing administrative
and clerical office work.

108

Prepaid Insurance

112

Prepaid Rent

150

Trucks

Insurance policy premiums paid in advance of the periods for

which the insurance coverage applies.
Rent paid in advance of the periods for which the rent
payment applies.
Trucks used to transport personnel and training supplies to
clients' locations.
Amounts owed to creditors for items purchased

Assets

200

Accounts Payable

Liabilities

216

Unearned Service Fees

Stockholders'
equity
Dividends
Revenues

300
310
320
400
505

Capital Stock Retained

Earnings
Dividends
Service Revenue
Advertising Expense

from them.
Amounts received from customers before the training services
have been performed for them.
The stockholders' investment in the business. The earnings
retained in the business.
The amount of dividends declared to stockholders.
Amounts earned by performing training services for customers.
The cost of advertising incurred in the current period.

506

Gas and Oil Expense

The cost of gas and oil used in trucks in the

507

Salaries Expense

The amount of salaries incurred in the current period.

511

Utilities Expense

The cost of utilities incurred in the current period.

Expenses

current period.

Notice the gaps left between account numbers (100, 103, 107, etc.). These gaps allow the firm to
later add new accounts between the existing accounts.
To begin, a transaction must be journalized. Journalizing is the process of entering the effects of a
transaction in a journal. Then, the information is transferred, or posted, to the proper accounts in the
ledger. Posting is the process of recording in the ledger accounts the information contained in the
journal. We explain posting in more detail later in the chapter.
In the following example, notice that each business transaction affects two or more accounts in the
ledger. Also note that the transaction date in both the general journal and the general ledger accounts
is the same. In the ledger accounts, the date used is the date that the transaction was recorded in the
general journal, even if the entry is not posted until several days later. Our example shows the journal
entries posted to T-accounts. In practice, firms post journal entries to ledger accounts, as we show later
in the chapter.
Accountants use the accrual basis of accounting. Under the accrual basis of accounting, they
recognize revenues when the company makes a sale or performs a service, regardless of when the
company receives the cash. They recognize expenses as incurred, whether or not the company has paid
out cash. Chapter 3 discusses the accrual basis of accounting in more detail.

p. 92 of 433

In the following MicroTrain Company example, transaction 1 increases (debits) Cash and increases
(credits) Capital Stock by USD 50,000. First, MicroTrain records the transaction in the general
journal; second, it posts the entry to the accounts in the general ledger.
Transaction 1:2010 Nov. 28 Stockholders invested $50,000 and formed MicroTrain Company.
General Journal
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Post. Debit
Ref.
2010 Nov. 28 Cash (+A)
100
5 0 0 0 0
Capital Stock (+SE)

300

Credit

5 0 0 0 0

Stockholders invested $50,000 cash in business.

General Ledger
Cash
(Dr.)

Capital Stock

Acct. No. 100

(Cr.)

Acct. No. 300

(Dr.)

2010
Nov. 28

(Cr.)
2010

50,000

Nov. 28

50,000

No other transactions occurred in November. The company prepares financial statements at the
end of each month. Exhibit 9 shows the company's balance sheet at 2010 November 30.
The balance sheet reflects ledger account balances as of the close of business on 2010 November 30.
These closing balances are the beginning balances on 2010 December 1. The ledger accounts show
these closing balances as beginning balances (Beg. bal.).
Now assume that in December 2010, MicroTrain Company engaged in the following transactions.
We show the proper recording of each transaction in the journal and then in the ledger accounts (in Taccount form), and describe the effects of each transaction.
MICROTRAIN COMPANY Balance Sheet 2010 November 30
Assets
Cash

Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

$50,000

Stockholders' equity:
Capital stock

Total Assets

$50,000

$50,000

Total liabilities and stockholders'

equity
$50,000

Exhibit 9: Balance sheet

p. 93 of 433

Transaction 2: Dec. 1 Paid cash for four small trucks, $40,000.

General Journal
Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

1

Trucks (+A)

Post.
Ref.
150

Cash (-A)

100

Debit

Credit

4 0 0 0 0 (A)
4 0 0 0 0 (B)

To record the purchase of four trucks.

General Ledger
Trucks

(Dr.)

Acct. No. 150

2010 Dec. 1

(A)40,000

(Cr.)

Cash

(Dr.)

Acct. No. 100

2010
Dec. 1 Beg. bal.

50,000

(Cr.)
2010 Dec.
1

(B)40,0

00
Transaction 3: Dec. 1 Paid cash for insurance on the trucks to cover a one-year period from this date.
General Journal
Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

1

Prepaid Insurance (+A)

Post.
Ref.
108

Cash (-A)

100

Debit

Credit
2 4 0 0
2 4 0 0

Purchased truck insurance to cover a one-year period.

General Ledger
Prepaid Insurance

(Dr)

Acct. No. 108

2010
Dec. 1

2,400

(Cr)

Cash

(Dr)

Acct. No. 100

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 1 Beg. Bal

50,000

40,000
2,40

2010
Dec. 1 Dec. 1

Effects of transaction
An asset, prepaid insurance, increases (debited); and an asset, cash, decreases (credited) by USD
2,400. The debit is to Prepaid Insurance rather than Insurance Expense because the policy covers
more than the current accounting period of December (insurance policies are usually paid one year in
advance). As you will see in Chapter 3, prepaid items are expensed as they are used. If this insurance

p. 94 of 433

policy was only written for December, the entire USD 2,400 debit would have been to Insurance
Expense.
Transaction 4: Dec. 1 Rented a building and paid $1,200 to cover a three-month period from this date.
General Journal
Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

1

Prepaid Rent (+A)

Post.
Ref.
112

Cash (-A)

100

Debit

Credit
1 2 0 0
1 2 0 0

Paid three months' rent on a building.

General Ledger
Prepaid Rent

(Dr.)
2010

Acct. No. 112

Dec. 1

1,200

(Cr)

Cash

(Dr.)
2010

Acct. No. 100

2010

(Cr.)

Dec. 1 Beg. Bal.

50,000

Dec. 1
Dec. 1

40,000
2,400

Dec. 1

1,200

Effects of transaction
An asset, prepaid rent, increases (debited); and another asset, cash, decreases (credited) by USD
1,200. The debit is to Prepaid Rent rather than Rent Expense because the payment covers more than
the current month. If the payment had just been for December, the debit would have been to Rent
Expense.

p. 95 of 433

Transaction 5: Dec. 4 Purchased $1,400 of training supplies on account to be used over the next several months.
General Journal
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Post. Debit
Credit
Ref.
Supplies on Hand (+A)
107
1 4 0 0
2010 Dec. 4
Accounts Payable (+L)

200

1 4 0 0

To record the purchases of training supplies for future use.

General Ledger
Supplies on Hand

(Dr.)

(Cr)

Acct. No. 107

2010
Dec. 4

1,400
Accounts Payable

(Dr.)

(Cr.)

Acct. No. 200

2010
Dec. 4

1,400

Effects of transaction
An asset, supplies on hand, increases (debited); and a liability, accounts payable, increases
(credited) by USD 1,400. The debit is to Supplies on Hand rather than Supplies Expense because the
supplies are to be used over several accounting periods.
In each of the three preceding entries, we debited an asset rather than an expense. The reason is
that the expenditure applies to (or benefits) more than just the current accounting period. Whenever a
company will not fully use up an item such as insurance, rent, or supplies in the period when
purchased, it usually debits an asset. In practice, however, sometimes the expense is initially debited in
these situations.
Companies sometimes buy items that they fully use up within the current accounting period. For
example, during the first part of the month a company may buy supplies that it intends to consume
fully during that month. If the company fully consumes the supplies during the period of purchase, the
best practice is to debit Supplies Expense at the time of purchase rather than Supplies on Hand. This
same advice applies to insurance and rent. If a company purchases insurance that it fully consumes
during the current period, the company should debit Insurance Expense at the time of purchase rather
than Prepaid Insurance. Also, if a company pays rent that applies only to the current period, Rent
Expense should be debited at the time of purchase rather than Prepaid Rent. As illustrated in Chapter
3, following this advice simplifies the procedures at the end of the accounting period.

p. 96 of 433

Transaction 6: Dec. 7 Received $4,500 from a customer in payment for future training services.
General Journal
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Post. Debit
Ref.
Cash (+A)
100
4 5 0 0
2010 Dec. 7
Unearned Service Fees (+L)

216

Credit

4 5 0 0

To record the receipt of cash from a customer in payment

for future training services.

(Dr.)

General Ledger
Cash
Acct. No. 100

2010

(Cr)
2010

Dec. 1

Beg Bal 50,000

Dec. 1

40,000

Dec. 7

4,500

Dec. 1

2,400

Dec. 1

1,200

Unearned Service Fees

(Dr.)

(Cr.)

Acct. No. 216

2010
Dec. 7

4,500

Effects of transaction
An asset, cash, increases (debited); and a liability, unearned service revenue, increases (credited) by
USD 4,500. The credit is to Unearned Service Fees rather than Service Revenue because the USD
4,500 applies to more than just the current accounting period. Unearned Service Fees is a liability
because, if the services are never performed, the USD 4,500 will have to be refunded. If the payment
had been for services to be provided in December, the credit would have been to Service Revenue.

p. 97 of 433

Transaction 7: Dec. 15 Performed training services for a customer for cash, $5,000.
General Journal
Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

15

Cash (+A)

Post.
Ref.
100

Service Revenue (+SE)

400

Debit

Credit
5 0 0 0
5 0 0 0

To record the receipt of cash for performing training

services for a customer.

General Ledger
Cash

(Dr.)

(Cr)

Acct. No. 100

2010

2010

Dec. 1 Beg Bal. 50,000

Dec. 1

40,000

Dec. 7

Dec. 1

2,400

Dec. 1

1,200

Dec. 15

4,500
5,000

Service Revenue

(Dr.)

(Cr.)

Acct. No. 400

2010
Dec. 15

5,000

Effects of transaction
An asset, cash, increases (debited); and a revenue, service revenue, increases (credited) by USD
5,000.
Transaction 8: Dec. 17 Paid the $1,400 account payable resulting from the transaction of December 4.
General Journal
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Post. Debit
Ref.
200
1 4 0 0
2010 Dec. 17 Accounts Payable (-L)
Cash (-A)

100

Credit

1 4 0 0

Paid the account payable arising from the purchase of

Supplies on December 4.
General Ledger
Accounts Payable

(Dr.)

Acct. No. 200

(Cr)

p. 98 of 433

2010
Dec.

2010
17

1,400

Dec. 4

1,400

Cash

(Dr.)

(Cr.)

Acct. No. 100

2010

2010

Dec.

1 Beg Bal. 50,000

Dec. 1

40,000

Dec.

Dec. 1

2,400

Dec.

15

Dec. 1

1,200

Dec 17

1,400

4,500
5,000

Effects of transaction
A liability, accounts payable, decreases (debited); and an asset, cash, decreases (credited) by USD
1,400.
Transaction 9: Dec. 20 Billed a customer for training services performed, $5,700.
General Journal
Date

Account Titles and Explanation

2010 Dec. 20

Accounts Receivable (+A)

Post.
Ref.
103

Service Revenue (+SE)

400

Debit

Credit
5 7 0 0
5 7 0 0

To record the performance of training services on account

for which a customer was billed.

General Ledger
Accounts Receivable

(Dr.)

(Cr)

Acct. No. 103

2010
Dec. 20

5,700
Service Revenue

(Dr.)

(Cr.)

Acct. No. 400

2010
Dec. 15

5,000

Dec. 20

5,700

Effects of transaction

p. 99 of 433

An asset, accounts receivable, increases (debited); and a revenue, service revenue, increases
(credited) by USD 5,700.
Transaction 10: Dec. 24 Received a bill for advertising in a local newspaper in December, $50.
General Journal
Date

Account Titles and Explanation

2010 Dec.

24

Advertising Expense (-SE)

Post.
Ref.
505

Accounts Payable (+L)

200

Debit

Credit
5 0
5 0

Received a bill for advertising for the month of December.

General Ledger
Advertising Expense

(Dr.)

(Cr)

Acct. No. 505

2010
Dec.

24

(Dr.)

(Cr.)

Accounts Payable
Acct. No. 200
2010

2010
Dec.

50

17

1,400

Dec.

Dec. 24

1,400
50

Effects of transaction
An expense, advertising expense, increases (debited); and a liability, accounts payable, increases
(credited) by USD 50. The reason for debiting an expense rather than an asset is because all the cost
pertains to the current accounting period, the month of December. Otherwise, Prepaid Advertising (an
asset) would have been debited.

p. 100 of 433

Transaction 11: Dec. 26 Received $500 on accounts receivable from a customer.

General Journal
Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

26

Cash (+A)

Post.
Ref.
100

Accounts Receivable (-A)

103

Debit

Credit
5 0 0
5 0 0

Received $500 from a customer on accounts receivable

General Ledger Cash

(Dr.)
Acct. No. 100
2010

(Cr)
2010

Dec. 1 Beg Bal. 50,000

Dec. 1

40,000

Dec. 7

Dec. 1

2,400

Dec. 1

1,200

4,500

Dec. 15
Dec. 26
Accounts
(Dr.)

5,000
500
Acct. N

2010
Dec. 20

Dec. 17
Receivable
o. 103

1,400

(Cr.)

2010
5,700

Dec. 26

500

Effects of transaction
One asset, cash, increases (debited); and another asset, accounts receivable, decreases (credited) by
USD 500.
Transaction 12: Dec. 28 Paid salaries of $3,600 to training personnel for the first four weeks of December.
(Payroll and other deductions are to be ignored since they have not yet been discussed.)
General Journal
Date

Account Titles and Explanation

2010 Dec. 28

Salaries Expense (-SE)

Post.
Ref.
507

Cash (-A)

100

Debit

Credit
3 6 0 0
3 6 0 0

Paid training personnel salaries for the first four weeks of

December.
General Ledger
Salaries Expense

(Dr.)

Acct. No. 507

(Cr)

2010
Dec.
28

3,600
Cash

(Dr.)

Acct. No. 100

(Cr.)

p. 101 of 433

2010

2010

Dec.
1
Dec.
7
Dec.
15
Dec.
26

50,000

Dec. 1

40,000

4,500

Dec. 1

2,400

5,000

Dec. 1

1,200

500

Dec. 17

1,400

Dec. 28

3,600

Effects of transaction
An expense, salaries expense, increases (debited); and an asset, cash, decreases (credited) by USD
3,600.
Transaction 13: Dec. 29 Received and paid the utilities bill for December, $150.
General Journal
Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

29

Utilities Expense (-SE)

Post.
Ref.
511

Cash (+A)

100

Debit

Credit
1 5 0
1 5 0

Paid the utilities bill for December.

General Ledger
Utilities Expense

(Dr.)

(Cr)

Acct. No. 511

2010
Dec.
29

150
Cash

(Dr.)
Dec.
1
Dec.
7
Dec.
15
Dec.
26

(Cr.)

Acct. No. 100

2010

2010
50,000
4,500
5,000
500

Dec.
1
Dec.
1
Dec.
1
Dec.
17
Dec.
28
Dec. 29

40,000
2,400
1,200
1,400
3,600
150

Effects of transaction
An expense, utilities expense, increases (debited); and an asset, cash, decreases (credited) by USD
150.

p. 102 of 433

Transaction 14: Dec. 30 Received a bill for gas and oil used in the trucks for December, $680.
General Journal
Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

30

Gas and Oil Expense (-SE)

Post.
Ref.
506

Accounts Payable (+L)

200

Debit

Credit
6 8 0
6 8 0

Received a bill for gas and oil used in the trucks for
December.

General Ledger
Gas and Oil Expense

(Dr.)

(Cr)

Acct. No. 506

2010
Dec.
30

680
Accounts Payable

(Dr.)

Dec.
17

(Cr.)

Acct. No. 200

2010

2010
1,400

Dec. 4

1,400

Dec.24

50

p. 103 of 433

Dec. 30

680

Effects of transaction
An expense, gas and oil expense, increases (debited); and a liability, accounts payable, increases
(credited) by USD 680.
Transaction 15: Dec. 31 A dividend of $3,000 was paid to stockholders.
General Journal
Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

31

Dividends (-SE)

Post.
Ref.
320

Cash (-A)

100

Debit

Credit
3 0 0 0
3 0 0 0

Dividends were paid to stockholders.

General Ledger
Dividends

(Dr.)

Acct. No. 320

(Cr)

2010
Dec. 31

3,000
Cash

(Dr.)

Acct. No. 100

2010

(Cr.)

2010

Dec. 1 Beg Bal.

50,000

Dec. 1

40,000

Dec. 7

4,500

Dec. 1

2,400

Dec. 15

5,000

Dec. 1

1,200

Dec. 26

500

Dec. 17

1,400

Dec. 28

3,600

Dec. 29

150

Dec. 31

3,000

Effects of transaction
The Dividends account increases (debited); and an asset, cash, decreases (credited) by USD 3,000.
Transaction 15 concludes the analysis of the MicroTrain Company transactions. The next section
discusses and illustrates posting to ledger accounts and cross-indexing.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

p. 104 of 433

The concept of the Internet dates to the 1960s when the military tied together several
computers forming a "network" that allowed users to communicate with each other
instantaneously on their computers over many miles.
Then universities and scientific institutions connected to the network to meet their
research and communication needs. More and more organizations hooked up to the
network over time. Today many companies seek customers and employees over the
Internet. Students and faculty use the Internet to perform research, communicate with
their colleagues (using e-mail), and search distant libraries. Accountants in practice
are heavy users of the Internet to locate company data, tax regulations, and almost any
other information they need. You will find that learning to use the Internet effectively
is essential to your future success.

3.9 The use of ledger accounts

A journal entry is like a set of instructions. The carrying out of these instructions is known as
posting. As stated earlier, posting is recording in the ledger accounts the information contained in the
journal. A journal entry directs the entry of a certain dollar amount as a debit in a specific ledger
account and directs the entry of a certain dollar amount as a credit in a specific ledger account. Earlier,
we posted the journal entries for MicroTrain Company to T-accounts. In practice, however, companies
post these journal entries to ledger accounts.
Using a new example, Jenks Company, we illustrate posting to ledger accounts. Later, we show you
how to post the MicroTrain Company journal entries to ledger accounts.
In Exhibit 10, the first journal entry for the Jenks Company directs that USD 10,000 be posted in
the ledger as a debit to the Cash account and as a credit to the Capital Stock account. We post the debit
in the general ledger Cash account by using the following procedure: Enter in the Cash account the
date, a short explanation, the journal designation ("G" for general journal) and the journal page
number from which the debit is posted, and the USD 10,000 in the Debit column. Then, enter the
number of the account to which the debit is posted in the Posting Reference column of the general
journal. Post the credit in a similar manner but as a credit to Account No. 300. The arrows in Exhibit
10 show how these amounts were posted to the correct accounts.
Exhibit 10 shows the ledger account. In contrast to the two-sided T-account format shown so far,
the three-column format has columns for debit, credit, and balance. The three-column form has the

p. 105 of 433

advantage of showing the balance of the account after each item has been posted. In addition, in this
chapter, we indicate whether each balance is a debit or a credit. In later chapters and in practice, the
nature of the balance is usually not indicated since it is understood. Also, notice that we give an
explanation for each item in the ledger accounts. Often accountants omit these explanations because
each item can be traced back to the general journal for the explanation.
Posting is always from the journal to the ledger accounts. Postings can be made (1) at the time the
transaction is journalized; (2) at the end of the day, week, or month; or (3) as each journal page is
filled. The choice is a matter of personal taste. When posting the general journal, the date used in the
ledger accounts is the date the transaction was recorded in the journal, not the date the journal entry
was posted to the ledger accounts.
Frequently, accountants must check and trace the origin of their transactions, so they provide crossindexing. Cross-indexing is the placing of (1) the account number of the ledger account in the
general journal and (2) the general journal page number in the ledger account. As shown in Exhibit 10,
the account number of the ledger account to which the posting was made is in the Posting Reference
column of the general journal. Note the arrow from Account No. 100 in the ledger to the 100 in the
Posting Reference column beside the first debit in the general journal. Accountants place the number
of the general journal page from which the entry was posted in the Posting Reference column of the
ledger account. Note the arrow from page 1 in Exhibit 10 the general journal to G1 in the Posting
Reference column of the Cash account in the general ledger. The notation "G1" means general journal,
page 1. The date of the transaction also appears in the general ledger. Note the arrows from the date in
the general journal to the dates in the general ledger.
Page 1
JENKS COMPANY
General Journal
Date
2010 Jan.

Account Titles and Explanation

Post.
Debit
Ref.
(C)100
1 0 0 0 0 (A)

1(B) Cash (+A)

Capital Stock (+SE)

300

Credit

1 0 0 0 0 (D)

Stockholders invested $10,000 cash in the business.

5

Cash (+A)

100

Notes Payable (+L)

201

5 0 0 0
5 0 0 0

Borrowed $5,000 from the bank on a note.

:-

Account No 100(C)

General Ledger Cash

Explanation

2010 -Jan. (B)1 Stockholders investment

5

Bank loan

Post
Ref.
G1
G1

Debt

Credit

Balance

(A) 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 Dr

5 0 0 0

1 5 0 0 0 Dr

p. 106 of 433

Account No. 201

Notes Payable
Date

Explanation

2010 Jan.

Borrowed cash

Post
Ref.
G1

Debt

Post
Ref.
G1

Debt

Credit
5 0 0 0

Capital Stock
Explanation
2010 "
Jan.

(B)1 Cash from stockholders

Credit
( 1 0 0 0 0
D
)

Balance
5 0 0 0 Cr

Account No. 300

Balance
1 0 0 0 0 Cr

Exhibit 10: General journal and general ledger; posting and cross-indexing
Cross-indexing aids the tracing of any recorded transaction, either from general journal to general
ledger or from general ledger to general journal. Normally, they place cross-reference numbers in the
Posting Reference column of the general journal when the entry is posted. If this practice is followed,
the cross-reference numbers indicate that the entry has been posted.

p. 107 of 433

MICROTRAIN COMPANY
General Journal

Page1

Date

Account Titles and Explanation

Post. Debit
Ref.

2010 Nov. 28

Cash (+A)

100*

Capital Stock (+SE)

300

Credit

5 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0

Stockholders invested $50,000 cash in the business.

Dec

Truck (+A)

150

Cash (-A)

100

4 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 0

To record the purchase of four trucks.

1

Prepaid Insurance (+A)

108

Cash (-A)

100

2 4 0 0
2 4 0 0

Purchased truck insurance to cover a one-year period.

1

Prepaid Rent (+A)

112

Cash (-A)

100

1 2 0 0
1 2 0 0

Paid three months' rent on a building.

4

Supplies on Hand (+A)

107

Accounts Payable (+L)

200

1 4 0 0
1 4 0 0

To record the purchase of training supplies for future use.

7

Cash (+A)

100

Unearned Service Fees (+L)

216

4 5 0 0
4 5 0 0

To record the receipt of cash from a customer in payment

for future training services.
15

Cash (+A)

100

Service Revenue (+SE)

400

5 0 0 0
5 0 0 0

To record the receipt of cash for performing training

services for a customer.
17

Accounts Payable (-L)

200

Cash (-A)

100

1 4 0 0
1 4 0 0

Paid the account payable arising from the purchase of

supplies on December 4.
General Journal

Date

Account Titles and Explanation

2010 Dec. 20

Accounts Receivable (+A)

Page 2

Post. Debit
Ref.
103

Credit
5 7 0 0

p. 108 of 433

Service Revenue (+SE)

400

5 7 0 0

To record the performance of training services on account

for which a customer was billed.
24

Advertising Expense (-SE)

505

Accounts Payable (+L)

200

5 0
5 0

Received a bill for advertising for the month of December.

26

Cash (+A)

100

Accounts Receivable (-A)

103

5 0 0
5 0 0

Received $500 from a customer on accounts receivable.

28

Salaries Expense (-SE)

507

Cash (-A)

100

3 6 0 0
3 6 0 0

Paid training personnel salaries for the first four weeks

of December.
29

Utilities Expense (-SE)

511

Cash (-A)

100

1 5 0
1 5 0

Paid the utilities bill for December.

30

Gas and Oil Expense (-SE)

506

Accounts Payable (-A)

200

6 8 0
6 8 0

Received a bill for gas and oil used in the trucks for
December.
31

Dividends (-SE)

320

Cash (-A)

100

3 0 0 0
3 0 0 0

Dividends were paid to stockholders.

Exhibit 11: General journal (after posting)

To understand the posting and cross-indexing process, trace the entries from the general journal to
the general ledger. The ledger accounts need not contain explanations of all the entries, since any
needed explanations can be obtained from the general journal.
Look at Exhibit 11 to see how all the November and December transactions of MicroTrain Company
would be journalized. As shown in Exhibit 11, you skip a line between journal entries to show where
one journal entry ends and another begins. This procedure is standard practice among accountants.
Note that no dollar signs appear in journals or ledgers. When amounts are in even dollar amounts,
accountants leave the cents column blank or use zeros or a dash. When they use lined accounting work

p. 109 of 433

papers, commas or decimal points are not needed to record an amount. When they use unlined paper,
they add both commas and decimal points.
Next, observe Exhibit 12, the three-column general ledger accounts of MicroTrain Company after
the journal entries have been posted. Each ledger account would appear on a separate page in the
ledger. Trace the postings from the general journal to the general ledger to make sure you know how to
post journal entries.
All the journal entries illustrated so far have involved one debit and one credit; these journal entries
are called simple journal entries. Many business transactions, however, affect more than two
accounts. The journal entry for these transactions involves more than one debit and/or credit. Such
journal entries are called compound journal entries.
As an illustration of a compound journal entry, assume that on 2011 January 2, MicroTrain
Company purchased USD 8,000 of training equipment from Wilson Company. See below.
MICROTRAIN COMPANY
General Ledger
Cash

Date

Explanation

2010 Dec. 1

Post
Ref.

Account No. 100

Debit

Credit

Balance

Beginning balance*

5 0 0 0 0 Dr

Trucks

G1

4 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 Dr

Prepaid insurance

G1

2 4 0 0

7 6 0 0 Dr

Prepaid rent

G1

Unearned service fees

G1

4 5 0 0

15

Service revenue

G1

5 0 0 0

17

Paid account payable

G1

26

Collected account receivable

G2

28

Salaries

G2

3 6 0 0

1 1 4 0 0 Dr

29

Utilities

G2

1 5 0

1 1 2 5 0 Dr

31

Dividends

G2

3 0 0 0

8 2 5 0 Dr

1 2 0 0

Explanation

2010 Dec. 20
26

5 0 0

Service revenue
Collections

G2

Debit

2010 Dec. 4

Purchased on account

1 5 0 0 0 Dr

Credit

Balance

5 7 0 0

5 7 0 0 Dr
5 0 0

5 2 0 0 Dr

Account No. 107

Supplies on Hand
Explanation

1 4 5 0 0 Dr

Account No. 103

Post
Ref.
G2

Date

1 5 9 0 0 Dr
1 4 0 0

Accounts Receivable
Date

6 4 0 0 Dr
1 0 9 0 0 Dr

Post
Ref.
G1

Debit

Credit
1 4 0 0

Balance
1 4 0 0 Dr

p. 110 of 433

Account No. 108

Prepaid Insurance
Date

Explanation

2010 Dec. 1

One-year policy on trucks

Post
Ref.
G1

Debit

Credit
2 4 0 0

General Ledger
Prepaid Rent
Date

Explanation

2010 Dec. 1

Three-month payment

Post
Ref.
G1

Explanation

2010 Dec. 1

Paid cash

Debit
1

Post
Ref.
G1

Explanation
Supplies

17

Paid for supplies

G1

24

Advertising

G2

30

Gas and oil

G2

Debit

Explanation

2010 Dec. 7

Received cash

4 0

Explanation

2010 Dec. 1

Beginning balance

Explanation

2010 Dec. 31

Cash

Explanation

2010 Dec. 15

Cash

Balance
1 4

0 0

1 4 0 0 Cr

4 0 0

- 0 6

5 0

5 0 Cr

8 )

7 3 0 Cr

Account No. 216

Post
Ref.
G1

Debit

Credit

Balance
4 5

0 0

4 5 0 0 Cr

Account No. 300

Post
Ref.

Debit

Credit

Balance
5 0 0 0 0 Cr

Post
Ref.
G2

Page 3
Account No. 320
Credit

Debt
3

Balance

0 0 0

3 0 0 0 Dr

Account No. 400

Service Revenue
Date

4 0 0 0 0 Dr

Credit

General Ledger
Dividends
Date

Balance

0 0 0

Debit

Capital Stock
Date

1 2 0 0 Dr

Credit

Unearned Service Fees

Date

2 0 0

Account No. 200

Post
Ref.
G1

2010 Dec. 4

Balance

Account No. 150

Accounts Payable
Date

2 4 0 0 Dr

Page 1
Account No. 112
Credit

Trucks
Date

Balance

Post
Ref.
G1

Debt

Credit

Balance
5 0

0 0

5 0 0 0 Cr

p. 111 of 433

20

On account

G2

5 7

Explanation

2010 Dec. 24

On account

Post
Ref.
G2

Debt

Credit

Explanation

2010 Dec. 30

On account

Explanation

2010 Dec. 28

Cash paid

Post
Ref.
G2

Debt

Credit

Explanation

2010 Dec. 29

Cash paid

Balance

6 8 0

6 8 0 Dr

Account No. 507

Post
Ref.
G2

Debt

Credit
3

Balance

6 0 0

3 6 0 0 Dr

Account No. 511

Utilities Expense
Date

5 0 Dr

Account No. 506

Salaries Expense
Date

Balance

5 0

Gas and Oil Expense

Date

1 0 7 0 0 Cr

Account No. 505

Advertising Expense
Date

0 0

Post
Ref.
G2

Debt

Credit

Balance

1 5 0

1 5 0 Dr

Exhibit 12: General ledger - Extended illustration

MICROTRAIN COMPANY
Trial Balance
December 31, 2010

Acct.
No.
100

Account Title
Cash

Debits
$ 8,250

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

5,200

107

Supplies on Hand

1,400

108

Prepaid Insurance

2,400

112

Prepaid Rent

1,200

150

Trucks

40,000

200

Accounts Payable

$ 730

216

Unearned Service Fees

4,500

300

Capital Stock

50,000

320

Dividends

400

Service Revenue

505

Advertising Expense

50

506

Gas and Oil Expense

680

507

Salaries Expense

3,600

511

Utilities Expense

150

3,000
10,700

Exhibit 13: Trail balance

p. 112 of 433

MicroTrain paid USD 2,000 cash with the balance due on 2011 March 3. The general journal entry
for MicroTrain Company is:
Debit

Credit

2011
Jan.

Equipment (+A)

8,000

Cash (-A)

2,000

Accounts Payable (+L)

6,000

Training equipment purchased from Wilson Company.

Note that the firm credits two accounts, Cash and Accounts Payable, in this one entry. However, the
dollar totals of the debits and credits are equal.
Periodically, accountants use a trial balance to test the equality of their debits and credits. A trial
balance is a listing of the ledger accounts and their debit or credit balances to determine that debits
equal credits in the recording process. The accounts appear in this order: assets, liabilities,
stockholders' equity, dividends, revenues, and expenses. Within the assets category, the most liquid
(closest to becoming cash) asset appears first and the least liquid appears last. Within the liabilities,
those liabilities with the shortest maturities appear first. Study Exhibit 13, the trial balance for
MicroTrain Company. Note the listing of the account numbers and account titles on the left, the
column for debit balances, the column for credit balances, and the equality of the two totals.
When the trial balance does not balance, try re-totaling the two columns. If this step does not locate
the error, divide the difference in the totals by 2 and then by 9. If the difference is divisible by 2, you
may have transferred a debit-balanced account to the trial balance as a credit, or a credit-balanced
account as a debit. When the difference is divisible by 2, look for an amount in the trial balance that is
equal to one-half of the difference. Thus, if the difference is USD 800, look for an account with a
balance of USD 400 and see if it is in the wrong column.
If the difference is divisible by 9, you may have made a transposition error in transferring a balance
to the trial balance or a slide error. A transposition error occurs when two digits are reversed in an
amount (e.g. writing 753 as 573 or 110 as 101). A slide error occurs when you place a decimal point
incorrectly (e.g. USD 1,500 recorded as USD 15.00). Thus, when a difference is divisible by 9, compare
the trial balance amounts with the general ledger account balances to see if you made a transposition
or slide error in transferring the amounts.

p. 113 of 433

An ethical perspective: Financial Deals, Inc.

Larry Fisher was captain of the football team at Prestige University. Later, he earned a
master's degree in business administration with a concentration in accounting.
Upon graduation, Larry accepted a position with Financial Deals, Inc., in the
accounting and finance division. At first, things were going smoothly. He was tall, good
looking, and had an outgoing personality. The president of the company took a liking to
him. However, Larry was somewhat bothered when the president started asking him to
do some things that were slightly unethical. When he protested mildly, the president
said: "Come on, son, this is the way the business world works. You have great potential
if you don't let things like this get in your way."
As time went on, Larry was asked to do things that were more unethical, and finally he
was performing illegal acts. When he resisted, the president appealed to his loyalty and
asked him to be a team player. The president also promised Larry great wealth
sometime in the future. Finally, when he was told to falsify some financial statements
by making improper entries and to sign some documents containing material errors,
the president supported his request by stating: "You are in too deep now to refuse to
cooperate. If I go down, you are going with me." Through various company schemes,
Larry had convinced some friends and relatives to invest about USD 10 million. Most of
this would be lost if the various company schemes were revealed.
Larry could not sleep at night and began each day with a pain in his stomach and by
becoming physically ill. He was under great strain and believed that he could lose his
mind. He also heard that the president had a shady past and could become violent in
retaliating against his enemies. If Larry blows the whistle, he believes he will go to
prison for his part in the schemes. (Note: This scenario is based on an actual situation
with some facts changed to protect the guilty.)

If you still cannot find the error, it may be due to one of the following causes:
Failing to post part of a journal entry.
Posting a debit as a credit, or vice versa.
Incorrectly determining the balance of an account.
Recording the balance of an account incorrectly in the trial balance.
Omitting an account from the trial balance.

p. 114 of 433

 Making a transposition or slide error in the accounts or the journal.

Usually, you should work backward through the steps taken to prepare the trial balance. Assuming
you have already re-totaled the columns and traced the amounts appearing in the trial balance back to
the general ledger account balances, use the following steps: Verify the balance of each general ledger
account, verify postings to the general ledger, verify general journal entries, and then review the
transactions and possibly the source documents.
The equality of the two totals in the trial balance does not necessarily mean that the accounting
process has been error-free. Serious errors may have been made, such as failure to record a
transaction, or posting a debit or credit to the wrong account. For instance, if a transaction involving
payment of a USD 100 account payable is never recorded, the trial balance totals still balance, but at an
amount that is USD 100 too high. Both cash and accounts payable would be overstated by USD 100.
You can prepare a trial balance at any timeat the end of a day, a week, a month, a quarter, or a
year. Typically, you would prepare a trial balance before preparing the financial statements.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

The computers of persons in a given department or building are frequently connected
in a Local Area Network (LAN). These persons can then access simultaneously the
programs and databases stored in the LAN and can communicate with all other
persons in the LAN through email. A more advanced type of computer network is
called Client/Server Computing. Under this structure, any computer in the network
can be used to update the information stored elsewhere in the network. For example,
accounting information stored in one computer could be updated by authorized
persons from a number of other computers in the system. The use of networks is
designed to improve efficiency and to reduce software and hardware costs.

3.10 Analyzing and using the financial results Horizontal and

vertical analyses
The calculation of dollar and/or percentage changes from one year to the next in an item on
financial statements is horizontal analysis. For instance, in the following data taken from the 2000
annual report of Hewlett-Packard Company, the amount of inventory increased by USD 836 million
from 1999 October 31, to 2000 October 31. This amount represented a 17 per cent increase. To find the

p. 115 of 433

amount of the increase or decrease, subtract the 1999 amount from the 2000 amount. To find the
percentage change, divide the increase or decrease by the 1999 amount.
Knowing the dollar amount and percentage of change in an amount is much more meaningful than
merely knowing the amount at one point in time. By analyzing the data, we can see that cash and cash
equivalents declined in 2000. Their decline at least partially explains the increases in some of the other
current assets. We can also see that the company invested in property, plant and equipment. Any terms
in Hewlett-Packard's list of assets that you do not understand are explained in later chapters. At this
point, all we want you to understand is the nature of horizontal and vertical analyses.
Vertical analysis shows the percentage that each item in a financial statement is of some
significant total such as total assets or sales. For instance, in the Hewlett-Packard data we can see that
cash and cash equivalents were 15.3 per cent of total assets as of 1999 October 31, and had declined to
10.0 per cent of total assets by 2000 October 31. Total current assets (cash plus other amounts that will
become cash or be used up within one year) increased from 61.3 per cent of total assets to 68.3 per cent
during 2000. Long-term investments and other non-current assets accounted for 18.4 per cent of total
assets as of 2000 October 31.
Increase or

Percent of

(Decrease)

Total Assets

2000 over 1999

October 31

2000

1999

Dollars

Percent

2000

1999

Cash and cash equivalents

Short-term investments
Accounts receivable
Financing receivables
Inventory
Other current assets
Total current assets
Property, plant and equipment:

$ 3,415
592
6,394
2,174
5,699
4,970
$ 23,244

$ 5,411
179
5,958
1,889
4,863
3,342
$ 21,642

$ (1,996)
413
436
285
836
1,628
$ 1,602

-37%
231%
7%
15%
17%
49%
7%

10.0%
1.7%
18.8%
6.4%
16.8%
14.6%
68.3%

15.3%
0.5%
16.9%
5.4%
13.8%
9.5%
61.3%

Property, plant and equipment, net

Long-term investments and

4,500

4,333

167

4%

13.2%

12.3%

other non-current assets

Total assets

6,265
$ 34,009

9,322
$ 35,297

(3,057)
$ (1,288)

-33%
-4%

18.4%
100.0%

26.4%
100.0%

Assets (in millions)

Current assets:

Management performs horizontal and vertical analyses along with other forms of analysis to help
evaluate the wisdom of its past decisions and to plan for the future. Other data would have to be
examined before decisions could be made regarding the assets shown. For instance, if you discovered
the liabilities that would have to be paid within a short time by Hewlett-Packard were more than USD
30 billion, you might conclude that the company is short of cash even though current assets increased

p. 116 of 433

substantially during 2000. We illustrate horizontal and vertical analyses to a much greater extent later
in the text.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

Many companies have been restructuring their organizations and reducing the
number of employees to cut expenses. General Motors, AT&T, IBM, and numerous
other companies have taken this action. One could question whether companies place
as much value on their employees as in the past. In previous years it was common to
see the following statement in the annual reports of companies: "Our employees are
our most valuable asset". Companies are not permitted to show employees as assets on
their balance sheets. Do you think they should be allowed to do so?

What you have learned in this chapter is basic to your study of accounting. The entire process of
accounting is based on the double-entry concept. Chapter 3 explains that adjustments bring the
accounts to their proper balances before accurate financial statements are prepared.

3.10.1

Understanding the learning objectives

An account is a storage unit used to classify and summarize money measurements of business

activities of a similar nature.

A firm sets up an account whenever it needs to provide useful information about a particular

business item to some party having a valid interest in the business.

A T-account resembles the letter T.
Debits are entries on the left side of a T-account.
Credits are entries on the right side of a T-account.
Debits increase asset, expense, and Dividends accounts.
Credits increase liability, stockholders' equity, and revenue accounts.
Analyze transactions by examining source documents.
Journalize transactions in the journal.
Post journal entries to the accounts in the ledger.
Prepare a trial balance of the accounts and complete the work sheet.
Prepare financial statements.

p. 117 of 433

 Journalize and post adjusting entries.

Journalize and post closing entries. Prepare a post-closing trial balance.
A journal contains a chronological record of the transactions of a business. An example of a

general journal is shown in Exhibit 11. Journalizing is the process of entering a transaction in a
journal.
Posting is the process of transferring information recorded in the journal to the proper places

in the ledger.
Cross-indexing is the placing of (1) the account number of the ledger account in the general

journal and (2) the general journal page number in the ledger account.
An example of cross-indexing appears in Exhibit 10.
A trial balance is a listing of the ledger accounts and their debit or credit balances.
If the trial balance does not balance, an accountant works backward to discover the error.
A trial balance is shown in Exhibit 13.
Horizontal analysis involves calculating the dollar and/or percentage changes in an item from

one year to the next.

Vertical analysis shows the percentage that each item in a financial statement is of some

significant total.

3.10.2

Demonstration problem

Green Hills Riding Stable, Incorporated, had the following balance sheet on 2010 June 30:
GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED
Balance Sheet
2010 June 30
Assets
Cash

$ 7,500

Accounts receivable

5,400

Land

40,000

Total assets

$ 52,900
Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

Liabilities:
Accounts payable

$ 800

Notes payable

40,000

Total liabilities

$ 40,800

Stockholders' equity:
Capital stock
Retained earnings

$ 10,000
2,100

Total stockholders' equity

12,100

Total liabilities and stockholders' equity

$52,900

p. 118 of 433

a. Prepare the journal entries to record the transactions for July 2010.
b. Post the journal entries to the ledger accounts after entering the beginning balances in those
accounts. Insert cross-indexing references in the journal and ledger. Use the following chart of
accounts:
100
103
130
140
200
201
300
310

Cash
Accounts Receivable
Land
Buildings
Accounts Payable
Notes Payable
Capital Stock
Retained Earnings

320
402
404
507
513
540
568

Dividends
Horse Boarding Fees Revenue
Riding and Lesson Fees Revenue
Salaries Expense
Feed Expense
Interest Expense
Miscellaneous Expense

c. Prepare a trial balance.

3.10.3

Solution to demonstration problem

a.
GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED
General Journal

Date
2010 July

Page1

Account Titles and Explanation

Post. Debit
Ref.

Cash (+A)

100

Capital Stock (+SE)

300

Credit

2 5 0 0 0
2 5 0 0 0

Additional capital stock issued.

1

Buildings (+A)

140

Cash (-A)

100

2 4 0 0 0
2 4 0 0 0

Paid for building.

8

Account Payable (-L)

200

Cash (-A)

100

8 0 0
8 0 0

Paid accounts payable.

10

Cash (+A)

100

Accounts Receivable (-A)

103

5 4 0 0
5 4 0 0

Collected accounts receivable.

12

Feed Expense (-SE)

513

Accounts Payable (+L)

200

1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0

Purchased feed on account

15

Accounts Receivable (+A)

103

Horse Boarding Fee Revenue (+SE)

402

4 5 0 0
4 5 0 0

Billed boarding fees for July.

p. 119 of 433

24

Miscellaneous Expense (-SE)

568

Cash (-A)

100

8 0 0
8 0 0

Paid miscellaneous expenses for July.

31

Interest Expense (-SE)

540

Cash (-A)

100

2 0 0
2 0 0

Paid interest
31

Salaries Expense (-SE)

507

Cash (-A)

100

1 4 0 0
1 4 0 0

Paid salaries for July.

31

Accounts Receivable (+A)

103

Riding and Lesson Fee Revenue (+SE)

404

3 6 0 0
3 6 0 0

Billed riding and lesson fees for July.

31

Dividends (-SE)

320

Cash (-A)

100

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0

Paid a dividend to stockholders.

b.
Land
Date

GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED

General Ledger
Account No. 100

Explanation

Post
Ref.

Debt

Credit

Balance

2010 June 30

Balance

July

Stockholders' investment

G1

7 5 0 0 0 Dr

Buildings

G1

2 4 0 0 0

Accounts payable

G1

8 0 0

10

Accounts receivable

G1

24

Miscellaneous expense

G1

31

Interest expense

31

Salaries expense

31

Dividends

2 5 0 0 0

5 4 0 0

Explanation

8 5 0 0 Dr
7 7 0 0 Dr
1 3 1 0 0 Dr

8 0 0

1 2 3 0 0 Dr

G1

2 0 0

1 2 1 0 0 Dr

G1

1 4 0 0

1 0 7 0 0 Dr

G1

1 0 0 0

9 7 0 0 Dr

Account No. 103

Accounts Receivable
Date

3 2 5 0 0 Dr

Post
Ref.

Debt

Credit

Balance

2010 June 30

Balance

July

10

Cash

G1

5 4 0 0 Dr

15

Horse boarding fees

G1

4 5 0 0

4 5 0 0 Dr

31

Riding and lessons fees

G1

3 6 0 0

8 1 0 0 Dr

5 4 0 0

- 0 -

p. 120 of 433

Account No. 130

Land
Date

Explanation

2010 June 30

Balance

Post
Ref.

Debt

2010 July

Account No. 140

Explanation
1

Post
Ref.
G1

Cash

Debt

Credit

Explanation

Post
Ref.

Balance

July

Cash

G1

12

Feed expense

G1

2010 June 30

Balance

Debt

Post
Ref.

Balance

July

Cash

Debt

Explanation

2010 June 30

Balance

2010 July

Post
Ref.

Debt

2010 July

1 0 0 0 0 Cr
3 5 0 0 0 Cr

Account No. 310

Post
Ref.

Debt

Credit

Balance
2 1 0 0 Cr

Account No. 320

Post
Ref.
G1

Cash

Explanation
15

Balance

2 5 0 0 0

Debt

Accounts receivable
Riding and Lesson Fee Revenue

Credit

Balance

1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 Dr

Account No. 402

Horse Boarding Fee Revenue

Date

Credit

G1

Explanation
31

Balance

Account No. 300

Dividends
Date

Account No. 201

Credit

1 1 0 0 Cr

4 0 0 0 0 Cr

Retained Earnings
Date

- 0 1 1 0 0

General Ledger (continued)

Explanation

2010 June 30

Balance

8 0 0

Capital Stock
Date

Credit

8 0 0 Cr

Notes Payable
Explanation

2 4 0 0 0 Dr

Account No. 200

2010 June 30

Date

Balance

2 4 0 0 0

Accounts Payable
Date

Balance
4 0 0 0 0 Dr

Buildings
Date

Credit

Post
Ref.
G1

Debt

Credit

Balance
4 5 0 0

4 5 0 0 Cr

Account No. 404

p. 121 of 433

Date

Explanation

2010 July

31

Post
Ref.
G1

Accounts receivable

Debt

Credit
3 6 0 0

General Ledger (concluded)

Salaries Expense
Date

Explanation

2010 July

31

Post
Ref.
G1

Cash

Debt

Explanation

2010 July

12

Debt

Explanation

2010 July

31

Debt

Explanation

2010 July

24

1 1 0 0 Dr

Credit

Balance
2 0 0 Dr

Account No. 568

Post
Ref.
G1

Cash

Balance

2 0 0

Miscellaneous Expense
Date

Credit

Account No. 540

Post
Ref.
G1

Cash

Balance
1 4 0 0 Dr

1 1 0 0

Interest Expense
Date

3 6 0 0 Cr

Account No. 513

Post
Ref.
G1

Accounts payable

Account No. 507

Credit

1 4 0 0

Feed Expense
Date

Balance

Debt

Credit
8 0 0

Balance
8 0 0 Dr

GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED

c.

Trial Balance
2010 July 31
Acct.
No.

Account Title

Debits

100

Cash

$ 9,700

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

8,100

130

Land

40,000

140

Buildings

24,000

200

Accounts Payable

$ 1,100

201

Notes Payable

40,000

300

Capital Stock

35,000

310

Retained Earnings

320

Dividends

402

Horse Boarding Fee Revenue

404

Riding and Lesson Fee Revenue

507

Salaries Expense

1,400

513

Feed Expense

1,100

540

Interest Expense

200

568

Miscellaneous Expense

800

2,100
1,000
4,500
3,600

$86,300

$86,300

p. 122 of 433

3.11 Key terms

Account A part of the accounting system used to classify and summarize the increases,
decreases, and balances of each asset, liability, stockholders' equity item, dividend, revenue, and
expense. The three-column account is normally used. It contains columns for debit, credit, and
balance.
Accounting cycle A series of steps performed during the accounting period (some throughout
the period and some at the end) to analyze, record, classify, summarize, and report useful
financial information for the purpose of preparing financial statements.
Accrual basis of accounting Recognizes revenues when sales are made or services are
performed, regardless of when cash is received. Recognizes expenses as incurred, whether or not
cash has been paid out.
Business transactions Measurable events that affect the financial condition of a business.
Chart of accounts The complete listing of the account titles and account numbers of all of the
accounts in the ledger; somewhat comparable to a table of contents.
Compound journal entry A journal entry with more than one debit and/or credit.
Credit The right side of any account; when used as a verb, to enter a dollar amount on the right
side of an account; credits increase liability, stockholders' equity, and revenue accounts and
decrease asset, expense, and Dividends accounts.
Credit balance The balance in an account when the sum of the credits to the account exceeds
the sum of the debits to that account.
Cross-indexing The placing of (1) the account number of the ledger account in the general
journal and (2) the general journal page number in the ledger account.
Debit The left side of any account; when used as a verb, to enter a dollar amount on the left side
of an account; debits increase asset, expense, and Dividends accounts and decrease liability,
stockholders' equity, and revenue accounts.
Debit balance The balance in an account when the sum of the debits to the account exceeds the
sum of the credits to that account.
Double-entry procedure The accounting requirement that each transaction must be
recorded by an entry that has equal debits and credits.
Horizontal analysis The calculation of dollar and/or percentage changes in an item on the
financial statements from one year to the next.
Journal A chronological (arranged in order of time) record of business transactions; the
simplest form of journal is the two-column general journal.
Journal entry Shows all of the effects of a business transaction as expressed in debit(s) and
credit(s) and may include an explanation of the transaction.
Journalizing A step in the accounting recording process that consists of entering the effects of
a transaction in a journal.
Ledger The complete collection of all of the accounts of a company; often referred to as the
general ledger.
Nominal accounts See temporary accounts.
Note An unconditional written promise to pay to another party the amount owed either when
demanded or at a certain specified date.

p. 123 of 433

Permanent accounts (real accounts) Balance sheet accounts; their balances are not
transferred (or closed) to any other account at the end of the accounting period.
Posting Recording in the ledger accounts the information contained in the journal.
Real accounts See permanent accounts.
Simple journal entry An entry with one debit and one credit.
T-account An account resembling the letter T, which is used for illustrative purposes only.
Debits are entered on the left side of the account, and credits are entered on the right side of the
account.
Temporary accounts (nominal accounts) They temporarily contain the revenue, expense,
and dividend information that is transferred (or closed) to a stockholders' equity account
(Retained Earnings) at the end of the accounting period.
Trial balance A listing of the ledger accounts and their debit or credit balances to determine
that debits equal credits in the recording process.
Vertical analysis Shows the percentage that each item in a financial statement is of some
significant total such as total assets or sales.

3.12 Self-test
3.12.1

True-false

Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.

All of the steps in the accounting cycle are performed only at the end of the accounting period.
A transaction must be journalized in the journal before it can be posted to the ledger accounts.
The left side of any account is the credit side.
Revenues, liabilities, and capital stock accounts are increased by debits.
The dividends account is increased by debits.
If the trial balance has equal debit and credit totals, it cannot contain any errors.

3.12.2

Multiple-choice

Select the best answer for each of the following questions.

When the stockholders invest cash in the business:
a. Capital Stock is debited and Cash is credited.
b. Cash is debited and Dividends is credited.
c. Cash is debited and Capital Stock is credited.
d. None of the above.
Assume that cash is paid for insurance to cover a three-year period. The recommended debit and
credit are:
a. Debit Insurance Expense, credit Cash.

p. 124 of 433

b. Debit Prepaid Insurance, credit Cash.

c. Debit Cash, credit Insurance Expense.
d. Debit Cash, credit Prepaid Insurance.
A company received cash from a customer in payment for future delivery services. The correct debit
and credit are:
a. Debit Cash, credit Unearned Delivery Fees.
b. Debit Cash, credit Delivery Fee Revenue.
c. Debit Accounts Receivable, credit Delivery Fee Revenue.
d. None of the above.
A company performed delivery services for a customer for cash. The correct debit and credit are:
a. Debit Cash, credit Unearned Delivery Fees.
b. Debit Cash, credit Delivery Fee Revenue.
c. Debit Accounts Receivable, credit Delivery Fee Revenue.
d. None of the above.
A cash dividend of USD 500 was declared and paid to stockholders. The correct journal entry is:
a. Capital stock
Cash
b. Cash
Dividends
c. Dividends
Cash
d. Cash
Capital stock

500
500
500
500

500
500
500
500

Now turn to Answers to self-test at the end of the chapter to check your answers.

3.12.3

Questions

Describe the steps in recording and posting the effects of a business transaction.

Give some examples of source documents.

Define an account. What are the two basic forms (styles) of accounts illustrated in the
chapter?

What is meant by the term double-entry procedure, or duality?

Describe how you would determine the balance of a T-account.

Define debit and credit. Name the types of accounts that are:

Increased by a debit.

Decreased by a debit.

p. 125 of 433

Increased by a credit.

Decreased by a credit.

Do you think this system makes sense? Can you conceive of other possible methods for
recording changes in accounts?

Which of the steps in the accounting cycle are performed throughout the accounting
period?

Which of the steps in the accounting cycle are performed only at the end of the
accounting period?

Why are expense and revenue accounts used when all revenues and expenses could be
shown directly in the Retained Earnings account?

What is the purpose of the Dividends account and how is it increased?

Are the following possibilities conceivable in an entry involving only one debit and one
credit? Why?

Increase a liability and increase an expense.

Increase an asset and decrease a liability.

Increase a revenue and decrease an expense.

Decrease an asset and increase another asset.

Decrease an asset and increase a liability.

Decrease a revenue and decrease an asset.

Decrease a liability and increase a revenue.

Describe the nature and purposes of the general journal. What does journalizing mean?
Give an example of a compound entry in the general journal.

Describe a ledger and a chart of accounts. How do these two compare with a book and
its table of contents?

Describe the act of posting. What difficulties could arise if no cross-indexing existed
between the general journal and the ledger accounts?

Which of the following cash payments would involve the immediate recording of an
expense? Why?

Paid vendors for office supplies previously purchased on account.

Paid an automobile dealer for a new company auto.

Paid the current month's rent.

Paid salaries for the last half of the current month.

p. 126 of 433

What types of accounts appear in the unadjusted trial balance? What are the purposes of
this trial balance?

You have found that the total of the Debits column of the trial balance of Burns
Company is USD 200,000, while the total of the Credits column is USD 180,000. What
are some possible causes of this difference? If the difference between the columns is
divisible by 9, what types of errors are possible?

Store equipment was purchased for USD 2,000. Instead of debiting the Store
Equipment account, the debit was made to Delivery Equipment. Of what help will the
trial balance be in locating this error? Why?

A student remembered that the side toward the window in the classroom was the debit
side of an account. The student took an examination in a room where the windows were
on the other side of the room and became confused and consistently reversed debits and
credits. Would the student's trial balance have equal debit and credit totals? If there
were no existing balances in any of the accounts to begin with, would the error prevent
the student from preparing correct financial statements? Why?

3.12.4

Exercises

Exercise A A diagram of the various types of accounts follows. Show where pluses (+) or minuses
(-) should be inserted to indicate the effect debits and credits have on each account.
Asset
Debit

Accounts = Liability Accounts +

Stockholders' Equity Accounts
Credit
Debit
Credit
Debit
Credit
Expense and Dividends
Revenue
Accounts Account
Debit*
Credit
Debit

Accounts
Credit*

Exercise B Prepare the journal entry required for each of the following transactions:
a. Cash was received for services performed for customers, USD 1,200.
b. Services were performed for customers on account, USD 4,200.
Exercise C Prepare the journal entry required for each of the following transactions:
a. Capital stock was issued for USD 100,000.
b. Purchased machinery for cash, USD 30,000.

p. 127 of 433

Exercise D Prepare the journal entry required for each of the following transactions:
a. Capital stock was issued for USD 200,000 cash.
b. A USD 30,000 loan was arranged with a bank. The bank increased the company's checking
account by USD 30,000 after management of the company signed a written promise to return the
USD 30,000 in 30 days.
c. Cash was received for services performed for customers, USD 700.
d. Services were performed for customers on account, USD 1,200.
Exercise E For each of the following unrelated transactions, give the journal entry to record the
transaction. Then show how the journal entry would be posted to T-accounts. You need not include
explanations or account numbers.
a. Capital stock was issued for USD 100,000 cash.
b. Salaries for a period were paid to employees, USD 24,000.
c. Services were performed for customers on account, USD 40,000.
Exercise F Explain each of the sets of debits and credits in these accounts for Tuxedos, Inc., a
company that rents wedding clothing and accessories. There are 10 transactions to be explained. Each
set is designated by the small letters to the left of the amount. For example, the first transaction is the
issuance of capital stock for cash and is denoted by the letter (a).

p. 128 of 433

Cash

Dividends

(a)

200,000

(b)

150,000

(d)

1,800

(e)

1,000

(f)

600

(g)

2,000

(i)

30,000

Bal.

'

(e)

1,000

18,200

Accounts Receivable

(c)

1,800

(J)

12,000

Bal.

12,000
Supplies

(b)

150,000

(i)

30,000

Bal.

180,000

(d)

Service Revenue
1,800

on Hand

(c)

1,800

(J)

12,000

Bal.

13,80C

Rent Expense

(f)

Accounts Payable

600

Delivery

(h)

800

(h)

(a)

200,000

(g)

Capital Stock

Expense

800
Salaries Expense
2,000

Exercise G Assume the ledger accounts given in the previous problem are those of Tuxedos, Inc.,
as they appear at 2010 December 31. Prepare the trial balance as of that date.
Exercise H Prepare journal entries to record each of the following transactions for Sanchez
Company. Use the letter of the transaction in place of the date. Include an explanation for each entry.
a. Capital stock was issued for cash, USD 300,000.
b. Purchased trucks by signing a note bearing no interest, USD 210,000.
c. Earned service revenue on account, USD 4,800.
d. Collected the account receivable resulting from transaction (c), USD 4,800.
e. Paid the note payable for the trucks purchased, USD 210,000.
f. Paid utilities for the month in the amount of USD 1,800.
g. Paid salaries for the month in the amount of USD 7,500.
h. Incurred supplies expenses on account in the amount of USD 1,920.
i. Purchased another truck for cash, USD 48,000.
p. 129 of 433

j. Performed delivery services on account, USD 24,000.

Exercise I Using the data in the previous problem, post the entries to T-accounts. Write the letter
of the transaction in the account before the dollar amount. Determine a balance for each account.
Exercise J Using your answer for the previous exercise, prepare a trial balance. Assume the date of
the trial balance is 2010 March 31.
Exercise K John Adams owns and manages a bowling center called Strike Lanes. He also
maintains his own accounting records and was about to prepare financial statements for the year 2010.
When he prepared the trial balance from the ledger accounts, the total of the debits column was USD
435,000, and the total of the credits column was USD 425,000. What are the possible reasons why the
totals of the debits and credits are out of balance? How would you normally proceed to find an error if
the two trial balance columns do not agree?
Exercise L Refer to the Consolidated Balance Sheets of The Limited in the Annual Report
Appendix located in the back of this text. Perform both horizontal and vertical analysis on each of The
Limited's asset accounts, treating total assets as a significant total for vertical analysis. comment on the
results.
Note: While you can certainly do this exercise with a calculator, computer spreadsheets such as
Excel are ideal for this type of analysis.

3.12.5

Problems

Problem A The transactions of Lightning Package Delivery Company for March 2010 follow:
Mar. 1 The company was organized and issued capital stock for USD 300,000 cash.
2 Paid USD 6,000 as the rent for March on a completely furnished building.
5 Paid cash for delivery trucks, USD 180,000.
6 Paid USD 4,000 as the rent for March on two forklift trucks.
9 Paid USD 2,200 for supplies received and used in March.
12 Performed delivery services for customers who promised to pay USD 27,000 at a later date.
20 Collected cash of USD 4,500 from customers on account (see March 12 entry).
21 Received a bill for USD 1,200 for advertising in the local newspaper in March.
p. 130 of 433

27 Paid cash for gas and oil consumed in March, USD 450.
31 Paid USD 2,400 salaries to employees for March.
31 Received an order for services at USD 12,000. The services will be performed in April.
31 Paid cash dividend, USD 1,000.
Prepare the journal entries required to record these transactions in the general journal of the
company.
Problem B Economy Laundry Company had the following transactions in August 2010:
Aug. 1 Issued capital stock for cash, USD 150,000.
3 Borrowed USD 40,000 from the bank on a note.
4 Purchased cleaning equipment for USD 25,000 cash.
6 Performed services for customers who promised to pay later, USD 16,000.
7 Paid this month's rent on a building, USD 2,800.
10 Collections were made for the services performed on August 6, USD 3,200.
14 Supplies were purchased on account for use this month, USD 3,000.
17 A bill for USD 400 was received for utilities for this month.
25 Laundry services were performed for customers who paid immediately, USD 22,000.
31 Paid employee salaries, USD 6,000.
31 Paid cash dividend, USD 2,000.
a. Prepare journal entries for these transactions.
b. Post the journal entries to T-accounts. Enter the account number in the Posting Reference
column of the journal as you post each amount. Use the following account numbers:
Acct.
No.
100
103
170
200
201
300
320
400
507
511
515
518

Account Title
Cash
Accounts receivable
Equipment
Accounts payable
Notes payable
Capital stock
Dividends
Service revenue
Salaries expense
Utilities expense
Rent expense
Supplies expense

c. Prepare a trial balance as of 2010 August 31.

p. 131 of 433

Problem C Clean-Sweep Janitorial, Inc., a company providing janitorial services, was organized
2010 July 1. The following account numbers and titles constitute the chart of accounts for the
company:
Acct.
No.
100
103
150
160
170
200
201
300
310
320
400
506
507
511
512
515
518

Account Title
Cash
Accounts receivable
Trucks
Office equipment
Equipment
Accounts payable
Notes payable
Capital stock
Retained earnings
Dividends
Service revenue
Gas and oil expense
Salaries expense
Utilities expense
Insurance expense
Rent expense
Supplies expense

July 1 The company issued USD 600,000 of capital stock for cash.
5 Office space was rented for July, and USD 5,000 was paid for the rental.
8 Desks and chairs were purchased for the office on account, USD 28,800.
10 Equipment was purchased for USD 50,000; a note was given, to be paid in 30 days.
15 Purchased trucks for USD 150,000, paying USD 120,000 cash and giving a 60-day note to the
dealer for USD 30,000.
July 18 Paid for supplies received and already used, USD 2,880.
23 Received USD 17,280 cash as service revenue.
27 Insurance expense for July was paid, USD 4,500.
30 Paid for gasoline and oil used by the truck in July, USD 576.
31 Billed customers for janitorial services rendered, USD 40,320.
31 Paid salaries for July, USD 51,840.
31 Paid utilities bills for July, USD 5,280.
31 Paid cash dividends, USD 9,600.
a. Prepare general ledger accounts for all of these accounts except Retained Earnings. The Retained
Earnings account has a beginning balance of zero and maintains this balance throughout the period.
b. Journalize the transactions given for July 2010 in the general journal.
c. Post the journal entries to ledger accounts.
p. 132 of 433

d. Prepare a trial balance as of 2010 July 31.

Problem D Trim Lawn, Inc., is a lawn care company. Thus, the company earns its revenue from
sending its trucks to customers' residences and certain commercial establishments to care for lawns
and shrubbery. Trim Lawn's trial balance at the end of the first 11 months of the year follows:
TRIM LAWN, INC.
Trial Balance
2010 November 30
Acct.
No.
100

Account Title
Cash

Debits
$ 63,740

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

88,600

150

Trucks

102,900

160

Office Furniture

8,400

200

Accounts Payable

$ 33,600

300

Capital Stock

30,000

310

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

30,540

400

Service Revenue

505

Advertising Expense

18,300

506

Gas an d Oil Expense

21,900

507

Salaries Expense

65,850

511

Utilities Expense

2,310

515

Rent Expense

15,000

518

Supplies Expense

75,600

531

Entertainment Expense

2,550

371,010

$465,150

$465,150

Dec. 2 Paid rent for December, USD 3,000.

5 Paid the accounts payable of USD 33,600.
8 Paid advertising for December, USD 1,500.
10 Purchased a new office desk on account, USD 1,050.
13 Purchased USD 240 of supplies on account for use in December.
15 Collected cash from customers on account, USD 75,000.
20 Paid for customer entertainment, USD 450.
24 Collected an additional USD 6,000 from customers on account.
26 Paid for gasoline used in the trucks in December, USD 270.
28 Billed customers for services rendered, USD 79,500.
30 Paid for more December supplies, USD 12,000.
31 Paid December salaries, USD 15,300.

p. 133 of 433

31 Paid a USD 4,000 cash dividend. (The Dividends account is No. 320.)
a. Open three-column general ledger accounts for each of the accounts in the trial balance under the
date of 2010 December 1. Place the word Balance in the explanation space of each account. Also open
an account for Dividends, No. 320.
b. Prepare entries in the general journal for the preceding transactions for December 2010.
c. Post the journal entries to three-column general ledger accounts.
d. Prepare a trial balance as of 2010 December 31.
Problem E Marc Miller prepared the following trial balance from the ledger of the Quick-Fix TV
Repair Company. The trial balance did not balance.
QUICK-FIX REPAIR COMPANY
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Acct.
No.
100

Account Title
Cash

Debits
$ 69,200

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

60,800

160

Office Furniture

120,000

172

Office Equipment

48,000

200

Accounts Payable

$ 32,400

300

Capital Stock

180,000

310

Retained Earnings

320

Dividends

400

Service Revenue

507

Salaries Expense

280,000

515

Rent Expense

40,000

568

Miscellaneous Expense

7,200

80,000
28,800
360,000

$654,000

$652,400

The difference in totals in the trial balance caused Miller to carefully examine the company's
accounting records. In searching back through the accounting records, Miller found that the following
errors had been made:
One entire entry that included a USD 10,000 debit to Cash and a USD 10,000 credit to

Accounts Receivable was never posted.

In computing the balance of the Accounts Payable account, a credit of USD 3,200 was

omitted from the computation.

In preparing the trial balance, the Retained Earnings account balance was shown as USD

80,000. The ledger account has the balance at its correct amount of USD 83,200.
One debit of USD 2,400 to the Dividends account was posted as a credit to that account.

p. 134 of 433

 Office equipment of USD 12,000 was debited to Office Furniture when purchased.

Prepare a corrected trial balance for the Quick-Fix TV Repair Company as of 2010 December 31.
Also, write a description of the effect(s) of each error.

3.12.6

Alternate problems

Alternate problem A Speedy Laundry Company, Inc., entered into the following transactions in
August 2010:
Aug. 1 Received cash for capital stock issued to owners, USD 400,000.
3 Paid rent for August on a building and laundry equipment rented, USD 3,000.
6 Performed laundry services for USD 2,000 cash.
8 Secured an order from a customer for laundry services of USD 7,000. The services are to be
performed next month.
13 Performed laundry services for USD 6,300 on account for various customers.
15 Received and paid a bill for USD 430 for supplies used in operations.
23 Cash collected from customers on account, USD 2,600.
31 Paid USD 2,400 salaries to employees for August.
31 Received the electric and gas bill for August, USD 385, but did not pay it at this time.
31 Paid cash dividend, USD 1,000.
Prepare journal entries for these transactions in the general journal.
Alternate problem B The transactions listed below are those of Reliable Computer Repair, Inc.,
for April 2010:
Apr. 1 Cash of USD 500,000 was received for capital stock issued to the owners.
3 Rent was paid for April, USD 3,500.
6 Trucks were purchased for USD 56,000 cash.
7 Office equipment was purchased on account from Wagner Company for USD 76,800.
14 Salaries for first two weeks were paid, USD 12,000.
15 USD 28,000 was received for services performed.
18 An invoice was received from Roger's Gas Station for USD 400 for gas and oil used during April.
23 A note was arranged with the bank for USD 80,000. The cash was received, and a note
promising to return the USD 80,000 on 2010 May 30, was signed.
29 Purchased trucks for USD 73,600 by signing a note.
30 Salaries for the remainder of April were paid, USD 14,400.
p. 135 of 433

a. Prepare journal entries for these transactions.

b. Post the journal entries to T-accounts. Enter the account number in the Posting Reference
column of the journal as you post each amount. Use the following account numbers:
Acct.
No.
100
150
172
200
201
300
400
506
507
515

Account Title
Cash
Trucks
Office equipment
Accounts payable
Notes payable
Capital stock
Service revenue
Gas and oil expense
Salaries expense
Rent expense

c. Prepare a trial balance as of 2010 April 30.

Alternate problem C Rapid Pick Up & Delivery, Inc., was organized 2010 January 1. Its chart of
accounts is as follows:
Acct.
No.
100
103
150
160
172
200
201
300
310
400
506
507
511
512
515
530

Account title
Cash
Accounts receivable
Trucks
Office furniture
Office equipment
Accounts payable
Notes payable
Capital stock
Retained earnings
Service revenue
Gas and oil expense
Salaries expense
Utilities expense
Insurance expense
Rent expense
Repairs expense

Jan. 1 The company received USD 560,000 cash and USD 240,000 of office furniture in exchange
for USD 800,000 of capital stock.
2 Paid garage rent for January, USD 6,000.
4 Purchased computers on account, USD 13,200.
6 Purchased delivery trucks for USD 280,000; payment was made by giving cash of USD 150,000
and a 30-day note for the remainder.
Jan 12 Purchased insurance for January on the delivery trucks. The cost of the policy, USD 800, was
paid in cash.
p. 136 of 433

15 Received and paid January utilities bills, USD 960.

15 Paid salaries for first half of January, USD 3,600.
17 Cash received for delivery services to date amounted to USD 1,800.
20 Received bill for gasoline purchased and used in January, USD 180.
23 Purchased delivery trucks for cash, USD 108,000.
25 Cash sales of delivery services were USD 2,880.
27 Purchased a copy machine on account, USD 3,600.
31 Paid salaries for last half of January, USD 4,800.
31 Sales of delivery services on account amounted to USD 11,400.
31 Paid for repairs to a delivery truck, USD 1,120.
a. Prepare general ledger accounts for all these accounts except Retained Earnings. The Retained
Earnings account has a beginning balance of zero and maintains this balance throughout the period.
b. Journalize the transactions given for 2010 January in the general journal.
c. Post the journal entries to ledger accounts.
d. Prepare a trial balance as of 2010 January 31.
Alternate problem 4 The trial balance of California Tennis Center, Inc., at the end of the first 11
months of its fiscal year follows:

p. 137 of 433

CALIFORNIA TENNIS CENTER, INC.

Trial Balance
2010 November 30
Acct.
No.
100

Account Title
Cash

Debits
$71,180

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

81,750

130

Land

60,000

200

Accounts Payable

$18,750

201

Notes Payable

15,000

300

Capital Stock

50,000

310

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

53,700

413

Membership and Lesson Revenue

505

Advertising Expense

21,000

507

Salaries Expense

66,000

511

Utilities Expense

2,100

515

Rent Expense

33,000

518

Supplies Expense

2,250

530

Repairs Expense

1,500

531

Entertainment Expense

870

540

Interest Expense

300

202,500

$339,950

$339,950

Dec. 1 Paid building rent for December, USD 4,000.

2 Paid vendors on account, USD 18,000.
5 Purchased land for cash, USD 10,000.
7 Sold memberships on account for December, USD 27,000.
10 Paid the note payable of USD 15,000, plus interest of USD 150.
13 Cash collections from customers on account, USD 36,000.
19 Received a bill for repairs, USD 225.
24 Paid the December utilities bill, USD 180.
28 Received a bill for December advertising, USD 1,650.
29 Paid the equipment repair bill received on the 19th, USD 225.
30 Gave tennis lessons for cash, USD 4,500.
30 Paid salaries, USD 6,000.
30 Sales of memberships on account since December 7, USD 18,000 (for the month of December).
30 Costs paid in entertaining customers in December, USD 350.
30 Paid dividends of USD 1,500. (The Dividends account is No. 320.)

p. 138 of 433

a. Open three-column general ledger accounts for each of the accounts in the trial balance. Place the
word Balance in the explanation space and enter the date 2010 December 1, on this same line. Also
open an account for Dividends, No. 320.
b. Prepare entries in the general journal for the transactions during December 2010.
c. Post the journal entries to ledger accounts.
d. Prepare a trial balance as of 2010 December 31.
Alternate problem E Bill Baxter prepared a trial balance for Special Party Rentals, Inc., a
company that rents tables, chairs, and other party supplies. The trial balance did not balance. The trial
balance he prepared was as follows:
SPECIAL PARTY RENTALS, INC.
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Acct.
No.

Account Title

Debits

Credits

100

Cash

$ 74,000

103

Accounts Receivable

50,800

170

Equipment

160,000

200

Accounts Payable

$ 34,000

300

Capital Stock

130,000

310

Retained Earnings

320

Dividends

400

Service Revenue

505

Advertising Expense

1,200

507

Salaries Expense

176,000

511

Utilities Expense

44,800

515

Rent Expense

64,000

44,000
16,000
432,000

$ 586,800

$ 640,000

In trying to f ind out why the trial balance did not balance, Baxter discovered the following errors:
Equipment was understated (too low) by USD 12,000 because of an error in addition in
determining the balance of that account in the ledger.
A credit of USD 4,800 to Accounts Receivable in the journal was not posted to the ledger account at
all.
A debit of USD 16,000 for a semiannual dividend was posted as a credit to the Capital Stock
account.
The balance of USD 12,000 in the Advertising Expense account was entered as USD 1,200 in the
trial balance.

p. 139 of 433

Miscellaneous Expense (Account No. 568), with a balance of USD 3,200, was omitted from the trial
balance.
Prepare a corrected trial balance as of 2010 December 31. Also, write a description of the effect(s) of
each error.

3.12.7

Beyond the numbersCritical thinking

Business decision case A John Jacobs lost his job as a carpenter with a contractor when a
recession hit the construction industry. Jacobs had been making USD 50,000 per year. He decided to
form his own company, Jacobs Corporation, and do home repairs.
The following is a summary of the transactions of the business during the first three months of
operations in 2010:
Jan. 15 Stockholders invested USD 40,000 in the business.
Feb. 25 Received payment of USD 4,400 for remodeling a basement into a recreation room. The
homeowner purchased all of the building materials.
Mar. 5 Paid cash for an advertisement that appeared in the local newspaper, USD 150.
Apr. 10 Received USD 7,000 for converting a room over a garage into an office for a college
professor. The professor purchased all of the materials for the job.
11 Paid gas and oil expenses for automobile, USD 900.
12 Miscellaneous business expenses were paid, USD 450.
15 Paid dividends of USD 2,000.
a. Prepare journal entries for these transactions.
b. Post the journal entries to T-accounts.
c. How profitable is this new venture? Should Jacobs stay in this business?
Annual report analysis B Refer to the Annual Report of The Limited, Inc. in the Annual Report
Appendix. Perform horizontal and vertical analyses of the liabilities and stockholder's equity sections
of the balance sheets for the two most recent years shown. Horizontal analysis involves showing the
dollar amount and percentage increase or decrease of the latest year over the preceding year amounts.
Vertical analysis involves showing the percentage of total liabilities and stockholder's equity that each
account represents as of the balance sheet dates. Write comments on any important changes between
the two years that are evidence of decisions made by management.

p. 140 of 433

Annual report analysis C In The Home Depot's recent Annual Report, the following passages
appear:

The primary key to our success is our 39,000 employees who wear those orange aprons you see in our stores.
Few great achievementsin business or in any aspect of lifeare reached and sustained without the support
and involvement of large numbers of people committed to shared values and goals they deem worthy. Indeed, one
need look no further than the business section of the morning newspaper to read of how yet another "blue chip"
American business, entrenched in and isolated by its own bureaucracy, has lost the support of its employees and
customers...
Frankly, the biggest difference between The Home Depot and our competitors is not the products on our
shelves, it is our people and their ability to forge strong bonds of loyalty and trust with our customers...
...Contrary to conventional management wisdom, those at the top of organization charts are not the source of
all wisdom. Many of our best ideas come from the people who work on the sales floor. We encourage our
employees to challenge senior management directives if they feel strongly enough about their dissenting
opinions...
...We want our people to be themselves and to be bold enough to apply their talents as individuals. Certainly,
people can often perceive great risk acting this way. Thus, we go to great lengths to empower our employees to be
mavericks, to express differences of opinion without fear of being fired or demoted...We do everything we can to
make people feel challenged and inspired at work instead of being threatened and made to feel insecure. An
organization can, after all, accomplish more when people work together instead of against each other.
Write answers to the following questions:
a. Do you think The Home Depot management regards its employees more as expenses or assets?
Explain.
b. What does The Home Depot regard as its most valuable asset? Explain your answer.
c. Is The Home Depot permitted to list its human resources as assets on its balance sheet? Why or
why not?
d. Could its philosophy regarding its employees be the major factor in its outstanding financial
performance? Explain.
Ethics case Writing experience D Refer to "An ethical perspective: Financial deals, Inc.".
Write out the answers to the following questions:
a. What motivated Larry to go along with unethical and illegal actions? Explain.

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b. What are Larry's options now? List each possibility.

c. What would you do if you were Larry? Describe in detail.
d. What do you think the real Larry did? Describe in detail.
Group project E In teams of two or three students, interview in person or by speakerphone a new
staff member who has worked for a CPA firm for only one or two years. Seek information on the
advantages and disadvantages of working for a CPA firm. Also, inquire about the nature of the work
and the training programs offered by the firm for new employees. As a team, write a memorandum to
the instructor summarizing the results of the interview. The heading of the memorandum should
contain the date, to whom it is written, from whom, and the subject matter.
Group project F With one or two other students and using library resources, write a report on the
life of Luca Pacioli, sometimes referred to as the father of accounting. Pacioli was a Franciscan monk
who wrote a book on double-entry accounting in 1494. Be careful to cite sources and treat direct quotes
properly. (If you do not know how to do this, ask your instructor.)

3.12.8

Using the InternetA view of the real world

Visit the following website:

http://www.roberthalf.com
Click on Job Seekers. Read the information and write a memo to your instructor about your search
and what you learned about certain jobs in accounting.
Visit the following website:
http://www.sec.gov
Investigate this site for anything of interest. Write a memo to your instructor about your search.

3.12.9
3.12.9.1

Answers to self-test
True-false

False. Only the last five steps are performed at the end of the period. The first three steps are
performed throughout the accounting period.
True. The journal is the book of original entry. Any amounts appearing in a ledger account must
have been posted from the journal.
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False. The left side of any account is the debit side.

False. These accounts are all increased by credits.
True. Since dividends reduce stockholders' equity, the Dividends account is increased by debits.
False. An entire journal entry may not have been posted, or a debit or credit might have been
posted to the wrong account.

3.12.9.2

Multiple-choice

c. An asset, Cash, is increased by a debit, and the Capital Stock account is increased by a credit.
b. Since the insurance covers more than the current accounting period, an asset is debited instead
of an expense. The credit is to Cash.
a. The receipt of cash before services are performed creates a liability, Unearned Delivery Fees. To
increase a liability, it is credited. Cash is debited to increase its balance.
b. Cash is increased by the debit, and Delivery Service Revenue is increased by the credit.

c. Dividends is increased by the debit, and Cash is decreased by the credit.

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4 Adjustments for financial reporting

4.1 Learning objectives

Describe the basic characteristics of the cash basis and the accrual basis of accounting.

Identify the reasons why adjusting entries must be made.

Identify the classes and types of adjusting entries.

Prepare adjusting entries.

Determine the effects of failing to prepare adjusting entries.

Analyze and use the financial results and trend percentages.

4.2 A career as a tax specialist

While most students are aware that accountants frequently assist their clients with tax returns and
other tax issues, few are aware of the large number of diverse and challenging careers available in the
field of taxation. Nearly all public accounting firms, ranging from the Big 4 international firms to the
sole practitioner, generate a significant portion of their fees through tax compliance, planning and
consulting. With over 155 million individual tax returns filed in the US every year, it is not surprising
that many individuals and most businesses need assistance in dealing with the incredibly complex US
and international tax laws. This complexity also provides tremendous tax planning opportunities. As a
tax specialist, you will show individual clients how to reduce their taxes while simultaneously helping
them make decisions about investing, buying a house, funding their childrens education, and planning
their retirement. For your business clients, careful planning and structuring of business investments
and transactions can save millions of dollars in taxes. In fact, it is safe to say that very few significant
business transactions take place without the careful guidance of a tax specialist.
A career in taxation is by no means limited to public accounting. Because there are so many types of
taxes impacting so many aspects of our lives, tax specialists act as consultants in a large number of
fields. For example, many companies offer deferred compensation or stock bonus plans to their
executives. Nearly all companies provide some sort of pension or other retirement plan for their
employees, as well as health care benefits. Significant tax savings can be generated for both the
company and their employees if these benefits are structured correctly. In response to the amazing
complexity of our tax laws, many schools offer masters degrees specializing in tax. Such a degree is not
required to specialize in tax, but does offer students a significant advantage if they want to pursue a
career in taxation. In a recent survey of 1,400 chief financial officers, the top two responses to the
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question which one of the following areas of specialization would you recommend to someone just
beginning his or her career in accounting? were personal financial planning and tax accounting. These
responses reflect the indisputable fact that as the US demographic includes more wealthy, and older,
Americans than ever before, professional tax guidance will be in ever-increasing demand.
The career paths outlined above do not nearly cover all of the many professional options available to
tax specialists. For example, are you concerned that a traditional tax accounting job may be too tame
for you? Special agents of the IRS routinely participate in criminal investigations and arrests, working
closely with other federal law enforcement agencies. Are you interested in law? Accounting offers an
ideal undergraduate degree for aspiring business and tax attorneys. If you think you may be interested
in a career as a tax specialist, be sure to consult with one of your schools tax professors about the many
job opportunities this field provides.
Chapters 1 and 2 introduced the accounting process of analyzing, classifying, and summarizing
business transactions into accounts. You learned how these transactions are entered into the journal
and posted to the ledger accounts. You also know how to use the trial balance to test the equality of
debits and credits in the journalizing and posting process. The purpose of the accounting process is to
produce accurate financial statements so they may be used for making sound business decisions. At
this point in your study of accounting, you are concentrating on three financial statementsthe income
statement, the statement of retained earnings, and the balance sheet. Detailed coverage of the
statement of cash flows appears in Chapter 16.
When you began to analyze business transactions in Chapter 1, you saw that the evidence of the
transaction is usually a source document. It is any written or printed evidence that describes the
essential facts of a business transaction. Examples are receipts for cash paid or received, checks written
or received, bills sent to customers, or bills received from suppliers. The giving, receiving, or creating of
source documents triggered the journal entries made in Chapter 2.
The journal entries we discuss in this chapter are adjusting entries. The arrival of the end of the
accounting period triggers adjusting entries. Accountants use adjusting entries to bring accounts to
their proper balances before preparing financial statements. In this chapter, you learn the difference
between the cash basis and accrual basis of accounting. Then you learn about the classes and types of
adjusting entries and how to prepare them.

4.3 Cash versus accrual basis accounting

Professionals such as physicians and lawyers and some relatively small businesses may account for
their revenues and expenses on a cash basis. The cash basis of accounting recognizes revenues
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when cash is received and recognizes expenses when cash is paid out. For example, under the cash
basis, a company would treat services rendered to clients in 2010 for which the company collected cash
in 2011 as 2011 revenues. Similarly, under the cash basis, a company would treat expenses incurred in
2010 for which the company disbursed cash in 2011 as 2011 expenses. Under the pure cash basis,
even the purchase of a building would be debited to an expense. However, under the modified cash
basis, the purchase of long-lived assets (such as a building) would be debited to an asset and
depreciated (gradually charged to expense) over its useful life. Normally the modified cash basis is
used by those few individuals and small businesses that use the cash basis.

Cash Basis

Accrual Basis

Revenues are recognized

As cash is received

As earned (goods are

delivered or services are

Expenses are recognized

As cash is paid

performed)
As incurred to produce
revenues

Exhibit 14: Cash basis and accrual basis of accounting compared

Because the cash basis of accounting does not match expenses incurred and revenues earned, it is
generally considered theoretically unacceptable. The cash basis is acceptable in practice only under
those circumstances when it approximates the results that a company could obtain under the accrual
basis of accounting. Companies using the cash basis do not have to prepare any adjusting entries
unless they discover they have made a mistake in preparing an entry during the accounting period.
Under certain circumstances, companies may use the cash basis for income tax purposes.
Throughout the text we use the accrual basis of accounting, which matches expenses incurred and
revenues earned, because most companies use the accrual basis. The accrual basis of accounting
recognizes revenues when sales are made or services are performed, regardless of when cash is
received. Expenses are recognized as incurred, whether or not cash has been paid out. For instance,
assume a company performs services for a customer on account. Although the company has received
no cash, the revenue is recorded at the time the company performs the service. Later, when the
company receives the cash, no revenue is recorded because the company has already recorded the
revenue. Under the accrual basis, adjusting entries are needed to bring the accounts up to date for
unrecorded economic activity that has taken place. In Exhibit 14, shown below, we show when
revenues and expenses are recognized under the cash basis and under the accrual basis.

p. 146 of 433

4.4 The need for adjusting entries

The income statement of a business reports all revenues earned and all expenses incurred to
generate those revenues during a given period. An income statement that does not report all revenues
and expenses is incomplete, inaccurate, and possibly misleading. Similarly, a balance sheet that does
not report all of an entitys assets, liabilities, and stockholders equity at a specific time may be
misleading. Each adjusting entry has a dual purpose: (1) to make the income statement report the
proper revenue or expense and (2) to make the balance sheet report the proper asset or liability. Thus,
every adjusting entry affects at least one income statement account and one balance sheet account.
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
Subtotal
December
Total Companies

30
9
16
8
18
49
8
14
42
17
13
224
376
600

Source' American Institute of Certified Public Accountants

Accounting Trends & Techniques (New York' AICPA, 2004) p39

Exhibit 15: Summary-fiscal year ending by month

Since those interested in the activities of a business need timely information, companies must
prepare financial statements periodically. To prepare such statements, the accountant divides an
entitys life into time periods. These time periods are usually equal in length and are called accounting
periods. An accounting period may be one month, one quarter, or one year. An accounting year,
or fiscal year, is an accounting period of one year. A fiscal year is any 12 consecutive months. The
fiscal year may or may not coincide with the calendar year, which ends on December 31. As we show
in Exhibit 15, 63 per cent of the companies surveyed in 2004 had fiscal years that coincide with the
calendar year. In 2008, the comparable figure for publicly-traded companies in the US was 65 per cent.
Companies in certain industries often have a fiscal year that differs from the calendar year. For
instance many retail stores end their fiscal year on January 31 to avoid closing their books during their
peak sales period. Other companies select a fiscal year ending at a time when inventories and business
activity are lowest.
Periodic reporting and the matching principle necessitate the preparation of adjusting entries.
Adjusting entries are journal entries made at the end of an accounting period or at any time

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financial statements are to be prepared to bring about a proper matching of revenues and expenses.
The matching principle requires that expenses incurred in producing revenues be deducted from
the revenues they generated during the accounting period. The matching principle is one of the
underlying principles of accounting. This matching of expenses and revenues is necessary for the
income statement to present an accurate picture of the profitability of a business. Adjusting entries
reflect unrecorded economic activity that has taken place but has not yet been recorded. Why has the
company not recorded this activity by the end of the period? One reason is that it is more convenient
and economical to wait until the end of the period to record the activity. A second reason is that no
source document concerning that activity has yet come to the accountants attention.
Adjusting entries bring the amounts in the general ledger accounts to their proper balances before
the company prepares its financial statements. That is, adjusting entries convert the amounts that are
actually in the general ledger accounts to the amounts that should be in the general ledger accounts for
proper financial reporting. To make this conversion, the accountants analyze the accounts to determine
which need adjustment. For example, assume a company purchased a three-year insurance policy
costing USD 600 at the beginning of the year and debited USD 600 to Prepaid Insurance. At year-end,
the company should remove USD 200 of the cost from the asset and record it as an expense. Failure to
do so misstates assets and net income on the financial statements.

Exhibit 16: Two classes and four types of adjusting entries

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Companies continuously receive benefits from many assets such as prepaid expenses (e.g. prepaid
insurance and prepaid rent). Thus, an entry could be made daily to record the expense incurred.
Typically, firms do not make the entry until financial statements are to be prepared. Therefore, if
monthly financial statements are prepared, monthly adjusting entries are required. By custom, and in
some instances by law, businesses report to their owners at least annually. Accordingly, adjusting
entries are required at least once a year. Remember, however, that the entry transferring an amount
from an asset account to an expense account should transfer only the asset cost that has expired.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

Eventually, computers will probably enter adjusting entries continuously on a realtime basis so that up-to-date financial statements can be printed at any time without
prior notice. Computers will be fed the facts concerning activities that would normally
result in adjusting entries and instructed to seek any necessary information from their
own databases or those of other computers to continually adjust the accounts.

4.5 Classes and types of adjusting entries

Adjusting entries fall into two broad classes: deferred (meaning to postpone or delay) items and
accrued (meaning to grow or accumulate) items. Deferred items consist of adjusting entries
involving data previously recorded in accounts. These entries involve the transfer of data already
recorded in asset and liability accounts to expense and revenue accounts, respectively. Accrued items
consist of adjusting entries relating to activity on which no data have been previously recorded in the
accounts. These entries involve the initial, or first, recording of assets and liabilities and the related
revenues and expenses (see Exhibit 16).
Deferred items consist of two types of adjusting entries: asset/expense adjustments and
liability/revenue adjustments. For example, prepaid insurance and prepaid rent are assets until they
are used up; then they become expenses. Also, unearned revenue is a liability until the company
renders the service; then the unearned revenue becomes earned revenue.
Accrued items consist of two types of adjusting entries: asset/revenue adjustments and
liability/expense adjustments. For example, assume a company performs a service for a customer but
has not yet billed the customer. The accountant records this transaction as an asset in the form of a
receivable and as revenue because the company has earned a revenue. Also, assume a company owes

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its employees salaries not yet paid. The accountant records this transaction as a liability and an
expense because the company has incurred an expense.
MICROTRAIN COMPANY
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Acct.
No.
100

Account Title
Cash

Debits
$ 8,250

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

5,200

107

Supplies on Hand

1,400

108

Prepaid Insurance

2,400

112

Prepaid Rent

1,200

150

Trucks

40,000

200

Accounts Payable

$ 730

216

Unearned Service Fees

4,500

300

Capital Stock

320

Dividends

400

Service Revenue

505

Advertising Expense

50

506

Gas and Oil Expense

680

507

Salaries Expense

3,600

511

Utilities Expense

150
$65,930

50,000
3,000
10,700

$65,930

Exhibit 17: Trial balance

In this chapter, we illustrate each of the four types of adjusting entries: asset/expense,
liability/revenue, asset/revenue, and liability/expense. Look at Exhibit 17, the trial balance of the
MicroTrain Company at 2010 December 31. As you can see, MicroTrain must adjust several accounts
before it can prepare accurate financial statements. The adjustments for these accounts involve data
already recorded in the companys accounts.
In making adjustments for MicroTrain Company, we must add several accounts to the companys
chart of accounts shown in Chapter 2. These new accounts are:
Type of Account
Asset
Contra asset*
Liability Revenue
Expenses

Acct.
No.
121
151
206
418
512
515
518
521

Account Title
Interest Receivable
Accumulated
DeprecationTrucks
Salaries Payable
Interest Revenue
Insurance Expense
Rent Expense
Supplies Expense
Depreciation Expense

Description
The amount of interest earned but not
yet received. The total depreciation
expense taken on trucks since the
acquisition date. The balance of this
account is deducted from that of Trucks
on the balance sheet.
The amount of salaries earned
by employees but not yet paid
by the company.

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Trucks

*Accountants deduct the balance of a contra asset from the balance of the related reasons for using a
contra asset account later in the chapter.

The amount of interest earned

in the current period.
The cost of insurance incurred
in the current period.
The cost of rent incurred in
the current period.
The cost of supplies used in
the current period.
The portion of the cost of the
trucks assigned to expense
during the current period.
asset account on the balance sheet. We explain the

Now you are ready to follow as MicroTrain Company makes its adjustments for deferred items. If
you find the process confusing, review the beginning of this chapter so you clearly understand the
purpose of adjusting entries.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

It is difficult to name a publicly owned company that does not provide an extensive
website. In fact, websites have become an important link between companies and their
investors. Most websites will have a link titled investor relations or merely company
information which provides a wealth of financial information ranging from audited
financial statements to charts of the company's stock prices. As an example, check out
the Gap, Incs website at:
http://www.gapinc.com
Browse the Gap site and see for yourself the comprehensiveness of the financial
information available there.

4.6 Adjustments for deferred items

This section discusses the two types of adjustments for deferred items: asset/expense adjustments
and liability/revenue adjustments. In the asset/expense group, you learn how to prepare adjusting
entries for prepaid expenses and depreciation. In the liability/revenue group, you learn how to prepare
adjusting entries for unearned revenues.
MicroTrain Company must make several asset/expense adjustments for prepaid expenses. A
prepaid expense is an asset awaiting assignment to expense, such as prepaid insurance, prepaid
rent, and supplies on hand. Note that the nature of these three adjustments is the same.
Prepaid insurance When a company pays an insurance policy premium in advance, the purchase
creates the asset, prepaid insurance. This advance payment is an asset because the company will
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receive insurance coverage in the future. With the passage of time, however, the asset gradually
expires. The portion that has expired becomes an expense. To illustrate this point, recall that in
Chapter 2, MicroTrain Company purchased for cash an insurance policy on its trucks for the period
2010 December 1, to 2011 November 30. The journal entry made on 2010 December 1, to record the
purchase of the policy was:
2010
Dec.

Prepaid Insurance

2,400

Cash

2400

Purchased truck insurance to cover a one-year period.

The two accounts relating to insurance are Prepaid Insurance (an asset) and Insurance Expense (an
expense). After posting this entry, the Prepaid Insurance account has a USD 2,400 debit balance on
2010 December 1. The Insurance Expense account has a zero balance on 2010 December 1, because no
time has elapsed to use any of the policys benefits.
(Dr.)
2010

Prepaid Insurance

Dec. 1
Bal.

(Cr)

(Dr.)
2010

Insurance Expense

(Cr)

Dec. 1
2,400

Bal.

-0-

By 2010 December 31, one month of the year covered by the policy has expired. Therefore, part of
the service potential (or benefit obtained from the asset) has expired. The asset now provides less
future services or benefits than when the company acquired it. We recognize this reduction by treating
the cost of the services received from the asset as an expense. For the MicroTrain Company example,
the service received was one month of insurance coverage. Since the policy provides the same services
for every month of its one-year life, we assign an equal amount (USD 200) of cost to each month. Thus,
MicroTrain charges 1/12 of the annual premium to Insurance Expense on 2010 December 31. The
adjusting journal entry is:
2010
Dec.

31 Insurance Expense
Prepaid Insurance

200

Adjustment
200

1Insurance

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To record insurance expense for December.

After posting these two journal entries, the accounts in T-account format appear as follows:
(Dr.)

(Cr)

Prepaid Insurance

2010
Dec. 1 Purchased
on account 2,400

2010
Dec. 31 Adjustment 1

Decreased by $200

Bal. After adjustment

(Dr.)
Insurance Expense
Increased by
$200

2010
31
Adjustment 1

200

2,200

(Cr.)

200

In practice, accountants do not use T-accounts. Instead, they use three-column ledger accounts that
have the advantage of showing a balance after each transaction. After posting the preceding two
entries, the three-column ledger accounts appear as follows:
Prepaid Insurance
Date
Dec. 2010

Explanation

Post Ref.

Debit

Purchased on Account

G1

2400

31

Adjustment

G3*

Credit

Balance
2400 Dr.

200

2200 Dr.

Credit

Balance

Insurance Expense
Date
Dec. 2010

31

Explanation

Post Ref.

Debit

Adjustment

G3*

200

200 Dr.

*Assumed page number

Before this adjusting entry was made, the entire USD 2,400 insurance payment made on 2010
December 1, was a prepaid expense for 12 months of protection. So on 2010 December 31, one month
of protection had passed, and an adjusting entry transferred USD 200 of the USD 2,400 (USD
2,400/12 = USD 200) to Insurance Expense. On the income statement for the year ended 2010
December 31, MicroTrain reports one month of insurance expense, USD 200, as one of the expenses it
incurred in generating that years revenues. It reports the remaining amount of the prepaid expense,
USD 2,200, as an asset on the balance sheet. The USD 2,200 prepaid expense represents 11 months of
insurance protection that remains as a future benefit.
Prepaid rent Prepaid rent is another example of the gradual consumption of a previously
recorded asset. Assume a company pays rent in advance to cover more than one accounting period. On

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the date it pays the rent, the company debits the prepayment to the Prepaid Rent account (an asset
account). The company has not yet received benefits resulting from this expenditure. Thus, the
expenditure creates an asset.
We measure rent expense similarly to insurance expense. Generally, the rental contract specifies the
amount of rent per unit of time. If the prepayment covers a three-month rental, we charge one-third of
this rental to each month. Notice that the amount charged is the same each month even though some
months have more days than other months.
For example, MicroTrain Company paid USD 1,200 rent in advance on 2010 December 28, to cover
a three-month period beginning on that date. The journal entry would be:
2010
Dec.

Prepaid Rent

1,200

Cash

1,200

Paid three months' rent on a building.

The two accounts relating to rent are Prepaid Rent (an asset) and Rent Expense. After this entry is
posted, the Prepaid Rent account has a USD 1,200 balance and the Rent Expense account has a zero
balance because no part of the rent period has yet elapsed.
(Dr.)
2010

(Cr)

Prepaid Rent

Dec. 1
Bal. Cash Paid

(Dr.)
2010

(Cr)

Rent Expense

Dec. 1
1,200

Bal.

-0-

On 2010 December 31, MicroTrain must prepare an adjusting entry. Since one third of the period
covered by the prepaid rent has elapsed, it charges one-third of the USD 1,200 of prepaid rent to
expense. The required adjusting entry is:
2010
Dec.
Adjustment
2Rent

31 Rent Expense
Prepaid Rent To record rent expense for December

400
400

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After posting this adjusting entry, the T-accounts appear as follows:

Increased by
$400

(Dr.)

Prepaid Rent

2010
Dec. 1 Cash Paid
Bal. after adjustment

1,200

(Dr.)

Rent Expense

2010
Dec.
31
Adjustment 2

400

2010 Dec. 31
Adjustment 2

(Cr)
Decreased

400

800

by $400

(Cr)

The USD 400 rent expense appears in the income statement for the year ended 2010 December 31.
MicroTrain reports the remaining USD 800 of prepaid rent as an asset in the balance sheet on 2010
December 31. Thus, the adjusting entries have accomplished their purpose of maintaining the accuracy
of the financial statements.
Supplies on hand Almost every business uses supplies in its operations. It may classify supplies
simply as supplies (to include all types of supplies), or more specifically as office supplies (paper,
stationery, floppy diskettes, pencils), selling supplies (gummed tape, string, paper bags, cartons,
wrapping paper), or training supplies (transparencies, training manuals). Frequently, companies buy
supplies in bulk. These supplies are an asset until the company uses them. This asset may be called
supplies on hand or supplies inventory. Even though these terms indicate a prepaid expense, the firm
does not use prepaid in the assets title.
On 2010 December 4, MicroTrain Company purchased supplies for USD 1,400 and recorded the
transaction as follows:
2010
Dec.

Supplies on Hand
Cash
To record the purchase of supplies for future use.

1,400

1,400

MicroTrains two accounts relating to supplies are Supplies on Hand (an asset) and Supplies
Expense. After this entry is posted, the Supplies on Hand account shows a debit balance of USD 1,400
and the Supplies Expense account has a zero balance as shown in the following T-accounts:
(Dr.)
2010
Dec. 4
Bal. Cash Paid

Supplies

1,400

On Hand

(Cr.)

(Dr.)
2010
Dec. 4
Bal.

Supplies

Expense

(Cr.)

-0-

An actual physical inventory (a count of the supplies on hand) at the end of the month showed only
USD 900 of supplies on hand. Thus, the company must have used USD 500 of supplies in December.

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An adjusting journal entry brings the two accounts pertaining to supplies to their proper balances. The
adjusting entry recognizes the reduction in the asset (Supplies on Hand) and the recording of an
expense (Supplies Expense) by transferring USD 500 from the asset to the expense. According to the
physical inventory, the asset balance should be USD 900 and the expense balance, USD 500. So
MicroTrain makes the following adjusting entry:
2010
Dec.

31 Supplies Expense

500

Supplies on Hand
To record supplies used during December.

Adjustment
500

3Supplies

After posting this adjusting entry, the T-accounts appear as follows:

(Dr.)

(Dr.)
Increased by
$500

(Cr)

Supplies on Hand

2010
Dec. 4 Cash Paid 1,400
Bal. after
900 adjustment
Supplies Expense

2010
Dec 31 Adjustment 3

2010
Dec. 31 Adjustment 3

Decreased by $500
500

(Cr.)
500

The entry to record the use of supplies could be made when the supplies are issued from the
storeroom. However, such careful accounting for small items each time they are issued is usually too
costly a procedure.
Accountants make adjusting entries for supplies on hand, like for any other prepaid expense, before
preparing financial statements. Supplies expense appears in the income statement. Supplies on hand is
an asset in the balance sheet.
Sometimes companies buy assets relating to insurance, rent, and supplies knowing that they will
use them up before the end of the current accounting period (usually one month or one year). If so, an
expense account is usually debited at the time of purchase rather than debiting an asset account. This
procedure avoids having to make an adjusting entry at the end of the accounting period. Sometimes,
too, a company debits an expense even though the asset will benefit more than the current period.
Then, at the end of the accounting period, the firms adjusting entry transfers some of the cost from the
expense to the asset. For instance, assume that on January 1, a company paid USD 1,200 rent to cover
a three-year period and debited the USD 1,200 to Rent Expense. At the end of the year, it transfers
USD 800 from Rent Expense to Prepaid Rent. To simplify our approach, we will consistently debit the
asset when the asset will benefit more than the current accounting period.
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Depreciation Just as prepaid insurance and prepaid rent indicate a gradual using up of a
previously recorded asset, so does depreciation. However, the overall time involved in using up a
depreciable asset (such as a building) is much longer and less definite than for prepaid expenses. Also,
a prepaid expense generally involves a fairly small amount of money. Depreciable assets, however,
usually involve larger sums of money.
A depreciable asset is a manufactured asset such as a building, machine, vehicle, or piece of
equipment that provides service to a business. In time, these assets lose their utility because of (1) wear
and tear from use or (2) obsolescence due to technological change. Since companies gradually use up
these assets over time, they record depreciation expense on them. Depreciation expense is the
amount of asset cost assigned as an expense to a particular period. The process of recording
depreciation expense is called depreciation accounting. The three factors involved in computing
depreciation expense are:
Asset cost. The asset cost is the amount that a company paid to purchase the depreciable asset.
Estimated residual value. The estimated residual value (scrap value) is the amount

that the company can probably sell the asset for at the end of its estimated useful life.
Estimated useful life. The estimated useful life of an asset is the estimated time that a

company can use the asset. Useful life is an estimate, not an exact measurement, that a company
must make in advance. However, sometimes the useful life is determined by company policy (e.g.
keep a fleet of automobiles for three years).
Accountants use different methods for recording depreciation. The method illustrated here is the
straight-line method. We discuss other depreciation methods in Chapter 10. Straight-line depreciation
assigns the same amount of depreciation expense to each accounting period over the life of the asset.
The depreciation formula (straight-line) to compute straight-line depreciation for a one-year
period is:
Annual deprecation=

Asset cost Estimated residual value

Estimated years of useful life

To illustrate the use of this formula, recall that on December 1, MicroTrain Company purchased
four small trucks at a cost of USD 40,000. The journal entry was:
2010
Dec.

Trucks
Cash

40,000
40,000

To record the purchase of four trucks.

p. 157 of 433

The estimated residual value for each truck was USD 1,000, so MicroTrain estimated the total
residual value for all four trucks at USD 4,000. The company estimated the useful life of each truck to
be four years. Using the straight-line depreciation formula, MicroTrain calculated the annual
depreciation on the trucks as follows:
Annual deprecation =

USD 40,000 USD 4,000

=USD 9,000
4 years

The amount of depreciation expense for one month would be 1/12 of the annual amount. Thus,
depreciation expense for December is USD 9,000 12 = USD 750.
The difference between an assets cost and its estimated residual value is an assets depreciable
amount. To satisfy the matching principle, the firm must allocate the depreciable amount as an
expense to the various periods in the assets useful life. It does this by debiting the amount of
depreciation for a period to a depreciation expense account and crediting the amount to an
accumulated depreciation account. MicroTrains depreciation on its delivery trucks for December is
USD 750. The company records the depreciation as follows:
2010
Dec.

31 Depreciation Expense Trucks

750

Accumulated Depreciation - Trucks

750

Adjusted 4Depreciation

To record depreciation expense for December.

After posting the adjusting entry, the T-accounts appear as follow:

(Dr.)

Depreciation ExpenseTrucks

Increased by
$750

2010
Dec 31 Adjustment 4

(Dr.)

(Cr)

750

Accumulated DepreciationTrucks (Cr.)

Increased by $750
(book value of asset
decreased)

2010
Dec. 31 Adjustment 4 750

MicroTrain reports depreciation expense in its income statement. And it reports accumulated
depreciation in the balance sheet as a deduction from the related asset.

p. 158 of 433

The accumulated depreciation account is a contra asset account that shows the total of all
depreciation recorded on the asset from the date of acquisition up through the balance sheet date. A
contra asset account is a deduction from the asset to which it relates in the balance sheet. The
purpose of a contra asset account is to reduce the original cost of the asset down to its remaining
undepreciated cost or book value. The accumulated depreciation account does not represent cash that
is being set aside to replace the worn out asset. The undepreciated cost of the asset is the debit balance
in the asset account (original cost) minus the credit balance in the accumulated depreciation contra
account. Accountants also refer to an assets cost less accumulated depreciation as the book value (or
net book value) of the asset. Thus, book value is the cost not yet allocated to an expense. In the
previous example, the book value of the equipment after the first month is:
Cost
Less: Accumulated depreciation
Book value (or cost not yet allocated to as an expense)

USD 40,000
750
39,250

MicroTrain credits the depreciation amount to an accumulated depreciation account, which is a

contra asset, rather than directly to the asset account. Companies use contra accounts when they want
to show statement readers the original amount of the account to which the contra account relates. For
instance, for the asset Trucks, it is useful to know both the original cost of the asset and the total
accumulated depreciation amount recorded on the asset. Therefore, the asset account shows the
original cost. The contra account, Accumulated DepreciationTrucks, shows the total amount of
recorded depreciation from the date of acquisition. By having both original cost and the accumulated
depreciation amounts, a user can estimate the approximate percentage of the benefits embodied in the
asset that the company has consumed. For instance, assume the accumulated depreciation amount is
about three-fourths the cost of the asset. Then, the benefits would be approximately three-fourths
consumed, and the company may have to replace the asset soon.
Thus, to provide more complete balance sheet information to users of financial statements,
companies show both the original acquisition cost and accumulated depreciation. In the preceding
example for adjustment 4, the balance sheet at 2010 December 31, would show the asset and contra
asset as follows:

Trucks
Less: Accumulated deprecation

Assets

USD 40,000
750
USD 39,250

p. 159 of 433

As you may expect, the accumulated depreciation account balance increases each period by the
amount of depreciation expense recorded until the remaining book value of the asset equals the
estimated residual value.
A liability/revenue adjustment involving unearned revenues covers situations in which a customer
has transferred assets, usually cash, to the selling company before the receipt of merchandise or
services. Receiving assets before they are earned creates a liability called unearned revenue. The
firm debits such receipts to the asset account Cash and credits a liability account. The liability account
credited may be Unearned Fees, Revenue Received in Advance, Advances by Customers, or some
similar title. The seller must either provide the services or return the customers money. By performing
the services, the company earns revenue and cancels the liability.
Companies receive advance payments for many items, such as training services, delivery services,
tickets, and magazine or newspaper subscriptions. Although we illustrate and discuss only advanced
receipt of training fees, firms treat the other items similarly.
Unearned service fees On December 7, MicroTrain Company received USD 4,500 from a
customer in payment for future training services. The firm recorded the following journal entry:
2010
Dec.

Cash
Unearned Service Fees
To record the receipt of cash from a customer in payment
for future training services.

4,500
4,500

The two T-accounts relating to training fees are Unearned Service Fees (a liability) and Service
Revenue. These accounts appear as follows on 2010 December 31 (before adjustment):
(Dr.)

Unearned Service Fees

(Cr.)
2010
Dec. 7 Cash received
in advance
4,500

(Dr.)
*The $10,700 balance came

Service Revenue
(Cr.)
2010
Bal. before adjustment
10,700*
from transactions discussed in Chapter 2.

The balance in the Unearned Service Fees liability account established when MicroTrain received
the cash will be converted into revenue as the company performs the training services. Before
MicroTrain prepares its financial statements, it must make an adjusting entry to transfer the amount of
the services performed by the company from a liability account to a revenue account. If we assume that

p. 160 of 433

MicroTrain earned one-third of the USD 4,500 in the Unearned Service Fees account by December 31,
then the company transfers USD 1,500 to the Service Revenue account as follows:
2010
Dec.
Adjustment 5
Revenue earned

31 Unearned Service Fees

Service Revenue
To transfer a portion of training fees from the liability
account to the revenue account.

1,500
1,500

After posting the adjusting entry, the T-accounts would appear as follows:
Decreased by
$1,500

(Dr.)

(Cr.)

Unearned Service Fees

2010

2010

2010 Dec. 31

(Dr.)

Adjustment 5 1,500

Dec. 7 Cash received

in advance

4,500

Bal. after adjustment

3,000

(Cr.)

Service Revenue
2010
Bal. before adjustment Dec. 31
Adjustment 5
Bal. after adjustment

10,700
1,500

Increased by
$1,500

12,200

MicroTrain reports the service revenue in its income statement for 2010. The company reports the
USD 3,000 balance in the Unearned Service Fees account as a liability in the balance sheet. In 2011,
the company will likely earn the USD 3,000 and transfer it to a revenue account.
If MicroTrain does not perform the training services, the company would have to refund the money
to the training service customers. For instance, assume that MicroTrain could not perform the
remaining USD 3,000 of training services and would have to refund the money. Then, the company
would make the following entry:
Unearned Service Fees
Cash

3,000
3,000

To record the refund of unearned training fees.

Thus, the company must either perform the training services or refund the fees. This fact should
strengthen your understanding that unearned service fees and similar items are liabilities.
p. 161 of 433

Accountants make the adjusting entries for deferred items for data already recorded in a companys
asset and liability accounts. They also make adjusting entries for accrued items, which we discuss in
the next section, for business data not yet recorded in the accounting records.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, the average offer to
an accounting major in 2009 was USD 48,334 and tends to increase each year.
According to recent surveys, the market for accounting graduates remains brisk.
Often, one of the chief problems for graduates is how to handle multiple job offers. As
a result of the low unemployment rate, employersespecially small accounting firms
with limited recruiting budgetsare doing whatever they can to grab qualified
candidates.

4.7 Adjustments for accrued items

Accrued items require two types of adjusting entries: asset/revenue adjustments and
liability/expense adjustments. The first groupasset/revenue adjustmentsinvolves accrued assets;
the second groupliability/expense adjustmentsinvolves accrued liabilities.
Accrued assets are assets, such as interest receivable or accounts receivable, that have not been
recorded by the end of an accounting period. These assets represent rights to receive future payments
that are not due at the balance sheet date. To present an accurate picture of the affairs of the business
on the balance sheet, firms recognize these rights at the end of an accounting period by preparing an
adjusting entry to correct the account balances. To indicate the dual nature of these adjustments, they
record a related revenue in addition to the asset. We also call these adjustments accrued revenues
because the revenues must be recorded.
Interest revenue Savings accounts literally earn interest moment by moment. Rarely is payment
of the interest made on the last day of the accounting period. Thus, the accounting records normally do
not show the interest revenue earned (but not yet received), which affects the total assets owned by the
investor, unless the company makes an adjusting entry. The adjusting entry at the end of the
accounting period debits a receivable account (an asset) and credits a revenue account to record the
interest earned and the asset owned.
For example, assume MicroTrain Company has some money in a savings account. On 2010
December 31, the money on deposit has earned one months interest of USD 600, althoug h the
p. 162 of 433

company has not received the interest. An entry must show the amount of interest earned by 2010
December 31, as well as the amount of the asset, interest receivable (the right to receive this interest).
The entry to record the accrual of revenue is:
2010
Adjustment

Dec.

31 Interest Receivable

600

6Interest

Interest Revenue

revenue accrued

To record one month's interest revenue.

600

The T-accounts relating to interest would appear as follows:

(Dr.)
Increased by
$600

2010
Dec 31

Interest Receivable
Adjustment 6

(Cr.)

600

(Dr.)

Interest

Revenue

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 Adjustment 6 600.

Increased by $600

MicroTrain reports the USD 600 debit balance in Interest Receivable as an asset in the 2010
December 31, balance sheet. This asset accumulates gradually with the passage of time. The USD 600
credit balance in Interest Revenue is the interest earned during the month. Recall that in recording
revenue under accrual basis accounting, it does not matter whether the company collects the actual
cash during the year or not. It reports the interest revenue earned during the accounting period in the
income statement.
Unbilled training fees A company may perform services for customers in one accounting period
while it bills for the services in a different accounting period.
MicroTrain Company performed USD 1,000 of training services on account for a client at the end of
December. Since it takes time to do the paper work, MicroTrain will bill the client for the services in
January. The necessary adjusting journal entry at 2010 December 31, is:
Adjustment 7Unbilled

2010
Dec.

31

Accounts Receivable (or Service Fees Receivable)

Service Revenue

1,000

1,000

To record unbilled training services performed in

December.

p. 163 of 433

After posting the adjusting entry, the T-accounts appear as follows:

(Dr.)
2010

Accounts Receivable

Previous bal.

5,200*

(Cr.)

Dec. 31 Adjustment 7 1,000*_

Bal. after adjustment

6,200

*This previous balance came from transactions discussed in Chapter 2.

(Dr.)
Service
Revenue
2010

(Cr.)

Bal. before adjustment

10,700

Dec. 31 Adjustment
5previously
unearned
revenue.

1,500

Dec. 31 Adjustment 7

1,000

Bal. after both adjustments

13200

The service revenue appears in the income statement; the asset, accounts receivable, appears in the
balance sheet.
Accrued liabilities are liabilities not yet recorded at the end of an accounting period. They
represent obligations to make payments not legally due at the balance sheet date, such as employee
salaries. At the end of the accounting period, the company recognizes these obligations by preparing an
adjusting entry including both a liability and an expense. For this reason, we also call these obligations
accrued expenses.
Salaries The recording of the payment of employee salaries usually involves a debit to an expense
account and a credit to Cash. Unless a company pays salaries on the last day of the accounting period
for a pay period ending on that date, it must make an adjusting entry to record any salaries incurred
but not yet paid.
MicroTrain Company paid USD 3,600 of salaries on Friday, 2010 December 28, to cover the first
four weeks of December. The entry made at that time was:
2010
Dec.

28 Salaries Expense
Cash

3,600
3,600

Paid training employee salaries for the first four weeks of

December.

p. 164 of 433

Assuming that the last day of December 2010 falls on a Monday, this expense account does not
show salaries earned by employees for the last day of the month. Nor does any account show the
employers obligation to pay these salaries. The T-accounts pertaining to salaries appear as follows
before adjustment:
(Dr.)
2010 Dec.
28

Salaries Expense
3,600

(Cr)

(Dr.)

Salaries Payable
2010
Dec. 28 Bal.

(Cr)
-0-

If salaries are USD 3,600 for four weeks, they are USD 900 per week. For a five-day workweek,
daily salaries are USD 180. MicroTrain makes the following adjusting entry on December 31 to accrue
salaries for one day:
2010
Dec.

31 Salaries Expense

180

Salaries Payable

180

To accrue one day's salaries that were earned but not paid.

After adjustment, the two T-accounts involved appear as follows:

(Dr.)

2010
Dec. 28 Bal.
Dec. 31 Adjustment 8
Bal. after adjustment

(Dr.)

3,600
180
3,780

Salaries Payable
2010
Dec. 31 Adjustment 8
Failure to Recognize

1.

(Cr)

Salaries Expense

(Cr.)
180
Effect on Net Income

Increased by
$180
Effect on Balance Sheet Items

Overstates net income

Overstates assets Overstates retained earnings

2.

Consumption of the benefits of an asset

(prepaid expense)
Earning of previously unearned revenues

Understates net income

3.

Accrual of assets

Understates net income

4.

Accrual of liabilities

Overstates net income

Overstates liabilities Understates retained

earnings
Understates assets Understates retained
earnings
Understates liabilities Overstates retained
earnings

Exhibit 18: Effects of failure to recognize adjustments

The debit in the adjusting journal entry brings the months salaries expense up to its correct USD
3,780 amount for income statement purposes. The credit to Salaries Payable records the USD 180
salary liability to employees. The balance sheet shows salaries payable as a liability.

p. 165 of 433

Another example of a liability/expense adjustment is when a company incurs interest on a note

payable. The debit would be to Interest Expense, and the credit would be to Interest Payable. We
discuss this adjustment in Chapter 9.

4.8 Effects of failing to prepare adjusting entries

Failure to prepare proper adjusting entries causes net income and the balance sheet to be in error.
You can see the effect of failing to record each of the major types of adjusting entries on net income and
balance sheet items in Exhibit 18.
Using MicroTrain Company as an example, this chapter has discussed and illustrated many of the
typical entries that companies must make at the end of an accounting period. Later chapters explain
other examples of adjusting entries.

4.9 Analyzing and using the financial resultstrend percentages

It is sometimes more informative to express all the dollar amounts as a percentage of one of the
amounts in the base year rather than to look only at the dollar amount of the item in the financial
statements. You can calculate trend percentages by dividing the amount for each year for an item,
such as net income or net sales, by the amount of that item for the base year:
Current year amount
Trend percentage=
Base year amount
To illustrate, assume that ShopaLot, a large retailer, and its subsidiaries reported the following net
income for the years ended 2001 January 31, through 2010. The last column expresses these dollar
amounts as a percentage of the 2001 amount. For instance, we would calculate the 125 per cent for
2002 as:
[(USD 1,609,000/USD 1,291,000)5 100]
Dollar Amount

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001

of Net Income

Percentage of

(millions)

1991 Net Income

$1,291
1.609
1,995
2,333
2,681
2,740
3,056
3,526
4,430
5,377
6,295

100 %
125
155
181
208
212
237
273
343
416
488

p. 166 of 433

Examining the trend percentages, we can see that ShopaLot's s net income has increased steadily
over the 10-year period. The 2010 net income is over 4 times as much as the 2001 amount. This is the
kind of performance that management and stockholders seek, but do not always get.
In the first three chapters of this text, you have learned most of the steps of the accounting process.
Chapter 4 shows the final steps in the accounting cycle.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

The Internet sites of the Big-4 accounting firms are as follows:
Ernst & Young

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Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu

http://www.deloitte.com

KPMG

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PricewaterhouseCoopers

http://www.pwcglobal.com

You might want to visit these sites to learn more about a possible career in accounting.

4.10 Understanding the learning objectives

The cash basis of accounting recognizes revenues when cash is received and recognizes

expenses when cash is paid out.

The accrual basis of accounting recognizes revenues when sales are made or services are

performed, regardless of when cash is received; expenses are recognized as incurred, whether or
not cash has been paid out.

The accrual basis is more generally accepted than the cash basis because it provides a better

matching of revenues and expenses.

Adjusting entries convert the amounts that are actually in the accounts to the amounts that

should be in the accounts for proper periodic financial reporting.

Adjusting entries reflect unrecorded economic activity that has taken place but has not yet

been recorded.

Deferred items consist of adjusting entries involving data previously recorded in accounts.

Adjusting entries in this class normally involve moving data from asset and liability accounts to
expense and revenue accounts. The two types of adjustments within this deferred items class are
asset/expense adjustments and liability/revenue adjustments.

Accrued items consist of adjusting entries relating to activity on which no data have been

previously recorded in the accounts. These entries involve the initial recording of assets and
p. 167 of 433

liabilities and the related revenues and expenses. The two types of adjustments within this
accrued items class are asset/revenue adjustments and liability/expense adjustments.

This chapter illustrates entries for deferred items and accrued items.

Failure to prepare adjusting entries causes net income and the balance sheet to be in error.

For a particular item such as sales or net income, select a base year and express all dollar

amounts in other years as a percentage of the base year dollar amount.

4.10.1

Demonstration problem

Among other items, the trial balance of Korman Company for 2010 December 31, includes the
following account balances:
Debits
Supplies on Hand

$ 6,000

Prepaid Rent

25,200

Buildings

200,000

Accumulated DepreciationBuildings
Salaries Expense
Unearned Delivery Fees

Credits

$33,250
124,000
4,000

Some of the supplies represented by the USD 6,000 balance of the Supplies on Hand account have
been consumed. An inventory count of the supplies actually on hand at December 31 totaled USD
2,400.
On May 1 of the current year, a rental payment of USD 25,200 was made for 12 months rent; it was
debited to Prepaid Rent.
The annual depreciation for the buildings is based on the cost shown in the Buildings account less
an estimated residual value of USD 10,000. The estimated useful lives of the buildings are 40 years
each.
The salaries expense of USD 124,000 does not include USD 6,000 of unpaid salaries earned since
the last payday.
The company has earned one-fourth of the unearned delivery fees by December 31.
Delivery services of USD 600 were performed for a customer, but a bill has not yet been sent.
a. Prepare the adjusting journal entries for December 31, assuming adjusting entries are prepared
only at year-end.
b. Based on the adjusted balance shown in the Accumulated DepreciationBuildings account, how
many years has Korman Company owned the building?

p. 168 of 433

4.10.2

Solution to demonstration problems

KORMAN COMPANY General Journal

Date
Account Titles and Explanation
2010 Dec. 31

Supplies Expense

Post.
Ref.

Debit

Credit
3 6 0 0

Supplies on Hand

3 6 0 0

To record supplies expense ($6,000 - $2,400).

31

Rent Expense

1 6 8 0 0

Prepaid Rent

1 6 8 0 0

To record rent expense ($25,200 X 8/12).

31

Depreciation ExpenseBuildings

4 7 5 0

Accumulated DeprecationBuildings

4 7 5 0

To record depreciation ($200,000 - $10,000 / 40 years).

31

Salaries Expense

6 0 0 0

Salaries Payable

6 0 0 0

To record accrued salaries.

31

Unearned Delivery Fees

1 0 0 0

Service Revenue

1 0 0 0

To record delivery fees earned.

31

Accounts Receivable
Service Revenue

6 0 0
6 0 0

To record delivery fees earned.

Eight years; computed as:

Total accumulated deprecation
USD 33,250+USD 4,750
=
Annual deprecation expense
USD 4,750

4.10.3

Key Terms

Accounting period A time period normally of one month, one quarter, or one year into which
an entitys life is arbitrarily divided for financial reporting purposes.
Accounting year An accounting period of one year. The accounting year may or may not
coincide with the calendar year.
Accrual basis of accounting Recognizes revenues when sales are made or services are
performed, regardless of when cash is received. Recognizes expenses as incurred, whether or not
cash has been paid out.

p. 169 of 433

Accrued assets and liabilities Assets and liabilities that exist at the end of an accounting
period but have not yet been recorded; they represent rights to receive, or obligations to make,
payments that are not legally due at the balance sheet date. Examples are accrued fees receivable
and salaries payable.
Accrued items Adjusting entries relating to activity on which no data have been previously
recorded in the accounts. Also, see accrued assets and liabilities.
Accrued revenues and expenses Other names for accrued assets and liabilities.
Accumulated depreciation account A contra asset account that shows the total of all
depreciation recorded on the asset up through the balance sheet date.
Adjusting entries Journal entries made at the end of an accounting period to bring about a
proper matching of revenues and expenses; they reflect economic activity that has taken place
but has not yet been recorded. Adjusting entries are made to bring the accounts to their proper
balances before financial statements are prepared.
Book value For depreciable assets, book value equals cost less accumulated depreciation.
Calendar year The normal year, which ends on December 31.
Cash basis of accounting Recognizes revenues when cash is received and recognizes
expenses when cash is paid out.
Contra asset account An account shown as a deduction from the asset to which it relates in
the balance sheet; used to reduce the original cost of the asset down to its remaining
undepreciated cost or book value.
Deferred items Adjusting entries involving data previously recorded in the accounts. Data are
transferred from asset and liability accounts to expense and revenue accounts. Examples are
prepaid expenses, depreciation, and unearned revenues.
Depreciable amount The difference between an assets cost and its estimated residual value.
Depreciable asset A manufactured asset such as a building, machine, vehicle, or equipment
on which depreciation expense is recorded.
Depreciation accounting The process of recording depreciation expense.
Depreciation expense The amount of asset cost assigned as an expense to a particular time
period.
Depreciation formula (straight-line):
Estimated residual value (scrap value) The amount that the company can probably sell the
asset for at the end of its estimated useful life.
Estimated useful life The estimated time periods that a company can make use of the asset.
Fiscal year An accounting year of any 12 consecutive months that may or may not coincide
with the calendar year. For example, a company may have an accounting, or fiscal, year that runs
from April 1 of one year to March 31 of the next.
Matching principle An accounting principle requiring that expenses incurred in producing
revenues be deducted from the revenues they generated during the accounting period.
Prepaid expense An asset awaiting assignment to expense. An example is prepaid insurance.
Assets such as cash and accounts receivable are not prepaid expenses.
Service potential The benefits that can be obtained from assets. The future services that assets
can render make assets things of value to a business.
Trend percentages Calculated by dividing the amount of an item for each year by the amount
of that item for the base year.
p. 170 of 433

Unearned revenue Assets received from customers before services are performed for them.
Since the revenue has not been earned, it is a liability, often called revenue received in advance
or advances by customers.

4.10.4
4.10.4.1

Self-test
True-false

Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false:

Every adjusting entry affects at least one income statement account and one balance sheet account.
All calendar years are also fiscal years, but not all fiscal years are calendar years.
The accumulated depreciation account is an asset account that shows the amount of depreciation
for the current year only.
The Unearned Delivery Fees account is a revenue account.
If all of the adjusting entries are not made, the financial statements are incorrect.

4.10.5

Multiple-choice

Select the best answer for each of the following questions.

An insurance policy premium of USD 1,200 was paid on 2010 September 1, to cover a one-year
period from that date. An asset was debited on that date. Adjusting entries are prepared once a year, at
year-end. The necessary adjusting entry at the companys year-end, 2010 December 31, is:
a. Prepaid insurance
Insurance expense
b. Insurance expense
Prepaid insurance
c. Prepaid insurance
Insurance expense
d. Insurance expense
Prepaid insurance

400
800
800
400

400
800
800
400

The Supplies on Hand account has a balance of USD 1,500 at year-end. The actual amount of
supplies on hand at the end of the period was USD 400. The necessary adjusting entry is:
a. Supplies expense
Supplies on hand
b. Supplies expense
Supplies on hand
c. Supplies on hand
Supplies expense
d. Supplies on hand
Supplies expense

1,100
400
1,100
400

1,100
400
1,100
400

p. 171 of 433

A company purchased a truck for USD 20,000 on 2010 January 1. The truck has an estimated
residual value of USD 5,000 and is expected to last five years. Adjusting entries are prepared only at
year-end. The necessary adjusting entry at 2010 December 31, the companys year-end, is:
a. Deprecation expense Trucks
Accumulated
b. Deprecation expense Trucks
Trucks
c. Deprecation expense Trucks
Accumulated deprecation Trucks
d. Accumulated deprecation trucks
Deprecation expense Trucks

4,000
4,000

3,000

3,000

3,000

3,000

3,000

3,000

A company received cash of USD 24,000 on 2010 October 1, as subscriptions for a one-year period
from that date. A liability account was credited when the cash was received. The magazine is to be
published by the company and delivered to subscribers each month. The company prepares adjusting
entries at the end of each month because it prepares financial statements each month. The adjusting
entry the company would make at the end of each of the next 12 months would be:
a. Unearned subscription fees

6,000

Subscription fee revenue

b. Unearned subscription fees
Subscription fee revenue
c. Unearned subscription feeds

6,000
2,000
2,000
18,000

Subscription fee revenue

d. Subscription fee revenue
Unearned subscription fees

18,000
2,000
2,000

When a company earns interest on a note receivable or on a bank account, the debit and credit are
as follows:

a.
b.
c.
d.

Debit
Accounts receivable
Interest receivable
Interest revenue
Interest revenue

Credit
Interest revenue
Interest revenue
Accounts receivable
Interest receivable

p. 172 of 433

If USD 3,000 has been earned by a companys workers since the last payday in an accounting
period, the necessary adjusting entry would be:
a. Debit an expense and credit a liability.
b. Debit an expense and credit an asset.
c. Debit a liability and credit an asset.
d. Debit a liability and credit an expense.
Now turn to Answers to self test at the back of the book to check your answers.

4.10.6

Questions
Which events during an accounting period trigger the recording of normal journal
entries? Which event triggers the making of adjusting entries?

Describe the difference between the cash basis and accrual basis of accounting.

Why are adjusting entries necessary? Why not treat every cash disbursement as an
expense and every cash receipt as a revenue when the cash changes hands?

Adjusting entries would not be necessary if the pure cash basis of accounting were
followed (assuming no mistakes were made in recording cash transactions as they
occurred). Under the cash basis, receipts that are of a revenue nature are considered
revenue when received, and expenditures that are of an expense nature are considered
expenses when paid. It is the use of the accrual basis of accounting, where an effort is
made to match expenses incurred against the revenues they create, that makes adjusting
entries necessary. Do you agree with this statement? Why?

Why do accountants not keep all the accounts at their proper balances continuously
throughout the period so that adjusting entries would not have to be made before
financial statements are prepared?

What is the fundamental difference between deferred items and accrued items?

Identify the types of adjusting entries included in each of the two major classes of
adjusting entries.

Give an example of a journal entry for each of the following:

Equal growth of an expense and a liability.

Earning of revenue that was previously recorded as unearned revenue.

Equal growth of an asset and a revenue.

Increase in an expense and decrease in an asset.

p. 173 of 433

A fellow student makes the following statement: You can easily tell whether a company
is using the cash or accrual basis of accounting. When an amount is paid for future rent
or insurance services, a firm that is using the cash basis debits an expense account while
a firm that is using the accrual basis debits an asset account. Is the student correct?

You notice that the Supplies on Hand account has a debit balance of USD 2,700 at the
end of the accounting period. How would you determine the extent to which this account
needs adjustment?

Some assets are converted into expenses as they expire and some liabilities become
revenues as they are earned. Give examples of asset and liability accounts for which this
statement is true. Give examples of asset and liability accounts to which the statement
does not apply.

Give the depreciation formula to compute straight-line depreciation for a one-year

period.

What does the term accrued liability mean?

What is meant by the term service potential?

When assets are received before they are earned, what type of an account is credited? As
the amounts are earned, what type of account is credited?

What does the word accrued mean? Is there a conceptual difference between interest
payable and accrued interest payable?

Matching expenses incurred with revenues earned is more difficult than matching
expenses paid with revenues received. Do you think the effort is worthwhile?

Real world question Refer to the financial statements of The Limited, Inc., in the
Annual report appendix. Approximately what percentage of the depreciable assets under
property, plant, and equipment has been depreciated as of the end of the most recent
year shown?

4.10.7

Exercises

Exercise A Select the correct response for each of the following multiple-choice questions:
The cash basis of accounting:
(a) Recognizes revenues when sales are made or services are rendered.
(b) Recognizes expenses as incurred.
(c) Is typically used by some relatively small businesses and professional persons.
(d) Recognizes revenues when cash is received and recognizes expenses when incurred.
p. 174 of 433

The accrual basis of accounting:

(a) Recognizes revenues only when cash is received.
(b) Is used by almost all companies.
(c) Recognizes expenses only when cash is paid out.
(d) Recognizes revenues when sales are made or services are performed and recognizes
expenses only when cash is paid out.
Exercise B Select the correct response for each of the following multiple-choice questions:
The least common accounting period among the following is:
(a) One month.
(b) Two months.
(c) Three months.
(d) Twelve months.
The need for adjusting entries is based on:
(a) The matching principle.
(b) Source documents.
(c) The cash basis of accounting.
(d) Activity that has already been recorded in the proper accounts.
Exercise C Select the correct response for each of the following multiple-choice questions:
Which of the following types of adjustments belongs to the deferred items class?
(a) Asset/revenue adjustments.
(b) Liability/expense adjustments.
(c) Asset/expense adjustments.
(d) Asset/liability adjustments.
Which of the following types of adjustments belongs to the accrued items class?
(a) Asset/expense adjustments.
(b) Liability/revenue adjustments.
(c) Asset/liability adjustments.
(d) Liability/expense adjustments.

p. 175 of 433

Exercise D A one-year insurance policy was purchased on August 1 for USD 2,400, and the
following entry was made at that time:
Prepaid Insurance

2,400

Cash

2,400

What adjusting entry is necessary at December 31, the end of the accounting year?
Show how the T-accounts for Prepaid Insurance and Insurance Expense would appear after the
entries are posted.
Exercise E Assume that rent of USD 12,000 was paid on 2010 September 1, to cover a one-year
period from that date. Prepaid Rent was debited. If financial statements are prepared only on
December 31 of each year, what adjusting entry is necessary on 2010 December 31, to bring the
accounts involved to their proper balances?
Exercise F At 2010 December 31, an adjusting entry was made as follows:
Rent Expense

1,500

Prepaid Rent

1,500

You know that the gross amount of rent paid was USD 4,500, which was to cover a one-year period.
Determine:
a. The opening date of the year to which the USD 4,500 of rent applies.
b. The entry that was made on the date the rent was paid.
Exercise G Supplies were purchased for cash on 2010 May 2, for USD 8,000. Show how this
purchase would be recorded. Then show the adjusting entry that would be necessary, assuming that
USD 2,500 of the supplies remained at the end of the year.
Exercise H Assume that a company acquired a building on 2010 January 1, at a cost of USD
1,000,000. The building has an estimated useful life of 40 years and an estimated residual value of
USD 200,000. What adjusting entry is needed on 2010 December 31, to record the depreciation for the
entire year 2010?

p. 176 of 433

Exercise I On 2010 September 1, Professional Golfer Journal, Inc., received a total of USD
120,000 as payment in advance for one-year subscriptions to a monthly magazine. A liability account
was credited to record this cash receipt. By the end of the year, one-third of the magazines paid for in
advance had been delivered. Give the entries to record the receipt of the subscription fees and to adjust
the accounts at December 31, assuming annual financial statements are prepared at year-end.
Exercise J On 2010 April 15, Rialto Theater sold USD 90,000 in tickets for the summer musicals
to be performed (one per month) during June, July, and August. On 2010 July 15, Rialto Theater
discovered that the group that was to perform the July and August musicals could not do so. It was too
late to find another group qualified to perform the musicals. A decision was made to refund the
remaining unearned ticket revenue to its ticket holders, and this was done on July 20. Show the
appropriate journal entries to be made on April 15, June 30, and July 20. Rialto has a June 30th yearend.
Exercise K Guilty & Innocent, a law firm, performed legal services in late December 2010 for
clients. The USD 30,000 of services would be billed to the clients in January 2011. Give the adjusting
entry that is necessary on 2010 December 31, if financial statements are prepared at the end of each
month.
Exercise L A firm borrowed USD 30,000 on November 1. By December 31, USD 300 of interest
had been incurred. Prepare the adjusting entry required on December 31.
Exercise M Convenient Mailing Services, Inc., incurs salaries at the rate of USD 3,000 per day.
The last payday in January is Friday, January 27. Salaries for Monday and Tuesday of the next week
have not been recorded or paid as of January 31. Financial statements are prepared monthly. Give the
necessary adjusting entry on January 31.
Exercise N State the effect that each of the following independent situations would have on the
amount of annual net income reported for 2010 and 2011.
a, No adjustment was made for accrued salaries of USD 8,000 as of 2010 December 31.
b. The collection of USD 5,000 for services yet unperformed as of 2010 December 31, was credited
to a revenue account and not adjusted. The services are performed in 2011.

p. 177 of 433

Exercise O In the following table, indicate the effects of failing to recognize each of the indicated
adjustments by writing O for overstated and U for understated.
Effect on Balance Sheet Items
Failure to Recognize
1.

Depreciation on a building

2.

Consumption of supplies on hand

3.

The earning of ticket revenue

Effect on

Stockholders'

Net Income

Assets

Liabilities

Equity

received in advance
4.

The earning of interest on a bank

account

5.

Salaries incurred by unpaid

Exercise P The following data regarding net income (loss) are for Perkins Parts, a medium-sized
automotive supplier, for the period 20042009.
Net Income

Net Income

(Earnings)

(Earnings)

($ millions)
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

......
......
......
......
......
......

...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........

$ 860
3,835
(2,258)
(7,385)
2,529
5,308

($ millions)
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

........
........
........
........
........
........

..............
..............
..............
..............
..............
..............

$ 4,139
4,446
6,920
22,071
7,237
3,467

Using 1989 as the base year, calculate the trend percentages, and comment on the results.

4.10.8

Problems

Problem A Among other items, the trial balance of Filmblaster, Inc., a movie rental company, at
December 31 of the current year includes the following account balances:
Debits
Prepaid Insurance

USD 10,000

Prepaid Rent

USD 14,400

Supplies on Hand

USD 2,800

Examination of the records shows that adjustments should be made for the following items:
a. Of the prepaid insurance in the trial balance, USD 4,000 is for coverage during the months after
December 31 of the current year.
b. The balance in the Prepaid Rent account is for a 12-month period that started October 1 of the
current year.
c. USD 300 of interest has been earned but not received.
p. 178 of 433

d. Supplies used during the year amount to USD 1,800.

Prepare the annual year-end adjusting journal entries at December 31.
Problem B Marathon Magazine, Inc., has the following account balances, among others, in its trial
balance at December 31 of the current year:
Debits
Supplies on Hand..................

$3,720

Prepaid Rent .........................

7,200

Credits

Unearned Subscription Fees ...

$15,000

Subscriptions Revenue...........
Salaries Expense ...................

261,000
123,000

The inventory of supplies on hand at December 31 amounts to USD 720.

The balance in the Prepaid Rent account is for a one-year period starting October 1 of the

current year.
One-third of the USD 15,000 balance in Unearned Subscription Fees has been earned.
Since the last payday, the employees of the company have earned additional salaries in the

amount of USD 5,430.

a. Prepare the year-end adjusting journal entries at December 31.
b. Open ledger accounts for each of the accounts involved, enter the balances as shown in the trial
balance, post the adjusting journal entries, and calculate year-end balances.
Problem C Hillside Apartments, Inc., adjusts and closes its books each December 31. Assume the
accounts for all prior years have been properly adjusted and closed. Following are some of the
companys account balances prior to adjustment on 2010 December 31:
HILLSIDE APARTMENTS, INC.
Partial Trial Balance
2010 December 31

Prepaid insurance
Supplies on hand
Buildings
Accumulated deprecation Buildings
Unearned rent
Salaries expense
Rent revenue

Debits
$ 7,500
7,000
255,000
69,000

Credits

$ 96,000
2,700
277,500

p. 179 of 433

The Prepaid Insurance account balance represents the remaining cost of a four-year insurance
policy dated 2011 June 30, having a total premium of USD 12,000.
The physical inventory of the office supply stockroom indicates that the supplies on hand cost USD
3,000.
The building was originally acquired on 1994 January 1, at which time management estimated that
the building would last 40 years and have a residual value of USD 15,000.
Salaries earned since the last payday but unpaid at December 31 amount to USD 5,000.
Interest earned but not collected on a savings account during the year amounts to USD 400.
The Unearned Rent account arose through the prepayment of rent by a tenant in the building for 12
months beginning 2010 October 1.
Prepare the annual year-end adjusting entries indicated by the additional data.
Problem D The reported net income amounts for Gulf Coast Magazine, Inc., for calendar years
2010 and 2011 were USD 200,000 and USD 222,000, respectively. No annual adjusting entries were
made at either year-end for any of the following transactions:
A fire insurance policy to cover a three-year period from the date of payment was purchased on
2010 March 1 for USD 3,600. The Prepaid Insurance account was debited at the date of purchase.
Subscriptions for magazines in the amount of USD 72,000 to cover an 18-month period from 2010
May 1, were received on 2010 April 15. The Unearned Subscription Fees account was credited when the
payments were received.
A building costing USD 180,000 and having an estimated useful life of 50 years and a residual value
of USD 30,000 was purchased and put into service on 2010 January 1.
On 2011 January 12, salaries of USD 9,600 were paid to employees. The account debited was
Salaries Expense. One-third of the amount paid was earned by employees in December of 2010.
Calculate the correct net income for 2010 and 2011. In your answer, start with the reported net
income. Then show the effects of each correction (adjustment), using a plus or a minus to indicate
whether reported income should be increased or decreased as a result of the correction. When the
corrections are added to or deducted from the reported net income amounts, the result should be the
correct net income amounts. The answer format should appear as follows:
Explanation of corrections
Reported net income
To correct error in accounting for:
Fire insurance policy premium:
Correct expense in 2010

2010
$200,000

2011
$222,000

-1,000

p. 180 of 433

Correct expense in 2011

-1,200

Problem E Jupiter Publishing Company began operations on 2010 December 1. The companys
bookkeeper intended to use the cash basis of accounting. Consequently, the bookkeeper recorded all
cash receipts and disbursements for items relating to operations in revenue and expense accounts. No
adjusting entries were made prior to preparing the financial statements for December.
Dec. 1 Issued capital stock for USD 300,000 cash.
3 Received USD 144,000 for magazine subscriptions to run for two years from this date. The
magazine is published monthly on the 23rd.
4 Paid for advertising to be run in a national periodical for six months (starting this month).
The cost was USD 36,000.
7 Purchased for cash an insurance policy to cover a two-year period beginning December

15,

USD 24,000.
12 Paid the annual rent on the building, USD 36,000, effective through 2011 November 30.
15 Received USD 216,000 cash for two-year subscriptions starting with the December issue.
15 Salaries for the period December 115 amounted to USD 48,000. Beginning as of this date,
salaries will be paid on the 5th and 20th of each month for the preceding two-week period.
20 Salaries for the period December 115 were paid.
23 Supplies purchased for cash, USD 21,600. (Only USD 1,800 of these were subsequently used
in 2010.)
27 Printing costs applicable equally to the next six issues beginning with the December issue
were paid in cash, USD 144,000.
31 Cash sales of the December issue, USD 84,000.
31 Unpaid salaries for the period December 1631 amounted to USD 22,000.
31 Sales on account of December issue, USD 14,000.
a. Prepare journal entries for the transactions as the bookkeeper prepared them.
b. Prepare journal entries as they would have been prepared under the accrual basis. Where the
entry is the same as under the cash basis, merely indicate same. Where possible, record the original
transaction so that no adjusting entry would be necessary

at

the

end

of

the

month.

Ignore

explanations.

p. 181 of 433

4.10.9

Alternate problems

Alternate problem A The trial balance of Caribbean Vacation Tours, Inc., at December 31 of the
current year includes, among other items, the following account balances:

Debits
Prepaid Insurance ........................................

$24,000

Prepaid Rent ................................................

24,000

Buildings......................................................

188,000

Accumulated DepreciationBuildings.............
Salaries Expense ..........................................

Credits

$31,600
200,000

The balance in the Prepaid Insurance account is the advance premium for one year from September
1 of the current year.
The buildings are expected to last 25 years, with an expected residual value of USD 30,000.
Salaries incurred but not paid as of December 31 amount to USD 8,400.
The balance in Prepaid Rent is for a one-year period that started March 1 of the current year.
Prepare the annual year-end adjusting journal entries at December 31.
Alternate problem B Among the account balances shown in the trial balance of Dunwoody Mail
Station, Inc., at December 31 of the current year are the following:

Supplies on hand
Prepaid insurance
Buildings
Accumulated deprecation and buildings

Debits
$10,000
6,000
168,000

Credits

$ 39,000

The inventory of supplies on hand at December 31 amounts to USD 3,000.

The balance in the Prepaid Insurance account is for a two-year policy taken out June 1 of the
current year.
Depreciation for the buildings is based on the cost shown in the Buildings account, less residual
value estimated at USD18,000. When acquired, the lives of the buildings were estimated at 50 years
each.
a. Prepare the year-end adjusting journal entries at December 31.
b. Open ledger accounts for each of the accounts involved, enter the balances as shown in the trial
balance, post the adjusting journal entries, and calculate year-end balances.
p. 182 of 433

Alternate problem C Nevada Camping Equipment Rental Company occupies rented quarters on
the main street of Las Vegas. To get this location, the company rented a store larger than needed and
subleased (rented) a portion of the area to Maxs Restaurant. The partial trial balance of Nevada
Camping Equipment Rental Company as of 2010 December 31, is as follows:
NEVEDA CAMPING EQUIPMENT RENTAL COMPANY
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Debits
Cash

$100,000

Prepaid Insurance

11,400

Supplies on Hand

20,000

Camping Equipment

176,000

Credits

Accumulated DepreciationCamping Equipment

$ 19,200

Notes Payable

40,000

Equipment Rental Revenue

1,500,000

Sublease Rental Revenue

8,800

Building Rent Expense

14,400

Salaries Expense

196,000

a. Salaries of employees amount to USD 300 per day and were last paid through Wednesday,
December 27. December 31 is a Sunday. The store is closed Sundays.
b. An analysis of the Camping Equipment account disclosed:
Balance, 2010 January 1
Addition, 2010 July 1
Balance, 2010 December 31, per trial balance

$128,000
48,000
$176,000

The company estimates that all equipment will last 20 years from the date they were acquired and
that the residual value will be zero.
c. The store carries one combined insurance policy, which is taken out once a year effective August
1. The premium on the policy now in force amounts to USD 7,200 per year.
d. Unused supplies on hand at 2010 December 31, have a cost of USD 9,200.
e. Decembers rent from Maxs Restaurant has not yet been received, USD 800.
f. Interest accrued on the note payable is USD 700.
Prepare the annual year-end entries required by the preceding statement of facts.

p. 183 of 433

Alternate problem D The reported net income amounts for Safety Waste Control Company were
2010, USD 200,000; and 2011, USD 230,000. No annual adjusting entries were made at either yearend for any of these transactions:
a. A building was rented on 2010 April 1. Cash of USD 14,400 was paid on that date to cover a twoyear period. Prepaid Rent was debited.
b. The balance in the Office Supplies on Hand account on 2010 December 31, was USD 6,000. An
inventory of the supplies on 2010 December 31, revealed that only USD 3,500 were actually on hand at
that date. No new supplies were purchased during 2011. At 2011 December 31, an inventory of the
supplies revealed that USD 800 were on hand.
c. A building costing USD 1,200,000 and having an estimated useful life of 40 years and a residual
value of USD 240,000 was put into service on 2010 January 1.
d. Services were performed for customers in December 2010. The USD 24,000 bill for these services
was not sent until January 2011. The only transaction that was recorded was a debit to Cash and a
credit to Service Revenue when payment was received in January.
Calculate the correct net income for 2010 and 2011. In your answer, start with the reported net
income amounts. Then show the effects of each correction (adjustment) using a plus or a minus to
indicate whether reported income should be increased or decreased as a result of the correction. When
the corrections are added to or deducted from the reported net income amounts, the result should be
the correct net income amounts. The answer format should be as follows:
Explanation of Corrections

2010

2011

Reported net income

To correct error in accounting for:

$200,000

$230,000

Prepaid rent:
Correct expense in 2010
Correct expense in 2011

-5,400
-7,200

Alternate problem E On 2010 June 1, Richard Cross opened a swimming pool cleaning and
maintenance service, Cross Pool Company. He vaguely recalled the process of making journal entries
and establishing ledger accounts from a high school bookkeeping course he had taken some years ago.
At the end of June, he prepared an income statement for the month of June, but he had the feeling that
he had not proceeded correctly. He contacted his brother, John, a recent college graduate with a major
in accounting, for assistance. John immediately noted that his brother had kept his records on a cash
basis.

p. 184 of 433

June 1 Received cash of USD 28,000 from various customers in exchange for service agreements to
clean and maintain their pools for June, July, August, and September.
5 Paid rent for automotive and cleaning equipment to be used during the period June through
September, USD 8,000. The payment covered the entire period.
8 Purchased a two-year liability insurance policy effective June 1 for USD 12,000 cash.
10 Received an advance of USD 9,000 from a Florida building contractor in exchange for an
agreement to help service pools in his housing development during October through May.
16 Paid salaries for the first half of June, USD 8,400.
17 Paid USD 900 for advertising to be run in a local newspaper for two weeks in June and four
weeks in July.
19 Paid the rent of USD 24,000 under a four-month lease on a building rented and occupied on
June 1.
26 Purchased USD 5,400 of supplies for cash. (Only USD 900 of these supplies were used in June.)
29 Billed various customers for services rendered, USD 16,000.
30 Unpaid employee services received in the last half of June amounted to USD 12,600.
30 Received a bill for USD 600 for gas and oil used in June.
a. Prepare the entries for the transactions as Richard must have recorded them under the cash basis
of accounting.
b. Prepare journal entries as they would have been prepared under the accrual basis. Where the
entry is the same as under the cash basis, merely indicate same. Where possible, record the original
transaction so that no adjusting entry would be necessary at the

end

of

the

month.

Ignore

explanations.

4.10.10 Beyond the numbersCritical thinking

Business decision case A You have just been hired by Top Executive Employment Agency, Inc.,
to help prepare adjusting entries at the end of an accounting period. It becomes obvious to you that
management does not seem to have much of an understanding about the necessity or adjusting entries
or which accounts might possibly need adjustment. The first step you take is to prepare the following
unadjusted trial balance from the general ledger. Only those ledger accounts that had end-of-year
balances are included in the trial balance.

p. 185 of 433

Debits
Cash

$ 80,000

Accounts Receivable

28,000

Supplies on Hand

3,000

Prepaid Insurance

2,700

Office Equipment

120,000

Accumulated DepreciationOffice Equipment

Buildings

Credits

$ 45,000
360,000

Accumulated DepreciationBuildings

105,000

Accounts Payable

9,000

Loan Payable (Bank)

15,000

Unearned Commission Fees

30,000

Capital Stock

160,000

Retained Earnings

89,300

Commissions Revenue

270,000

Advertising Expense

6,000

Salaries Expense

112,500

Utilities Expense

7,500

Miscellaneous Expense

3,600
$723,300

$723,300

a. Explain to management why adjusting entries in general are made.

b. Explain to management why some of the specific accounts appearing in the trial balance may
need adjustment and what the nature of each adjustment might be (do not worry about specific dollar
amounts).
Business decision case B A friend of yours, Jack Andrews, is quite excited over the opportunity
he has to purchase the land and several miscellaneous assets of Drake Bowling Lanes Company for
USD 400,000. Andrews tells you that Mr and Mrs Drake (the sole stockholders in the company) are
moving due to Mr Drakes ill health. The annual rent on the building and equipment is USD 54,000.
Drake reports that the business earned a profit of USD 100,000 in 2010 (last year). Andrews
believes an annual profit of USD 100,000 on an investment of USD 400,000 is a really good deal. But,
before completing the deal, he asks you to look it over. You agree and discover the following:
Drake has computed his annual profit for 2010 as the sum of his cash dividends plus the increase in
the Cash account: Dividends of USD 60,000 + Increase in Cash account of USD 40,000 = USD
100,000 profit.
As buyer of the business, Andrews will take over responsibility for repayment of a USD 300,000
loan (plus interest) on the land. The land was acquired at a cost of USD 624,000 seven years ago.
An analysis of the Cash account shows the following for 2010:
p. 186 of 433

Rental revenues received

$465,000

Cash paid out in 2010 for

Salaries paid to employees

$260,000

Utilities paid

18,000

Advertising expenses paid

15,000

Supplies purchased and used

24,000

Interest paid on loan

18,000

Loan principal paid

30,000

Cash dividends
In crease in cash balance for the year

60,000

425,000
$ 40,000

You also find that the annual rent of USD 54,000, a December utility bill of USD 4,000, and an
advertising bill of USD 6,000 have not been paid.
a. Prepare a written report for Andrews giving your appraisal of Drake Bowling Lanes Company as
an investment. Comment on Drakes method of computing the annual profit of the business.
b. Include in your report an approximate income statement for 2010.
Group project C In teams of two or three students, go to the library to locate one companys
annual report for the most recent year. Identify the name of the company and the major products or
services offered, as well as gross revenues, major expenses, and the trend of profits over the last three
years. Calculate trend percentages for revenues, expenses, and profits using the oldest year as the base
year. Each team should write a memorandum to management summarizing the data and commenting
on the trend percentages. The heading of the memorandum should contain the date, to whom it is
written, from whom, and the subject matter.
Group project D With one or two other students and using library and internet sources, write a
paper on Statement of Accounting Standards No. 106, Accounting for Postretirement Benefits Other
Than Pensions. This standard resulted in some of the largest adjusting entries ever made. Companies
had to record an expense and a liability to account for these costs on an accrual basis. In the past they
typically had recorded this expense on a cash basis, recognizing the expense only when cash was paid
to retirees. Be sure to cite your sources and treat direct quotes properly.
Group project E With one or two other students and using library sources, write a paper on
human resource accounting. Generally accepted accounting principles do not allow human assets to

p. 187 of 433

be included among assets on the balance sheet. Why is this? Be sure to cite your sources and to treat
direct quotes properly.

4.10.11 Using the InternetA view of the real world

Visit the website:
http://www.pwcglobal.com
Click on the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Write a brief report to your instructor summarizing your findings.

4.10.12 Answers to self-test

4.10.12.1 True-false
True. Every adjusting entry involves either moving previously recorded data from an asset account
to an expense account or from a liability account to a revenue account (or in the opposite direction) or
simultaneously entering new data in an asset account and a revenue account or in a liability account
and an expense account.
True. A fiscal year is any 12 consecutive months, so all calendar years are also fiscal years. A
calendar year, however, must end on December 31, so it does not include fiscal years that end on any
date other than December 31 (such as June 30).
False. The accumulated depreciation account is a contra asset that shows the total of all
depreciation recorded on an asset from its acquisition date up through the balance sheet date.
False. The Unearned Delivery Fees account is a liability. As the fees are earned, the amount in that
account is transferred to a revenue account.
True. If an adjusting entry is overlooked and not made, at least one income statement account and
one balance sheet account will be incorrect.

4.10.12.2 Multiple-choice
d. One-third of the benefits have expired. Therefore, USD 400 must be moved from the asset
(credit) to an expense (debit).
a. USD 1,100 of the supplies have been used, so that amount must be moved from the asset (credit)
to an expense (debit).
c. The amount of annual depreciation is determined as (USD 20,000 USD 5,000) divided by 5 =
USD 3,000. The debit is to Depreciation ExpenseTrucks, and the credit is to Accumulated
DepreciationTrucks, a contra asset account.

p. 188 of 433

b. Each month USD 2,000 would be transferred from the

liability

account

(debit),

Unearned

Subscription Fees, to a revenue account (credit).

b. An asset, Interest Receivable, is debited, and Interest Revenue is credited.
a. The debit would be to Salaries Expense, and the credit would be to Salaries Payable.

p. 189 of 433

5 Completing the accounting cycle

5.1 Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Summarize the steps in the accounting cycle.

Prepare a work sheet for a service company.

Prepare an income statement, statement of retained earnings, and balance sheet using

information contained in the work sheet.

Prepare adjusting and closing entries using information contained in the work sheet.

Prepare a post-closing trial balance.

Describe the evolution of accounting systems.

Prepare a classified balance sheet.

Analyze and use the financial resultsthe current ratio.

5.2 A career in information systems

Have you ever heard the sayings "knowledge is power" or "information is money"? When people
talk about accounting, what they are really talking about is information. The information used by
businesses, as well as the technology that supports that information, represents some of the most
valuable assets for organizations around the world. Very often, the success of a business depends on
effective creation, management, and use of information.
As companies become ever more reliant on technology, the need for well-educated Management
Information Systems (MIS) auditors and control professionals increases. Improved technology has the
potential to dramatically improve business organizations and practices, reduce costs and exploit new
business and investment opportunities. At the same time, companies face constant challenges in
selecting and implementing these new technologies. Because of their high value and inherent
complexity, the development, support, and auditing of information systems has become one of the
fastest growing specialties in accounting.
Graduates with special interests and skills in computing and technology have expansive
opportunities. In addition to traditional accounting and auditing functions, MIS professionals perform
evaluations of technologies and communications protocols involving electronic data interchange, client
servers, local and wide area networks, data communications, telecommunications, and integrated
voice/data/video systems. In public accounting, technology has impacted the auditing profession by
p. 190 of 433

extending the knowledge required to draw conclusions and the skills required to audit advanced
accounting and information systems.
With management consulting practices growing and information systems becoming a larger
percentage of public accounting revenue, MIS professionals are in high demand. If you are considering
a degree in computer or information systems, you should consider the advantages that an accounting
major or minor can give you in working closely with businesses and consulting firms. A dual major in
accounting and MIS is one of the most desirable undergraduate degree combinations in the workforce.
This chapter explains two new steps in the accounting cyclethe preparation of the work sheet
and closing entries. In addition, we briefly discuss the evolution of accounting systems and present a
classified balance sheet. This balance sheet format more closely resembles actual company balance
sheets. After completing this chapter, you will understand how accounting begins with source
documents that are evidence of a business entity's transactions and ends with financial statements that
show the solvency and profitability of the entity.

5.3 The accounting cycle summarized

In Chapter 1, you learned that when an event is a measurable business transaction, you need
adequate proof of this transaction. Then, you analyze the transaction's effects on the accounting
equation, Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders' equity. In Chapters 2 and 3, you performed other steps in
the accounting cycle. Chapter 2 presented the eight steps in the accounting cycle as a preview of the
content of Chapters 2 through 4. As a review, study the diagram of the eight steps in the accounting
cycle in Exhibit 19. Remember that the first three steps occur during the accounting period and the last
five occur at the end. The next section explains how to use the work sheet to facilitate the completion of
the accounting cycle.

5.4 The work sheet

The work sheet is a columnar sheet of paper or a computer spreadsheet on which accountants
summarize information needed to make the adjusting and closing entries and to prepare the financial
statements. Usually, they save these work sheets to document the end-of-period entries. A work sheet
is only an accounting tool and not part of the formal accounting records. Therefore, work sheets may
vary in format; some are prepared in pencil so that errors can be corrected easily. Other work sheets
are prepared on personal computers with spreadsheet software. Accountants prepare work sheets each
time financial statements are neededmonthly, quarterly, or at the end of the accounting year.

p. 191 of 433

This chapter illustrates a 12-column work sheet that includes sets of columns for an unadjusted trial
balance, adjustments, adjusted trial balance, income statement, statement of retained earnings, and
balance sheet. Each set has a debit and a credit column. (See Exhibit 20.)
Accountants use these initial steps in preparing the work sheet. The following sections describe the
detailed steps for completing the work sheet.
Enter the titles and balances of ledger accounts in the Trial Balance columns.
Enter adjustments in the Adjustments columns.
Enter adjusted account balances in the Adjusted Trial Balance columns.
Extend adjusted balances of revenue and expense accounts from the Adjusted Trial Balance

columns to the Income Statement columns.

Extend any balances in the Retained Earnings and Dividends accounts to the Statement of

Retained Earnings columns.

Extend adjusted balances of asset, liability, and capital stock accounts from the Adjusted

Trial Balance columns to the Balance Sheet columns.

Instead of preparing a separate trial balance as we did in Chapter 2, accountants use the Trial
Balance columns on a work sheet. Look at Exhibit 20 and note that the numbers and titles of the ledger
accounts of MicroTrain Company are on the left portion of the work sheet. Usually, only those accounts
with balances as of the end of the accounting period are listed. (Some accountants do list the entire
chart of accounts, even those with zero balances.) Assume you are MicroTrain's accountant. You list
the Retained Earnings account in the trial balance even though it has a zero balance to (1) show its
relative position among the accounts and (2) indicate that December 2010 is the first month of
operations for this company. Next, you enter the balances of the ledger accounts in the Trial Balance
columns. The accounts are in the order in which they appear in the general ledger: assets, liabilities,
stockholders' equity, dividends, revenues, and expenses. Then, total the columns. If the debit and
credit column totals are not equal, an error exists that must be corrected before you proceed with the
work sheet.
As you learned in Chapter 3, adjustments bring the accounts to their proper balances before
accountants prepare the income statement, statement of retained earnings, and balance sheet. You
enter these adjustments in the Adjustments columns of the work sheet. Also, you cross-reference the
debits and credits of the entries by placing a key number or letter to the left of the amounts. This key
number facilitates the actual journalizing of the adjusting entries later because you do not have to
rethink the adjustments to record them. For example, the number (1) identifies the adjustment
debiting Insurance Expense and crediting Prepaid Insurance. Note in the Account Titles column that
p. 192 of 433

the Insurance Expense account title is below the trial balance totals because the Insurance Expense
account did not have a balance before the adjustment and, therefore, did not appear in the trial
balance.
Work sheet preparers often provide brief explanations at the bottom for the keyed entries as in
Exhibit 20. Although these explanations are optional, they provide valuable information for those who
review the work sheet later.
The adjustments (which were discussed and illustrated in Chapter 3) for MicroTrain Company are:

Exhibit 19: Steps in the accounting cycle

Entry (1) records the expiration of USD 200 of prepaid insurance in December.
Entry (2) records the expiration of USD 400 of prepaid rent in December.
Entry (3) records the using up of USD 500 of supplies during the month.
Entry (4) records USD 750 depreciation expense on the trucks for the month. MicroTrain

acquired the trucks at the beginning of December.

p. 193 of 433

MicroTrain acquired the trucks at the beginning of December

Entry (5) records the earning of USD 1,500 of the USD 4,500 in the Unearned Service Fees

account.
Entry (6) records USD 600 of interest earned in December.
Entry (7) records USD 1,000 of unbilled training services performed in December.
Entry (8) records the USD 180 accrual of salaries expense at the end of the month.

Often it is difficult to discover all the adjusting entries that should be made. The following steps are
helpful:
Examine adjusting entries made at the end of the preceding accounting period. The same

types of entries often are necessary period after period.

Examine the account titles in the trial balance. For example, if the company has an account

titled Trucks, an entry must be made for depreciation.

Examine various business documents (such as bills for services received or rendered) to

discover other assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses that have not yet been recorded.
Ask the manager or other personnel specific questions regarding adjustments that may be

necessary. For example: "Were any services performed during the month that have not yet been
billed?"

p. 194 of 433

MICROTRAIN COMPANY Work Sheet For the Month Ended 2010 December 31
Acct Account Titles
.

Statement of
Retained
Earnings

Trial Balance

Adjustments

Adjusted Trail
Balance

Income
Statement

No.

Debit

Debit

Debit Credit

Debit Credit Debit Credit

100 Cash
103 Accounts
Receivable
107 Supplies on Hand
108 Prepaid Insurance
112 Prepaid Rent
150 Trucks

8,250
5,200

Revenue

512
SIS
518
521
151
121
418
206

Insurance Expense
Rent Expense
Supplies Expense
Depreciation
ExpenseTrucks
Accumulated
DepreciationTrucks
Interest Receivable
Interest Revenue
Salaries Payable

Credit

8,250
6,200

(7)
1,000

1,400
2,400
1,200
40,0 0 0

200 Accounts Payable

216 Unearned Service
Fees
300 Capital Stock
310 Retained Earnings
2010 December 31
320 Dividends
3,000
400 Service

505 Advertising
Expense
506 Gas and Oil
Expense
507 Salaries Expense
511 Utilities Expense

Credit

900
2,200
800
40,000
730
3,000

(5)
1,500

50,000
0-

50,000
0

-0-

3,000
(5)
1,500
(7)
1,000

10,700

3,000
13,200

13,20
0

50

SO

50

690

660

680

(3) 130

3,7S0
ISO

3,780
150

(1) 200
(Z) 400
(3) 500

200
400
500

200
400
500

(t) 750

750

750

3,600
150
65,930

Debit
8,250
6,200

(3) 500 900

n) 200 2,200
(2) 400 BOO
40,00
0
730
4,500

Balance
Sheet

65,930

750

(t) 750
m 6O0
5,130

Net Income
Retained Earnings,
2010 December 31

600
600
(6) 500
ISO
(S) 180
5,130 53,40 6S,4G0
0

600
GOO
6,510 13,80
0
7,290
7,290
13,80 13,80 3,000 7,29C
0
0
4,290
7,290 7,29C

53,950

Exhibit 20: Completed worksheet

p. 195 of 433

(1) To record insurance expenses for December.

(2) To record rent expenses for December.
(3) To record supplies expenses for December.
(4) To record depreciation expenses for December.
(5) To transfer fees for service provided in December from the liability account to the revenue
account.
(6) To record one month's interest revenue.
(7) To record unbilled training services performed in December.
(8) To accrue one day's salaries that were earned but are unpaid.
After all the adjusting entries are entered in the Adjustments columns, total the two columns. The
totals of these two columns should be equal when all debits and credits are entered properly.
After MicroTrain's adjustments, compute the adjusted balance of each account and enter these in
the Adjusted Trial Balance columns. For example, Supplies on Hand (Account No. 107) had an
unadjusted balance of USD 1,400. Adjusting entry (3) credited the account for USD 500, leaving a
debit balance of USD 900. This amount is a debit in the Adjusted Trial Balance columns.
Next, extend all accounts having balances to the Adjusted Trial Balance columns. Note carefully
how the rules of debit and credit apply in determining whether an adjustment increases or decreases
the account balance. For example, Salaries Expense (Account No. 507) has a USD 3,600 debit balance
in the Trial Balance columns. A USD 180 debit adjustment increases this account, which has a USD
3,780 debit balance in the Adjusted Trial Balance columns.
Some account balances remain the same because no adjustments have affected them. For example,
the balance in Accounts Payable (Account No. 200) does not change and is simply extended to the
Adjusted Trial Balance columns.
Now, total the Adjusted Trial Balance debit and credit columns. The totals must be equal before
taking the next step in completing the work sheet. When the Trial Balance and Adjustments columns
both balance but the Adjusted Trial Balance columns do not, the most probable cause is a math error or
an error in extension. The Adjusted Trial Balance columns make the next step of sorting the amounts
to the Income Statement, the Statement of Retained Earnings, and the Balance Sheet columns much
easier.
Begin by extending all of MicroTrain's revenue and expense account balances in the Adjusted Trial
Balance columns to the Income Statement columns. Since revenues carry credit balances, extend them
to the credit column. After extending expenses to the debit column, subtotal each column. MicroTrain's
total expenses are USD 6,510 and total revenues are USD 13,800. Thus, net income for the period is
p. 196 of 433

USD 7,290 (USD 13,800USD 6,510). Enter this USD 7,290 income in the debit column to make the
two column totals balance. You would record a net loss in the opposite manner; expenses (debits)
would have been larger than revenues (credits) so a net loss would be entered in the credit column to
make the columns balance.
Next, complete the Statement of Retained Earnings columns. Enter the USD 7,290 net income
amount for December in the credit Statement of Retained Earnings column. Thus, this net income
amount is the balancing figure for the Income Statement columns and is also in the credit Statement of
Retained Earnings column. Net income appears in the Statement of Retained Earnings credit column
because it causes an increase in retained earnings. Add the USD 7,290 net income to the beginning
retained earnings balance of USD 0, and deduct the dividends of USD 3,000. As a result, the ending
balance of the Retained Earnings account is USD 4,290.
Now extend the assets, liabilities, and capital stock accounts in the Adjusted Trial Balance columns
to the Balance Sheet columns. Extend asset amounts as debits and liability and capital stock amounts
as credits.
Note that the ending retained earnings amount determined in the Statement of Retained Earnings
columns appears again as a credit in the Balance Sheet columns. The ending retained earnings amount
is a debit in the Statement of Retained Earnings columns to balance the Statement of Retained
Earnings columns. The ending retained earnings is a credit in the Balance Sheet columns because it
increases stockholders' equity, and increases in stockholders' equity are credits. (Retained earnings
would have a debit ending balance only if cumulative losses and dividends exceed cumulative
earnings.) With the inclusion of the ending retained earnings amount, the Balance Sheet columns
balance.
When the Balance Sheet column totals do not agree on the first attempt, work backward through
the process used in preparing the work sheet. Specifically, take the following steps until you discover
the error:

p. 197 of 433

MICROTRAIN COMPANY
Income Statement
For the Month Ended 2010 December 31

Revenues:
Service Revenue

$13,200

Interest Revenue

600

Total Revenue

$13,800

Expenses:
Advertising Expense

$ 50

Gas and Oil Expense

680

Salaries Expense

3,780

Utilities Expense

150

Insurance Expense

200

Rent Expense

400

Supplies Expense

500

Depreciation ExpenseTrucks

750

Total Expense

6,510

Net Income

$ 7,290

Exhibit 21: Income statement

Re-total the two Balance Sheet columns to see if you made an error in addition. If the column

totals do not agree, check to see if you did not extend a balance sheet item or if you made an
incorrect extension from the Adjusted Trial Balance columns.
Re-total the Statement of Retained Earnings columns and determine whether you entered the

correct amount of retained earnings in the appropriate Statement of Retained Earnings and
Balance Sheet columns.
Re-total the Income Statement columns and determine whether you entered the correct

amount of net income or net loss for the period in the appropriate Income Statement and
Statement of Retained Earnings columns.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

Electronic spreadsheets have numerous applications in accounting. An electronic
spreadsheet is simply a large blank page that contains rows and columns on the
computer screen. The blocks created by the intersection of the rows and columns are
cells; each cell can hold one or more words, a number, or the product of a
mathematical formula. Spreadsheets are ideal for creating large work sheets, trial
balances, and other schedules, and for performing large volumes of calculations such
as depreciation calculations. The most popular spreadsheet program is Microsoft

p. 198 of 433

Excel. Free spreadsheet programs are also available from companies such as Google
and Zoho.

5.5 Preparing financial statements from the work sheet

When the work sheet is completed, all the necessary information to prepare the income statement,
statement of retained earnings, and balance sheet is readily available. Now, you need only recast the
information into the appropriate financial statement format.
The information you need to prepare the income statement in Exhibit 21 is in the work sheet's
Income Statement columns in Exhibit 20.
The information you need to prepare the statement of retained earnings is taken from the
Statement of Retained Earnings columns in the work sheet. Look at Exhibit 22, MicroTrain Company's
statement of retained earnings for the month ended 2010 December 31. To prepare this statement, use
the beginning Retained Earnings account balance (Account No. 310), add the net income (or deduct
the net loss), and then subtract the Dividends (Account No. 320). Carry the ending Retained Earnings
balance forward to the balance sheet. Remember that the statement of retained earnings helps to relate
income statement information to balance sheet information. It does this by indicating how net income
on the income statement relates to retained earnings on the balance sheet.
MICROTRAIN COMPANY
Statement of Retained Earnings
For the Month Ended 2010 December 31,

Retained earnings, 2010 December 1

Net income for the December

0
7,290

Total
Less: Dividends

7,290
3,000

Retained earnings, 2010 December 31

4,290

Exhibit 22: Statement of retained earnings

p. 199 of 433

MICROTRAIN COMPANY
Balance Sheet
2010 December 31
Assets

Cash
Accounts receivable
Supplies on hand
Prepaid insurance
Prepaid rent
Interest receivable
Trucks

$ 40,000

Less: Accumulated depredation 750

Total assets
Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

$ 8,250
6,200
900
2,200
800
600
39,250
$ 58,200

Liabilities:
Accounts payable
Unearned service fees
Salaries payable
Total liabilities
Stockholders' equity:
Capital stock

$ 730
3,000
180
$ 3,910
$ 50,000

Retained earnings 4,290

Total stockholders' equity
Total liabilities and stockholders' equity

54,290
$ 58,200

Exhibit 23: Balance sheet

The information needed to prepare a balance sheet comes from the Balance Sheet columns of
MicroTrain's work sheet (Exhibit 20). As stated earlier, the correct amount for the ending retained
earnings appears on the statement of retained earnings. See the completed balance sheet for
MicroTrain in Exhibit 23.

5.6 Journalizing adjusting entries

After completing MicroTrain's financial statements from the work sheet, you should enter the
adjusting entries in the general journal and post them to the appropriate ledger accounts. You would
prepare these adjusting entries as you learned in Chapter 3, except that the work sheet is now your
source for making the entries. The preparation of a work sheet does not eliminate the need to prepare
and post adjusting entries because the work sheet is only an informal accounting tool and is not part of
the formal accounting records.
The numerical notations in the Adjustments columns and the adjustments explanations at the
bottom of the work sheet identify each adjusting entry. The Adjustments columns show each entry with
its appropriate debit and credit. MicroTrain's adjusting entries as they would appear in the general
journal after posting are:

p. 200 of 433

MICROTRAIN COMPANY
General Journal
Date

Account Titles and Explanation

2010
Dec.

Adjusting Entries

31

page3
Post. Debit
Ref.

Insurance Expense (-SE)

512

Prepaid Insurance (-A)

108

Credit

2 0 0
2 0 0

To record insurance expense for December.

31

Rent Expense (-SE)

515

Prepaid Rent (-A)

112

4 0 0
4 0 0

To record rent expense for December.

31

Supplies Expense (-SE)

518

Supplies on Hand (-A)

107

5 0 0
5 0 0

To record supplies used during December.

31

Depreciation ExpenseTrucks (-SE)

521

Accumulated DepredationTrucks (-A)

151

7 5 0
7 5 0

To record depreciation expense for December.

31

Unearned Service Fees (-L)

216

Service Revenue (+SE)

400

1 5 0 0
1 5 0 0

To transfer a potion of training fees from the liability account

to the revenue account.
31

Interest Receivable (+A)

121

Interest Revenue (+SE)

418

6 0 0
6 0 0

To record one month's interest revenue.

31

Accounts Receivable (+A)

103

Service Revenue (+SE)

400

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0

To record unbilled training services performed in December.

31

Salaries Expense (-SE)

507

Salaries Payable (+L)

206

1 8 0
1 8 0

To accrue one day's salaries that were earned by are unpaid.

5.7 The closing process

In Chapter 2, you learned that revenue, expense, and dividends accounts are nominal (temporary)
accounts that are merely subclassifications of a real (permanent) account, Retained Earnings. You also
learned that we prepare financial statements for certain accounting periods. The closing process
transfers (1) the balances in the revenue and expense accounts to a clearing account called Income
p. 201 of 433

Summary and then to Retained Earnings and (2) the balance in the Dividends account to the Retained
Earnings account. The closing process reduces revenue, expense, and Dividends account balances to
zero so they are ready to receive data for the next accounting period. Accountants may perform the
closing process monthly or annually.
The Income Summary account is a clearing account used only at the end of an accounting
period to summarize revenues and expenses for the period. After transferring all revenue and expense
account balances to Income Summary, the balance in the Income Summary account represents the net
income or net loss for the period. Closing or transferring the balance in the Income Summary account
to the Retained Earnings account results in a zero balance in Income Summary.
Also closed at the end of the accounting period is the Dividends account containing the dividends
declared by the board of directors to the stockholders. We close the Dividends account directly to the
Retained Earnings account and not to Income Summary because dividends have no effect on income or
loss for the period.
In accounting, we often refer to the process of closing as closing the books. Remember that only
revenue, expense, and Dividend accounts are closednot asset, liability, Capital Stock, or Retained
Earnings accounts. The four basic steps in the closing process are:
Closing the revenue accountstransferring the balances in the revenue accounts to a

clearing account called Income Summary.

Closing the expense accountstransferring the balances in the expense accounts to a

clearing account called Income Summary.

Closing the Income Summary accounttransferring the balance of the Income Summary

account to the Retained Earnings account.

Closing the Dividends accounttransferring the balance of the Dividends account to the

Retained Earnings account.

Revenues appear in the Income Statement credit column of the work sheet. The two revenue
accounts in the Income Statement credit column for MicroTrain Company are service revenue of USD
13,200 and interest revenue of USD 600 (Exhibit 20). Because revenue accounts have credit balances,
you must debit them for an amount equal to their balance to bring them to a zero balance. When you
debit Service Revenue and Interest Revenue, credit Income Summary (Account No. 600). Enter the
account numbers in the Posting Reference column when the journal entry has been posted to the
ledger. Do this for all other closing journal entries.

p. 202 of 433

Date

Account Titles and Explanation

2010
Dec.

MICROTRAIN COMPANY
General Journal

Closing Entries

31

Page 4

Post. Debit
Ref.

Service Revenue

400

1 3 2 0 0

Interest Revenue

418

6 0 0

Income Summary

600

Credit

1 3 8 0 0

To close the revenue accounts in the Income Statement credit

column to Income Summary.

After the closing entries have been posted, the Service Revenue and Interest Revenue accounts (in
T-account format) of MicroTrain appear as follows. Note that the accounts now have zero balances.

(Dr)
2010

Decreased
by $13,200

Dec. 31

2010
Dec. 31
Decreased
by $600

Service Revenue
Account No. 400
Bal. before
closing
To close to
Income
Summary13,20
0
Bal. after closing
Interest Revenue
Account No. 418
Bal. before
closing
To close to
Income
Summary 600
Bal. after closing

(Cr.)
13,200

0
(Cr.)
600

As a result of the previous entry, you would credit the Income Summary account for USD 13,800.
We show the Income Summary account in Step 3.
Expenses appear in the Income Statement debit column of the work sheet. MicroTrain Company
has eight expenses in the Income Statement debit column. As shown by the column subtotal, these
expenses add up to USD 6,510. Since expense accounts have debit balances, credit each account to
bring it to a zero balance. Then, make the debit in the closing entry to the Income Summary account
for USD 6,510. Thus, to close the expense accounts, MicroTrain makes the following entry:

p. 203 of 433

MICROTRAIN COMPANY

Page 4

General Journal
Date

2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

31 Income Summary

Post.
Ref.
600

Debit

Credit

6 5 1 0

Advertising Expense

505

5 0

Gas and Oil Expense

506

6 8 0

Salaries Expense

507

3 7 8 0

Utilities Expense

511

1 5 0

Insurance Expense

512

2 0 0

Rent Expense

515

4 0 0

Supplies Expense

518

5 0 0

Depreciation ExpenseTrucks

521

7 5 0

To close the expense accounts appearing in the Income

The debit of USD 6,510 to the Income Summary account agrees with the Income Statement debit
column subtotal in the work sheet. This comparison with the work sheet serves as a check that all
revenue and expense items have been listed and closed. If the debit in the preceding entry was made
for a different amount than the column subtotal, the company would have an error in the closing entry
for expenses.
After they have been closed, MicroTrain's expense accounts appear as follows. Note that each
account has a zero balance after closing.

p. 204 of 433

(Dr)

Bal. before
closing

Advertising Expense
Account No. 505

50

Summary
Bal. after
closing
(Dr.)

Bal. before
closing

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 To close to
Income

50

0
Gas and Oil Expense
Account No. 506

680

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 To close to
Income
Summary
680

Bal. after
closing
(Dr.)

Bal. before
closing

(Dr.)

Bal. before
closing

Salaries Expense
Account No. 507

3,780

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 To close to
Income

3,780

(Dr.)

Bal. before
closing

Decreased
by $3,780

0
Utilities Expense
Account No. 511

150

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 To close to
Income
Summary
150

Bal. after
closing

Decreased
by $680

Summary
Bal. after
closing

Decreased
by $50

Decreased
by $150

0
Insurance Expense
Account No. 512

200

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 To close to
Income
Summary
200

Decreased
by $200

p. 205 of 433

Bal. after
closing
(Dr.)

Bal. before
closing

0
Rent Expense
Account No. 515

400

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 To close to
Income
Summary
400

Bal. after
closing
(Dr.)

Bal. before
closing

0
Supplies Expense
Account No. 518

500

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 To close to
Income
Summary
500

Bal. after
closing

750'

(Cr.)

2010 "
Dec. 31 To close to
Income
Summary
750

Bal. after
closing

Decreased
by $500

Depreciation Expense-Trucks
(Dr.)
Account No. 521

Bal. before
closing

Decreased
by $400

Decreased
by $750

The expense accounts could be closed before the revenue accounts; the end result is the same.
As the result of closing the revenues and expenses of MicroTrain, the total revenues and expenses
have been transferred to the Income Summary account.

If total expenses exceed

total revenues,
the account has a debit
balance, which is the net
loss for the period

Income Summary
Total expenses
Total revenues
w

If total revenues exceed

total expenses,
the account has a credit
balance, which is the net
income for the period.

MicroTrain's Income Summary account now has a credit balance of USD 7,290, the company's net
income for December.

p. 206 of 433

Income Summary
2010
From closing
6,510
Dec. 31 the expense
accounts
(Dr)

(Cr.)

2010
Dec. 31 From closing
the revenue
accounts
Bal. before closing this
account (net income)

13,800

7,290

Next, close MicroTrain's Income Summary account to its Retained Earnings account. The journal
entry to do this is:
MICROTRAIN COMPANY
General Journal

Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

31 Income Summary
Retained Earnings

Page 4

Post. Ref. Debt

600
7 2 9 0

Credit

310

7 2 9 0

To close the Income Summary account to the Retained

Earnings account.

After its Income Summary account is closed, the company's Income Summary and Retained
Earnings accounts appear as follows:
Income Summary
(Dr.)

Account No. 600

2010
Dec. 31 From closing the
expense accounts
6,510
Dec. 31 To close this
account to Retain ed
Earnings

(Cr.)

"2010 Dec. 31 From

closing
The revenue
accounts
Bal. before closing this
account (net income)

7,290

13,800
7,290

Bal. after closing

Retained Earnings
(Dr)

Account No. 310

(Cr.)

Bal. before closing

-0-

Process
2010
Dec. 31 From Income
Summary

7,290

Decreased by
$7,290

The last closing entry closes MicroTrain's Dividends account. This account has a debit balance
before closing. To close the account, credit the Dividends account and debit the Retained Earnings
account. The Dividends account is not closed to the Income Summary because it is not an expense and

p. 207 of 433

does not enter into income determination. The journal entry to close MicroTrain's Dividends account
is:
MICROTRAIN COMPANY
General Journal

Date
2010 Dec.

Account Titles and Explanation

31 Retained Earnings (-SE)

Page 4

Post. Ref. Debit

310
3 0 0 0

Dividends (+SE)

Credit

320

3 0 0 0

To close the Dividends account to the Retained Earnings

account.

After this closing entry is posted, the company's Dividends and Retained Earnings accounts appear
as follows:
Dividends
(Dr.)

Account No. 320 (Cr.)

Bal. before closing 3,000

2010
Dec. 31 To close to
Retained
Earning

3000

Decreased
by $3,000
Bal. after closing

0
Retained Earnings

(Dr.)

2010

Account No. 310 (Cr.)

Dec. 31 From dividends 3,000

Bal. before closing

process -02010
Dec. 31 From Income
Summary 7,290
Bal. after closing
process is complete 4,290

After you have completed the closing process, the only accounts in the general ledger that have not
been closed are the permanent balance sheet accounts. Because these accounts contain the opening
balances for the coming accounting period, debit balance totals must equal credit balance totals. The
preparation of a post-closing trial balance serves as a check on the accuracy of the closing process and
ensures that the books are in balance at the start of the new accounting period. The post-closing trial
balance differs from the adjusted trial balance in only two important respects: (1) it excludes all
temporary accounts since they have been closed; and (2) it updates the Retained Earnings account to
its proper ending balance.

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A post-closing trial balance is a trial balance taken after the closing entries have been posted.
The only accounts that should be open are assets, liabilities, capital stock, and Retained Earnings
accounts. List all the account balances in the debit and credit columns and total them to make sure
debits and credits are equal.
Look at Exhibit 24, a post-closing trial balance for MicroTrain Company as of 2010 December 31.
The amounts in the post-closing trial balance are from the ledger after the closing entries have been
posted.
The next section briefly describes the evolution of accounting systems from the one-journal, oneledger manual system you have been studying to computerized systems. Then, we discuss the role of an
accounting system.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

If you are studying in the US, you may want to visit the American Institute of Certified
Public Accountants website at: http://www.aicpa.org
You will find information about the CPA exam, about becoming a CPA, hot accounting
topics, and various other topics, such as the US states that have passed a 150-hour
requirement to sit for the CPA exam. You can also learn such things as the states that
have approved limited liability companies (LLCs) and limited liability partnerships
(LLPs). These forms of organization serve to place limits on accountants' liability. You
can also find the phone numbers and mailing addresses of State Boards of
accountancy and State Societies of CPAs. Browse around this site to investigate
anything else that is of interest. Similar sites are available in other countries as well.

5.8 Accounting systems: From manual to computerized

The manual accounting system with only one general journal and one general ledger has been in use
for hundreds of years and is still used by some very small companies. Gradually, some manual systems
evolved to include multiple journals and ledgers for increased efficiency. For instance, a manual system
with multiple journals and ledgers often includes: a sales journal to record all credit sales, a purchases
journal to record all credit purchases, a cash receipts journal to record all cash receipts, and a cash
disbursements journal to record all cash payments. Still recorded in the general journal are adjusting
and closing entries and any other entries that do not fit in one of the special journals. Besides the
general ledger, such a system normally has subsidiary ledgers for accounts receivable and accounts
p. 209 of 433

payable showing how much each customer owes and how much is owed to each supplier. The general
ledger shows the total amount of accounts receivable and accounts payable, but the details in the
subsidiary ledgers allow companies to send bills to customers and pay bills to suppliers.
Another innovation in manual systems was the "one write" or pegboard system. By creating one
document and aligning other records under it on a pegboard, companies could record transactions
more efficiently. These systems permit the writing of a check and the simultaneous recording of the
check in the cash disbursements journal. Even though some of these systems are still in use today,
computers make them obsolete.
During the 1950s, companies also used bookkeeping machines to supplement manual systems.
These machines recorded recurring transactions such as sales on account. They posted transactions to
the general ledger and subsidiary ledger accounts and computed new balances. With the development
of computers, bookkeeping machines became obsolete. They were quite expensive, and computers
easily outperformed them. In the mid-1950s, large companies began using mainframe computers.
Early accounting applications were in payroll, accounts receivable, accounts payable, and inventory.
Within a few years, programs existed for all phases of accounting, including manufacturing operations
and the total integration of other accounting programs with the general ledger. Until the 1980s, small
and medium-sized companies either continued with a manual system, rented time on another
company's computer, or hired a service bureau to perform at least some accounting functions.
MICROTRAIN COMPANY
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Acct.
No.
100

Account Title
Cash

Debits
$ 8,250

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

6,200

107

Supplies on Hand

900

108

Prepaid Insurance

2,200

112

Prepaid Rent

800

121

Interest Receivable

600

150

Trucks

40,000

151

Accumulated DepreciationTrucks

$ 750

200

Accounts Payable

730

206

Salaries Payable

180

216

Unearned Service Fees

3,000

300

Capital Stock

50,000

310

Retained Earnings

4,290
$ 58,950

$ 58,950

p. 210 of 433

Exhibit 24: Post closing trial balance

An accounting perspective: Business insight

Imagine a company with an Accounts Receivable account and an Accounts Payable
account in its general ledger and no Accounts Receivable Subsidiary Ledger or
Accounts Payable Subsidiary Ledger. How would this company know to whom to send
bills and in what amounts? Also, how would employees know for which suppliers to
write checks and in what amounts? Such subsidiary records are necessary either on
paper or in a computer file.
Here is how the general ledger and subsidiary ledgers might look:
Subsidiary
Accounts
Receivable
Ledger
JOHN JONES
200 1
SYLVIA SMITH
300

General Ledger

Subsidiary Accounts
Payable Ledger

ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE

BELL CORPORATION

900

100

ACCOUNTS PAYABLE

600

GRANGER CORPORATION
1,000

JAMES WELLS
400

WONG CORPORATION
300

When a sale on account is made to John Jones, the debit is posted to both the control
account, Accounts Receivable, in the General Ledger and the subsidiary account, John
Jones, in the Subsidiary Accounts Receivable Ledger. Likewise, when a purchase on
account is made from Bell Corporation, the credit is posted to both the control
account, Accounts Payable, in the General Ledger and to the subsidiary account, Bell
Corporation, in the Subsidiary Accounts Payable Ledger. At the end of the accounting
period, the balances in each of the control accounts in the General Ledger must agree
with the totals of the accounts in their respective subsidiary ledgers as shown above. A
given company could have hundreds or even thousands of accounts in their subsidiary
ledgers that show the detail not supplied by the totals in the control accounts.

A broader perspective: Skills for the long haul

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The decision has been made: You [Tracy] have opted to start your career by joining an
international accounting firm. But you can not help wondering if you have the right
skills both for short and long-term success in public accounting.
Most students understand that accounting knowledge, organizational ability and
interpersonal skills are critical to success in public accounting. But it is important for
the beginner to realize that different skills are emphasized at different points in a
public accountant's career.
Let us examine the duties and skills needed at each levelStaff Accountant (years 1-2),
Senior Accountant (years 3-4), Manager/ Senior Manager (years 5-11) and Partner
(years 11+).
Staff accountantEnthusiastic learner
Let us travel with Tracy as she begins her career at the staff level. At the outset, she
works directly under a senior accountant on each of her audits and is responsible for
completing audits and administrative tasks assigned to her. Her duties include
documenting work papers, interacting with client accounting staff, clerical tasks and
discussing questions that arise with her senior. Tracy will work on different audit
engagements during her first year and learn the firm's audit approach. She will be
introduced to various industries and accounting systems.
The two most important traits to be demonstrated at the staff level are (1) a positive
attitude and (2) the ability to learn quickly while adapting to unfamiliar situations.
Senior accountantOrganizer and teacher
As a senior accountant, Tracy will be responsible for the day-to-day management of
several audit engagements during the year. She will plan the audits, oversee the
performance of interim audit testing and direct year-end field work. She will also
perform much of the final wrap-up work, such as preparing checklists, writing the
management letter and reviewing or drafting the financial statements. Throughout
this process, Tracy will spend a substantial amount of time instructing and supervising
staff accountants.
The two most critical skills needed at the senior level are (1) the ability to organize and
control an audit and (2) the ability to teach staff accountants how to audit.
Manager/senior managerGeneral manager and salesperson

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Upon promotion to manager, Tracy will begin the transformation from auditor to
executive. She will manage several audits at one time and become active in billing
clients as well as negotiating audit fees. She will handle many important client
meetings and closing conferences. Tracy will also become more involved in the firm's
administrative tasks. Finally, outside of her client service and administrative duties,
Tracy will be evaluated to a large extent on her community involvement and ability to
assist the partners in generating new business for the firm.
The two skills most emphasized at the manager level are (1) general management
ability and (2) sales and communication skills.
PartnerLeader and expert
As a partner in the firm, Tracy will have many broad responsibilities. She will engage
in high-level client service activities, business development, recruiting, strategic
planning, office administration and counseling. Besides serving as the engagement
partner on several audits, she will have ultimate responsibility for the quality of service
provided to each of her clients. Although a certain industry or administrative function
will become her specialty, she will often be called upon to perform a wide variety of
audit and administrative duties when other partners have scheduling conflicts. She
will be expected to serve as a positive example to those who work for her and will train
others in her areas of expertise.
At the partnership level, what is looked for is leadership ability plus the ability to
become an expert in a specific industry or administrative function.
In the meantime
Those planning on a public accounting career should do more than just learn
accounting. To develop the needed skills, a broad education background in business
and nonbusiness courses is required plus participation in extracurricular activities
that promote leadership and communication skills. It is never too early to start
building the skills for long-term success.
Source: Dana R. Hermanson and Heather M. Hermanson, New Accountant, January
1990, pp. 24-26, 1990, New DuBois Corporation.

The development of the personal computer (PC) in 1976 and its widespread use a decade later
drastically changed the accounting systems of small and medium-sized businesses. The number and
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quality of accounting software packages for PCs and the power of PCs quickly increased. Soon small
and medium-sized businesses could maintain all accounting functions on a PC. By the 1990s, the cost
of PCs and accounting software packages had decreased significantly, accounting software packages
had become more user-friendly, and computer literacy had increased so much that many very small
businesses converted from manual to computerized systems. However, some small business owners
still use manual systems because they are familiar and meet their needs, and the persons keeping the
records may not be computer literate.
Your knowledge of the basic manual accounting system described in these first four chapters
enables you to better understand a computerized accounting system. The computer automatically
performs some of the steps in the accounting cycle, such as posting journal entries to the ledger
accounts, closing the books, and preparing the financial statements. However, if you understand all of
the steps in the accounting cycle, you will better understand how to use the resulting data in decision
making.

An accounting perspective: The impact of technology

Results from a recent survey of 1,400 chief financial officers (CFOs) indicate that
tomorrow's accounting professionals will be called upon to bridge the gap between
technology and business. With the rise of integrated accounting and information
systems, technical expertise will go hand in hand with general business knowledge.

As we show in Exhibit 25, an accounting system is a set of records and the procedures and
equipment used to perform the accounting functions. Manual systems consist of journals and ledgers
on paper. Computerized accounting systems consist of accounting software, computer files, computers,
and related peripheral equipment such as printers.
Regardless of the system, the functions of accountants include: (1) observing, identifying, and
measuring economic events; (2) recording, classifying, and summarizing measurements; and (3)
reporting economic events and interpreting financial statements. Both internal and external users tell
accountants their information needs. The accounting system enables a company's accounting staff to
supply relevant accounting information to meet those needs. As internal and external users make
decisions that become economic events, the cycle of information, decisions, and economic events
begins again.

p. 214 of 433

The primary focus of the first four chapters has been on how you can use an accounting system to
prepare financial statements. However, we also discussed how to use that information in making
decisions. Later chapters also show how to prepare information and how that information helps users
to make informed decisions. We have not eliminated the preparation aspects because we believe that
the most informed users are ones who also understand how the information was prepared. These users
understand not only the limitations of the information but also its relevance for decision making.
The next section discusses and illustrates the classified balance sheet, which aids in the analysis of
the financial position of companies. One example of this analysis is the current ratio and its use in
analyzing the short-term debt-paying ability of a company.

Exhibit 25: The role of an accounting system

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

Accounting software packages are typically menu driven and organized into modules
such as general ledger, accounts payable, accounts receivable, invoicing, inventory,
payroll, fixed assets, job cost, and purchase order. For instance, general journal entries
are made in the general ledger module, and this module contains all of the company's
accounts. The accounts payable module records all transactions involving credit

p. 215 of 433

purchases from suppliers and payments made to those suppliers. The accounts
receivable module records all sales on credit to various customers and amounts
received from customers.

5.9 A classified balance sheet

The balance sheets we presented so far have been unclassified balance sheets. As shown in Exhibit
23, an unclassified balance sheet has three major categories: assets, liabilities, and stockholders'
equity. A classified balance sheet contains the same three major categories and subdivides them to
provide useful information for interpretation and analysis by users of financial statements.
Exhibit 26, shows a slightly revised classified balance sheet for The Home Depot, Inc., and
subsidiaries.1 Note that The Home Depot classified balance sheet is in a vertical format (assets
appearing above liabilities and stockholders' equity) rather than the horizontal format (assets on the
left and liabilities and stockholders' equity on the right). The two formats are equally acceptable.
The Home Depot classified balance sheet subdivides two of its three major categories. The Home
Depot subdivides its assets into current assets, property and equipment, long-term investments, longterm notes receivable, intangible assets (cost in excess of the fair value of net assets acquired), and
other assets. The company subdivides its liabilities into current liabilities and long-term liabilities
(including deferred income taxes). A later chapter describes minority interest. Stockholders' equity is
the same in a classified balance sheet as in an unclassified balance sheet. Later chapters describe
further subdivisions of the stockholders' equity section.
We discuss the individual items in the classified balance sheet later in the text. Our only purpose
here is to briefly describe the items that can be listed under each category. Some of these items are not
in The Home Depot's balance sheet.

1Founded in 1978, The Home Depot is America's largest home improvement retailer and ranks
among the nation's 30 largest retailers. The company has more than 1,000 full-service warehouse
stores. Their primary customers are do-it-yourselfers.
p. 216 of 433

THE HOME DEPOT, INC. AND SUBSIDIARIES

Consolidated Balance Sheet
2001 January 28
(amounts in millions, except share data)

January 28,
2001
Assets
Current Assets:
Cash and Cash Equivalents

167

Short-Term Investments, including current maturities of long-term investments

10

Receivables, net

835

Merchandise Inventories

6,556

Other Current Assets

209

Total Current Assets

7,777

Property and Equipment, at cost:

Land

4,230

Buildings

6,167

Furniture, Fixtures and Equipment

2,877

Leasehold Improvements

665

Construction in Progress

1,032

Capital Leases

261
$

Less: Accumulated Depreciation and Amortization

Net Property and Equipment

15,232
2,164

13,068

Long-Term Investments

15

Notes Receivable

77

Cost in Excess of Fair Value of Net Assets Acquired, net of accumulated amortization
of $41 at January 25, 2001 and $33 at January 30, 2000

314

Other

134

Total assets

13,608
$

21,385

Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

Current Liabilities:
Accounts Payable

1,976

Accrued Salaries and Related Expenses

627

Sales Taxes Payable

298

Other Accrued Expenses

1,402

Income Taxes Payable

78

Current Installments of Long-Term Debt

Total Current Liabilities

Long-Term Debt, excluding current installments

$4,385
$

1,545

Other Long-Term Liabilities

245

Deferred Income Taxes

195

Minority Interest

1,985
11

Stockholders' equity:

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Common Stock, par value $0.05. Authorized: 10,000,000,000 shares; issued and
outstanding2,323,747,000 shares at 2001 January 28 and 2,304,317,000 shares at 2000 January 30

116

Paid-In Capital

4,810

Retained Earnings

10,151

Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income

(67)
15,010

Less: Shares Purchased for Compensation Plans

Total Stockholders' Equity

Total Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

15,004
$

21,385

Exhibit 26: A classified balance sheet

Current assets are cash and other assets that a business can convert to cash or uses up in a
relatively short periodone year or one operating cycle, whichever is longer. An operating cycle is
the time it takes to start with cash, buy necessary items to produce revenues (such as materials,
supplies, labor, and/or finished goods), sell services or goods, and receive cash by collecting the
resulting receivables. Companies in service industries and merchandising industries generally have
operating cycles shorter than one year. Companies in some manufacturing industries, such as distilling
and lumber, have operating cycles longer than one year. However, since most operating cycles are
shorter than one year, the one-year period is usually used in identifying current assets and current
liabilities. Common current assets in a service business include cash, marketable securities, accounts
receivable, notes receivable, interest receivable, and prepaid expenses. Note that on a balance sheet,
current assets are in order of how easily they are convertible to cash, from most liquid to least liquid.
Cash includes deposits in banks available for current operations at the balance sheet date plus cash
on hand consisting of currency, undeposited checks, drafts, and money orders. Cash is the first current
asset to appear on a balance sheet. The term cash normally includes cash equivalents.
Cash equivalents are highly liquid, short-term investments acquired with temporarily idle cash
and easily convertible into a known cash amount. Examples are Treasury bills, short-term notes
maturing within 90 days, certificates of deposit, and money market funds.
Marketable securities are temporary investments such as short-term ownership of stocks and
bonds of other companies. Such investments do not qualify as cash equivalents. These investments
earn additional money on cash that the business does not need at present but will probably need within
one year.
Accounts receivable (also called trade accounts receivable) are amounts owed to a business by
customers. An account receivable arises when a company performs a service or sells merchandise on
credit. Customers normally provide no written evidence of indebtedness on sales invoices or delivery

p. 218 of 433

tickets except their signatures. Notice the term net in the balance sheet of The Home Depot (Exhibit
26). This term indicates the possibility that the company may not collect some of its accounts
receivable. In the balance sheet, the accounts receivable amount is the sum of the individual accounts
receivable from customers shown in a subsidiary ledger or file.
Merchandise inventories are goods held for sale. Chapter 6 begins our discussion of
merchandise inventories.
A note is an unconditional written promise to pay another party the amount owed either when
demanded or at a certain specified date, usually with interest (a charge made for use of the money) at a
specified rate. A note receivable appears on the balance sheet of the company to which the note is
given. A note receivable arises (1) when a company makes a sale and receives a note from the customer,
(2) when a customer gives a note for an amount due on an account receivable, or (3) when a company
loans money and receives a note in return. Chapter 9 discusses notes at length.
Other current assets might include interest receivable and prepaid expenses. Interest receivable
arises when a company has earned but not collected interest by the balance sheet date. Usually, the
amount is not due until later. Prepaid expenses include rent, insurance, and supplies that have been
paid for but all the benefits have not yet been realized (or consumed) from these expenses. If prepaid
expenses had not been paid for in advance, they would require the future disbursement of cash.
Furthermore, prepaid expenses are considered assets because they have service potential.
Long-term assets are assets that a business has on hand or uses for a relatively long time.
Examples include property, plant, and equipment; long-term investments; and intangible assets.
Property, plant, and equipment are assets with useful lives of more than one year; a company
acquires them for use in the business rather than for resale. (These assets are called property and
equipment in The Home Depot's balance sheet.) The terms plant assets or fixed assets are also used for
property, plant, and equipment. To agree with the order in the heading, balance sheets generally list
property first, plant next, and equipment last. These items are fixed assets because the company uses
them for long-term purposes. We describe several types of property, plant, and equipment next.
Land is ground the company uses for business operations; this includes ground on which the
company locates its business buildings and that is used for outside storage space or parking. Land
owned for investment is not a plant asset because it is a long-term investment.
Buildings are structures the company uses to carry on its business. Again, the buildings that a
company owns as investments are not plant assets.
Office furniture includes file cabinets, desks, chairs, and shelves.
Office equipment includes computers, copiers, FAX machines, and phone answering machines.
p. 219 of 433

Leasehold improvements are any physical alterations made by the lessee to the leased property
when these benefits are expected to last beyond the current accounting period. An example is when the
lessee builds room partitions in a leased building. (The lessee is the one obtaining the rights to possess
and use the property.)
Construction in progress represents the partially completed stores or other buildings that a
company such as The Home Depot plans to occupy when completed.
Accumulated depreciation is a contra asset account to depreciable assets such as buildings,
machinery, and equipment. This account shows the total depreciation taken for the depreciable assets.
On the balance sheet, companies deduct the accumulated depreciation (as a contra asset) from its
related asset.
Long-term investments A long-term investment usually consists of securities of another
company held with the intention of (1) obtaining control of another company, (2) securing a permanent
source of income for the investor, or (3) establishing friendly business relations. The long-term
investment classification in the balance sheet does not include those securities purchased for shortterm purposes. For most businesses, long-term investments may be stocks or bonds of other
corporations. Occasionally, long-term investments include funds accumulated for specific purposes,
rental properties, and plant sites for future use.
Intangible assets Intangible assets consist of the noncurrent, nonmonetary, nonphysical
assets of a business. Companies must charge the costs of intangible assets to expense over the period
benefited. Among the intangible assets are rights granted by governmental bodies, such as patents and
copyrights. Other intangible assets include leaseholds and goodwill.
A patent is a right granted by the federal government; it gives the owner of an invention the
authority to manufacture a product or to use a process for a specified time.
A copyright granted by the federal government gives the owner the exclusive privilege of
publishing written material for a specified time.
Leaseholds are rights to use rented properties, usually for several years.
Goodwill is an intangible value attached to a business, evidenced by the ability to earn larger net
income per dollar of investment than that earned by competitors in the same industry. The ability to
produce superior profits is a valuable resource of a business. Normally, companies record goodwill only
at the time of purchase and then only at the price paid for it. The Home Depot has labeled its goodwill
"cost in excess of the fair value of net assets acquired".
Accumulated amortization is a contra asset account to intangible assets. This account shows
the total amortization taken on the intangible assets.
p. 220 of 433

Current liabilities are debts due within one year or one operating cycle, whichever is longer. The
payment of current liabilities normally requires the use of current assets. Balance sheets list current
liabilities in the order they must be paid; the sooner a liability must be paid, the earlier it is listed.
Examples of current liabilities follow.
Accounts payable are amounts owed to suppliers for goods or services purchased on credit.
Accounts payable are generally due in 30 or 60 days and do not bear interest. In the balance sheet, the
accounts payable amount is the sum of the individual accounts payable to suppliers shown in a
subsidiary ledger or file.
Notes payable are unconditional written promises by the company to pay a specific sum of money
at a certain future date. The notes may arise from borrowing money from a bank, from the purchase of
assets, or from the giving of a note in settlement of an account payable. Generally, only notes payable
due in one year or less are included as current liabilities.
Salaries payable are amounts owed to employees for services rendered. The company has not
paid these salaries by the balance sheet date because they are not due until later.
Sales taxes payable are the taxes a company has collected from customers but not yet remitted to
the taxing authority, usually the state.
Other accrued expenses might include taxes withheld from employees, income taxes payable, and
interest payable. Taxes withheld from employees include federal income taxes, state income taxes,
and social security taxes withheld from employees' paychecks. The company plans to pay these
amounts to the proper governmental agencies within a short period. Income taxes payable are the
taxes paid to the state and federal governments by a corporation on its income. Interest payable is
interest that the company has accumulated on notes or bonds but has not paid by the balance sheet
date because it is not due until later.
Dividends payable, or amounts the company has declared payable to stockholders, represent a
distribution of income. Since the corporation has not paid these declared dividends by the balance
sheet date, they are a liability.
Unearned revenues (revenues received in advance) result when a company receives payment for
goods or services before earning the revenue, such as payments for subscriptions to a magazine. These
unearned revenues represent a liability to perform the agreed services or other contractual
requirements or to return the assets received.
Companies report any current installment on long-term debt due within one year under current
liabilities. The remaining portion continues to be reported as a long-term liability.

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Long-term liabilities are debts such as a mortgage payable and bonds payable that are not due
for more than one year. Companies should show maturity dates in the balance sheet for all long-term
liabilities. Normally, the liabilities with the earliest due dates are listed first.
Notes payable with maturity dates at least one year beyond the balance sheet date are long-term
liabilities.
Bonds payable are long-term liabilities and are evidenced by formal printed certificates
sometimes secured by liens (claims) on property, such as mortgages. Maturity dates should appear on
the balance sheet for all major long-term liabilities.
The deferred income taxes on The Home Depot's balance sheet result from a difference between
income tax expense in the accounting records and the income tax payable on the company's tax return.
Stockholders' equity shows the owners' interest in the business. This interest is equal to the
amount contributed plus the income left in the business.
The items under stockholders' equity in The Home Depot's balance sheet are paid-in capital
(including common stock) and retained earnings. Paid-in capital shows the capital paid into the
company as the owners' investment. Retained earnings shows the cumulative income of the
company less the amounts distributed to the owners in the form of dividends. Cumulative translation
adjustments result from translating foreign currencies into US dollars (a topic discussed in advanced
accounting courses). The unrealized loss on investments is discussed in Chapter 14.
The next section shows how two categories on the classified balance sheet relate to each other.
Together they help reveal a company's short-term debt-paying ability.

5.10 Analyzing and using the financial results the current ratio
The current ratio indicates the short-term debt-paying ability of a company. To find the current
ratio, we divide current assets by current liabilities. For instance, Exhibit 26 shows that The Home
Depot's current assets as of 2001 January 28, were USD 7,777,000,000 and its current liabilities were
Current assets
Current ratio=
USD
4,385,000,000.
Thus,
its
current
ratio
was:
Current liabilities
USD 7,777,000,000
=1.77 :1
USD 4,385,000,000
The current ratio of 1.77:1 for The Home Depot means that it has almost twice as many current
assets as current liabilities. Because current liabilities are normally paid with current assets, the
company appears to be able to pay its short-term obligations easily.
In evaluating a company's short-term debt-paying ability, you should also examine the quality of
the current assets. If they include large amounts of uncollectable accounts receivable and/or obsolete

p. 222 of 433

and unsalable inventory, even a 2:1 current ratio may be inadequate to allow the company to pay its
current liabilities. The Home Depot undoubtedly does not have such a problem.
The current assets, current liabilities, and current ratios of some other companies as of the third
quarter of 2001 were:
Current
Company
Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.
Hewlett-Packard Company
3M Corporation
General Electric Company
Johnson & Johnson

Current
Assets
$ 32,620,000,000
15,782,000,000
6,556,000,000
313,050,000,000
19,079,000,000

Current
Liabilities
$ 32,869,000,000
13,950,000,000
5,006,000,000
168,788,000,000
7,504,000,000

Ratio
.99:1
1.13:1
1.31:1
1.85:1
2.54:1

We described each of these companies earlier in the text.

As you can see from these comparisons, the current ratios vary a great deal. An old rule of thumb is
that the current ratio should be at least 2:1. However, what constitutes an adequate current ratio
depends on available lines of credit, the cash-generating ability of the company, and the nature of the
industry in which the company operates. For instance, companies in the airline industry are able to
generate huge amounts of cash on a daily basis and may be able to pay their current liabilities even if
their current ratio is less than 1:1. Comparing a company's current ratio with other companies in the
same industry makes sense because all of these companies face about the same economic conditions. A
company with the lowest current ratio in its industry may be unable to pay its short-term obligations
on a timely basis, unless it can borrow funds from a bank on a line of credit. A company with the
highest current ratio in its industry may have on hand too many current assets, such as cash and
marketable securities, which could be invested in more productive assets.
The next chapter describes the assumptions, concepts, and principles that constitute the accounting
theory underlying financial accounting. Thus, accounting theory dictates the standards and procedures
applied to the reporting of financial information in the financial statements.

5.11 Understanding the learning objectives

Analyze transactions by examining source documents.
Journalize transactions in the journal.
Post journal entries to the accounts in the ledger.
Prepare a trial balance of the accounts and complete the work sheet.
Prepare financial statements.
Journalize and post adjusting entries.
Journalize and post closing entries.
Prepare a post-closing trial balance.

p. 223 of 433

 The work sheet is a columnar sheet of paper on which accountants summarize information

needed to make the adjusting and closing entries and to prepare the financial statements.
Work sheets may vary in format. The work sheet illustrated in the chapter has 12 columns

two each for trial balance, adjustments, adjusted trial balance, income statement, statement of
retained earnings, and balance sheet.
The information needed to prepare the income statement is in the Income Statement

columns of the work sheet. Net income for the period is the amount needed to balance the two
Income Statement columns in the work sheet.
The information needed to prepare the statement of retained earnings is in the Statement of

Retained Earnings columns of the work sheet. The ending Retained Earnings balance is carried
forward to the balance sheet.
The information needed to prepare the balance sheet is in the Balance Sheet columns of the

work sheet.
As explained in Chapter 3, adjusting entries are necessary to bring the accounts to their

proper balances before preparing the financial statements. Closing entries are necessary to
reduce the balances of revenue, expense, and Dividends accounts to zero so they are ready to
receive data for the next accounting period.
Revenue accounts are closed by debiting them and crediting the Income Summary account.
Expense accounts are closed by crediting them and debiting the Income Summary account.
The balance in the Income Summary account represents the net income or net loss for the

period.
To close the Income Summary account, the balance is transferred to the Retained Earnings

account.
To close the Dividends account, the balance is transferred to the Retained Earnings account.
Only the balance sheet accounts have balances and appear on the post-closing trial balance.
All revenue, expense, and Dividends accounts have zero balances and are not included in the

post-closing trial balance.

Manual systems and computerized systems perform the same accounting functions.
The ease of accounting with a PC has encouraged even small companies to convert to

computerized systems.
A classified balance sheet subdivides the major categories on the balance sheet. For instance,

a classified balance sheet subdivides assets into current assets; long-term investments;
property, plant, and equipment; and intangible assets. It subdivides liabilities into current
p. 224 of 433

liabilities and long-term liabilities. Later chapters show more accounts in the stockholders'
equity section, but the subdivisions remain basically the same.
The current ratio gives some indication of the short-term debt-paying ability of a company.
To find the current ratio, divide current assets by current liabilities.

5.11.1

Demonstration problem

This problem involves using a work sheet for Green Hills Riding Stable, Incorporated, for the
month ended 2010 July 31, and performing the closing process. The trial balance for Green Hills
Riding Stable, Incorporated, as of 2010 July 31, was as follows:
GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED
Trial Balance
2010 July 31

Acct.
No.
100

Account Title
Cash

Debits
$ 10,700

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

8,100

130

Land

40,000

140

Buildings

24,000

200

Accounts Payable

$ 1,100

201

Notes Payable

40,000

300

Capital Stock

35,000

310

Retained Earnings, 2010 July 1

320

Dividends

402

Horse Boarding Fees Revenue

404

Riding Lesson Fees Revenue

507

Salaries Expense

1,400

513

Feed Expense

1,100

540

Interest Expense

200

568

Miscellaneous Expense

800
$ 87,300

3,100
1,000
4,500
3,600

$87,300

Depreciation expense for the month is USD 200. Accrued salaries on July 31 are USD 300.
a. Prepare a 12-column work sheet for the month ended 2010 July 31.
b. Journalize the adjusting entries.
c. Journalize the closing entries.

5.11.2

Solution to demonstration problem

a. See the work sheet below.

p. 225 of 433

GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATE

Work Sheet
For the Month Ended 2010 July 31
Acct. Account Titles
No.
100
103
130
140
200
201
300
310

Trial Balance

Adjustments

Adjusted
Balance

Income
Statement

Debit

Debit Credit

Debit

Debit

Cash
Accounts Receivable
Land
Buildings
Accounts Payable
Notes Payable
Capital Stock
Retained Earnings
2010 July 1
Dividends
Horse Boarding Fees
Revenue
Riding and Lesson
Fees Revenue
Salaries Expense

10,700
S,100
40,000
24,000

513
540
563

Feed Expense
Interest Expense
Miscellaneous
Expense

1,100
200
300

520

Depreciation Expense
Buildings
Accumulated
DepreciationBuildings

320
402
404
507

141

206

1,000

Credit

10,700
3,100
40,000
24,000

1,100
40,000
35,000
3,100

Credit

3,500

Balance Sheet
Debit
10,700
8,100
40,000
24,000

1,100
40,0 0 0
35,000
3,100

Credit

1,100
40,000
35,000

3,100

1,000

4,500

1,400

Credit

Statement of
Retained
Earnings
Debit
Credit

1,000
4,500

4,500

3,600

3,600

(2)
300

1,700

1,700

1,100
200
SOO

1,100
200
SOO

(1)
200

200

200

87,300 37,300

Salaries Payable
EOO
Net Income
Retained Earnings,
2010 July 31

(1)
200
(2)
300
5oo

87,500

200

200

300

300

37,300
4,000
4,100
8,100

8,100
8,100

1,000
6,200
7,200

4,100
7,200
7,200

82,300 76,600
6,200
S2,S00 32,800

Adjustments:
(i)
To record depreciation of
building for July.
(2) To record accrued
salaries of $300.

b.

p. 226 of 433

GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED

Page

General Journal

4
Date

Account Titles and

Explanation

Post.
Ref.

Adjusting Entries
201
0
July 3 Depredation Expense
520
1 Buildings (-SE)
Accumulated Depreciation 141
Buildings (-A)
To record depreciation
expense.

3 Salaries Expense (-SE)

1
Salaries Payable (+L)

507

Debt

Credit

2 0 0
2 0 0

3 0 0

206

3 0 0

To record accrued salaries.

c.
GREEN HILLS RIDING STABLE, INCORPORATED
General Journal
Date

2010
July

Account Titles and Explanation

Page 4

Post. Debt

Credit

Ref.

Closing Entries

31 Horse Boarding Fees Revenue

402

4 5 0 0

Riding Lesson Fees Revenue

404

3 6 0 0

Income Summary

600

8 1 0 0

To close revenue accounts.

31 Income Summary

600

4 0 0 0

Salaries Expense

507

1 7 0 0

Feed Expense

513

1 1 0 0

Interest Expense

540

2 0 0

Miscellaneous Expense

568

8 0 0

Depreciation ExpenseBuildings

520

2 0 0

To close expense accounts.

31 Income Summary

600

Retained Earnings

310

4 1 0 0
4 1 0 0

To close Income Summary account.

31 Retained Earnings
Dividends

310
320

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0

To close dividends account.

p. 227 of 433

5.11.3

Key terms*

Accounting cycle Series of steps performed during the accounting period to analyze, record,
classify, summarize, and report useful financial information for the purpose of preparing
financial statements. The steps include analyzing transactions, journalizing transactions, posting
journal entries, taking a trial balance and completing the work sheet, preparing financial
statements, journalizing and posting adjusting entries, journalizing and posting closing entries,
and taking a post-closing trial balance.
Accounting system A set of records and the procedures and equipment used to perform
accounting functions.
Accounts payable Amounts owed to suppliers for goods or services purchased on credit.
Accounts receivable Amounts due from customers for services performed or merchandise
sold on credit.
Accumulated amortization A contra account to intangible assets.
Accumulated depreciation A contra account to depreciable assets such as buildings,
machinery, and equipment.
Bonds payable Written promises to pay a definite sum at a certain date as evidenced by formal
printed certificates that are sometimes secured by liens on property, such as mortgages.
Buildings Structures used to carry on the business.
Cash Includes deposits in banks available for current operations at the balance sheet date plus
cash on hand consisting of currency, undeposited checks, drafts, and money orders.
Cash equivalents Highly liquid, short-term investments acquired with temporarily idle cash.
Classified balance sheet Subdivides the three major balance sheet categories (assets,
liabilities, and stockholders' equity) to provide more information for users of financial
statements. Assets may be divided into current assets; long-term investments; property, plant,
and equipment; and intangible assets. Liabilities may be divided into current liabilities and longterm liabilities.
Closing process The act of transferring the balances in the revenue and expense accounts to a
clearing account called Income Summary and then to the Retained Earnings account. The
balance in the Dividends account is also transferred to the Retained Earnings account.
Construction in progress Represents the partially completed stores or other buildings that a
company plans to occupy when completed.
Copyright Grants the owner the exclusive privilege of publication of written material for a
specific time.
Current assets Cash and other assets that a business can convert into cash or use up in one
year or one operating cycle, whichever is longer.
Current liabilities Debts due within one year or one operating cycle, whichever is longer. The
payment of current liabilities normally requires the use of current assets.
Current ratio Calculated by dividing current assets by current liabilities.
Dividends payable Amounts declared payable to stockholders and that represent a
distribution of income.
Goodwill An intangible value attached to a business, evidenced by the ability to earn larger net
income per dollar of investment than that earned by competitors in the same industry.
Income Summary account A clearing account used only at the end of an accounting period
to summarize revenues and expenses for the period.
p. 228 of 433

Income taxes payable Are the taxes payable to the state and federal governments by a
corporation based on its income.
Intangible assets Noncurrent, nonmonetary, nonphysical assets of a business.
Interest payable Interest that has accumulated on debts, such as notes or bonds. This accrued
interest has not been paid at the balance sheet date because it is not due until later.
Interest receivable Arises when interest has been earned but not collected at the balance
sheet date.
Land Ground the company uses for business operations. Land could include ground on which
the company locates its business buildings and that used for outside storage space or a parking
lot.
Leasehold improvements Are any physical alterations made by the lessee to the leased
property when these benefits are expected to last beyond the current accounting period.
Leaseholds Rights to use rented properties.
Long-term assets Assets that are on hand or used by a business for a relatively long time.
Examples include long-term investments; property, plant, and equipment; and intangible assets.
Long-term investment Usually securities of another company held with the intention of (1)
obtaining control of another company, (2) securing a permanent source of income for the
investor, or (3) establishing friendly business relations.
Long-term liabilities Debts such as a mortgage payable and bonds payable that are not due
for more than one year.
Marketable securities Temporary investments that a company makes to earn a return on idle
cash.
Merchandise inventory Goods held for sale.
Note An unconditional written promise to pay to another party the amount owed either when
demanded or at a certain date.
Notes payable Unconditional written promises by a company to pay a specific sum of money at
a certain future date.
Office equipment Includes computers, copiers, FAX machines, and phone answering
machines.
Office furniture Includes file cabinets, desks, chairs, and shelves.
Operating cycle The time it takes to start with cash, buy necessary items to produce revenues
(such as materials, supplies, labor, and/or inventories), sell services or goods, and receive cash
by collecting the resulting receivables.
Paid-in capital Shows the capital paid into the company as the owners' investment.
Patent A right granted by the federal government authorizing the owner of an invention to
manufacture a product or to use a process for a specific time.
Post-closing trial balance A trial balance taken after the closing entries have been posted.
Prepaid expenses Assets awaiting assignment to expense. Items such as rent, insurance, and
supplies that have been paid for but from which all of the benefits have not yet been realized (or
consumed). Prepaid expenses are classified as current assets.
Property, plant, and equipment Assets with useful lives of more than one year that a
company acquired for use in a business rather than for resale; also called plant assets or fixed
assets.

p. 229 of 433

Retained earnings Shows the cumulative income of the company less the amounts distributed
to the owners in the form of dividends.
Salaries payable Amounts owed to employees for services rendered.
Sales taxes payable Are taxes a company has collected from customers but has not remitted to
the taxing authority, usually the state.
Stockholders' equity Shows the owners' interest (equity) in the business.
Taxes withheld from employees Items such as federal income taxes, state income taxes, and
social security taxes withheld from employees' paychecks.
Unclassified balance sheet A balance sheet showing only three major categories: assets,
liabilities, and stockholders' equity.
Unearned revenues (revenues received in advance) Result when payment is received for
goods or services before revenue has been earned.
Work sheet A columnar sheet of paper on which accountants have summarized information
needed to make the adjusting and closing entries and to prepare the financial statements.
*Some of these terms have been defined in earlier chapters but are included here for your
convenience.

5.11.4
5.11.4.1

Self-test
True-false

Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.

At the end of the accounting period, three trial balances are prepared.

The amounts in the Adjustments columns are always added to the amounts in the Trial
Balance columns to determine the amounts in the Adjusted Trial Balance columns.

If a net loss occurs, it appears in the Income Statement credit column and Statement of
Retained Earnings debit column.

After the closing process is complete, no balance can exist in any revenue, expense,
Dividends, or Income Summary account.

The post-closing trial balance may contain revenue and expense accounts.

All accounting systems currently in use are computerized.

5.11.4.2

Multiple-choice

Select the best answer for each of the following questions.

Which of the following accounts is least likely to be adjusted on the work sheet?
o

Supplies on Hand.

Land.

Prepaid Rent.

p. 230 of 433

Unearned Delivery Fees.

If the Balance Sheet columns do not balance, the error is most likely to exist in the:
o

General journal.

General ledger.

Last six columns of the work sheet.

First six columns of the work sheet.

Net income for a period appears in all but which one of the following?
o

Income Statement debit column of the work sheet.

Statement of Retained Earnings credit column of the work sheet.

Statement of retained earnings.

Balance sheet.

Which of the following statements is false regarding the closing process?

o

The Dividends account is closed to Income Summary.

The closing of expense accounts results in a debit to Income Summary.

The closing of revenues results in a credit to Income Summary.

The Income Summary account is closed to the Retained Earnings account.

Which of the following statements is true regarding the classified balance sheet?
o

Current assets include cash, accounts receivable, and equipment.

Plant, property, and equipment is one category of long-term assets.

Current liabilities include accounts payable, salaries payable, and notes receivable.

Stockholders' equity is subdivided into current and long-term categories.

Now turn to Answers to self-test at the end of the chapter to check your answers.

5.11.4.3

Questions

At which stage of the accounting cycle is a work sheet usually prepared?

Why are the financial statements prepared before the adjusting and closing entries are
journalized and posted?

Describe the purposes for which the work sheet is prepared.

You have taken over a set of accounting books for a small business as a part-time job. At
the end of the first accounting period, you have partially completed the work sheet by
entering the proper ledger accounts and balances in the Trial Balance columns. You turn
to the manager and ask, "Where is the list of additional information I can use in entering
p. 231 of 433

the adjusting entries?" The manager indicates there is no such list. (In all the text
problems you have done, you have always been given this information.) How would you
obtain the information for this real-life situation? What are the consequences of not
making all of the required adjustments at the end of the accounting period?

How are the amounts in the Adjusted Trial Balance columns of a work sheet
determined?

The work sheet for Bridges Company shows net income of USD 40,000. The following
four adjustments were ignored:

Subscriptions Fees earned, USD 1,200.

Depreciation of equipment, USD 4,000.

Depreciation of building, USD 10,000.

Salaries accrued, USD 3,000. What is the correct net income?

After the Adjusted Trial Balance columns of a work sheet have been totaled, which
account balances are extended to the Income Statement columns, which account
balances are extended to the Statement of Retained Earnings columns, and which
account balances are extended to the Balance Sheet columns?

How is the statement of retained earnings prepared?

What is the purpose of closing entries? What accounts are not affected by closing
entries?

A company has net income of USD 50,000 for the year. In which columns of the work
sheet would net income appear?

Is it possible to prepare monthly financial statements without journalizing and posting

adjusting and closing entries? How?

What is the purpose of a post-closing trial balance?

Describe some of the ways in which the manual accounting system has evolved.

When did computerized accounting systems come into use?

Define an accounting system.

How is a classified balance sheet different than an unclassified balance sheet?

Real world question Refer to "A broader perspective: Skills for the long haul" to
answer the following true-false questions:

The same skills are needed at each level in a CPA firm.

The two most important traits at the staff accountant level are a positive attitude
and the ability to learn quickly while adapting to unfamiliar situations.
p. 232 of 433

The senior accountant needs management skills in addition to technical skills.

Partners become increasingly involved in technical matters and have less and less
interaction with people.

Real world question Referring to the Annual report appendix in your text, identify
the classifications (or categories) of assets used by The Limited in its balance sheet.

Real world question Referring to the Annual report appendix in your text, identify
the classifications (or categories) of liabilities used by The Limited in its balance sheet.

5.11.4.4

Exercises

Exercise A List the steps in the accounting cycle. Would the system still work if any of the steps
were performed out of order?
Exercise B Three of the major column headings on a work sheet are Trial Balance, Income
Statement, and Balance Sheet. Determine under which major column headings each of the following
items would appear and whether it would be a debit or credit. (For example, Cash would appear on the
debit side of the Trial Balance and Balance Sheet columns.)

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.

Account Titles
Accounts Receivable
Accounts Payable
Interest Revenue
Advertising Expense
Capital Stock
Retained Earnings (Beg.)
Net income for the month
Retained Earnings (End)

Trial
Balance
Debit

Credit

Income
Statement
Debit
Credit

Statement of
Retained
Earnings
Debit
Credit

Balance
Sheet
Debit

Credit

Exercise C Assume a beginning balance in Retained Earnings of USD 84,000 and net income for
the year of USD 36,000. Illustrate how these would appear in the Statement of Retained Earnings
columns and Balance Sheet columns in the work sheet.
Exercise D In the previous exercise, if there was a debit balance of USD 216,000 in the Retained
Earnings account as of the beginning of the year and a net loss of USD 192,000 for the year, show how
these would be treated in the work sheet.

p. 233 of 433

Exercise E Damon Davis was preparing the work sheet for Drano Plumbing Company. He
calculated the net income to be USD 50,000. When he totaled the Balance Sheet columns, the column
totals were debit, USD 400,000; and credit, USD 300,000. What was the probable cause of this
difference? If this was not the cause, what should he do to find the error?
Exercise F The Trial Balance of the Printer Repair Company at 2010 December 31, contains the
following account balances listed in alphabetical order to increase your skill in sorting amounts to the
proper work sheet columns.
Printer Repair Company
Trial Balance Account Balances
2010 December 31

Accounts Payable
Accounts Receivable
Accumulated DepreciationBuildings
Accumulated DepreciationEquipment
Buildings
Capital Stock
Cash
Equipment
Prepaid Insurance
Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1
Salaries Expense
Service Revenue
Supplies on Hand
Utilities Expense

$ 41,000
92,000
25,000
9,000
140,000
65,000
60,000
36,000
3,600
4,800
96,000
290,000
4,000
3,200

Using these account balances and the following additional information, prepare a work sheet for
Printer Repair Company. Arrange the accounts in their approximate usual order.
Supplies on hand at 2010 December 31, have a cost of USD 2,400.
The balance in the Prepaid Insurance account represents the cost of a two-year insurance

policy covering the period from 2010 January 1, through 2011 December 31.
The estimated lives of depreciable assets are buildings, 40 years, and equipment, 20 years.

No salvage values are anticipated.

Exercise G Texban Corporation had a 2010 January 1, balance in its Retained Earnings account of
USD 90,000. For the year 2010, net income was USD 50,000 and dividends declared and paid were
USD 24,000. Prepare a statement of retained earnings for the year ended 2010 December 31.
Exercise H Rubino Company reported net income of USD 100,000 for the current year.
Examination of the work sheet and supporting data indicates that the following items were ignored:
p. 234 of 433

 Accrued salaries were USD 6,000 at December 31.

Depreciation on equipment acquired on July 1 amounted to USD 4,000.

Based on this information, (a) what adjusting journal entries should have been made at December
31, and (b) what is the correct net income?
Exercise I Refer to the work sheet prepared in the Printer Repair Company exercise. Prepare the
adjusting and closing journal entries.
Exercise J The Income Statement column totals on a work sheet prepared at 2010 December 31,
are debit, USD 500,000; and credit, USD 900,000. In T-account format, show how the postings to the
Income Summary account would appear as a result of the closing process. Identify what each posting
represents.
Exercise K After adjustment, these selected account balances of Cold Stream Campground are:
Debits
Retained earnings

Credits
$540,000.00

Rental revenue

960000

Salaries expense

$336,000.00

Depreciated expense Buildings

64000

Utilities expense

208000

Dividends

32000

In T-account format, show how journal entries to close the books for the period would be posted.
(You do not need to show the closing journal entries.) Enter these balances in the accounts before
doing so. Key the postings from the first closing entry with the number (1), the second with the number
(2), and so on.

p. 235 of 433

Exercise L The following account balances appeared in the Income Statement columns of the work
sheet entries prepared for Liu Company for the year ended 2010 December 31:
Account Titles

Income Statement
Debit
Credit

Service Revenue

330,000

Advertising Expense

1,350

Salaries Expense

130,000

Utilities Expense

2,250

Insurance Expense

900

Rent Expense

6,750

Supplies Expense

2,250

Depreciation ExpenseEquipment

4,500

Interest Expense

562

Interest Revenue

1,125
148,552

Net Income

331,125

182,553
331,125

331,125

Prepare the closing journal entries.

Exercise M Which of the following accounts are likely to appear in the post-closing trial balance
for the Blake Company?
Accounts Receivable
Cash
Service Revenue
Buildings
Salaries Expense
Capital Stock
Dividends
Accounts Payable
Income Summary
Unearned Subscription Fees

p. 236 of 433

Exercise N Using the legend at the right, determine the category (number) into which you would
place each of these items.
Item

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.

Legend

i.

Land.
Marketable securities.
Notes payable, due in three years.
Taxes withheld from employees.
Patents.
Retained earnings.
Unearned subscription fees.
Bonds of another corporation (a 20-year
investment).
Notes payable, due in six months.

j.

Accumulated depreciation.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Current assets.
Long-term investments.
Property, plant, and equipment.
Intangible assets.
Current liabilities.
Long-term liabilities.
Stockholders' equity.

Exercise O The following data are from the 2001 annual report of The Procter & Gamble Company
and its subsidiaries. This company markets a broad range of laundry, cleaning, paper, beauty care,
health care, food, and beverage products in more than 140 countries around the world. Leading brands
include Ariel, Crest, Pampers, Pantene, Crisco, Vicks, and Max Factor. The dollar amounts are in
millions.
June 30

Current assets
Current liabilities

2001

2000

$10,889
9,846

$10,146
10,141

Calculate the current rations for the two years. Comment on whether the trend is favorable or
unfavorable.

p. 237 of 433

5.11.4.5

Problems

Problem A The following adjusted trial balance is for Jasper Appliance Repair Company:
JASPER APPLIANCE REPAIR COMPANY
Adjusted Trial Balance
2010 June 30
Debits

Cash

$ 63,000

Accounts Receivable

42,000

Trucks

110,000

Credits

Accumulated DepreciationTrucks

$ 30,000

Accounts Payable

10,800

Notes Payable

20,000

Capital Stock

50,000

Retained Earnings, 2009 July 1

Dividends

5,500
10,000

Service Revenue

230,000

Rent Expense

12,000

Advertising Expense

5,000

Salaries Expense

90,000

Supplies Expense

1,500

Insurance Expense

1,200

Depreciation ExpenseTrucks

10,000

Interest Expense

1,000

Miscellaneous Expense

600
$346,300

$346,300

Prepare the closing journal entries at the end of the fiscal year, 2010 June 30.

p. 238 of 433

Problem B The adjusted trial balance for Denver Architects , Inc., follows:
DENVER ARCHITECTS, INC.
Adjusted Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Debits

Cash

$ 90,000

Accounts Receivable

20,000

Interest Receivable

200

Notes Receivable

4,000

Prepaid Insurance

960

Prepaid Rent

2,400

Supplies on Hand

600

Equipment

60,000

Accumulated DepreciationEquipment
Buildings

$ 12,500
140,000

Accumulated DepreciationBuildings
Land

Credits

15,000
56,240

Accounts Payable

60,000

Notes Payable

10,000

Interest Payable

750

Salaries Payable

7,000

Capital Stock

100,000

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

Dividends

20,200
40,000

Service Revenue

360,000

Insurance Expense

1,920

Rent Expense

9,600

Advertising Expense

1,200

Depreciation ExpenseEquipment

2,500

Depreciation ExpenseBuildings

3,000

Supplies Expense

2,280

Salaries Expense

150,000

Interest Expense

750

Interest Revenue

200
$ 585,650

$ 585,650

a. Prepare an income statement.

b. Prepare a statement of retained earnings.
c. Prepare a classified balance sheet.
d. Prepare the closing journal entries.
e. Show the post-closing trial balance assuming you had posted the closing entries to the general
ledger.

p. 239 of 433

Problem C The following trial balance and additional data are for Sure Sale Reality Company
SURE SALE REALTY COMPANY
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Debits

Cash

$ 62,800

Accounts Receivable

117,120

Prepaid Rent

46,080

Equipment

173,760

Credits

Accumulated DepreciationEquipment

$ 21,120

Accounts Payable

62,400

Capital Stock

96,000

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

Dividends

49,920
46,080

Commissions Revenue

653,200

Salaries Expense

321,600

Travel Expense

96,480

Miscellaneous Expense

18,720
$ 882,640

$ 882,640

The prepaid rent is for the period 2010 July 1, to 2011 June 30.
The equipment has an expected life of 10 years with no salvage value.
Accrued salaries are USD 11,520.
Travel expenses accrued but unreimbursed to sales staff at December 31 were USD 17,280
a. Prepare a 12-column work sheet for the year ended 2010 December 31. You need not include
account numbers or explanations of adjustments.
b. Prepare adjusting journal entries.
c. Prepare closing journal entries.

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Problem D The following trial balance and additional data are for South Sea Tours, Inc.:
SOUTH SEA TOURS, INC.
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Debits

Cash

$ 109,050

Accounts Receivable

133,750

Prepaid Insurance

4,350

Prepaid Advertising

18,000

Notes Receivable

11,250

Land

90,000

Buildings

165,000

Accumulated DepreciationBuildings
Office Equipment

Credits

$ 49,500
83,400

Accumulated DepreciationOffice Equipment

16,680

Accounts Payable

56,850

Notes Payable

75,000

Capital Stock

240,000

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

Dividends

47,820
30,000

Service Revenue

368,350

Salaries Expense

96,000

Travel Expense

111,000

Interest Revenue
Interest Expense

600
3,000
$ 854,800

$ 854,800

The company consistently followed the policy of initially debiting all prepaid items to asset
accounts.
The buildings have an expected life of 50 years with no salvage value.
The office equipment has an expected life of 10 years with no salvage value.
Accrued interest on notes receivable is USD 450.
Accrued interest on the notes payable is USD 1,000.
Accrued salaries are USD 2,100.
Expired prepaid insurance is USD 3,750.
Expired prepaid advertising is USD 16,500.

p. 241 of 433

a. Prepare a 12-column work sheet for the year ended 2010 December 31. You need not include
account numbers. Briefly explain the entries in the Adjustments columns at the bottom of the work
sheet, as was done in Exhibit 20.
b. Prepare the required closing entries.
Problem E The following trial balance and additional data are for Florida Time-Share Property
Management Company:
FLORIDA TIME-SHARE PROPERTY MANAGEMENT COMPANY
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Debits

Cash

$ 424,000

Prepaid Rent

28,800

Prepaid Insurance

7,680

Supplies on Hand

2,400

Office Equipment

24,000

Accumulated DepreciationOffice Equipment

Automobiles

Credits

$ 5,760
64,000

Accumulated DepreciationAutomobiles

16,000

Accounts Payable

2,880

Unearned Management Fees

12,480

Capital Stock

360,000

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

Dividends

120,640
28,000

Commissions Revenue

260,000

Management Fee Revenue

19,200

Salaries Expense

199,840

Advertising Expense

2,400

Gas and Oil Expense

14,240

Miscellaneous Expense

1,600
$ 796,960

$ 796,960

Insurance expense for the year, USD 3,840.

Rent expense for the year, USD 19,200.
Depreciation expense: office equipment, USD 2,880; and automobiles, USD 12,800.
Salaries earned but unpaid at December 31, USD 26,640.
Supplies on hand at December 31, USD 1,000.
The unearned management fees were received and recorded on 2010 November 1. The advance
payment covered six months' management of an apartment building.

p. 242 of 433

a. Prepare a 12-column work sheet for the year ended 2010 December 31. You need not include
account numbers or explanations of adjustments.
b. Prepare an income statement.
c. Prepare a statement of retained earnings.
d. Prepare a classified balance sheet.
e. Prepare adjusting and closing entries.

5.11.4.6

Alternate problems

Alternate problem A The following adjusted trial balance is for Dream Home Realty Company:
DREAM HOME REALTY COMPANY
Adjusted Trial Balance
2010 June 30
Debits

Cash

$ 98,000

Accounts Receivable

40,000

Office Equipment

35,000

Accumulated DepreciationOffice Equipment

Credits

$ 14,000

Automobiles

40,000

Accumulated DepreciationAutomobiles

20,000

Accounts Payable

63,000

Capital Stock

75,000

Retained Earnings, 2009 July 1

54,700

Dividends

5,000

Commissions Revenue

170,000

Salaries Expense

25,000

Commissions Expense

120,000

Gas and Oil Expense

4,000

Rent Expense

14,800

Supplies Expense

1,400

Utilities Expense

2,000

Depreciation ExpenseOffice Equipment

3,500

Depreciation ExpenseAutomobiles

8,000
$

396,700

$ 396,700

Prepare the closing journal entries at the end of the fiscal year, 2010 June 30.

p. 243 of 433

Alternate problem B The adjusted trial balance for Penrod Insurance Consultants, Inc., follows:
Penrod Insurance Consultants, Inc.
Adjusted Trial Balance
2010 December 31

Debits

Cash

$ 107,200

Accounts Receivable

68,000

Interest Receivable

400

Notes Receivable

20,000

Prepaid Insurance

2,400

Supplies on Hand

1,800

Land

32,000

Buildings

190,000

Accumulated DepreciationBuildings
Office Equipment

Credits

$ 40,000
28,000

Accumulated DepreciationOffice Equipment

8,000

Accounts Payable

48,000

Salaries Payable

8,500

Interest Payable

900

Notes Payable (due 2011)

64,000

Capital Stock

120,000

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

Dividends

42,800
40,000

Commissions Revenue

392,520

Advertising Expense

24,000

Commissions Expense

75,440

Travel Expense

12,880

Depreciation ExpenseBuildings

8,500

Salaries Expense

98,400

Depreciation ExpenseOffice Equipment

2,800

Supplies Expense

3,800

Insurance Expense

3,600

Repairs Expense

1,900

Utilities Expense

3,400

Interest Expense

1,800

Interest Revenue

1,600
$ 726,320

$ 726,320

a. Prepare an income statement for the year ended 2010 December 31.
b. Prepare a statement of retained earnings.
c. Prepare a classified balance sheet.

p. 244 of 433

d. Prepare the closing journal entries.

e. Show the post-closing trial balance assuming you had posted the closing entries to the general
ledger.
Alternate problem C The following trial balance and additional data are for Ramon Data
Processing Company:
RAMON DATA PROCESSING COMPANY
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Debits

Cash

$ 76,000

Accounts Receivable

98,000

Prepaid Rent

7,200

Prepaid Insurance

2,400

Equipment

80,000

Credits

Accumulated DepreciationEquipment

$ 40,000

Accounts Payable

30,000

Capital Stock

100,000

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

Dividends

65,600
24,000

Service Revenue

370,000

Commissions Expense

270,000

Travel Expense

36,000

Miscellaneous Expense

12,000
$ 605,600

$ 605,600

The prepaid rent is for the period 2010 January 1, to 2011 December 31.
The equipment is expected to last 10 years with no salvage value.
The prepaid insurance was for the period 2010 April 1, to 2011 March 31.
Accrued commissions payable total USD 3,000 at December 31.
a. Prepare a 12-column work sheet for the year ended 2010 December 31. You need not include
account numbers or explanations of adjustments.
b. Prepare the adjusting journal entries.
c. Prepare the closing journal entries.

p. 245 of 433

Alternate problem D The following trial balance and additional data are for Best-Friend Pet
Hospital, Inc.
BEST-FRIEND PET HOSPITAL, INC.
Trial Balance
2010 December 31

Cash

Debits

Credits

16,490

Accounts Receivable

54,390

Supplies on Hand

900

Prepaid Fire Insurance

1,800

Prepaid Rent

21,600

Equipment

125,000

Accumulated Depreciation Equipment

$ 25,000

Accounts Payable

29,550

Notes Payable

9,000

Capital Stock

150,000

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

20,685

Service Revenue

179,010

Interest Expense

225

Salaries Expense

142,200

Advertising Expense

29,250

Supplies Expense

2,135

Miscellaneous Expense

3,705

Legal and Accounting Expense

13,750

Utilities Expense

1,800
$

413,245

$ 413,245

The company consistently followed the policy of initially debiting all prepaid items to asset
accounts.
Prepaid fire insurance is USD 600 as of the end of the year.
Supplies on hand are USD 638 as of the end of the year.
Prepaid rent is USD 2,625 as of the end of the year.
The equipment is expected to last 10 years with no salvage value.
Accrued salaries are USD 2,625.
a. Prepare a 12-column work sheet for the year ended 2010 December 31. You need not include
account numbers. Briefly explain the entries in the Adjustments columns at the bottom of the work
sheet, as was done in Exhibit 20.
b. Prepare the 2010 December 31, closing entries.

p. 246 of 433

Alternate problem E The following trial balance and additional data are for Roswell Interior
Decorators, Inc.:
ROSWELL INTERIOR DECORATORS, INC
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Debits

Cash

$ 85,400

Accounts Receivable

81,600

Supplies on Hand

4,000

Prepaid Rent

12,240

Prepaid Advertising

2,880

Prepaid Insurance

4,400

Office Equipment

7,600

Accumulated DepreciationOffice Equipment

Office Furniture

Credits

$ 2,760
29,200

Accumulated DepreciationOffice Furniture

8,280

Accounts Payable

25,200

Notes Payable (due 2011)

4,000

Capital Stock

100,000

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

Dividends

22,400
45,520

Service Revenue

250,000

Salaries Expense

98,800

Utilities Expense

20,000

Miscellaneous Expense

24,000
$ 412,640

$ 412,640

Supplies on hand at 2010 December 31, are USD 1,000.

Rent expense for 2010 is USD 10,000.
Advertising expense for 2010 is USD 2,304.
Insurance expense for 2010 is USD 2,400.
Depreciation expense is office equipment, USD 912, and office furniture, USD 3,000.
Accrued interest on notes payable is USD 150.
Accrued salaries are USD 4,200.
a. Prepare a 12-column work sheet for the year ended 2010 December 31. You need not include
account numbers or explanations of adjustments.
b. Prepare an income statement.
c. Prepare a statement of retained earnings.
d. Prepare a classified balance sheet.
p. 247 of 433

e. Prepare adjusting and closing entries.

5.11.4.7

Beyond the numbersCritical thinking

Business decision case A Heather and Dan Holt met while both were employed in the interior
trim and upholstery department of an auto manufacturer. After their marriage, they decided to earn
some extra income by doing small jobs involving canvas, vinyl, and upholstered products. Their work
was considered excellent, and at the urging of their customers, they decided to go into business for
themselves, operating out of the basement of the house they owned. To do this, they invested USD
120,000 cash in their business. They spent USD 10,500 for a sewing machine (expected life, 10 years)
and USD 12,000 for other miscellaneous tools and equipment (expected life, 5 years). They undertook
only custom work, with the customers purchasing the required materials, to avoid stocking any
inventory other than supplies. Generally, they required an advance deposit on all jobs.
The business seemed successful from the start, as the Holts received orders from many customers.
But they felt something was wrong. They worked hard and charged competitive prices. Yet there
seemed to be barely enough cash available from the business to cover immediate personal needs.
Summarized, the checkbook of the business for 2010, their second year of operations, showed:
Balance, 2010 January 1

99,200

Cash received from customers:

For work done in 2009

36,000

For work done in 2010

200,000

For work to be done in 2011

48,000

284,000
$

383,200

Cash paid out:

Two-year insurance policy dated 2010 January 1

19,200

Utilities

48,000

Supplies

104,000

Other Expenses

72,000

Taxes, including sales taxes

26,400

Dividends

40,000

Balance, 2010 December 31

309,600
$

73,600

Considering how much they worked, the Holts were concerned that the cash balance decreased by
USD 25,600 even though they only received dividends of USD 40,000. Their combined income from
the auto manufacturer had been USD 45,000. They were seriously considering giving up their business
and going back to work for the auto manufacturer. They turned to you for advice. You discovered the
following:
p. 248 of 433

Of the supplies purchased in 2010, USD 24,000 were used on jobs billed to customers in 2010; no
supplies were used for any other work.
Work completed in 2010 and billed to customers for which cash had not yet been received by yearend amounted to USD 40,000.
Prepare a written report for the Holts, responding to their belief that their business is not
sufficiently profitable. (Hint: Prepare an income statement for 2010 and include it in your report.)
Annual report analysis B Using the Annual report appendix, calculate the current ratios for the
two years shown for The Limited, Inc. Write a summary of the results of your calculations. Also, look at
some of the other data provided by the company in preparing your comments. For instance, look at the
net income for the last three years.
Broader perspective Writing experience C Read the "A broader perspective: Skills for the
long haul". Write a description of a career in public accounting broader perspective at each level within
the firm. Discuss the skills needed and how you could develop these skills.
Group project D In teams of two or three students, interview a management accountant.
Management accountants may have the title of chief financial officer (CFO), controller, or some other
accounting title within a company. Seek information on the advantages and disadvantages of working
as a management accountant. Also inquire about the nature of the work and any training programs
offered by the company. As a team, write a memorandum to the instructor summarizing the results of
the interview. The heading of the memorandum should contain the date, to whom it is written, from
whom, and the subject matter.
Group project E With a small group of students, obtain an annual report of a company in which
you have some interest. You may obtain the annual report from your instructor, the library, the
Internet, or the company. Describe the nature of each item on the classified balance sheet. You may
have to do library research on some of the items. Also, calculate the current ratio for the most recent
two years and comment. Write a report to your instructor summarizing the results of the project.
Group project F With a small group of students and using library sources, write a paper
comparing the features of three different accounting software packages (such as Peachtree Complete,
Quikbooks Pro, DacEasy, MYOB Business Essentials, NetSuite Small Businee and Cougar Mountain ).
Give the strengths and weaknesses of each. Cite sources for the information and treat direct quotes
properly.

5.11.4.8

Using the InternetA view of the real world

Visit the following Internet site:

p. 249 of 433

http://www.merck.com
Pursue choices you are offered on the screen under Investor Relations until you locate the most
recent consolidated balance sheet. In a short report to your instructor, describe how you got to the
balance sheet and identify the major headings used in the balance sheet. For instance, the first such
heading is Assets. Also, calculate the current ratio.
Visit the following Internet site:
http://www.kodak.com
Type in "Annual report" in the search box to locate the most recent annual report and then find the
consolidated statement of financial position. Identify the major headings within the balance sheet and
calculate the current ratio for the most recent year. Write a memo to your instructor summarizing your
findings.

5.11.4.9

Answers to self-test

True-false
True. The three trial balances are the unadjusted trial balance, the adjusted trial balance, and the
post-closing trial balance. The first two trial balances appear on the work sheet.
False. If a debit-balance account (such as Prepaid Rent) is credited in the adjustment, the amount
in the Adjustments columns is deducted from the amount in the Trial Balance columns to determine
the amount for that item in the Adjusted Trial Balance columns.
True. The net loss appears in the Income Statement credit column to balance the Income
Statement columns. Then the loss appears in the Statement of Retained Earnings debit column
because it reduces Retained Earnings.
True. All of these accounts are closed, or reduced to zero balances, as a result of the closing
process.
False. All revenue and expense accounts have zero balances after closing.
False. Some manual accounting systems are still in use.
Multiple-choice
b. The other accounts are very likely to be adjusted. The Land account would be adjusted only if an
error has been made involving that account.
c. The Adjusted Trial Balance columns should balance before items are spread to the Income
Statement, Statement of Retained Earnings, and Balance Sheet columns. Therefore, if the Balance
Sheet columns do not balance, the error is likely to exist in the last six columns of the work sheet.

p. 250 of 433

d. The net income for the period does not appear in the balance sheet. It does appear in all of the
other places listed.
a. The Dividends account is closed to the Retained Earnings account rather than to the Income
Summary account.
b. Plant, property, and equipment is one of the long-term asset categories. Response (a) should not
include equipment. Response (c) should not include notes receivable. Stockholders' equity is not
subdivided into current and long-term categories.

5.11.4.10 Comprehensive review problem

Lopez Delivery Service Company has the following chart of accounts:
Acct.
No.
100
103
107
108
112
140
141
150
151
200
206
300

Acct.
Account Title
Cash
Accounts Receivable
Supplies on Hand
Prepaid Insurance
Prepaid Rent
Buildings
Accumulated DepreciationBuildings
Trucks
Accumulated DepreciationTrucks
Accounts Payable
Salaries Payable
Capital Stock

No.
310
320
400
507
511
512
515
518
520
521
568
600

Account Title
Retained Earnings
Dividends
Service Revenue
Salaries Expense
Utilities Expense
Insurance Expense
Rent Expense
Supplies Expense
Depreciation ExpenseBuildings
Depreciation ExpenseTrucks
Miscellaneous Expense
Income Summary

The post-closing trial balance as of 2010 May 31, was as follows:

LOPEZ DELIVERY SERVICE COMPANY
Post-Closing Trial Balance
2010 May 31
Acct.
No.
100

Account Title
Cash

Debits
$ 80,000

Credits

103

Accounts Receivable

30,000

107

Supplies on Hand

14,000

108

Prepaid Insurance

4,800

112

Prepaid Rent

12,000

140

Buildings

320,000

141

Accumulated Depreciation Buildings

150

Trucks

151

Accumulated DepreciationTrucks

30,000

200

Accounts Payable

24,000

300

Capital Stock

300,000

310

Retained Earnings

$ 36,000
80,000

150,800
$ 540,800

$ 540,800

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The transactions for June 2010 were as follows:

June 1 Performed delivery services for customers on account, USD 60,000.
3 Paid dividends, USD 10,000.
4 Purchased a USD 20,000 truck on account.
7 Collected USD 22,000 of the accounts receivable.
8 Paid USD 16,000 of the accounts payable.
11 Purchased USD 4,000 of supplies on account. The asset account for supplies was debited.
17 Performed delivery services for cash, USD 32,000.
20 Paid the utilities bills for June, USD 1,200.
23 Paid miscellaneous expenses for June, USD 600.
28 Paid salaries of USD 28,000 for June.
Depreciation expense on the buildings for June is USD 800.
Depreciation expense on the trucks for June is USD 400.
Accrued salaries at June 30 are USD 4,000.
A physical count showed USD 12,000 of supplies on hand on June 30.
The prepaid insurance balance of USD 4,800 applies to a two-year period beginning 2010 June

1.
The prepaid rent of USD 12,000 applies to a one-year period beginning 2010 June 1.
Performed USD 12,000 of delivery services for customers as of June 30 that will not be billed to

those customers until July.

a. Open three-column ledger accounts for the accounts listed in the chart of accounts.
b. Enter the 2010 May 31, account balances in the accounts.
c. Journalize the transactions for June 2010.
d. Post the June journal entries and include cross-references (assume all journal entries appear on
page 10 of the journal).
e. Prepare a 12-column work sheet as of 2010 June 30.
f. Prepare an income statement, a statement of retained earnings, and a classified balance sheet.
g. Prepare and post the adjusting entries (assume they appear on page 11 of the general journal).
h. Prepare and post the closing entries (assume they appear on page 12 of the general journal).

i. Prepare a post-closing trial balance.

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6 Accounting theory
6.1 Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Identify and discuss the underlying assumptions or concepts of accounting.

Identify and discuss the major principles of accounting.

Identify and discuss the modifying conventions (or constraints) of accounting.

Describe the conceptual framework project of the Financial Accounting Standards Board.

Discuss the nature and content of a company's summary of significant accounting policies in

its annual report.

6.2 A career as an accounting professor

Do you enjoy college life? Do you enjoy teaching others? If so, you might want to consider a career
as a college professor. Although a position as a college professor may pay less than some other career
alternatives, the intangible benefits are beyond measure. A college professor can make a real difference
in the lives of hundreds, even thousands, of students over a career. Students come to college with great
potential, but are in need of some additional training and guidance. The work of a college professor is a
valuable investment in our nation's most valuable resourcepeople.
College faculty generally teach fewer hours each week than elementary and secondary school
teachers. This is because most college faculty have at least two additional important responsibilities:
research and service. The research component represents far more than just summarizing what others
have already learned. It represents arriving at new knowledge by discovering things that previously
were unknown. For instance, accounting research has demonstrated the ways in which accounting
numbers such as earnings and stockholder's equity are related to stock prices. This illustrates the
importance of accounting numbers and has resulted in a large stream of discovery called Capital
Markets research. Besides teaching and research, most faculty have significant service responsibilities
as well. Accounting faculty are involved in service to the university, the accounting profession, and to
the general public. Many college faculty dedicate 10-20 hours or more each week to the service
component of their jobs.
The demand for college professors varies greatly by discipline. In fields such as English, Fine Arts,
Philosophy, and Psychology there is a large supply of candidates with advanced degrees and, thus, the
competition for positions as college professors in these areas is intense. However, in applied fields such
p. 253 of 433

as accounting and engineering, there is a shortage of candidates with advanced degrees. The
opportunities for professors in these applied fields are excellent, and the chance to make a real
difference in the lives of others is exciting.
Chapter 1 briefly introduced the body of theory underlying accounting procedures. In this chapter,
we discuss accounting theory in greater depth. Now that you have learned some accounting
procedures, you are better able to relate these theoretical concepts to accounting practice. Accounting
theory is "a set of basic concepts and assumptions and related principles that explain and guide the
accountant's actions in identifying, measuring, and communicating economic information". 1
To some people, the word theory implies something abstract and out of reach. Understanding the
theory behind the accounting process, however, helps one make decisions in diverse accounting
situations. Accounting theory provides a logical framework for accounting practice.
The first part of the chapter describes underlying accounting assumptions or concepts, the
measurement process, the major principles, and modifying conventions or constraints. Accounting
theory has developed over the years and is contained in authoritative accounting literature and
textbooks. The next part of the chapter describes the development of the Financial Accounting
Standards Board's (FASB) conceptual framework for accounting. This framework builds on accounting
theory developed over time and serves as a basis for formulating accounting standards in the future.
Presenting the traditional body of theory first and the conceptual framework second gives you a sense
of the historical development of accounting theory. Despite some overlap between the two parts of the
chapter, remember that FASB's conceptual framework builds on traditional theory rather than replaces
it. The final part of the chapter discusses significant accounting policies contained in annual reports
issued by companies and illustrates them with an actual example from an annual report of the Walt
Disney Company.

6.3 Traditional accounting theory

Traditional accounting theory consists of underlying assumptions, rules of measurement, major
principles, and modifying conventions (or constraints). The following sections describe these aspects of
accounting theory that greatly influence accounting practice.

1American Accounting Association, A Statement of Basic Accounting Theory (Sarasota, Fla., 1966),
pp. 1-2.
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6.4 Underlying assumptions or concepts

The major underlying assumptions or concepts of accounting are (1) business entity, (2) going
concern (continuity), (3) money measurement, (4) stable dollar, and (5) periodicity. This section
discusses the effects of these assumptions on the accounting process.
Data gathered in an accounting system must relate to a specific business unit or entity. The
business entity concept assumes that each business has an existence separate from its owners,
creditors, employees, customers, interested parties, and other businesses. For each business (such as a
horse stable or a fitness center), the business, not the business owner, is the accounting entity.
Therefore, financial statements are identified as belonging to a particular business entity. The content
of these financial statements reports only on the activities, resources, and obligations of that entity.
A business entity may be made up of several different legal entities. For instance, a large business
(such as General Motors Corporation) may consist of several separate corporations, each of which is a
separate legal entity. For reporting purposes, however, the corporations may be considered as one
business entity because they have a common ownership. Chapter 14 illustrates this concept.
When accountants record business transactions for an entity, they assume it is a going concern. The
going-concern (continuity) assumption states that an entity will continue to operate indefinitely
unless strong evidence exists that the entity will terminate. The termination of an entity occurs when a
company ceases business operations and sells its assets. The process of termination is called
liquidation. If liquidation appears likely, the going-concern assumption is no longer valid.
Accountants often cite the going-concern assumption to justify using historical costs rather than
market values in measuring assets. Market values are of less significance to an entity using its assets
rather than selling them. On the other hand, if an entity is liquidating, it should use liquidation values
to report assets.
The economic activity of a business is normally recorded and reported in money terms. Money
measurement is the use of a monetary unit such as the dollar instead of physical or other units of
measurement. Using a particular monetary unit provides accountants with a common unit of
measurement to report economic activity. Without a monetary unit, it would be impossible to add such
items as buildings, equipment, and inventory on a balance sheet.
Financial statements identify their unit of measure (such as the dollar in the United States) so the
statement user can make valid comparisons of amounts. For example, it would be difficult to compare
relative asset amounts or profitability of a company reporting in US dollars with a company reporting
in Japanese yen.

p. 255 of 433

In the United States, accountants make another assumption regarding money measurementthe
stable dollar assumption. Under the stable dollar assumption, the dollar is accepted as a
reasonably stable unit of measurement. Thus, accountants make no adjustments for the changing value
of the dollar in the primary financial statements.
Using the stable dollar assumption creates a difficulty in depreciation accounting. Assume, for
example, that a company acquired a building in 1975 and computed the 30-year straight-line
depreciation on the building without adjusting for any changes in the value of the dollar. Thus, the
depreciation deducted in 2008 is the same as the depreciation deducted in 1975. The company makes
no adjustments for the difference between the values of the 1975 dollar and the 2008 dollar. Both
dollars are treated as equal monetary units of measurement despite substantial price inflation over the
30-year period. Accountants and business executives have expressed concern over this inflation
problem, especially during periods of high inflation.
According to the periodicity (time periods) assumption, accountants divide an entity's life
into months or years to report its economic activities. Then, accountants attempt to prepare accurate
reports on the entity's activities for these periods. Although these time-period reports provide useful
and timely financial information for investors and creditors, they may be inaccurate for some of these
time periods because accountants must estimate depreciation expense and certain other adjusting
entries.
Accounting reports cover relatively short periods. These time periods are usually of equal length so
that statement users can make valid comparisons of a company's performance from period to period.
The length of the accounting period must be stated in the financial statements. For instance, so far, the
income statements in this text were for either one month or one year. Companies that publish their
financial statements, such as publicly held corporations, generally prepare monthly statements for
internal management and publish financial statements quarterly and annually for external statement
users.
Accrual basis and periodicity Chapter 3 demonstrated that financial statements more
accurately reflect the financial status and operations of a company when prepared under the accrual
basis rather than the cash basis of accounting. Under the cash basis, we record revenues when cash is
received and expenses when cash is paid. Under the accrual basis, however, we record revenues when
services are rendered or products are sold and expenses when incurred.
The periodicity assumption requires preparing adjusting entries under the accrual basis. Without
the periodicity assumption, a business would have only one time period running from its inception to
its termination. Then, the concepts of cash basis and accrual basis accounting would be irrelevant
p. 256 of 433

because all revenues and all expenses would be recorded in that one time period and would not have to
be assigned to artificially short periods of one year or less.
Approximation and judgment because of periodicity To provide periodic financial
information, accountants must often estimate expected uncollectible accounts (see Chapter 9) and the
useful lives of depreciable assets. Uncertainty about future events prevents precise measurement and
makes estimates necessary in accounting. Fortunately, these estimates are often reasonably accurate.

6.5 Other basic concepts

Other basic accounting concepts that affect accounting for entities are (1) general-purpose financial
statements, (2) substance over form, (3) consistency, (4) double entry, and (5) articulation. We discuss
these basic accounting concepts next.
Accountants prepare general-purpose financial statements at regular intervals to meet many
of the information needs of external parties and top-level internal managers. In contrast, accountants
can gather special-purpose financial information for a specific decision, usually on a one-time basis.
For example, management may need specific information to decide whether to purchase a new
computer system. Since special-purpose financial information must be specific, this information is best
obtained from the detailed accounting records rather than from the financial statements.
In some business transactions, the economic substance of the transaction conflicts with its legal
form. For example, a contract that is legally a lease may, in fact, be equivalent to a purchase. A
company may have a three-year contract to lease (rent) an automobile at a stated monthly rental fee. At
the end of the lease period, the company receives title to the auto after paying a nominal sum (say, USD
1). The economic substance of this transaction is a purchase rather than a lease of the auto. Thus,
under the substance-over-form concept, the auto is an asset on the balance sheet and is depreciated
instead of showing rent expense on the income statement. Accountants record a transaction's
economic substance rather than its legal form.
Consistency generally requires that a company use the same accounting principles and reporting
practices through time. This concept prohibits indiscriminate switching of accounting principles or
methods, such as changing inventory methods every year. However, consistency does not prohibit a
change in accounting principles if the information needs of financial statement users are better served
by the change. When a company makes a change in accounting principles, it must make the following
disclosures in the financial statements: (1) nature of the change; (2) reasons for the change; (3) effect of
the change on current net income, if significant; and (4) cumulative effect of the change on past
income.
p. 257 of 433

Chapter 2 introduced the basic accounting concept of the double-entry method of recording
transactions. Under the double-entry approach, every transaction has a two-sided effect on each party
engaging in the transaction. Thus, to record a transaction, each party debits at least one account and
credits at least one account. The total debits equal the total credits in each journal entry.
When learning how to prepare work sheets in Chapter 4, you learned that financial statements are
fundamentally related and articulate (interact) with each other. For example, we carry the amount of
net income from the income statement to the statement of retained earnings. Then we carry the ending
balance on the statement of retained earnings to the balance sheet to bring total assets and total
equities into balance.
In Exhibit 27 we summarize the underlying assumptions or concepts. The next section discusses the
measurement process used in accounting.

6.6 The measurement process in accounting

Earlier, we defined accounting as "the process of identifying, measuring, and communicating
economic information to permit informed judgments and decisions by the users of the information". 2
In this section, we focus on the measurement process of accounting.
Accountants measure a business entity's assets, liabilities, and stockholders' equity and any changes
that occur in them. By assigning the effects of these changes to particular time periods (periodicity),
they can find the net income or net loss of the accounting entity for those periods.
Accountants measure the various assets of a business in different ways. They measure cash at its
specified amount. Chapter 9 explains how they measure claims to cash, such as accounts receivable, at
their expected cash inflows, taking into consideration possible uncollectibles. They measure
inventories, prepaid expenses, plant assets, and intangibles at their historical costs (actual amounts
paid). After the acquisition date, they carry some items, such as inventory, at the lower-of-cost-ormarket value. After the acquisition date, they carry plant assets and intangibles at original cost less
accumulated depreciation or amortization. They measure liabilities at the amount of cash that will be
paid or the value of services that will be performed to satisfy the liabilities.
Accountants can easily measure some changes in assets and liabilities, such as the acquisition of an
asset on credit and the payment of a liability. Other changes in assets and liabilities, such as those
recorded in adjusting entries, are more difficult to measure because they often involve estimates
and/or calculations. The accountant must determine when a change has taken place and the amount of

2Ibid., p. 1.
p. 258 of 433

the change. These decisions involve matching revenues and expenses and are guided by the principles
discussed next.

Assumption or Concept
Business entity

Description
Each business has an existence separate
from its owners, creditors, employees,
customers, other interested parties, and
other businesses.
Going concern (continuity) An entity will continue to operate indefinitely
unless strong evidence exists that the entity
will terminate.
Each business uses a monetary unit of
Money measurement
measurement, such as the dollar, instead of
physical or other units of measurement.
Stable dollar

The dollar is accepted as a reasonably

stable unit of measure.

Periodicity (time periods)

An entity's life can be subdivided into

months or years to report its economic
activities.

General-purpose financial
statements

One set of financial statements serves the

needs of all users.

Substance over form

Accountants should record the economic

substance of a transaction rather than its
legal form.

Consistency

Generally requires that a company use the

same accounting principles and reporting
practices every accounting period.

Double entry

Every transaction has a two-sided effect on

each company or party engaging in the
transaction.

Articulation

Financial statements are fundamentally

related and articulate (interact) with each
other.

Importance
Defines the scope of the business such as a horse
stable or physical fitness center. Identifies which
transactions should be recorded on the company's
books.
Allows a company to continue carrying plant assets
at their historical costs in spite of a change in their
market values.
Provides accountants with a common unit of
measure to report economic activity. This concept
permits us to add an d subtract items on the
financial statements.
Permits us to make no adjustments in the financial
statements for the changing value of the dollar.
This assumption works fairly well in the United
States because of our relatively low rate of
inflation.
Permits us to prepare financial statements that
cover periods shorter than the entire life of a
business. Thus, we know how well a business is
performing before it terminates its operations. The
need for adjusting entries arises because of this
concept and the use of accrual accounting.
Allows companies to prepare only one set of
financial statements instead of a separate set for
each potential type of user of those statements.
The financial statements should be free of bias so
they do not favor the interests of any one type of
user.
Encourages the accountant to record the true
nature of a transaction rather than its apparent
nature. This approach is the accounting equivalent
of "tell it like it is." An apparent lease transaction
that has all the characteristics of a purchase should
be recorded as a purchase.
Prevents a company from changing accounting
methods whenever it likes to present a better
picture or to manipulate income. The inventory and
depreciation chapters (Chapters 7 and 10) both
mention the importance of this concept.
Uses a system of checks and balances to help
identify whether or not errors have been made in
recording transactions. When the debits do not
equal the credits, this inequality immediately
signals us to stop and find the error.
Changes in account balances during an accounting
period are reflected in financial statements that are
related to one another. For instance, earning
revenue increases net income on the income
statement, retained earnings on the statement of
retained earnings, and assets and retained
earnings on the balance sheet. The statement of
retained earnings ties the income statement and
balance sheet together.

Exhibit 27: The underlying assumptions or concepts

6.7 The major principles

Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) set forth standards or methods for presenting
financial accounting information. A standardized presentation format enables users to compare the
p. 259 of 433

financial information of different companies more easily. Generally accepted accounting principles
have been either developed through accounting practice or established by authoritative organizations.
Organizations that have contributed to the development of the principles are the American Institute of
Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), the
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the American Accounting Association (AAA), the
Financial Executives Institute (FEI), and the Institute of Management Accounting (IMA). This section
explains the following major principles:
Exchange-price (or cost) principle.
Revenue recognition principle.
Matching principle.
Gain and loss recognition principle.
Full disclosure principle.

Whenever resources are transferred between two parties, such as buying merchandise on account,
the accountant must follow the exchange-price (or cost) principle in presenting that information. The
exchange-price (or cost) principle requires an accountant to record transfers of resources at
prices agreed on by the parties to the exchange at the time of exchange. This principle sets forth (1)
what goes into the accounting systemtransaction data; (2) when it is recordedat the time of
exchange; and (3) the amountsexchange pricesat which assets, liabilities, stockholders' equity,
revenues, and expenses are recorded.
As applied to most assets, this principle is often called the cost principle. It dictates that
purchased or self-constructed assets are initially recorded at historical cost. Historical cost is the
amount paid, or the fair market value of the liability incurred or other resources surrendered, to
acquire an asset and place it in a condition and position for its intended use. For instance, when the
cost of a plant asset (such as a machine) is recorded, its cost includes the net purchase price plus any
costs of reconditioning, testing, transporting, and placing the asset in the location for its intended use.
Accountants prefer the term exchange-price principle to cost principle because it seems inappropriate
to refer to liabilities, stockholders' equity, and such assets as cash and accounts receivable as being
measured in terms of cost.
More recently, the FASB in SFAS 157 has moved definitively towards fair market value accounting,
or mark-to-market, which records the value of an asset or liability at its current market value (also
known as a fair value) rather than its book value.
SFAS 157 defines fair value as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer
a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.
p. 260 of 433

It is also defined as an exit price from the perspective of a market participant that holds the asset
or owes the liability, whether or not the business plans to hold the asset/liability for investment, or
sell it.
The fair value accounting standard SFAS 157 applies to financial assets of all publicly-traded
companies in the US as of 2007 Nov. 15. It also applies to non-financial assets and liabilities that are
recognized, or disclosed, at fair value on a recurring basis. Beginning in 2009, the standard will apply
to other non-financial assets. SFAS 157 applies to items for which other accounting pronouncements
require or permit fair value measurements except share-based payment transactions, such as stock
option compensation.
SFAS 157 provides a hierarchy of three levels of input data for determining the fair value of an
asset or liability. This hierarchy ranks the quality and reliability of information used to determine fair
values, with level 1 inputs being the most reliable and level 3 inputs being the least reliable.
Level 1 is quoted prices for identical items in active, liquid and visible markets such as stock

exchanges.
Level 2 is observable information for similar items in active or inactive markets, such as two

similarly situated buildings in a downtown real estate market.

Level 3 are unobservable inputs to be used in situations where markets do not exist or are

illiquid such as the present credit crisis. At this point fair market valuation becomes highly
subjective.
Fair value accounting has been a contentious topic since it was introduced, For example, banks and
investment banks have had to reduce the value of the mortgages and mortgage-backed securities to
reflect current prices. Those prices declined severely with the collapse of credit markets as mortgage
defaults escalated in the financial crisis of 2008-2009. Despite debate over the proper implementation
of fair market value accounting, International Financial Reporting Standards utilize this approach
much more than the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles of the United States.
To

learn

more

about

fair

market

value

accounting,

visit

the

AICPA

site,

(http://www.aicpa.org/MediaCenter/fva_faq.htm), the source used for the explanation of this topic.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

In some European countries, the financial statements contain secret reserves. These secret
reserves arise from a company not reporting all of its profits when it has a very good year.
The justification is that the stockholders vote on the amount of dividends they receive each

p. 261 of 433

year; if all profits were reported, the stockholders might vote to pay the entire amount out as
dividends. By holding back some profits, not only are the creditors more protected but the
company is also more solvent and has more resources to invest in productive assets.

Revenue is not difficult to define or measure; it is the inflow of assets from the sale of goods and
services to customers, measured by the cash expected to be received from customers. However, the
crucial question for the accountant is when to record a revenue. Under the revenue recognition
principle, revenues should be earned and realized before they are recognized (recorded).
Earning of revenue All economic activities undertaken by a company to create revenues are part
of the earning process. Many activities may have preceded the actual receipt of cash from a customer,
including (1) placing advertisements, (2) calling on the customer several times, (3) submitting samples,
(4) acquiring or manufacturing goods, and (5) selling and delivering goods. For these activities, the
company incurs costs. Although revenue was actually being earned by these activities, accountants do
not recognize revenue until the time of sale because of the requirement that revenue be substantially
earned before it is recognized (recorded). This requirement is the earning principle.
Realization of revenue Under the realization principle, the accountant does not recognize
(record) revenue until the seller acquires the right to receive payment from the buyer. The seller
acquires this right from the buyer at the time of sale for merchandise transactions or when services
have been performed in service transactions. Legally, a sale of merchandise occurs when title to the
goods passes to the buyer. The time at which title passes normally depends on the shipping terms
FOB shipping point or FOB destination (as we discuss in Chapter 6). As a practical matter, accountants
generally record revenue when goods are delivered.
The advantages of recognizing revenue at the time of sale are (1) the actual transactiondelivery of
goodsis an observable event; (2) revenue is easily measured; (3) risk of loss due to price decline or
destruction of the goods has passed to the buyer; (4) revenue has been earned, or substantially so; and
(5) because the revenue has been earned, expenses and net income can be determined. As discussed
later, the disadvantage of recognizing revenue at the time of sale is that the revenue might not be
recorded in the period during which most of the activity creating it occurred.
Exceptions to the realization principle The following examples are instances when practical
considerations may cause accountants to vary the point of revenue recognition from the time of sale.
These examples illustrate the effect that the business environment has on the development of
accounting principles and standards.
p. 262 of 433

Cash collection as point of revenue recognition Some small companies record revenues and
expenses at the time of cash collection and payment, which may not occur at the time of sale. This
procedure is the cash basis of accounting. The cash basis is acceptable primarily in service enterprises
that do not have substantial credit transactions or inventories, such as business entities of doctors or
dentists.
Installment basis of revenue recognition When collecting the selling price of goods sold in
monthly or annual installments and considerable doubt exists as to collectibility, the company may use
the installment basis of accounting. Companies make these sales in spite of the doubtful collectibility of
the account because their margin of profit is high and the goods can be repossessed if the payments are
not received. Under the installment basis, the percentage of total gross margin (selling price of a
good minus its cost) recognized in a period is equal to the percentage of total cash from a sale that is
received in that period. Thus, the gross margin recognized in a period is equal to the cash received
times the gross margin percentage (gross margin divided by selling price). The formula to recognize
gross profit on cash collections made on installment sales of a certain year is:
Cash collections x Gross margin percentage=Gross margin recognized
To be more precise, we expand the descriptions in the formula as follows:
Cash collections this year resulting X
from installment sales made in a
certain year

Gross margin percentage = Gross margin recognized this

for the year of sale
year on cash collections this
year from installment sales
made in a certain year

To illustrate, assume a company sold a stereo set. The facts of the sale are:
Date of sale

Selling price

Cost

Gross margin (Selling price

Cost)

Gross margin percentage (Gross

margin/Selling price)

2010 Oct. 1

USD 500

USD 300

(500-300) 200

(200/500) = 40 per cent

The buyer makes 10 equal monthly installment payments of USD 50 to pay for the set (10 X USD 50
= USD 500). If the company receives three monthly payments in 2010, the total amount of cash
received in 2010 is USD 150 (3 X USD 50). The gross margin to recognize in 2010 is:
2010 cash collections from
2010 installment sales

USD 150

Gross margin percentage = 2010 gross margin

on 2010 installment sales recognized on 2010 cash
collections from 2010
installment sales
40 per cent
= USD 60

p. 263 of 433

The company collects the other installments when due so it receives a total of USD 350 in 2011 from
2010 installment sales. The gross margin to recognize in 2011 on these cash collections is as follows:
2011 cash collections from 2010
installment sales

USD 350

Gross margin percentage on 2010 = 2011 gross margin recognized on

installment sales
2011 cash collections from 2010
installment sales
40 per cent
= USD 140

In summary, the total receipts and gross margin recognized in the two years are as follows:
Total Amount of

Gross Margin

Year

Cash Recognized

Recognized

2010
2011

$150 30%
..... 350 70%
$500 100%

$ 60 30%
140 70%
$200 100%

Because the installment basis delays some revenue recognition beyond the time of sale, it is
acceptable for accounting purposes only when considerable doubt exists as to collectibility of the
installments.
Revenue recognition on long-term construction projects Companies recognize revenue
from a long-term construction project under two different methods: (1) the completed-contract method
or (2) the percentage-of-completion method. The completed-contract method does not recognize
any revenue until the project is completed. In that period, they recognize all revenue even though the
contract may have required three years to complete. Thus, the completed-contract method recognizes
revenues at the time of sale, as is true for most sales transactions. Companies carry costs incurred on
the project forward in an inventory account (Construction in Process) and charge them to expense in
the period in which the revenue is recognized.
Some accountants argue that waiting so long to recognize any revenue is unreasonable. They believe
that because revenue-producing activities have been performed during each year of construction,
revenue should be recognized in each year of construction even if estimates are needed. The
percentage-of-completion method recognizes revenue based on the estimated stage of completion
of a long-term project. To measure the stage of completion, firms compare actual costs incurred in a
period with the total estimated costs to be incurred on the project.
To illustrate, assume that a company has a contract to build a dam for USD 44 million. The
estimated construction cost is USD 40 million. You calculate the estimated gross margin as follows:
Sales price of dam

Estimated costs of construct

dam

Estimated gross margin (sales price

estimated costs)

USD 44 million

USD 40 million

(44 million 40 million) 4 million

p. 264 of 433

The firm recognizes the USD 4 million gross margin in the financial statements by recording the
assigned revenue for the year and then deducting actual costs incurred that year. The formula to
recognize revenue is:
Actualconstruction costs incurred during the period
x Total sales price= Revenue recognized for period
Total estimated construction costs for the entire project
Suppose that by the end of the first year (2010), the company had incurred actual construction costs
of USD 30 million. These costs are 75 per cent of the total estimated construction costs (USD 30
million/USD 40 million = 75 per cent). Under the percentage-of-completion method, the firm would
use the 75 per cent figure to assign revenue to the first year. In 2011, it incurs another USD 6 million of
construction costs. In 2012, it incurs the final USD 4 million of construction costs. The amount of
revenue to assign to each year is as follows:
Year

2010

Ratio of Actual Construction

Costs to Total Estimated
Construction Costs

Amount of
Revenue to
Recognize
(Assign)

$44 million =

$33 million

$44 million =

$6.6 million

$44 million =

$4.4 million
$44 million

($6 million + $40 million = 15%)

15%

2012

Agreed Price =
of Dam =

($30 million + $40 million = 75%)

75%

2011

($4 million + $40 million = 10%)

10%

The amount of gross margin to recognize in each year is as follows:

Year

Assigned
Revenues

Actual
- Construction
Costs

Recognized
= Gross
Margin

2010
2011
2012

$33.0 million
6.6
4.4
$44.0 million

- $30.0 million
- 6.0
- 4.0
$40.0 million

= $3.0 million
= 0.6
= 0.4
$4.0 million

Number of Companies
2003 2002 2001 2000
Percentage of completion 78
Units of delivery
32
Completed contract
9

82
26
5

80 71
21 19
35

Source: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants,

Accounting Trends & Techniques (New York: AICPA, 2004), p. 432

Exhibit 28: Methods of accounting for long-term contracts

This company would deduct other costs incurred in the accounting period, such as general and
administrative expenses, from gross margin to determine net income. For instance, assuming general
and administrative expenses were USD 100,000 in 2010, net income would be (USD 3,000,000 - USD
100,000) = USD 2,900,000.

p. 265 of 433

Expense recognition is closely related to, and sometimes discussed as part of, the revenue
recognition principle. The matching principle states that expenses should be recognized (recorded)
as they are incurred to produce revenues. An expense is the outflow or using up of assets in the
generation of revenue. Firms voluntarily incur expense to produce revenue. For instance, a television
set delivered by a dealer to a customer in exchange for cash is an asset consumed to produce revenue;
its cost becomes an expense. Similarly, the cost of services such as labor are voluntarily incurred to
produce revenue.
The measurement of expense Accountants measure most assets used in operating a business
by their historical costs. Therefore, they measure a depreciation expense resulting from the
consumption of those assets by the historical costs of those assets. They measure other expenses, such
as wages that are paid for currently, at their current costs.
The timing of expense recognition The matching principle implies that a relationship exists
between expenses and revenues. For certain expenses, such as costs of acquiring or producing the
products sold, you can easily see this relationship. However, when a direct relationship cannot be seen,
we charge the costs of assets with limited lives to expense in the periods benefited on a systematic and
rational allocation basis. Depreciation of plant assets is an example.
Product costs are costs incurred in the acquisition or manufacture of goods. As you will see in the
next chapter, included as product costs for purchased goods are invoice, freight, and insurance-intransit costs. For manufacturing companies, product costs include all costs of materials, labor, and
factory operations necessary to produce the goods. Product costs attach to the goods purchased or
produced and remain in inventory accounts as long as the goods are on hand. We charge product costs
to expense when the goods are sold. The result is a precise matching of cost of goods sold expense to its
related revenue.
Period costs are costs not traceable to specific products and expensed in the period incurred.
Selling and administrative costs are period costs.
The gain and loss recognition principle states that we record gains only when realized, but
losses when they first become evident. Thus, we recognize losses at an earlier point than gains. This
principle is related to the conservatism concept.
Gains typically result from the sale of long-term assets for more than their book value. Firms
should not recognize gains until they are realized through sale or exchange. Recognizing potential
gains before they are actually realized is not allowed.
Losses consume assets, as do expenses. However, unlike expenses, they do not produce revenues.
Losses are usually involuntary, such as the loss suffered from destruction by fire on an uninsured
p. 266 of 433

building. A loss on the sale of a building may be voluntary when management decides to sell the
building even though incurring a loss.
The full disclosure principle states that information important enough to influence the
decisions of an informed user of the financial statements should be disclosed. Depending on its nature,
companies should disclose this information either in the financial statements, in notes to the financial
statements, or in supplemental statements. In judging whether or not to disclose information, it is
better to err on the side of too much disclosure rather than too little. Many lawsuits against CPAs and
their clients have resulted from inadequate or misleading disclosure of the underlying facts.
We summarize the major principles and describe the importance of each in Exhibit 29.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

The accounting model involves reporting revenues earned and expenses incurred by
the company. Some have argued that social benefits and social costs created by the
company should also be reported. Suppose, for instance, that a company is dumping
toxic waste into a river and this action causes cancer among the citizens downstream.
Should this cost be reported when preparing financial statements showing the
performance of the company? What do you think?

6.8 Modifying conventions (or constraints)

In certain instances, companies do not strictly apply accounting principles because of modifying
conventions (or constraints). Modifying conventions are customs emerging from accounting
practice that alter the results obtained from a strict application of accounting principles. Three
modifying conventions are cost-benefit, materiality, and conservatism.
Cost-benefit The cost-benefit consideration involves deciding whether the benefits of including
optional information in financial statements exceed the costs of providing the information. Users tend
to think information is cost free since they incur none of the costs of providing the information.
Preparers realize that providing information is costly. The benefits of using information should exceed
the costs of providing it. The measurement of benefits is inexact, which makes application of this
modifying convention difficult in practice.
Materiality Materiality is a modifying convention that allows accountants to deal with immaterial
(unimportant) items in an expedient but theoretically incorrect manner. The fundamental question
accountants must ask in judging the materiality of an item is whether a knowledgeable user's decisions
would be different if the information were presented in the theoretically correct manner. If not, the
p. 267 of 433

item is immaterial and may be reported in a theoretically incorrect but expedient manner. For
instance, because inexpensive items such as calculators often do not make a difference in a statement
user's decision to invest in the company, they are immaterial (unimportant) and may be expensed
when purchased. However, because expensive items such as mainframe computers usually do make a
difference in such a decision, they are material (important) and should be recorded as assets and
depreciated. Accountants should record all material items in a theoretically correct manner. They may
record immaterial items in a theoretically incorrect manner simply because it is more convenient and
less expensive to do so. For example, they may debit the cost of a wastebasket to an expense account
rather than an asset account even though the wastebasket has an expected useful life of 30 years. It
simply is not worth the cost of recording depreciation expense on such a small item over its life.
The FASB defines materiality as "the magnitude of an omission or misstatement of accounting
information that, in the light of surrounding circumstances, makes it probable that the judgment of a
reasonable person relying on the information would have been changed or influenced by the omission
or misstatement".3 The term magnitude in this definition suggests that the materiality of an item may
be assessed by looking at its relative size. A USD 10,000 error in an expense in a company with
earnings of USD 30,000 is material. The same error in a company earning USD 30,000,000 may not
be material.
Materiality involves more than the relative dollar amounts. Often the nature of the item makes it
material. For example, it may be quite significant to know that a company is paying bribes or making
illegal political contributions, even if the dollar amounts of such items are relatively small.
Conservatism Conservatism means being cautious or prudent and making sure that assets and
net income are not overstated. Such overstatements can mislead potential investors in the company
and creditors making loans to the company. We apply conservatism when the lower-of-cost-or-market
rule is used for inventory (see Chapter 7). Accountants must realize a fine line exists between
conservative and incorrect accounting.
See Exhibit 30 for a summary of the modifying conventions and their importance.
The next section of this chapter discusses the conceptual framework project of the Financial
Accounting Standards Board. The FASB designed the conceptual framework project to resolve some
3FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 2, "Qualitative Characteristics of
Accounting Information" (Stamford, Conn., 1980), p. xv. Copyright by the Financial Accounting
Standards Board, High Ridge Park, Stamford, Connecticut 06905, U.S.A. Quoted (or excerpted)
with permission. Copies of the complete documents are available from the FASB.
p. 268 of 433

disagreements about the proper theoretical foundation for accounting. We present only the portions of
the project relevant to this text.
Principle
Exchange-price (or
cost)

Description
Requires transfers of resources to be

Importance
Tells the accountant to record a transfer of

recorded at prices agreed on by the parties

to the exchange at the time of the
exchange.

resources at an objectively determinable amount at

the time of the exchange. Also, self-constructed
assets are recorded at their actual cost rather than
at some estimate of what they would have cost if
they had been purchased.
Informs accountant that revenues generally should
be recognized when services are performed or
goods are sold. Exceptions are made for items such
as installment sales and long-term construction
projects.
Indicates that expenses are to be recorded as soon
as they are incurred rather than waiting until some
future time.
Tells the accountant to be conservative when

Revenue recognition

Revenues should be earned and realized

before they are recognized (recorded).

Matching

Expenses should be recognized (recorded)

as they are incurred to produce revenues.

Gain and loss

recognition

Gains may be recorded only when realized,

but losses should be recorded when they
first become evident.

Full disclosure

Information important enough to influence

the decisions of an informed user of the
financial statements should be disclosed.

recognizing gains and losses. Gains can only be

recognized when they have been realized through
sale or exchange. Losses should be recognized as
soon as they become evident. Thus, potential
losses can be recorded, but only gains that have
actually been realized can be recorded.
Requires the accountant to disclose everything that
is important. A good rule to follow isif in doubt,
disclose. Another good rule isif you are not
consistent, disclose all the facts and the effect on
income.

Exhibit 29: The major principles

Modifying
Convention
Cost-benefit

Materiality

Conservatism

Description

Importance

Optional information should be

included financial statements only if
the benefits providing it exceed its
costs.

Lets the accountant know that information that is not required should be made
available only if its benefits exceed its costs. An example may be companies going
to the expense of providing information on the effects of inflation when the
inflation rate is low and/or users do not seem to benefit significantly from the
information.
Only items that would affect a
Allow accountants to treat immaterial (relatively small dollar amount) information
knowledgeable user's decision are
in a theoretically incorrect but expedient manner. For instance, a wastebasket can be
material (important) and must be
expensed rather than capitalized and depreciated even though it may last for 30
reported in a theoretically correct way. years.
Transactions should be recorded so
Warns accountants that assets and net income are not to be overstated. "Anticipate
that assets and net income are not
(and record) all possible losses and do not anticipate (or record) any possible gains"
overstated.
is common advice under this constraint. Also, conservative application of the
matching principle involves making sure that adjustments for expenses for such
items as uncollectible accounts, warranties, and depreciation are adequate.

Exhibit 30: Modifying conventions

6.9 The financial accounting standards board's conceptual

framework project
Experts have debated the exact nature of the basic concepts and related principles composing
accounting theory for years. The debate continues today despite numerous references to generally

p. 269 of 433

accepted accounting principles (GAAP). To date, all attempts to present a concise statement of GAAP
have received only limited acceptance.
Due to this limited success, many accountants suggest that the starting point in reaching a concise
statement of GAAP is to seek agreement on the objectives of financial accounting and reporting. The
belief is that if a person (1) carefully studies the environment, (2) knows what objectives are sought, (3)
can identify certain qualitative traits of accounting information, and (4) can define the basic elements
of financial statements, that person can discover the principles and standards leading to the stated
objectives. The FASB completed the first three goals by publishing "Objectives of Financial Reporting
by Business Enterprises" and "Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information".4 Addressing the
fourth goal are concepts statements entitled "Elements of Financial Statements of Business
Enterprises" and "Elements of Financial Statements".5

6.10 Objectives of financial reporting

Financial reporting objectives are the broad overriding goals sought by accountants engaging
in financial reporting. According to the FASB, the first objective of financial reporting is to:
provide information that is useful to present and potential investors and creditors and
other users in making rational investment, credit, and similar decisions. The
information should be comprehensible to those who have a reasonable understanding of
business and economic activities and are willing to study the information with
reasonable diligence.6

4FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 1, "Objectives of Financial Reporting by

Business Enterprises" (Stamford, Conn., 1978); and Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts
No. 2, "Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information" (Stamford, Conn., 1980). Copyright
by the Financial Accounting Standards Board, High Ridge Park, Stamford, Connecticut 06905,
U.S.A. Quoted (or excerpted) with permission. Copies of the complete documents are available from
the FASB.
5FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 3, "Elements of Financial Statements of
Business Enterprises" (Stamford, Conn., 1980); and Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts
No. 6, "Elements of Financial Statements" (Stamford, Conn., 1985). Copyright by the Financial
Accounting Standards Board, High Ridge Park, Stamford, Connecticut 06905, U.S.A. Quoted (or
excerpted) with permission. Copies of the complete documents are available from the FASB.
6FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 1, p. viii.
p. 270 of 433

Interpreted broadly, the term other users includes employees, security analysts, brokers, and
lawyers. Financial reporting should provide information to all who are willing to learn to use it
properly.
The second objective of financial reporting is to:
provide information to help present and potential investors and creditors and other
users in assessing the amounts, timing, and uncertainty of prospective cash receipts
from dividends [owner withdrawals] or interest and the proceeds from the sale,
redemption, or maturity of securities or loans. Since investors' and creditors' cash flows
are related to enterprise cash flows, financial reporting should provide information to
help investors, creditors, and others assess the amounts, timing, and uncertainty of
prospective net cash inflows to the related enterprise. 7
This objective ties the cash flows of investors (owners) and creditors to the cash flows of the
enterprise, a tie-in that appears entirely logical. Enterprise cash inflows are the source of cash for
dividends, interest, and the redemption of maturing debt.
Third, financial reporting should:
provide information about the economic resources of an enterprise, the claims to those
resources (obligations of the enterprise to transfer resources to other entities and
owners' equity), and the effects of transactions, events, and circumstances that change
its resources and claims to those resources.8
We can draw some conclusions from these three objectives and from a study of the environment in
which financial reporting is carried out. For example, financial reporting should:
Provide information about an enterprise's past performance because such information is a basis

for predicting future enterprise performance.

Focus on earnings and its components, despite the emphasis in the objectives on cash flows.

(Earnings computed under the accrual basis generally provide a better indicator of ability to
generate favorable cash flows than do statements prepared under the cash basis.)
On the other hand, financial reporting does not seek to:
Measure the value of an enterprise but to provide information useful in determining its value.
Evaluate management's performance, predict earnings, assess risk, or estimate earning power

but to provide information to persons who wish to make these evaluations.

7Ibid.
8Ibid.
p. 271 of 433

These conclusions are some of those reached in Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 1.
As the Board stated, these statements "are intended to establish the objectives and concepts that the
Financial Accounting Standards Board will use in developing standards of financial accounting and
reporting".9 How successful the Board will be in the approach adopted remains to be seen.

6.11 Qualitative characteristics

Accounting information should possess qualitative characteristics to be useful in decision
making. This criterion is difficult to apply. The usefulness of accounting information in a given
instance depends not only on information characteristics but also on the capabilities of the decision
makers and their professional advisers. Accountants cannot specify who the decision makers are, their
characteristics, the decisions to be made, or the methods chosen to make the decisions. Therefore, they
direct their attention to the characteristics of accounting information. Note the FASB's graphic
summarization of the qualities accountants consider in Exhibit 31 10
To have relevance, information must be pertinent to or affect a decision. The information must
make a difference to someone who does not already have it. Relevant information makes a difference in
a decision either by affecting users' predictions of outcomes of past, present, or future events or by
confirming or correcting expectations. Note that information need not be a prediction to be useful in
developing, confirming, or altering expectations. Expectations are commonly based on the present or
past. For example, any attempt to predict future earnings of a company would quite likely start with a
review of present and past earnings. Although information that merely confirms prior expectations
may be less useful, it is still relevant because it reduces uncertainty.
Critics have alleged that certain types of accounting information lack relevance. For example, some
argue that a cost of USD 1 million paid for a tract of land 40 years ago and reported in the current
balance sheet at that amount is irrelevant (except for possible tax implications) to users for decision
making today. Such criticism has encouraged research into the types of information relevant to users.
Some suggest using a different valuation basis, such as current cost, in reporting such assets.
Predictive value and feedback value Since actions taken now can affect only future events,
information is obviously relevant when it possesses predictive value, or improves users' abilities to
predict outcomes of events. Information that reveals the relative success of users in predicting
outcomes possesses feedback value. Feedback reports on past activities and can make a difference in

9Ibid., p. i.
10FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 2, p. 15.
p. 272 of 433

decision making by (1) reducing uncertainty in a situation, (2) refuting or confirming prior
expectations, and (3) providing a basis for further predictions. For example, a report on the first
quarter's earnings of a company reduces the uncertainty surrounding the amount of such earnings,
confirms or refutes the predicted amount of such earnings, and provides a possible basis on which to
predict earnings for the full year. Remember that although accounting information may possess
predictive value, it does not consist of predictions. Making predictions is a function performed by the
decision maker.
Timeliness Timeliness requires accountants to provide accounting information at a time when it
may be considered in reaching a decision. Utility of information decreases with age. To know what the
net income for 2010 was in early 2011 is much more useful than receiving this information a year later.
If information is to be of any value in decision making, it must be available before the decision is made.
If not, the information is of little value. In determining what constitutes timely information,
accountants consider the other qualitative characteristics and the cost of gathering information. For
example, a timely estimate for uncollectible accounts may be more valuable than a later, verified actual
amount. Timeliness alone cannot make information relevant, but potentially relevant information can
be rendered irrelevant by a lack of timeliness.

Exhibit 31: A hierarchy of accounting qualities

p. 273 of 433

In addition to being relevant, information must be reliable to be useful. Information has reliability
when it faithfully depicts for users what it purports to represent. Thus, accounting information is
reliable if users can depend on it to reflect the underlying economic activities of the organization. The
reliability of information depends on its representational faithfulness, verifiability, and neutrality. The
information must also be complete and free of bias.
Representational faithfulness To gain insight into this quality, consider a map. When it shows
roads and bridges where roads and bridges actually exist, a map possesses representational
faithfulness. A correspondence exists between what is on the map and what is present physically.
Similarly, representational faithfulness exists when accounting statements on economic activity
correspond to the actual underlying activity. Where there is no correspondence, the cause may be (1)
bias or (2) lack of completeness.
Effects of bias. Accounting measurements contain bias if they are consistently too high or too

low. Accountants create bias in accounting measurements by choosing the wrong measurement
method or introducing bias either deliberately or through lack of skill.
Completeness. To be free from bias, information must be sufficiently complete to ensure that

it validly represents underlying events and conditions. Completeness means disclosing all
significant information in a way that aids understanding and does not mislead. Firms can reduce
the relevance of information by omitting information that would make a difference to users.
Currently, full disclosure requires presentation of a balance sheet, an income statement, a
statement of cash flows, and necessary notes to the financial statements and supporting schedules.
Also required in annual reports of corporations are statements of changes in stockholders' equity
which contain information included in a statement of retained earnings. Such statements must be
complete, with items properly classified and segregated (such as reporting sales revenue
separately from other revenues). Required disclosures may be made in (1) the body of the financial
statements, (2) the notes to such statements, (3) special communications, and/or (4) the
president's letter or other management reports in the annual report.
Another aspect of completeness is fully disclosing all changes in accounting principles and their
effects.11 Disclosure should include unusual activities (loans to officers), changes in expectations (losses
on inventory), depreciation expense for the period, long-term obligations entered into that are not
recorded by the accountant (a 20-year lease on a building), new arrangements with certain groups
(pension and profit-sharing plans for employees), and significant events that occur after the date of the
11APB, APB Opinion No. 20, "Accounting Changes" (New York: AICPA, July 1971).
p. 274 of 433

statements (loss of a major customer). Firms must also disclose accounting policies (major principles
and their manner of application) followed in preparing the financial statements.12 Because of its
emphasis on disclosure, we often call this aspect of reliability the full disclosure principle.
Verifiability Financial information has verifiability when independent measurers can
substantially duplicate it by using the same measurement methods. Verifiability eliminates measurer
bias. The requirement that financial information be based on objective evidence arises from the
demonstrated needs of users for reliable, unbiased financial information. Unbiased information is
especially necessary when parties with opposing interests (credit seekers and credit grantors) rely on
the same information. If the information is verifiable, this enhances the reliability of information.
Financial information is never completely free of subjective opinion and judgment; it always
possesses varying degrees of verifiability. Canceled checks and invoices support some measurements.
Accountants can never verify other measurements, such as periodic depreciation charges, because of
their very nature. Thus, financial information in many instances is verifiable only in that it represents a
consensus of what other accountants would report if they followed the same procedures.
Neutrality Neutrality means that the accounting information should be free of measurement
method bias. The primary concern should be relevance and reliability of the information that results
from application of the principle, not the effect that the principle may have on a particular interest.
Non-neutral accounting information favors one set of interested parties over others. For example, a
particular form of measurement might favor stockholders over creditors, or vice versa. "To be neutral,
accounting information must report economic activity as faithfully as possible, without coloring the
image it communicates for the purpose of influencing behavior in some particular direction." 13
Accounting standards are not like tax regulations that deliberately foster or restrain certain types of
activity. Verifiability seeks to eliminate measurer bias; neutrality seeks to eliminate measurement
method bias.
When comparability exists, reported differences and similarities in financial information are real
and not the result of differing accounting treatments. Comparable information reveals relative
strengths and weaknesses in a single company through time and between two or more companies at
the same time.
Consistency requires that a company use the same accounting principles and reporting practices
through time. Consistency leads to comparability of financial information for a single company
12APB, APB Opinion No. 22, "Disclosure of Accounting Policies" (New York: AICPA, April 1972).
13FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 2, par. 100.
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through time. Comparability between companies is more difficult because they may account for the
same activities in different ways. For example, Company B may use one method of depreciation, while
Company C accounts for an identical asset in similar circumstances using another method. A high
degree of inter-company comparability in accounting information does not exist unless accountants
are required to account for the same activities in the same manner across companies and through time.
As we show in Exhibit 31, accountants must consider one pervasive constraint and one threshold for
recognition in providing useful information. First, the benefits secured from the information must be
greater than the costs of providing that information. Second, only material items need be disclosed and
accounted for strictly in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). We
discussed cost-benefit and materiality earlier in the chapter.

An accounting perspective: Use of technology

You may want to visit the home page of the Financial Accounting Standards Board at:
http://www.fasb.org
You can check out the latest developments at the FASB to see how the rules of
accounting might be changing. You can investigate facts about the FASB, press
releases, exposure drafts, publications, emerging issues, board actions, forthcoming
meetings, and many other topics.

6.12 The basic elements of financial statements

Thus far we have discussed objectives of financial reporting and qualitative characteristics of
accounting information. A third important task in developing a conceptual framework for any
discipline is identifying and defining its basic elements. The FASB identified and defined the basic
elements of financial statements in Concepts Statement No. 3. Later, Concepts Statement No. 6 revised
some of the definitions. We defined most of the terms earlier in this text in a less technical way; the
more technical definitions follow. (These items are not repeated in this chapter's Key terms.)
Assets are probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by a particular entity as a
result of past transactions or events.
Liabilities are probable future sacrifices of economic benefits arising from present obligations of a
particular entity to transfer assets or provide services to other entities in the future as a result of past
transactions or events.
Equity or net assets is the residual interest in the assets of an entity that remains after deducting
its liabilities. In a business enterprise, the equity is the ownership interest. In a not-for-profit
p. 276 of 433

organization, which has no ownership interest in the same sense as a business enterprise, net assets is
divided into three classes based on the presence or absence of donor-imposed restrictions
permanently restricted, temporarily restricted, and unrestricted net assets.
Comprehensive income is the change in equity of a business enterprise during a period from
transactions and other events and circumstances from non-owner sources. It includes all changes in
equity during a period except those resulting from investments by owners and distributions to owners.
Revenues are inflows or other enhancements of assets of any entity or settlements of its liabilities
(or a combination of both) from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or other activities
that constitute the entity's ongoing major or central operations.
Expenses are outflows or other using up of assets or incurrences of liabilities (or a combination of
both) from delivering or producing goods, rendering services, or carrying out other activities that
constitute the entity's ongoing major or central operations.
Gains are increases in equity (net assets) from peripheral or incidental transactions of an entity
and from all other transactions and other events and circumstances affecting the entity except those
that result from revenues or investments by owners.
Losses are decreases in equity (net assets) from peripheral or incidental transactions of an entity
and from all other transactions and other events and circumstances affecting the entity except those
that result from expenses or distributions to owners.
Investments by owners are increases in equity of a particular business enterprise resulting from
transfers to it from other entities of something valuable to obtain or increase ownership interests (or
equity) in it. Assets are most commonly received as investments by owners, but that which is received
may also include services or satisfaction or conversion of liabilities of the enterprise.
Distributions to owners are decreases in equity of a particular business enterprise resulting
from transferring assets, rendering services, or incurring liabilities by the enterprise to owners.
Distributions to owners decrease ownership interest (or equity) in an enterprise. 14

14FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 6.

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An accounting perspective: Business insight

Accountants record expenditures on physical resources such as land, buildings, and
equipment that benefit future periods as assets. However, they expense expenditures
on human resources for hiring and training that benefit future periods. Also, when a
computer is dropped and destroyed, accountants record a loss. However, when the
president of the company dies, they record no loss. Should the accounting model be
changed regarding the accounting for human resources?

6.13 Recognition and measurement in financial statements

In December 1984, the FASB issued Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 5,
"Recognition and Measurement in Financial Statements of Business Enterprises", describing
recognition criteria and providing guidance for the timing and nature of information included in
financial statements.15 The recognition criteria established in the Statement are fairly consistent with
those used in current practice. The Statement indicates, however, that when information more useful
than currently reported information is available at a reasonable cost, it should be included in financial
statements.

6.14 Summary of significant accounting policies

As part of their annual reports, companies include summaries of significant accounting policies.
These policies assist users in interpreting the financial statements. To a large extent, accounting theory
determines the nature of these policies. Companies must follow generally accepted accounting
principles in preparing their financial statements.
The accounting policies of The Walt Disney Company, one of the world's leading entertainment
companies, as contained in a recent annual report follow. After each, the chapter of this text where we
discuss that particular policy is in parentheses. While a few of the items have already been covered, the
remainder offer a preview of the concepts explained in later chapters.
15FASB, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 5, "Recognition and Measurement in
Financial Statements of Business Enterprises" (Stamford, Conn., 1984). Copyright by the
Financial Accounting Standards Board, High Ridge Park, Stamford, Connecticut 06905, U.S.A.
Copies of the complete document are available from the FASB. (In case you are wondering why we
do not mention Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 4, it pertains to accounting for
not-for-profit organizations and is, therefore, not relevant to this text.)
p. 278 of 433

An ethical perspective: Maplehurst company

Maplehurst Company manufactures large spinning machines for the textile industry.
The company had purchased USD 100,000 of small hand tools to use in its business.
The company's accountant recorded the tools in an asset account and was going to
write them off over 20 years. Management wanted to write these tools off as an expense
of this year because revenues this year had been abnormally high and were expected to
be lower in the future. Management's goal was to smooth out income rather than
showing sharp increases and decreases. When told by the accountant that USD
100,000 was a material item that must be accounted for in a theoretically correct
manner, management decided to consider the tools as consisting of 10 groups, each
having a cost of USD 10,000. Since amounts under USD 20,000 are considered
immaterial for this company, all of the tools could then be charged to expense this year.
The accountant is concerned about this treatment. She doubts that she could
successfully defend management's position if the auditors challenge the expensing of
these items.

6.15 Significant accounting policies

6.15.1

Principles of consolidation

The consolidated financial statements of the Company include the accounts of The Walt Disney
Company and its subsidiaries after elimination of inter-company accounts and transactions.
Investments in affiliated companies are accounted for using the equity method. (Chapter 14)

6.15.2

Accounting changes

The Company changed its method of accounting for pre-opening costs (see Note 12). These changes
had no cash impact.
The pro forma amounts presented in the consolidated statement of income reflect the effect of
retroactive application of expensing pre-opening costs. (Chapters 13 and 14)

6.15.3

Revenue recognition

Revenues from the theatrical distribution of motion pictures are recognized when motion pictures
are exhibited. Television licensing revenues are recorded when the program material is available for
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telecasting by the licensee and when certain other conditions are met. Revenues from video sales are
recognized on the date that video units are made widely available for sale by retailers.
Revenues from participants and sponsors at the theme parks are generally recorded over the period
of the applicable agreements commencing with the opening of the related attraction. (Chapter 5)

6.15.4

Cash, cash equivalents and investments

Cash and cash equivalents consist of cash on hand and marketable securities with original
maturities of three months or less. (Chapter 8)
SFAS 115 requires that certain investments in debt and equity securities be classified into one of
three categories. Debt securities that the Company has the positive intent and ability to hold to
maturity are classified as "held-to-maturity" and reported at amortized cost. Debt securities not
classified as held-to-maturity and marketable equity securities are classified as either "trading" or
"available-for-sale", and are recorded at fair value with unrealized gains and losses included in
earnings or stockholders' equity, respectively. (Chapter 14)

6.15.5

Merchandise inventories

Carrying amounts of merchandise, materials and supplies inventories are generally determined on a
moving average cost basis and are stated at the lower of cost or market. (Chapter 7)

6.15.6

Film and television costs

Film and television production and participation costs are expensed based on the ratio of the
current period's gross revenues to estimated total gross revenues from all sources on an individual
production basis. Estimates of total gross revenues are reviewed periodically and amortization is
adjusted accordingly.
Television broadcast rights are amortized principally on an accelerated basis over the estimated
useful lives of the programs. (Chapter 11)

6.15.7

Theme parks, resorts and other property

Theme parks, resorts and other property are carried at cost. Depreciation is computed on the
straight-line method based upon estimated useful lives ranging from three to fifty years. (Chapter 3)

6.15.8

Other assets

Rights to the name, likeness and portrait of Walt Disney, goodwill and other intangible assets are
amortized over periods ranging from two to forty years. (Chapter 11)

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6.15.9

Risk management contracts

In the normal course of business, the Company employs a variety of off-balance-sheet financial
instruments to manage its exposure to fluctuations in interest and foreign currency exchange rates,
including interest rate and cross-currency swap agreements, forward and option contracts, and interest
rate exchange-traded futures. The company designates interest rate and cross-currency swaps as
hedges of investments and debt, and accrues the differential to be paid or received under the
agreements as interest rates change over the lives of the contracts. Differences paid or received on
swap agreements are recognized as adjustments to interest income or expense over the life of the
swaps, thereby adjusting the effective interest rate on the underlying investment or obligation. Gains
and losses on the termination of swap agreements, prior to the original maturity, are deferred and
amortized to interest income or expense over the original term of the swaps. Gains and losses arising
from interest rate futures, forwards and option contracts, and foreign currency forward and option
contracts are recognized in income or expense as offsets of gains and losses resulting from the
underlying hedged transactions. (Chapter 14)
Cash flows from interest rate and foreign exchange risk management activities are classified in the
same category as the cash flows from the related investment, borrowing or foreign exchange activity.
(Chapter 16)
The Company classifies its derivative financial instruments as held or issued for purposes other
than trading. (Chapter 14)

6.15.10 Earnings per share

Earnings per share amounts are based upon the weighted average number of common and common
equivalent shares outstanding during the year. Common equivalent shares are excluded from the
computation in periods in which they have an antidilutive effect. (Chapter 13)
As you proceed through the remaining chapters, you can see the accounting theories introduced in
this chapter being applied. In Chapter 6, for instance, we discuss why sales revenue is recognized and
recorded only after goods have been delivered to the customer. So far, we have used service companies
to illustrate accounting techniques. Chapter 6 introduces merchandising operations. Merchandising
companies, such as clothing stores, buy goods in their finished form and sell them to customers.

p. 281 of 433

6.16 Understanding the learning objectives

The major underlying assumptions or concepts of accounting are (1) business entity, (2) going

concern (continuity), (3) money measurement, (4) stable dollar, (5) periodicity, and (6) accrual
basis and periodicity.
Other basic accounting concepts that affect the accounting for entities are (1) general-purpose

financial statements, (2) substance over form, (3) consistency, (4) double entry, and (5)
articulation.
The major principles include exchange-price (or cost), revenue recognition, matching, gain and

loss recognition, and full disclosure. Major exceptions to the realization principle include cash
collection as point of revenue recognition, installment basis of revenue recognition, and the
percentage-of-completion method of recognizing revenue on long-term construction projects.
Modifying conventions include cost-benefit, materiality, and conservatism.
The FASB has defined the objectives of financial reporting, qualitative characteristics of

accounting information, and elements of financial statements.

Financial reporting objectives are the broad overriding goals sought by accountants engaging in

financial reporting.
Qualitative characteristics are those that accounting information should possess to be useful in

decision making. The two primary qualitative characteristics are relevance and reliability. Another
qualitative characteristic is comparability.
Pervasive constraints include cost-benefit analysis and materiality.
The FASB has identified and defined the basic elements of financial statements.
The FASB has also described revenue recognition criteria and provided guidance as to the timing

and nature of information to be included in financial statements.

The summary of significant accounting policies aid users in interpreting the financial

statements.
To a large extent, accounting theory determines the nature of those policies.

6.16.1

Demonstration problem

For each of the following transactions or circumstances and the entries made, state which, if any, of
the assumptions, concepts, principles, or modifying conventions of accounting have been violated. For
each violation, give the entry to correct the improper accounting assuming the books have not been
closed.
During the year, Dorsey Company did the following:
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 Had its buildings appraised. They were found to have a market value of USD 410,000, although

their book value was only USD 380,000. The accountant debited the Buildings and Accumulated
DepreciationBuildings accounts for USD 15,000 each and credited Paid-in CapitalFrom
Appreciation. No separate mention was made of this action in the financial statements.
Purchased new electric pencil sharpeners for its offices at a total cost of USD 60. These pencil

sharpeners were recorded as assets and are being depreciated over five years.

6.16.1.1

Solution to demonstration problem

The cost principle and the modifying convention of conservatism may have been violated. Such

write-ups simply are not looked on with favor in accounting. To correct the situation, the entry
made needs to be reversed:
Paid-in Capital

30,000

Building

15,000

Accumulated DepreciationBuilding

15,000

Theoretically, no violations occurred, but the cost of compiling insignificant information could

be considered a violation of acceptable accounting practice. As a practical matter, the USD 60

could have been expensed on materiality grounds.

6.16.2

Key terms

Accounting theory "A set of basic concepts and assumptions and related principles that
explain and guide the accountant's actions in identifying, measuring, and communicating
economic information".
Bias Exists when accounting measurements are consistently too high or too low.
Business entity concept The specific unit for which accounting information is gathered.
Business entities have a separate existence from owners, creditors, employees, customers, other
interested parties, and other businesses.
Comparability A qualitative characteristic of accounting information; when information is
comparable, it reveals differences and similarities that are real and are not the result of differing
accounting treatments.
Completed-contract method A method of recognizing revenue on long-term projects under
which no revenue is recognized until the period in which the project is completed; similar to
recognizing revenue upon the completion of a sale.
Completeness A qualitative characteristic of accounting information; requires disclosure of all
significant information in a way that aids understanding and does not mislead; sometimes called
the full disclosure principle.
Conservatism Being cautious or prudent and making sure that net assets and net income are
not overstated.
Consistency Requires a company to use the same accounting principles and reporting practices
through time.

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Cost-benefit consideration Determining whether benefits of including information in

financial statements exceed costs.
Cost principle See Exchange-price principle.
Earning principle The requirement that revenue be substantially earned before it is
recognized (recorded).
Exchange-price (or cost) principle Transfers of resources are recorded at prices agreed on
by the parties at the time of the exchange.
Feedback value A qualitative characteristic that information has when it reveals the relative
success of users in predicting outcomes.
Financial reporting objectives The broad overriding goals sought by accountants engaging
in financial reporting.
Full disclosure principle Information important enough to influence the decisions of an
informed user of the financial statements should be disclosed.
Gain and loss recognition principle Gains may be recorded only when realized, but losses
should be recorded when they first become evident.
Gains Typically result from the sale of long-term assets for more than their book value.
Going-concern (continuity) assumption The assumption that an entity will continue to
operate indefinitely unless strong evidence exists that the entity will terminate.
Historical cost The amount paid, or the fair market value of a liability incurred or other
resources surrendered, to acquire an asset and place it in a condition and position for its
intended use.
Installment basis A revenue recognition procedure in which the percentage of total gross
margin recognized in a period on an installment sale is equal to the percentage of total cash from
the sale that is received in that period.
Liquidation Terminating a business by ceasing business operations and selling off its assets.
Losses Asset expirations that are usually involuntary and do not create revenues.
Matching principle Expenses should be recognized as they are incurred to produce revenues.
Materiality A modifying convention that allows the accountant to deal with immaterial
(unimportant) items in an expedient but theoretically incorrect manner; also a qualitative
characteristic specifying that financial accounting report only information significant enough to
influence decisions or evaluations.
Modifying conventions Customs emerging from accounting practice that alter the results
obtained from a strict application of accounting principles; conservatism is an example.
Money measurement Use of a monetary unit of measurement, such as the dollar, instead of
physical or other units of measurementfeet, inches, grams, and so on.
Neutrality A qualitative characteristic that requires accounting information to be free of
measurement method bias.
Percentage-of-completion method A method of recognizing revenue based on the
estimated stage of completion of a long-term project. The stage of completion is measured by
comparing actual costs incurred in a period with total estimated costs to be incurred in all
periods.
Period costs Costs that cannot be traced to specific products and are expensed in the period
incurred.

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Periodicity (time periods) assumption An assumption of the accountant that an entity's

life can be divided into time periods for reporting its economic activities.
Predictive value A qualitative characteristic that information has when it improves users'
abilities to predict outcomes of events.
Product costs Costs incurred in the acquisition or manufacture of goods. Product costs are
accounted for as if they were attached to the goods, with the result that they are charged to
expense when the goods are sold.
Qualitative characteristics Characteristics that accounting information should possess to be
useful in decision making.
Realization principle A principle that directs that revenue is recognized only after the seller
acquires the right to receive payment from the buyer.
Relevance A qualitative characteristic requiring that information be pertinent to or affect a
decision.
Reliability A qualitative characteristic requiring that information faithfully depict for users
what it purports to represent.
Representational faithfulness A qualitative characteristic requiring that accounting
statements on economic activity correspond to the actual underlying activity.
Revenue recognition principle The principle that revenues should be earned and realized
before they are recognized (recorded).
Stable dollar assumption An assumption that the dollar is a reasonably stable unit of
measurement.
Timeliness A qualitative characteristic requiring that accounting information be provided at a
time when it may be considered before making a decision.
Verifiability A qualitative characteristic of accounting information; information is verifiable
when it can be substantially duplicated by independent measurers using the same measurement
methods.

6.16.3

Self-test

True-false
Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.
o

The business entity concept assumes that each business has an existence separate from all
parties except its owners.

When the substance of a transaction differs from its legal form, the accountant should
record the economic substance.

The matching principle is fundamental to the accrual basis of accounting.

Exceptions to the realization principle include the installment basis of revenue recognition
for sales revenue and the completed-contract method for long-term construction projects.

Immaterial items do not have to be recorded at all.

The conceptual framework project resulted in identifying two primary qualitative

characteristics that accounting information should possessrelevance and reliability.
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Multiple-choice
Select the best answer for each of the following questions.
The underlying assumptions of accounting includes all the following except:
a. Business entity.
b. Going concern.
c. Matching.
d. Money measurement and periodicity.
The concept that requires companies to use the same accounting practices and reporting practices
through time is:
a. Substance over form.
b. Consistency.
c. Articulation.
d. None of the above.
Which of the following statements is false regarding the revenue recognition principle?
a. Revenue must be substantially earned before it is recognized.
b. The accountant usually recognizes revenue before the seller acquires the right to receive
payment from the buyer.
c. Some small companies use the cash basis of accounting.
d. Under the installment basis, the gross margin recognized in a period is equal to the amount of
cash received from installment sales times the gross margin percentage for the year of sale.
Assume the following facts regarding the construction of a bridge:
Construction costs this period...... USD 3,000,000
Total estimated construction costs...10,000,000
Total sales price............... 15,000,000
The revenue that should be recognized this period is:
a. USD 3,000,000.
b. USD 4,500,000.
c. USD 5,000,000.
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d. USD 6,500,000.
Modifying conventions include all of the following except:
a. Periodicity.
b. Cost-benefit.
c. Materiality.
d. Conservatism.
Which of the following is not part of the conceptual framework project?
a. Objectives of financial reporting.
b. Quantitative characteristics.
c. Qualitative characteristics.
d. Basic elements of financial statements.
Now turn to Answers to self-test at the end of the chapter to check your answers .

6.16.4

Questions
Name the assumptions underlying generally accepted accounting principles. Comment
on the validity of the stable unit of measurement assumption during periods of high
inflation.

Why does the accountant use the business entity concept?

When is the going-concern assumption not to be used?

What is meant by the term accrual basis of accounting? What is its alternative?

What does it mean to say that accountants record substance rather than form?

If a company changes an accounting principle because the change better meets the
information needs of users, what disclosures must be made?

What is the exchange-price (or cost) principle? What is the significance of adhering to
this principle?

What two requirements generally must be met before recognizing revenue in a period?

Under what circumstances, if any, is the receipt of cash an acceptable time to recognize
revenue?

What two methods may be used in recognizing revenues on long-term construction

contracts?

Define expense. What principles guide the recognition of expense?

p. 287 of 433

How does an expense differ from a loss?

What is the full disclosure principle?

What role does cost-benefit play in financial reporting?

What is meant by the accounting term conservatism? How does it affect the amounts
reported in the financial statements?

Does materiality relate only to the relative size of dollar amounts?

Identify the three major parts of the conceptual framework project.

What are the two primary qualitative characteristics?

Real world question A recent annual report of the American Ship Building Company
stated:

Revenues, costs, and profits applicable to construction and conversion contracts are included
in the consolidated statements of operations using the... percentage-of- completion accounting
method.... The completed contract method was used for income tax reporting in the years this
method was allowed.
Why might the management of a company want to use two different methods for accounting and
tax purposes?

Real world question A recent annual report of Chevron Corporation stated:

Environmental expenditures that relate to current or future revenues are expensed or

capitalized as appropriate. Expenditures that relate to an existing condition caused by past
operations, and do not contribute to current or future revenue generation, are expensed.
Which principle of accounting is being followed by this policy?

What is the purpose of including a "Summary of significant accounting policies" in the

company's annual report?

p. 288 of 433

6.16.5

Exercises

Exercise A Match the items in Column A with the proper descriptions in Column B.
Column A

Column B

Going concern (continuity).

a. An assumption relied on in the preparation of

the primary financial statements that would be
unreasonable when the inflation rate is high.

Consistency.

b. Concerned with relative dollar amounts.

Disclosure.

c. The usual basis for the recording of assets.

Periodicity.

d. Required if the accounting treatment differs

from that previously used for a particular item.

Conservatism.

e. An assumption that would be unreasonable to

use in reporting on a firm that had become insolvent.

Stable dollar.

f. None of these.

Matching.

g. Requires a company to use the same accounting

procedures and practices through time.

Materiality.

h. An assumption that the life of an entity can be

subdivided into time periods for reporting purposes.

Exchange-price (cost).

i. Discourages undue optimism in measuring and

reporting net assets and net income.

Business entity.

j. Requires separation of personal from business

activities in the recording and reporting processes.

p. 289 of 433

Exercise B Parker Clothing Company sells its products on an installment sales basis. Data for
2010 and 2011 follow:
Installment sales.........................
Cost of goods sold on installment sales .....
Other expenses..........................
Cash collected from 2010 sales..............
Cash collected from 2011 sales..............

2010
$800,000
560,000
120,000
480,000

2011
$960,000
720,000
160,000
240,000
640,000

a. Compute the net income for 2011, assuming use of the accrual (sales) basis of revenue
recognition.
b. Compute the net income for 2011, assuming use of the installment basis of recognizing gross
margin.
Exercise C A company has a contract to build a ship at a price of USD 500 million and an
estimated cost of USD 400 million. Costs of USD 100 million were incurred. Under the percentage-ofcompletion method, how much revenue would be recognized?
Exercise D A company follows a practice of expensing the premium on its fire insurance policy
when the policy is paid. In 2010, the company charged to expense the USD 6,000 premium paid on a
three-year policy covering the period 2010 July 1, to 2010 June 30. In 2010, a premium of USD 5,400
was charged to expense on the same policy for the period 2010 July 1, to 2010 July 30.
a. State the principle of accounting that was violated by this practice.
b. Compute the effects of this violation on the financial statements for the calendar year 2010.
c. State the basis on which the company's practice might be justified.

p. 290 of 433

Exercise E Match the descriptions in Column B with the accounting qualities in Column A. Use
some descriptions more than once.
Column A: Accounting qualities

Column B: Descriptions

Relevance.

a. Users of accounting information.

Feedback value.

b. Pervasive constraint.

Decision makers.

c . User-specific qualities.

Representational faithfulness.

d. Primary decision-specific qualities.

Reliability.

e. Ingredients of primary qualities.

Comparability.

f. Secondary and interactive qualities.

Benefits exceed costs.

g. Threshold for recognition.

Predictive value.
Timeliness.
Decision usefulness.
Verifiability.
Understandability.
Neutrality.
Materiality.

6.16.6

Problems

Problem A Select the best answer to each of the following questions:

The assumption that each business has an existence separate from its owners, creditors, employees,
customers, other interested parties, and other businesses is the:
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a. Going-concern assumption.
b. Business entity concept.
c. Separate entity concept.
d. Corporation concept.
Companies should use liquidation values to report assets if which of the following conditions exists?
a. There are changes in the value of the dollar.
b. The periodicity assumption is applied.
c. The company is not a going concern and will be dissolved.
d. The accrual basis of accounting is not used.
Assume that a company has paid for advertising and that the ad has already appeared. The
company chose to report the item as prepaid advertising and includes it among the assets on the
balance sheet. Previously, the company had always expensed expenditures such as this. This practice is
a violation of:
a. Generally accepted accounting principles.
b. The matching concept.
c. The consistency concept.
d. All of the above.
Recording revenue only after the seller has obtained the right to receive payment from the buyer for
merchandise sold or services performed is called the:
a. Earning principle.
b. Installment basis.
c. Realization principle.
d. Completed-contract method.
Problem B Ramirez Video, Inc., sells video recorders under terms calling for a small down
payment and monthly payments spread over three years. Following are data for the first three years of
the company's operations:

2008
Gross margin rate 30%
Cash collected in 2010:
From sales in............................$216,000
From sales in..............................................
From sales in............................................

2009
40%

2010
50%

$288,000
$480,000

Total sales for 2010 were USD 1,600,000, while general and selling expenses amounted to USD
400,000.
a. Compute net income for 2010, assuming revenues are recognized at the time of sale.

p. 292 of 433

b. Compute net income for 2010, using the installment method of accounting for sales and gross
margin.
Problem C The following data relate to Merit Construction Company's long-term construction
projects for the year 2010:
Contract price....................................
Costs incurred prior to 2010 ...............
Costs incurred in 2010........................
Estimated costs to be incurred
in future years................................

Completed
Projects
$20,000,000
..... 3,700,000
..... 11,100,000

Incomplete
Projects
$100,000,000
16,000,000
32,000,000

- 0-

32,000,000

General and administrative expenses incurred in 2010 amounted to USD 2 million, none of which is
to be considered a construction cost.
a. Compute net income for 2010 under the completed-contract method.
b. Compute net income for 2010 under the percentage-of-completion method.
Problem D For each of the following numbered items, state the letter or letters of the principle(s),
assumption(s), or concept(s) used to justify the accounting procedure followed. The accounting
procedures are all correct.
a. Business entity.
b. Conservatism.
c. Earning principle of revenue recognition.
d. Going concern (continuity).
e. Exchange-price (cost) principle.
f. Matching principle.
g. Period cost (or principle of immediate recognition of expense).
h. Realization principle.
i. Stable dollar assumption.
Inventory is recorded at the lower of cost or market value.
A truck purchased in January was reported at 80 per cent of its cost even though its market value at
year-end was only 70 per cent of its cost.
The collection of USD 40,000 of cash for services to be performed next year was reported as a
current liability.
The president's salary was treated as an expense of the year even though he spent most of his time
planning the next two years' activities.
No entry was made to record the company's receipt of an offer of USD 800,000 for land carried in
its accounts at USD 435,000.

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A supply of printed stationery, checks, and invoices with a cost of USD 8,500 was treated as a
current asset at year-end even though it had no value to others.
A tract of land acquired for USD 180,000 was recorded at that price even though it was appraised at
USD 230,000, and the company would have been willing to pay that amount.
The company paid and charged to expense the USD 4,200 paid to Craig Nelson for rent of a truck
owned by him. Craig Nelson is the sole stockholder of the company.
Problem E Match the descriptions in Column B with the proper terms in Column A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Column A
Financial
reporting
objectives.
Qualitative
characteristics.
Relevance.
Predictive value.
Feedback value.
Timeliness.
Reliability.
Representational
faithfulness.
Verifiability.
Neutrality.
Comparability.
Consistency.
Cost-benefit.
Materiality.

6.16.7

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.

Column B
Information is free of measurement method bias.
The benefits exceed the costs.
Relatively large items must be accounted for in a theoretically correct way.
The information can be substantially duplicated by independent measurers
using the same measurement methods.
When information improves users' ability to predict outcomes of events.
Broad overriding goals sought by accountants engaging in financial reporting.
When information is pertinent or bears on a decision.
The characteristics that accounting information should possess to be useful
in decision making.
Information that reveals the relative success of users in predicting outcomes.
When accounting statements on economic activity correspond to the actual
underlying activity.
When information is provided soon enough that it may be considered in
decision making.
When information faithfully depicts for users what it purports to represent.
Requires a company to use the same accounting principles and reporting
practices through time.
When reported differences and similarities in information are real and not
the result of differing accounting treatments.

Alternate problems

Alternate problem A Select the best answer to each of the following questions:
A set of basic concepts and assumptions and related principles that explain and guide the
accountant's actions in identifying, measuring, and communicating economic information is called:
a. Accounting theory.
b. Accounting rules.
c. Accrual basis.
d. Matching concept.
Which of the following statements is false?
a. Several separate legal entities properly may be considered to be one accounting entity.
b. The stable dollar assumption is used only when the dollar is absolutely stable.
c. Publicly held corporations generally prepare monthly financial statements for internal
management and publish quarterly and annual financial statements for users outside the company.
d. Without the periodicity assumption, a business would have only one time period running from
the inception of the business to its termination.
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Which of the following statements is true?

a. When the substance of a transaction conflicts with the legal form of the transaction, the
accountant should be guided by the legal form in recording the transaction.
b. The consistency concept prohibits a change in accounting principle even when such a change
would better meet the information needs of financial statement users.
c. Under the double-entry approach, each transaction must be recorded with one debit and one
credit of equal dollar amounts.
d. Special-purpose financial information for a specific decision, such as whether or not to purchase
a new machine, is best obtained from the detailed accounting records rather than from the financial
statements.
Which of the following statements is true?
a. All assets are carried indefinitely at their original costs in the financial statements.
b. Liabilities are measured in the cash to be paid or the value of services to be performed to satisfy
the liabilities.
c. Accounting principles are derived by merely summarizing accounting practices used to date.
d. Accountants can easily measure all changes in assets and liabilities since they never involve
estimates or calculations.
Which of the following statements is false?
a. The exchange-price principle is also called the cost principle.
b. The matching principle is closely related to the revenue recognition principle.
c. The installment sales method recognizes revenue sooner than it would normally be recognized.
d. The percentage-of-completion method recognizes revenue sooner than the completed- contract
method.
Alternate problem B Nevada Real Estate Sales Company sells lots in its development in Dry
Creek Canyon under terms calling for small cash down payments with monthly installment payments
spread over a few years. Following are data on the company's operations for its first three years:
Gross margin rate ......................
Cash collected in 2010 from
sales of lots made in................

2008
..... 45%

2009
48%

2010
50%

..... $640,000

$800,000

$900,000

The total selling price of the lots sold in 2010 was USD 3,000,000, while general and administrative
expenses (which are not included in the costs used to determine gross margin) were USD 800,000.
a. Compute net income for 2010 assuming revenue is recognized on the sale of a lot.
b. Compute net income for 2010 assuming use of the installment basis of accounting for sales and
gross margin.
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Alternate problem C The following contract prices and costs relate to all of Orlando Construction
Company's long-term construction projects (in millions of dollars):
Costs Incurred

On projects completed in 2010

On incomplete projects

Contract
Price
$46
144

Prior to
2010
$4
24

In
2010
$36
48

Cost to Be
Incurred in
Future Years
$0
48

General and administrative expenses for 2010 amounted to USD 1,200,000. Assume that the
general and administrative expenses are not to be treated as a part of the construction cost.
a. Compute net income for 2010 using the completed-contract method.
b. Compute net income for 2010 using the percentage-of-completion method.
Alternate problem D In each of these circumstances, the accounting practices may be
questioned. Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the accounting practice employed and state
the assumptions, concepts, or principles that justify your position.
The salaries paid to the top officers of the company were charged to expense in the period in which
they were incurred even though the officers spent over half of their time planning next year's activities.
No entry was made to record the belief that the market value of the land owned (carried in the
accounts at USD 800,000) had increased.
The acquisition of a tract of land was recorded at the price paid for it of USD 400,000, even though
the company would have been willing to pay USD 600,000.
A truck acquired at the beginning of the year was reported at year-end at 80 per cent of its
acquisition price even though its market value then was only 65 per cent of its original acquisition
price.
Alternate problem E Select the best answer to each of the following questions:
In the conceptual framework project, how many financial reporting objectives were identified by the
FASB?
a. One.
b. Two.
c. Three.
d. Four.
The two primary qualitative characteristics are:
a. Predictive value and feedback value.
b. Timeliness and verifiability.
c. Comparability and neutrality.
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d. Relevance and reliability.

A pervasive constraint of accounting information is that:
a. Benefits must exceed costs.
b. The information must be timely.
c. The information must be neutral.
d. The information must be verifiable.
To be reliable, information must (identify the incorrect quality):
a. Be verifiable.
b. Be timely.
c. Have representational faithfulness.
d. Be neutral.
The basic elements of financial statements consist of:
a. Terms and their definitions.
b. The objectives of financial reporting.
c. The qualitative characteristics.
d. The new income statement format.

6.16.8

Beyond the numbersCritical thinking

Business decision case A Jim Casey recently received his accounting degree from State
University and went to work for a Big-Four CPA firm. After he had been with the firm for about six
months, he was sent to the Ling Clothing Company to work on the audit. He was not very confident of
his knowledge at this early point in his career. He noticed, however, that some of the company's
transactions and events were recorded in a way that might be in violation of accounting theory and
generally accepted accounting principles.
Study each of the following facts to see if the auditors should challenge the financial accounting
practices used or the intentions of management. Write your decisions and the reasoning behind your
conclusions.
This problem can serve as an opportunity to apply accounting theory to situations with which you
are not yet familiar and as a preview of future chapters. Some of the following situations relate to
material you have already covered, and some situations relate to material to be covered in future
chapters. After each item, we have given an indication of the chapter in which that item is discussed.
You may research future chapters to find the correct answer. Alternatively, you could use your present
knowledge of accounting theory to determine whether or not Casey should challenge each of the
p. 297 of 433

financial accounting practices used. Realize, however, that some generally accepted accounting
practices were based on compromise and seem to differ with accounting theory as described in this
chapter.
One of the senior members of management stated the company planned to replace all of the
furniture next year. He said that the cash in the Accumulated Depreciation account would be used to
pay for the furniture. (Ch. 3)
The company held the books open at the end of 2010 so they could record some early 2011 sales as
2010 revenue. The justification for this practice was that 2010 was not a good year for profits. (Ch. 3, 5,
6)
The company's buildings were appraised for insurance purposes. The appraised values were USD
10,000,000 higher than the book value. The accountant debited Buildings and credited Paid-in Capital
from Appreciation for the difference. (Ch. 5)
The company recorded purchases of merchandise at the list price rather than the gross selling
(invoice) price. (Ch. 6)
Goods shipped to the company from a supplier, FOB destination, were debited to Purchases. The
goods were not included in ending inventory because the goods had not yet arrived. (Ch. 5, 6)
The company counted some items twice in taking the physical inventory at the end of the year. The
person taking the inventory said he had forgotten to include some items in last year's physical
inventory, and counting some items twice would make up for the items missed last year so that net
income this year would be about correct. (Ch. 7)
The company switched from FIFO to LIFO in accounting for inventories. The preceding year it had
switched from the weighted-average method to FIFO. The reason given for the most recent change was
that federal income taxes would be lower. No indication of this switch was to appear in the financial
statements. (Ch. 5, 7)
Since things were pretty hectic at year-end, the accountant made no effort to reconcile the bank
account. His reason was that the bank probably had not made any errors. The bank balance was lower
than the book balance, so the accountant debited Miscellaneous Expense and credited Cash for the
difference. (Ch. 8)
When a customer failed to pay the amount due, the accountant debited Allowance for Uncollectible
Accounts and credited Accounts Receivable. The amount of accounts written off in this manner was
huge. (Ch. 9)

p. 298 of 433

A completely depreciated machine was still being used. The accountant left the asset and its related
accumulated depreciation on the books, stopped recording depreciation on the machine, and did not
go back and correct earlier years' net income and reduce accumulated depreciation. (Ch. 10)
The accountant stated that even though research and development costs incurred to develop a new
product would benefit future periods, these costs must be expensed as incurred. This year USD
200,000 of these costs were charged to expense. (Ch. 11)
An old truck was traded for a new truck. Since the trade-in value of the old truck was higher than its
book value, a gain was recorded on the transaction. (Ch. 11)
The company paid for a franchise giving it the exclusive right to operate in a given geographical area
for 60 years. The accountant is amortizing the asset over 60 years. (Ch. 11)
The company leases a building and has a nonrenewable lease that expires in 15 years. The company
made some improvements to the building. Since the improvements will last 30 years, they are being
written off over 30 years. (Ch. 11)
Annual report analysis B Refer to the "Summary of significant accounting policies" in the
annual report of The Limited, Inc. List the policies discussed. For each of the policies, explain in
writing what the company is trying to communicate.
Ethics A writing experience C Refer to the item "An ethical perspective: Maplehurst
company". Write out the answers to the following questions:
Is management being ethical in this situation? Explain.
Is the accountant correct in believing that management's position could not be successfully
defended? Explain.
What would you do if you were the accountant? Describe in detail.
Group project D In teams of two or three students, go to the library to locate one company's
annual report for the most recent year. (As an alternative, annual reports can be downloaded from the
SEC's EDGAR site at www.sec.gov/edgar.shtml) Examine the "Summary of accounting policies", which
is part of the Notes to financial statements" section immediately following the financial statements. As
a team, write a memorandum to the instructor detailing the significant accounting policies of the
company. The heading of the memorandum should contain the date, to whom it is written, from whom,
and the subject matter.
Group project E With one or two other students and using library sources, write a paper on the
history and achievements of the Financial Accounting Standards Board. This board is responsible for
establishing the accounting standards and principles for financial accounting in the private sector. It
was formed in 1973 and took over the rule setting function from the Accounting Principles Board of the
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American Institute of Certified Public Accountants at that time. Be sure to cite sources used and to
treat direct quotes properly.
Group project F Your team of students should obtain a copy of the report, "Improving Business
ReportingA Customer Focus" by the AICPA Special Committee on Financial Reporting (1994). Your
library might have a copy. If not, it can be obtained from the AICPA [Product No. 019303, Order
Department, AICPA, Harborside Financial Center, 201 Plaza Three, Jersey City, NJ 07311- 3881] [Toll
free number 1-800-862-4272; FAX 1-800-362-5066]. Write a report giving a description of the
recommendations of the committee. Be sure to cite sources used and treat direct quotes properly.

6.16.9

Using the InternetA view of the real world

Visit the following Internet site for General Electric:

http://www.ge.com
Find the annual report listed under Financial Reporting, and then Notes to Financial Statements.
Print a copy of the summary of Significant Accounting Policies. Write a short report to your instructor
summarizing your findings.
Visit the following Internet site for Oracle.:
http://www.oracle.com
Click on about, then under "Investor Relations" click on Detailed Financials. Examine the notes
on the financial statements for the latest quarter. Write a short report for your instructor on your
findings.

6.16.10 Answers to self-test

True-false
False. The business entity concept assumes that each business has an existence separate from its
owners, creditors, employees, customers, other interested parties, and other businesses.
True. Accountants should be guided by the economic substance of a transaction rather than its
legal form.
True. The accrual basis of accounting seeks to match effort and accomplishment by matching
expenses against the revenues they created.
False. Exceptions include the installment basis of revenue recognition for sales and the
percentage-of- completion method for long-term construction projects.
False. Immaterial items do have to be recorded, but they can be recorded in a theoretically
incorrect way (e.g. expensing a wastebasket that will last many years).

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True. Relevance and reliability are the two primary characteristics.

Multiple-choice
c. The matching concept is one of the major principles of accounting rather than an assumption.
b. The consistency concept requires that a company use the same accounting principles and
reporting practices through time.
b. Usually, the accountant does not recognize revenue until the seller acquires the right to receive
payment from the buyer.
USD 3,000,000
X USD15,000,000=USD 4,500,000 .
b.
USD10,000,000
a. Periodicity is an underlying assumption rather than a modifying convention.

b. The category, quantitative characteristics, is not part of the conceptual framework

project. Merchandising transactions

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7 Introduction to inventories and the classified

income statement
7.1 Learning objective
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Record journal entries for sales transactions involving merchandise.

Describe briefly cost of goods sold and the distinction between perpetual and periodic

inventory procedures.

Record journal entries for purchase transactions involving merchandise.

Describe the freight terms and record transportation costs.

Determine cost of goods sold.

Prepare a classified income statement.

Analyze and use the financial resultsgross margin percentage.

Prepare a work sheet and closing entries for a merchandising company (Appendix).

7.2 A career as a CEO

Are you a leader? Would you enjoy someday becoming the president or chief executive officer
(CEO) of the company you work for? Then you should consider a degree in accounting. The accounting
field greatly values individuals with leadership potential. Accounting students with the most job offers
and the highest starting salaries are also likely to be the ones who best demonstrate an ability to lead
others. Recruiters in public accounting (i.e. auditing, tax, consulting) and private accounting (i.e.
financial reporting, cost accounting, financial analysis, internal auditing) alike demonstrate a strong
preference for students with leadership potential.
Fortunately, you do not have to run a company to demonstrate leadership abilities to college
recruiters. Some examples of leadership potential that would look good on a resume include organizing
a successful fund-raiser, participating effectively as an officer in a student club, or taking the lead in a
group project. If you do not have a resume yet, stop by the career placement center at your college and
ask them to assist you in preparing one. Many students at your level already have a resume, and it
takes time to refine and develop an effective one. A well-prepared resume will be important for
securing internship opportunities and part-time work in the business field, as well as for landing that
first job upon graduation.

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Did you know that the chief executive officers (CEO) of many of the largest manufacturing,
merchandising, and service organizations in the United States have degrees in accounting? James
Dimon of JPMorgan Chase, Gary C. Kelly of Southwest Airlines, Phil Knight of Nike, James J. Mulva of
ConocoPhillips, and Indra K. Nooyi of PepsiCo all have degrees in accounting. It is really not that
surprising that accounting majors are so successful, as accounting provides an excellent foundation in
business. With a strong accounting foundation and the continued development of leadership abilities
over your career, you might become a CEO yourself someday.
Your study of accounting began with service companies as examples because they are the least
complicated type of business. You are now ready to apply the accounting process to a more complex
businessa merchandising company. Although the fundamental accounting concepts for service
businesses apply to merchandising businesses, merchandise accounting requires some additional
accounts and techniques to record sales and purchases.
The normal flow of goods from manufacturer to final customer is as follows:

Manufacturers produce goods from raw materials and normally sell them to wholesalers. After
performing certain functions, such as packaging or labeling, wholesalers sell the goods to retailers.
Retailers sell the goods to final customers. The two middle boxes in the diagram represent
merchandising companies. These companies buy goods in finished form for resale.
This chapter begins by comparing the income statement of a service company with that of a
merchandising company. Then, we describe (1) how to record merchandise-related transactions (2) a
classified income statement and (3) the gross margin percentage. Finally, in the appendix we explain
the work sheet and the closing process for a merchandising company.

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SERVICE COMPANY

MERCHANDISING COMPANY

Income Statement

Income Statement

For the Year Ended 2010 December 31

Service revenues

For the Year Ended 2010 December 31

$13,200

Sales revenues

$262,000

Cost of goods sold

159,000

Gross Margin

$103,000

Expenses

6,510

Expenses

74,900

Net income

$ 6,690

Net income

$ 28,100

Exhibit 32: Condensed income statements of a service company and a merchandising company
compared

7.3 Two income statements compared Service company and

merchandising company
In Exhibit 32 we compare the main divisions of an income statement for a service company with
those for a merchandising company. To determine profitability or net income, a service company
deducts total expenses incurred from revenues earned. A merchandising company is a more complex
business and, therefore, has a more complex income statement.
As shown in Exhibit 32, merchandising companies must deduct from revenues the cost of the goods
they sell to customers to arrive at gross margin. Then, they deduct other expenses. The income
statement of a merchandising company has three main divisions: (1) sales revenues, which result from
the sale of goods by the company; (2) cost of goods sold, which is an expense that indicates how much
the company paid for the goods sold; and (3) expenses, which are the company's other expenses in
running the business.
In the next two sections we discuss the first two main divisions of the income statement of a
merchandising company. The third division (expenses) is similar to expenses for a service company,
which we illustrated in preceding chapters. As you study these sections, keep in mind how the divisions
of the merchandising income statement are related to each other and produce the final figurenet
income or net losswhich indicates the profitability of the company.

7.4 Sales revenues

The sale of goods occurs between two parties. The seller of the goods transfers them to the buyer in
exchange for cash or a promise to pay at a later date. This exchange is a relatively simple business

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transaction. Sellers make sales to create revenues; this inflow of assets in the form of cash or accounts
receivable results from selling goods to customers.
In Exhibit 32, we show a condensed income statement to emphasize its major divisions. Next, we
describe the more complete income statement actually prepared by accountants. The merchandising
company that we use to illustrate the income statement is Hanlon Retail Food Store. This section
explains how to record sales revenues, including the effect of trade discounts. Then, we explain how to
record two deductions from sales revenuessales discounts and sales returns and allowances (Exhibit
33). The amount that remains is net sales. The formula for determining net sales is:
Net sales = Gross sales - (Sales discounts + Sales returns and allowances)
HANLON RETAIL FOOD STORE
Partial income Statement
For the Year Ended 2010 December 31

Operating revenues:
Gross sales
Less: Sales discounts

$282,000
$ 5,000

Sales returns and allowances 15,000

Net sales

20,000
$262,000

Exhibit 33: Partial income statement of merchandising company

Invoice No.: 1258 Date: 2010 Dec. 19,

BRYAN WHOLESALE CO.

476 Mason Street
Detroit, Michigan 48823
Customer's Order No.: 218
Sold to:

Baier Company

Address:

2255 Hannon Street

Big Rapids, Michigan 48106

Terms:

Date Shipped: 2010 Dec. 19,

Net 30, FOB Destination

Shipped by: Nagel Trucking Co.

Description

Item Number

Quantity

Price per Unit

Total Amount

True-tone stereo radio

Model No. 5868-24393

200

$100

$20,000

Total

$20,000

Exhibit 34: Invoice

In a sales transaction, the seller transfers the legal ownership (title) of the goods to the buyer.
Usually, the physical delivery of the goods occurs at the same time as the sale of the goods. A business
document called an invoice (a sales invoice for the seller and a purchase invoice for the buyer) becomes
the basis for recording the sale.
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An invoice is a document prepared by the seller of merchandise and sent to the buyer. The invoice
contains the details of a sale, such as the number of units sold, unit price, total price billed, terms of
sale, and manner of shipment. A retail company prepares the invoice at the point of sale. A wholesale
company, which supplies goods to retailers, prepares the invoice after the shipping department notifies
the accounting department that it has shipped the goods to the retailer. Exhibit 34 is an example of an
invoice prepared by a wholesale company for goods sold to a retail company.
Using the invoice as the source document, a wholesale company records the revenue from the sale
at the time of the sale for the following reasons:
The seller has passed legal title of the goods to the buyer, and the goods are now the

responsibility and property of the buyer.

The seller has established the selling price of the goods.
The seller has completed its obligation.
The seller has exchanged the goods for another asset, such as cash or accounts receivable.
The seller can determine the costs incurred in selling the goods.

Each time a company makes a sale, the company earns revenue. This revenue increases a revenue
account called Sales. Recall from Chapter 2 that credits increase revenues. Therefore, the firm credits
the Sales account for the amount of the sale.
Usually sales are for cash or on account. When a sale is for cash, the company credits the Sales
account and debits Cash. For example, it records a USD 20,000 sale for cash as follows:
Cash (+A)

20,000

Sales (+SE)

20,000

To record the sales of merchandise for cash.

When a sale is on account, it credits the Sales account and debits Accounts Receivable. The
following entry records a USD 20,000 sale on account:
Accounts Receivable (+A)
Sales (+SE)

20,000
20,000

To record the sales of merchandise on account.

Usually, a seller quotes the gross selling price, also called the invoice price, of goods to the buyer.
However, sometimes a seller quotes a list price of goods along with available trade discounts. In this
latter situation, the buyer must calculate the gross selling price. The list price less all trade discounts is
the gross selling price. Merchandising companies that sell goods use the gross selling price as the
credit to sales.

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An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

A database management system stores related datasuch as monthly sales data
(salespersons, customers, products, and sales amounts)independent of the
application. Once you have defined this information to the database management
system, you can use commands to answer such questions as: Which products have
been sold to which customers? What are the amounts of sales by individual
salespersons? You could also print a customer list sorted by ZIP code, the alphabet, or
salesperson.

A trade discount is a percentage deduction, or discount, from the specified list price or catalog
price of merchandise. Companies use trade discounts to:
Reduce the cost of catalog publication. A seller can use a catalog for a longer time by printing list

prices in the catalog and giving separate discount sheets to salespersons whenever prices change.
Grant quantity discounts.
Allow quotation of different prices to various customers, such as retailers and wholesalers.

The seller's invoice may show trade discounts. However, sellers do not record trade discounts in
their accounting records because the discounts are used only to calculate the gross selling price. Nor do
trade discounts appear on the books of the purchaser. To illustrate, assume an invoice contains the
following data:
List price, 200 swimsuits at $24
Less: Trade discount, 30%
Gross selling price (invoice price)

$4,800
1,440
$3,360

The seller records a sale of USD 3,360. The purchaser records a purchase of USD 3,360. Thus,
neither the seller nor the purchaser enters list prices and trade discounts on their books.
Sometimes the list price of a product is subject to several trade discounts; this series of discounts is
a chain discount. Chain discounts exist, for example, when a wholesaler receives two trade discounts
for services performed, such as packaging and distributing. When more than one discount is given, the
buyer applies each discount to the declining balance successively. If a product has a list price of USD
100 and is subject to trade discounts of 20 per cent and 10 per cent, the gross selling price (invoice
price) would be USD 100 - 0.2(USD 100) = USD 80; USD 80 - 0.1(USD 80) = USD 72, computed as
follows:
List price

$100

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Less 20%

20
80

8
72

Less 10%
Gross selling price (invoice price)

You could obtain the same results by multiplying the list price by the complements of the trade
discounts allowed. The complement of 20 per cent is 80 per cent because 20 per cent + 80 per cent =
100 per cent. The complement of 10 per cent is 90 per cent because 10 per cent + 90 per cent = 100 per
cent. Thus, the gross selling price is USD 100 X 0.8 X 0.9 = USD 72.
Two common deductions from gross sales are (1) sales discounts and (2) sales returns and
allowances. Sellers record these deductions in contra revenue accounts to the Sales account. Contra
accounts have normal balances that are opposite to the balance of the account they reduce. For
example, since the Sales account normally has a credit balance, the Sales Discounts account and Sales
Returns and Allowances account have debit balances. We explain the methods of recording these
contra revenue accounts next.
Sales discounts Whenever a company sells goods on account, it clearly specifies terms of payment
on the invoice. For example, the invoice in Exhibit 34 states the terms of payment as "net 30".
Net 30 is sometimes written as "n/30". Either way, this term means that the buyer may not take a
discount and must pay the entire amount of the invoice (USD 20,000) on or before 30 days after 2010
December 19 (invoice date)or 2011 January 18. In Exhibit 34, if the terms had read "n/10/EOM"
(EOM means end of month), the buyer could not take a discount, and the invoice would be due on the
10th day of the month following the month of saleor 2011 January 10. Credit terms vary from
industry to industry.
In some industries, credit terms include a cash discount of 1 per cent to 3 per cent to induce early
payment of an amount due. A cash discount is a deduction from the invoice price that can be taken
only if the invoice is paid within a specified time. A cash discount differs from a trade discount in that a
cash discount is a deduction from the gross selling price for the prompt payment of an invoice. In
contrast, a trade discount is a deduction from the list price to determine the gross selling price (or
invoice price). Sellers call a cash discount a sales discount and buyers call it a purchase discount.
Companies often state cash discount terms as follows:
2/10, n/30means a buyer who pays within 10 days following the invoice date may deduct a

discount of 2 per cent of the invoice price. If payment is not made within the discount period, the
entire invoice price is due 30 days from the invoice date.

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 2/EOM, n/60means a buyer who pays by the end of the month of purchase may deduct a 2

per cent discount from the invoice price. If payment is not made within the discount period, the
entire invoice price is due 60 days from the invoice date.
2/10/EOM, n/60means a buyer who pays by the 10th of the month following the month of

purchase may deduct a 2 per cent discount from the invoice price. If payment is not made within
the discount period, the entire invoice price is due 60 days from the invoice date.
Sellers cannot record the sales discount before they receive the payment since they do not know
when the buyer will pay the invoice. A cash discount taken by the buyer reduces the cash that the seller
actually collects from the sale of the goods, so the seller must indicate this fact in its accounting
records. The following entries show how to record a sale and a subsequent sales discount.
Assume that on July 12, a business sold merchandise for USD 2,000 on account; terms are 2/10,
n/30. On July 21 (nine days after invoice date), the business received a USD 1,960 check in payment of
the account. The required journal entries for the seller are:
July

12 Accounts Receivable (+A)

2,000

Sales (+SE)

2,000

To record sale on account; terms 2/10, n/30

21 Cash (+A)
Sales Discounts (-SE; Contra-Revenue Account)

1,960
40

Accounts Receivable (-A)

2,000

To record collection on account, less a discount.

The Sales Discounts account is a contra revenue account to the Sales account. In the income
statement, the seller deducts this contra revenue account from gross sales. Sellers use the Sales
Discounts account (rather than directly reducing the Sales account) so management can examine the
sales discounts figure to evaluate the company's sales discount policy. Note that the Sales Discounts
account is not an expense incurred in generating revenue. Rather, the purpose of the account is to
reduce recorded revenue to the amount actually realized from the sale.
Sales returns and allowances Merchandising companies usually allow customers to return
goods that are defective or unsatisfactory for a variety of reasons, such as wrong color, wrong size,
wrong style, wrong amounts, or inferior quality. In fact, when their policy is satisfaction guaranteed,
some companies allow customers to return goods simply because they do not like the merchandise. A
sales return is merchandise returned by a buyer. Sellers and buyers regard a sales return as a
cancellation of a sale. Alternatively, some customers keep unsatisfactory goods, and the seller gives

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them an allowance off the original price. A sales allowance is a deduction from the original invoiced
sales price granted when the customer keeps the merchandise but is dissatisfied for any of a number of
reasons, including inferior quality, damage, or deterioration in transit. When a seller agrees to the sales
return or sales allowance, the seller sends the buyer a credit memorandum indicating a reduction
(crediting) of the buyer's account receivable. A credit memorandum is a document that provides space
for the name and address of the concerned parties, followed by a space for the reason for the credit and
the amount to be credited. A credit memorandum becomes the basis for recording a sales return or a
sales allowance.
In theory, sellers could record both sales returns and sales allowances as debits to the Sales account
because they cancel part of the recorded selling price.
However, because the amount of sales returns and sales allowances is useful information to
management, it should be shown separately. The amount of returns and allowances in relation to
goods sold can indicate the quality of the goods (high-return percentage, equals low quality) or of
pressure applied by salespersons (high-return percentage, equals high-pressure sales). Thus, sellers
record sales returns and sales allowances in a separate Sales Returns and Allowances account. The
Sales Returns and Allowances account is a contra revenue account (to Sales) that records the
selling price of merchandise returned by buyers or reductions in selling prices granted. (Some
companies use separate accounts for sales returns and for sales allowances, but this text does not.)
Following are two examples illustrating the recording of sales returns in the Sales Returns and
Allowances account:
Assume that a customer returns USD 300 of goods sold on account. If payment has not yet been

received, the required entry is:

Sales Returns and Allowances (-SE)

Accounts Receivable (-A)

300
300

To record a sales return from a customer.

Assume that the customer has already paid the account and the seller gives the customer a cash

refund. Now, the credit is to Cash rather than to Accounts Receivable. If the customer has taken a
2 per cent discount when paying the account, the company would return to the customer the sales
price less the sales discount amount. For example, if a customer returns goods that sold for USD
300, on which a 2 per cent discount was taken, the following entry would be made:

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Sales Returns and Allowances (-SE)

300

Cash (-A)

294

Sales Discount (+SE)

To record a sales return from a customer who had taken a

discount and was sent a cash refund.

The debit to the Sales Returns and Allowances account is for the full selling price of the purchase.
The credit of USD 6 reduces the balance of the Sales Discounts account.
Next, we illustrate the recording of a sales allowance in the Sales Returns and Allowances account.
Assume that a company grants a USD 400 allowance to a customer for damage resulting from
improperly packed merchandise. If the customer has not yet paid the account, the required entry
would be:
Sales Returns and Allowances (-SE)

400

Accounts Receivable (-A)

400

To record a sales allowance granted for damaged

merchandise.

If the customer has already paid the account, the credit is to Cash instead of Accounts Receivable. If
the customer took a 2 per cent discount when paying the account, the company would refund only the
net amount (USD 392). Sales Discounts would be credited for USD 8. The entry would be:
Sales Returns and Allowances (-SE)

400

Cash (-A)

392

Sales Discount (+SE)

To record a sales allowance when a customer has paid and

taken a 2% discount.

HANLON RETAIL FOOD STORE

Partial income Statement
For the Year Ended 2010 December 31,

Operating revenues:
Gross sales
Less: Sales discounts
Sales returns and allowances 15,000
Net sales

$282,000
$ 5,000
20,000
$262,000

*This illustration is the same as Exhibit 33, repeated here for your convenience.
Exhibit 35: Partial income statement*

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Exhibit 35 shows how a company could report sales, sales discounts, and sales returns and
allowances in the income statement. More often, the income statement in a company's annual report
begins with "Net sales" because sales details are not important to external financial statement users.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

When examining a company's sales cycle, management and users of financial data
should be aware of any seasonal changes that may affect its reported sales. A national
retailer of personal computers and related products and services, for example, should
include wording similar to that in the following paragraph in its Annual Report
describing seasonality.
Seasonality
Based upon its operating history, the company believes that its business is seasonal.
Excluding the effects of new store openings, net sales and earnings are generally
lower during the first and fourth fiscal quarters than in the second and third fiscal
quarters.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

For many retailers a large percentage of their annual sales occurs during the period
from Thanksgiving to Christmas. They attempt to stock just the right amount of goods
to meet demand. Since this is a difficult estimate to make accurately, many retailers
end up with a large amount of unsold goods at the end of this season. The only way
they can unload these goods is to offer huge discounts during the following period.

7.5 Cost of goods sold

The second main division of an income statement for a merchandising business is cost of goods
sold. Cost of goods sold is the cost to the seller of the goods sold to customers. For a merchandising
company, the cost of goods sold can be relatively large. All merchandising companies have a quantity of
goods on hand called merchandise inventory to sell to customers. Merchandise inventory (or
inventory) is the quantity of goods available for sale at any given time. Cost of goods sold is determined
by computing the cost of (1) the beginning inventory, (2) the net cost of goods purchased, and (3) the
ending inventory.
Look at the cost of goods sold section of Hanlon Retail Food Store's income statement in Exhibit 36.
The merchandise inventory on 2010 January 1, was USD 24,000. The net cost of purchases for the year
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was USD 166,000. Thus, Hanlon had USD 190,000 of merchandise available for sale during 2010. On
2010 December 31, the merchandise inventory was USD 31,000, meaning that this amount was left
unsold. Subtracting the unsold inventory (the ending inventory), USD 31,000, from the amount
Hanlon had available for sale during the year, USD 190,000, gives the cost of goods sold for the year of
USD 159,000. Understanding this relationship shown on Hanlon Retail Food Store's partial income
statement gives you the necessary background to determine the cost of goods sold as presented in this
section.
Cost of goods sold:
Merchandise inventory, 2010 January 1
Purchases
Less: Purchase discounts
Purchase returns and allowances
Net Purchases
Add: Transportation-in

$167,00
0

$
24,000

$3,00
0
8,000 11,000

$156,00
0
10,000

Net cost of purchases

166,000

Cost of goods available for sale

$190,00
0
31,000

Less: Merchandise inventory, 2010

December 31
Cost of goods sold

$159,00
0

Exhibit 36: Determination of cost of goods sold for Hanlon Retail Food Store
To determine the cost of goods sold, accountants must have accurate merchandise inventory
figures. Accountants use two basic methods for determining the amount of merchandise inventory
perpetual inventory procedure and periodic inventory procedure. We mention perpetual inventory
procedure only briefly here. In the next chapter, we emphasize perpetual inventory procedure and
further compare it with periodic inventory procedure.
When discussing inventory, we need to clarify whether we are referring to the physical goods on
hand or the Merchandise Inventory account, which is the financial representation of the physical goods
on hand. The difference between perpetual and periodic inventory procedures is the frequency with
which the Merchandise Inventory account is updated to reflect what is physically on hand. Under
perpetual inventory procedure, the Merchandise Inventory account is continuously updated to
reflect items on hand. For example, your supermarket uses a scanner to ring up your purchases. When
your box of Rice Krispies crosses the scanner, the Merchandise Inventory account shows that one less
box of Rice Krispies is on hand.

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Under periodic inventory procedure, the Merchandise Inventory account is updated

periodically after a physical count has been made. Usually, the physical count takes place immediately
before the preparation of financial statements.
Perpetual inventory procedure Companies use perpetual inventory procedure in a variety of
business settings. Historically, companies that sold merchandise with a high individual unit value, such
as automobiles, furniture, and appliances, used perpetual inventory procedure. Today, computerized
cash registers, scanners, and accounting software programs automatically keep track of inflows and
outflows of each inventory item. Computerization makes it economical for many retail stores to use
perpetual inventory procedure even for goods of low unit value, such as groceries.
Under perpetual inventory procedure, the Merchandise Inventory account provides close control by
showing the cost of the goods that are supposed to be on hand at any particular time. Companies debit
the Merchandise Inventory account for each purchase and credit it for each sale so that the current
balance is shown in the account at all times. Usually, firms also maintain detailed unit records showing
the quantities of each type of goods that should be on hand. Company personnel also take a physical
inventory by actually counting the units of inventory on hand. Then they compare this physical count
with the records showing the units that should be on hand. Chapter 7 describes perpetual inventory
procedure in more detail.
Periodic inventory procedure Merchandising companies selling low unit value merchandise
(such as nuts and bolts, nails, Christmas cards, or pencils) that have not computerized their inventory
systems often find that the extra costs of record-keeping under perpetual inventory procedure more
than outweigh the benefits. These merchandising companies often use periodic inventory procedure.
Under periodic inventory procedure, companies do not use the Merchandise Inventory account to
record each purchase and sale of merchandise. Instead, a company corrects the balance in the
Merchandise Inventory account as the result of a physical inventory count at the end of the accounting
period. Also, the company usually does not maintain other records showing the exact number of units
that should be on hand. Although periodic inventory procedure reduces record-keeping, it also reduces
control over inventory items.
Companies using periodic inventory procedure make no entries to the Merchandise Inventory
account nor do they maintain unit records during the accounting period. Thus, these companies have
no up-to-date balance against which to compare the physical inventory count at the end of the period.
Also, these companies make no attempt to determine the cost of goods sold at the time of each sale.
Instead, they calculate the cost of all the goods sold during the accounting period at the end of the
period. To determine the cost of goods sold, a company must know:
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 Beginning inventory (cost of goods on hand at the beginning of the period).

Net cost of purchases during the period.
Ending inventory (cost of unsold goods at the end of the period).

The company would show this information as follows:

Beginning inventory
Add: Net cost of purchases during the period
Cost of goods available for sale during the period
Deduct: Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold during the period

$ 34,000
140,000
$174,000
20,000
$154,000

In this schedule, notice that the company began the accounting period with USD 34,000 of
merchandise and purchased an additional USD 140,000, making a total of USD 174,000 of goods that
could have been sold during the period. Then, a physical inventory showed that USD 20,000 remained
unsold, which implies that USD 154,000 was the cost of goods sold during the period. Of course, the
USD 154,000 is not necessarily the precise amount of goods sold because no actual record was made of
the dollar cost of the goods sold. Periodic inventory procedure basically assumes that everything not on
hand at the end of the period has been sold. This method disregards problems such as theft or breakage
because the Merchandise Inventory account contains no up-to-date balance at the end of the
accounting period against which to compare the physical count.
Under periodic inventory procedure, a merchandising company uses the Purchases account to
record the cost of merchandise bought for resale during the current accounting period. The Purchases
account, which is increased by debits, appears with the income statement accounts in the chart of
accounts.
To illustrate entries affecting the Purchases account, assume that Hanlon Retail Food Store made
two purchases of merchandise from Smith Wholesale Company. Hanlon purchased USD 30,000 of
merchandise on credit (on account) on May 4, and on May 21 purchased USD 20,000 of merchandise
for cash. The required journal entries for Hanlon are:
May

Purchases (+A)
Accounts Payable (+L)
To record purchases of merchandise on account.
21 Purchases (+A)
Cash (-A)
To record purchase of merchandise for cash.

30,000
30,000
20,000
20,000

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The buyer deducts purchase discounts and purchase returns and allowances from purchases to
arrive at net purchases. The accountant records these items in contra accounts to the Purchases
account.
Purchase discounts Often companies purchase merchandise under credit terms that permit
them to deduct a stated cash discount if they pay invoices within a specified time. Assume that credit
terms for Hanlon's May 4 purchase are 2/10, n/30. If Hanlon pays for the merchandise by May 14, the
store may take a 2 per cent discount. Thus, Hanlon must pay only USD 29,400 to settle the USD
30,000 account payable. The entry to record the payment of the invoice on May 14 is:
May

14 Accounts Payable (-L)

30,000

Cash (-A)

29,400

Purchase Discount (+SE)

600

To record payment on account within the

discount period.

The buyer records the purchase discount only when the invoice is paid within the discount period
and the discount is taken. The Purchase Discounts account is a contra account to Purchases that
reduces the recorded invoice price of the goods purchased to the price actually paid. Hanlon reports
purchase discounts in the income statement as a deduction from purchases.
Companies base purchase discounts on the invoice price of goods. If an invoice shows purchase
returns or allowances, they must be deducted from the invoice price before calculating purchase
discounts. For example, in the previous transaction, the invoice price of goods purchased was USD
30,000. If Hanlon returned USD 2,000 of the goods, the seller calculates the 2 per cent purchase
discount on USD 28,000.
Interest rate implied in cash discounts To decide whether you should take advantage of
discounts by using your cash or borrowing, make this simple analysis. Assume that you must pay USD
10,000 within 30 days or USD 9,800 within 10 days to settle a USD 10,000 invoice with terms of 2/10,
n/30. By advancing payment 20 days from the final due date, you can secure a discount of USD 200.
The interest expense incurred to borrow USD 9,800 at 12 per cent per year for 20 days is USD 65.33,
calculated as (USD 9,800 x .12 x 20/360). You would save USD 134.67 (USD 200 - USD 65.33) by
borrowing the money and paying the invoice within the discount period.
In terms of an annual rate of interest, the 2 per cent rate of discount for 20 days is equivalent to a
36 per cent annual rate: (360/20) X 2 per cent. The formula is:

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You can convert all cash discount terms to their approximate annual interest rate equivalents by use
of this formula. Thus, a company could afford to pay up to 36 per cent [(360/20) X 2 per cent] on
borrowed funds to take advantage of discount terms of 2/10, n/ 30. The company could pay 18 per cent
on terms of 1/10, n/30.
Purchase returns and allowances A purchase return occurs when a buyer returns merchandise
to a seller. When a buyer receives a reduction in the price of goods shipped, a purchase allowance
results. Then, the buyer commonly uses a debit memorandum to notify the seller that the account
payable with the seller is being reduced (Accounts Payable is debited). The buyer may use a copy of a
debit memorandum to record the returns or allowances or may wait for confirmation, usually a credit
memorandum, from the seller.
Both returns and allowances reduce the buyer's debt to the seller and decrease the cost of the goods
purchased. The buyer may want to know the amount of returns and allowances as the first step in
controlling the costs incurred in returning unsatisfactory merchandise or negotiating purchase
allowances. For this reason, buyers record purchase returns and allowances in a separate Purchase
Returns and Allowances account. If Hanlon returned USD 350 of merchandise to Smith
Wholesale before paying for the goods, it would make this journal entry:
Accounts Payable (-L)
Purchase Returns and Allowances (+SE)

350
350

To record return of damaged merchandise to supplier

The entry would have been the same to record a USD 350 allowance. Only the explanation would
change.
If Hanlon had already paid the account, the debit would be to Cash instead of Accounts Payable,
since Hanlon would receive a refund of cash. If the company took a discount at the time it paid the
account, only the net amount would be refunded. For instance, if a 2 per cent discount had been taken,
Hanlon's journal entry for the return would be:

p. 317 of 433

Cash (+A)

343

Purchase Discounts (-SE)

Purchase Returns and Allowances (+SE)

350

To record return of damaged merchandise to supplier and

record receipt of cash.

Purchase returns and allowances is a contra account to the Purchases account, and the income
statement shows it as a deduction from purchases. When both purchase discounts and purchase
returns and allowances are deducted from purchases, the result is net purchases.
Transportation costs are an important part of cost of goods sold. To understand how to account for
transportation costs, you must know the meaning of the following terms:
FOB shipping point means "free on board at shipping point". The buyer incurs all

transportation costs after the merchandise has been loaded on a railroad car or truck at the point
of shipment. Thus, the buyer is responsible for ultimately paying the freight charges.
FOB destination means "free on board at destination". The seller ships the goods to their

destination without charge to the buyer. Thus, the seller is ultimately responsible for paying the
freight charges.
Passage of title is a term that indicates the transfer of the legal ownership of goods. Title to the

goods normally passes from seller to buyer at the FOB point. Thus, when goods are shipped FOB
shipping point, title usually passes to the buyer at the shipping point. When goods are shipped
FOB destination, title usually passes at the destination.
Freight prepaid means the seller must initially pay the freight at the time of shipment.
Freight collect indicates the buyer must initially pay the freight bill on the arrival of the goods.

To illustrate the use of these terms, assume that a company ships goods FOB shipping point, freight
collect. Title passes at the shipping point. The buyer is responsible for paying the USD 100 freight costs
and does so. The seller makes no entry for freight charges; the entry on the buyer's books is:
Transportation-In (or Freight-In) (+SE)
Cash (-A)

100
100

To record payment of freight bill on goods purchased.

The Transportation-In account records the inward freight costs of acquiring merchandise.
Transportation-In is an adjunct account in that it is added to net purchases to arrive at net cost of
p. 318 of 433

purchases. An adjunct account is closely related to another account (Purchases, in this instance),
and its balance is added to the balance of the related account in the financial statements. Recall that a
contra account is just the opposite of an adjunct account. Buyers deduct a contra account, such as
accumulated depreciation, from the related fixed asset account in the financial statements.
When shipping goods FOB destination, freight prepaid, the seller is responsible for and pays the
freight bill. Because the seller cannot bill a separate freight cost to the buyer, the buyer shows no entry
for freight on its books. The seller, however, has undoubtedly considered the freight cost in setting
selling prices. The following entry is required on the seller's books:
Delivery Expense (or Transportation-Out Expense) (-SE)

100

Cash (-A)

100

To record freight cost on goods sold.

When the terms are FOB destination, the seller records the freight costs as delivery expense; this
selling expense appears on the income statement with other selling expenses.
FOB terms are especially important at the end of an accounting period. Goods in transit then belong
to either the seller or the buyer, and one of these parties must include these goods in its ending
inventory. Goods shipped FOB destination belong to the seller while in transit, and the seller includes
these goods in its ending inventory. Goods shipped FOB shipping point belong to the buyer while in
transit, and the buyer records these goods as a purchase and includes them in its ending inventory. For
example, assume that a seller ships goods on 2009 December 30, and they arrive at their destination
on 2010 January 5. If terms are FOB destination, the seller includes the goods in its 2009 December
31, inventory, and neither seller nor buyer records the exchange transaction until 2010 January 5. If
terms are FOB shipping point, the buyer includes the goods in its 2009 December 31, inventory, and
both parties record the exchange transaction as of 2009 December 30.
Sometimes the seller prepays the freight as a convenience to the buyer, even though the buyer is
ultimately responsible for it. The buyer merely reimburses the seller for the freight paid. For example,
assume that Wood Company sold merchandise to Loud Company with terms of FOB shipping point,
freight prepaid. The freight charges were USD 100. The following entries are necessary on the books of
the buyer and the seller:
BuyerLoud Company
Transportation-In (-SE)
Accounts Payable (+L)

SellerWood Company
100
100

Accounts Receivable (+A)

Cash (-A)

100

100

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Such entries are necessary because Wood initially paid the freight charges when not required to do
so. Therefore, Loud Company must reimburse Wood for the charges. If the buyer pays freight for the
seller (e.g. FOB destination, freight collect), the buyer merely deducts the freight paid from the amount
owed to the seller. The following entries are necessary on the books of the buyer and the seller:
BuyerLoud Company

Accounts Payable (-L)

SellerWood Company

100
100

Delivery Expense (-SE)

Accounts Receivable (-A)

100
100

Cash (-A)

Purchase discounts may be taken only on the purchase price of goods. Therefore, a buyer who owes
the seller for freight charges cannot take a discount on the freight charges owed, even if the buyer
makes payment within the discount period. We summarize our discussion of freight terms and the
resulting journal entries to record the freight charges in Exhibit 37.
Merchandise inventory is the cost of goods on hand and available for sale at any given time. To
determine the cost of goods sold in any accounting period, management needs inventory information.
Management must know its cost of goods on hand at the start of the period (beginning inventory), the
net cost of purchases during the period, and the cost of goods on hand at the close of the period
(ending inventory). Since the ending inventory of the preceding period is the beginning inventory for
the current period, management already knows the cost of the beginning inventory. Companies record
purchases, purchase discounts, purchase returns and allowances, and transportation-in throughout the
period. Therefore, management needs to determine only the cost of the ending inventory at the end of
the period in order to calculate cost of goods sold.
Taking a physical inventory Under periodic inventory procedure, company personnel
determine ending inventory cost by taking a physical inventory. Taking a physical inventory
consists of counting physical units of each type of merchandise on hand. To calculate inventory cost,
they multiply the number of each kind of merchandise by its unit cost. Then, they combine the total
costs of the various kinds of merchandise to provide the total ending inventory cost.
In taking a physical inventory, company personnel must be careful to count all goods owned,
regardless of where they are located, and include them in the inventory.
Shipping point: Detroit-

Destination: San Diego

Goods travel from shipping point to destination

If shipping terms are:
FOB shipping pointBuyer incurs

the freight

FOB destinationSeller incurs

the freight

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charges

charge

Freight prepaidSeller initially

charges

pays the freight

Freight collectBuyer initially

charges

pays the freight

If the freight terms are combined as follows:

Party that
Party that
Terms

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

FOB
FOB
FOB
FOB

Initially Pays

shipping point, freight collect

destination, freight prepaid
shipping point, freight prepaid
destination, freight collect

Ultimately Bears
Expense

Buyer
Seller
Seller
Buyer

Buyer
Seller
Buyer
Seller

Exhibit 37: Summary of shipping terms

Explanations:
FOB shipping point, freight collect Buyer both incurs and initially pays the freight chargers. The proper party (buyer) paid the freight. The buyer
debits Transportation-In and credits Cash.
FOB destination, freight prepaid Seller both incurs and initially pays the freight charges. The proper party (seller) paid the freight. The seller
debits Delivery Expense and credits Cash.
FOB shipping point, freight prepaid Buyer incurs the freight chargers, and seller initially pays the freight charges. Buyer must reimburse seller for
freight charges. The seller debits Accounts Receivable and credits Cash upon paying the freight. The buyer debits Transportation-In and credits
Accounts Payable when informed of the freight charges.
FOB destination, freight collect Seller incurs freight charges, and buyer initially pays freight charges. Buyer deducts freight charges from amount
owed to seller. The buyer debits Accounts Payable and credits Cash when paying the freight. The seller debits Delivery Expense and credits
Accounts Receivable when informed of the freight charges.

Thus, companies should include goods shipped to potential customers on approval in their
inventories. Similarly, companies should not record consigned goods (goods delivered to another
party who attempts to sell them for a commission) as sold goods. These goods remain the property of
the owner (consignor) until sold by the consignee and must be included in the owner's inventory.
Merchandise in transit is merchandise in the hands of a freight company on the date of a
physical inventory. As stated above, buyers must record merchandise in transit at the end of the
accounting period as a purchase if the goods were shipped FOB shipping point and they have received
title to the merchandise. In general, the goods belong to the party who ultimately bears the
transportation charges.
When accounting personnel know the beginning and ending inventories and the various items
making up the net cost of purchases, they can determine the cost of goods sold. To illustrate, assume
the following account balances for Hanlon Retail Food Store as of 2010 December 31:
Merchandise Inventory, 2010 January 1
Purchases
Purchase Discounts
Purchase Returns and Allowances
Transportation-In

$ 24,000
167,000
3,000
8,000
10,000

Dr.
Dr.
Cr.
Cr.
Dr.

By taking a physical inventory, Hanlon determined the 2010 December 31, merchandise inventory
to be USD 31,000. Hanlon then calculated its cost of goods sold as shown in Exhibit 38. This
computation appears in a section of the income statement directly below the calculation of net sales.

p. 321 of 433

Cost of goods sold:

Merchandise inventory, 2010 January 1

$ 24,000

Purchases

$167,000

Less: Purchase discounts

$3,000

Purchase returns and allowances

8,000

11,000

Net Purchases

$156,000

Add: Transportation-in

10,000

Net cost of purchases

166,000

Cost of goods available for sale

$190,000

Less: Merchandise inventory, 2010 December 31

31,000

Cost of goods sold

$159,000

This illustration is the same as Exhibit 36, repeated here for your convenience.

Exhibit 38: Determination of cost of goods sold for Hanlon Retain Food Store*
In Exhibit 38, Hanlon's beginning inventory (USD 24,000) plus net cost of purchases (USD
166,000) is equal to cost of goods available for sale (USD 190,000). The firm deducts the ending
inventory cost (USD 31,000) from cost of goods available for sale to arrive at cost of goods sold (USD
159,000).
Another way of looking at this relationship is the following diagram:

Beginning inventory and net cost of purchases combine to form cost of goods available for sale.
Hanlon divides the cost of goods available for sale into ending inventory (which is the cost of goods not
sold) and cost of goods sold.
To continue the calculation appearing in Exhibit 38, net cost of purchases (USD 166,000) is equal
to purchases (USD 167,000), less purchase discounts (USD 3,000) and purchase returns and
allowances (USD 8,000), plus transportation-in (USD 10,000).

p. 322 of 433

As shown in Exhibit 38, ending inventory cost (merchandise inventory) appears in the income
statement as a deduction from cost of goods available for sale to compute cost of goods sold. Ending
inventory cost (merchandise inventory) is also a current asset in the end-of-period balance sheet.
Companies use periodic inventory procedure because of its simplicity and relatively low cost.
However, periodic inventory procedure provides little control over inventory. Firms assume any items
not included in the physical count of inventory at the end of the period have been sold. Thus, they
mistakenly assume items that have been stolen have been sold and include their cost in cost of goods
sold.
To illustrate, suppose that the cost of goods available for sale was USD 200,000 and ending
inventory was USD 60,000. These figures suggest that the cost of goods sold was USD 140,000. Now
suppose that USD 2,000 of goods were actually shoplifted during the year. If such goods had not been
stolen, the ending inventory would have been USD 62,000 and the cost of goods sold only USD
138,000. Thus, the USD 140,000 cost of goods sold calculated under periodic inventory procedure
includes both the cost of the merchandise delivered to customers and the cost of merchandise stolen.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

Many companies are building private networks to link their employees, customers,
and suppliers together. These networks within the Internet are referred to as
companies' intranets. The Internet can be likened to the entire universe, while an
intranet can be likened to a solar system within the universe. A company's intranet is
built to be secure from outside users. For instance, these networks are designed to be
secure against "hackers" and other unauthorized persons. The intranet software
typically encrypts data sent over the Internet to safeguard financial transactions.

7.6 Classified income statement

In preceding chapters, we illustrated the unclassified (or single-step) income statement. An
unclassified income statement has only two categoriesrevenues and expenses. In contrast, a
classified income statement divides both revenues and expenses into operating and nonoperating
items. The statement also separates operating expenses into selling and administrative expenses. A
classified income statement is also called a multiple-step income statement.
In Exhibit 39, we present a classified income statement for Hanlon Retail Food Store. This
statement uses the previously presented data on sales (Exhibit 35) and cost of goods sold (Exhibit 38),
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together with additional assumed data on operating expenses and other expenses and revenues. Note
in Exhibit 39 that a classified income statement has the following four major sections:
Operating revenues.
Cost of goods sold.
Operating expenses.
Nonoperating revenues and expenses (other revenues and other expenses).

The classified income statement shows important relationships that help in analyzing how well the
company is performing. For example, by deducting cost of goods sold from operating revenues, you can
determine by what amount sales revenues exceed the cost of items being sold. If this margin, called
gross margin, is lower than desired, a company may need to increase its selling prices and/or decrease
its cost of goods sold. The classified income statement subdivides operating expenses into selling and
administrative expenses. Thus, statement users can see how much expense is incurred in selling the
product and how much in administering the business. Statement users can also make comparisons
with other years' data for the same business and with other businesses. Nonoperating revenues and
expenses appear at the bottom of the income statement because they are less significant in assessing
the profitability of the business.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

Management chooses whether to use a classified or unclassified income statement to
present a company's financial data. This choice may be based either on how their
competitors present their data or on the costs associated with assembling the data.
HANLON RETAIL FOOD STORE
Income Statement
For the Year Ended 2010 December 31

Operating revenues:
Gross sales

$282,000

Less: Sales discounts

$ 5,000

Sales return and allowances

15,000

Net sales

20,000
$262,000

Cost of goods sold:

Merchandise inventory, 2010 January 1
Purchases
Less: Purchase discount
Purchase returns and allowances
Net purchases

$24,000
$167,00
0

$3,00
0
8,000 11,000

$156,00
0

p. 324 of 433

Add: Transportation-in

10,000

Net cost of purchases

166,000

Cost of goods available for sale

$190,00
0
31,000

Less: Merchandise inventory, 2010

December 31
Cost of goods sold

159,000

Gross Margin

$103,000

Operating expenses:
Selling expenses:
Salaries and commissions expense
Salespersons' travel expense

$
26,000
3,000

Delivery expense

2,000

Advertising expense

4,000

Rent expensestore building

2,500

Supplies expense

1,000

Utilities expense

1,800

Depreciation expensestore equipment

700

Other selling expense

400

$41,400

Administrative expenses:
Salaries expense, executive

$29,000

Rent expenseadministrative building

1,600

Insurance expense

1,500

Supplies expense

800

Depreciation expenseoffice equipment

1,100

Other administrative expenses

300

34,300

Total operating expenses

75,700

Income from operations

$ 27,300

Nonoperating revenues and expenses:

Nonoperating revenues:
Interest revenue
Nonoperating expenses:

1,400
$ 28,700

Interest expense

600

Net income

$ 28,100

Exhibit 39: Classified income statement for a merchandising company

Next, we explain the major headings of the classified income statement in Exhibit 39. The terms in
some of these headings are already familiar to you. Although future illustrations of classified income
statements may vary somewhat in form, we retain the basic organization.
Operating revenues are the revenues generated by the major activities of the business

usually the sale of products or services or both.

p. 325 of 433

 Cost of goods sold is the major expense in merchandising companies. Note the cost of goods

sold section of the classified income statement in Exhibit 39. This chapter has already discussed
the items used in calculating cost of goods sold. Merchandisers usually highlight the amount by
which sales revenues exceed the cost of goods sold in the top part of the income statement. The
excess of net sales over cost of goods sold is the gross margin or gross profit. To express gross
margin as a percentage rate, we divide gross margin by net sales. In Exhibit 39, the gross margin
rate is approximately 39.3 per cent (USD 103,000/USD 262,000). The gross margin rate indicates
that out of each sales dollar, approximately 39 cents is available to cover other expenses and
produce income. Business owners watch the gross margin rate closely since a small percentage
fluctuation can cause a large dollar change in net income. Also, a downward trend in the gross
margin rate may indicate a problem, such as theft of merchandise. For instance, one Southeastern
sporting goods company, SportsTown, Inc., suffered significant gross margin deterioration from
increased shoplifting and employee theft.
Operating expenses for a merchandising company are those expenses, other than cost of

goods sold, incurred in the normal business functions of a company. Usually, operating expenses
are either selling expenses or administrative expenses. Selling expenses are expenses a
company incurs in selling and marketing efforts. Examples include salaries and commissions of
salespersons, expenses for salespersons' travel, delivery, advertising, rent (or depreciation, if
owned) and utilities on a sales building, sales supplies used, and depreciation on delivery trucks
used in sales. Administrative expenses are expenses a company incurs in the overall
management of a business. Examples include administrative salaries, rent (or depreciation, if
owned) and utilities on an administrative building, insurance expense, administrative supplies
used, and depreciation on office equipment.
Certain operating expenses may be shared by the selling and administrative functions. For example,
a company might incur rent, taxes, and insurance on a building for both sales and administrative
purposes. Expenses covering both the selling and administrative functions must be analyzed and
prorated between the two functions on the income statement. For instance, if USD 1,000 of
depreciation expense relates 60 per cent to selling and 40 per cent to administrative based on the
square footage or number of employees, the income statement would show USD 600 as a selling
expense and USD 400 as an administrative expense.
Nonoperating revenues (other revenues) and nonoperating expenses (other expenses)

are revenues and expenses not related to the sale of products or services regularly offered for sale
by a business. An example of a nonoperating revenue is interest that a business earns on notes
p. 326 of 433

receivable. An example of a nonoperating expense is interest incurred on money borrowed by the

company.
To summarize the more important relationships in the income statement of a merchandising firm
in equation form:
Net sales = Gross sales - (Sales discounts + Sales returns and allowances).
Net purchases = Purchases - (Purchase discounts + Purchase returns and allowances).
Net cost of purchases = Net purchases + Transportation-in.
Cost of goods sold = Beginning inventory + Net cost of purchases - Ending inventory.
Gross margin = Net sales - Cost of goods sold.
Income from operations = Gross margin - Operating (selling and administrative) expenses.
Net income = Income from operations + Nonoperating revenues - Nonoperating expenses.

Each of these relationships is important because of the way it relates to an overall measure of
business profitability. For example, a company may produce a high gross margin on sales. However,
because of large sales commissions and delivery expenses, the owner may realize only a very small
percentage of the gross margin as profit. The classifications in the income statement allow a user to
focus on the whole picture as well as on how net income was derived (statement relationships).

An ethical perspective: World auto parts corporation

John Bentley is the chief financial officer for World Auto Parts Corporation. The
company buys approximately USD 500 million of auto parts each year from small
suppliers all over the world and resells them to auto repair shops in the United States.
Most of the suppliers have cash discount terms of 2/10, n/30. John has instructed his
personnel to pay invoices on the 30th day after the invoice date but to take the 2 per
cent discount even though they are not entitled to do so. Whenever a supplier
complains, John instructs his purchasing agent to find another supplier who will go
along with this practice. When some of his own employees questioned the practice,
John responded as follows:
This practice really does no harm. These small suppliers are much better off to go
along and have our business than to not go along and lose it. For most of them, we
are their largest customer. Besides, if they are willing to sell to others at a 2 per cent
discount, why should they not be willing to sell to us at that same discount even
though we pay a little later? The benefit to our company is very significant. Last year

p. 327 of 433

our profits were USD 100 million. A total of USD 10 million of the profits was
attributable to this practice. Do you really want me to change this practice and give
up USD 10 million of our profits?

7.7 Analyzing and using the financial resultsGross margin

percentage
As discussed earlier, you can calculate the gross margin percentage by using the following
formula:
Gross margin percentage=

Gross margin
Net sales

To demonstrate the use of this ratio, consider the following information from the 2000 Annual
Report of Abercrombie & Fitch.
($ millions)
Revenues
Gross profit
Gross profit (margin)
percentage

2000

1999

1998

$ 1,238.6
509.4

$ 1,030.9
450.4

$ 805.2
331.4

$ 509.5/$1,238.6 = 41.13% $450.4/$1,030.9 = 43.69%

$331.4/$805.2 = 41.16%

Abercrombie's gross margin held at a rather high 41-43 per cent over those three years.
You should now understand the distinction between accounting for a service company and a
merchandising company. The next chapter continues the discussion of merchandise inventory carried
by merchandising companies.

7.8 Understanding the learning objectives

In a sales transaction, the seller transfers the legal ownership (title) of the goods to the buyer.
An invoice is a document, prepared by the seller of merchandise and sent to the buyer, that

contains the details of a sale, such as the number of units sold, unit price, total price, terms of sale,
and manner of shipment.
Usually sales are for cash or on account. When a sale is for cash, the debit is to Cash and the

credit is to Sales. When a sale is on account, the debit is to Accounts Receivable and the credit is to
Sales.
When companies offer trade discounts, the gross selling price (gross invoice price) at which the

sale is recorded is equal to the list price minus any trade discounts.

p. 328 of 433

 Two common deductions from gross sales are (1) sales discounts and (2) sales returns and

allowances. These deductions are recorded in contra revenue accounts to the Sales account. Both
the Sales Discounts account and the Sales Returns and Allowances account normally have debit
balances. Net sales = Sales - (Sales discounts + Sales returns and allowances).
Sales discounts arise when the seller offers the buyer a cash discount of 1 per cent to 3 per cent to

induce early payment of an amount due.

Sales returns result from merchandise being returned by a buyer because the goods are

considered unsatisfactory or have been damaged. A sales allowance is a deduction from the
original invoiced sales price granted to a customer when the customer keeps the merchandise but
is dissatisfied.
Cost of goods sold=Beginning inventory+Net cost of purchasesEnding inventory .

Net cost of purchases=Purchases(Purchase discounts+Purchase returns)+Transportation

Two methods of accounting for inventory are perpetual inventory procedure and periodic

inventory procedure. Under perpetual inventory procedure, the inventory account is continuously
updated during the accounting period. Under periodic inventory procedure, the inventory account
is updated only periodicallyafter a physical count has been made.
Purchases of merchandise are recorded by debiting Purchases and crediting Cash (for cash

purchases) or crediting Accounts Payable (for purchases on account).

Two common deductions from purchases are (1) purchase discounts and (2) purchase returns

and allowances. In the general ledger, both of these items normally carry credit balances. From
the buyer's side of the transactions, cash discounts are purchase discounts, and merchandise
returns and allowances are purchase returns and allowances.
FOB shipping point means free on board at shipping pointthe buyer incurs the freight.
FOB destination means free on board at destinationthe seller incurs the freight.
Passage of title is a term indicating the transfer of the legal ownership of goods.
Freight prepaid is when the seller must initially pay the freight at the time of shipment.
Freight collect is when the buyer must initially pay the freight on the arrival of the goods.
Expansion and application of the relationship introduced in Learning objective 2. Beginning

inventory + Net cost of purchases = Cost of goods available for sale. Cost of goods available for
sale - Ending inventory = Cost of goods sold.
A classified income statement has four major sectionsoperating revenues, cost of goods sold,

operating expenses, and nonoperating revenues and expenses.

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 Operating revenues are the revenues generated by the major activities of the businessusually

the sale of products or services or both.

Cost of goods sold is the major expense in merchandising companies.
Operating expenses for a merchandising company are those expenses other than cost of goods

sold incurred in the normal business functions of a company. Usually, operating expenses are
classified as either selling expenses or administrative expenses.
Nonoperating revenues and expenses are revenues and expenses not related to the sale of

products or services regularly offered for sale by a business.

Gross margin
Gross margin percentage=
Net sales
The gross margin rate indicates the amount of sales dollars available to cover expenses and

produce income.
Except for the merchandise-related accounts, the work sheet for a merchandising company is the

same as for a service company.

Any revenue accounts and contra purchases accounts in the Adjusted Trial Balance credit

column of the work sheet are carried to the Income Statement credit column.
Beginning inventory, contra revenue accounts. Purchases, Transportation-In, and expense

accounts in the Adjusted Trial Balance debit column are carried to the Income Statement debit
column.
Ending merchandise inventory is entered in the Income Statement credit column and in the

Balance Sheet debit column.

Closing entries may be prepared directly from the work sheet. The first journal entry debits all

items appearing in the Income Statement credit column and credits Income Summary. The
second entry credits all items appearing in the Income Statement debit column and debits Income
Summary. The third entry debits Income Summary and credits the Retained Earnings account
(assuming positive net income). The fourth entry debits the Retained Earnings account and
credits the Dividends account.

7.9 Appendix: The work sheet for a merchandising company

Exhibit 40 shows a work sheet for a merchandising company. Lyons Company is a small sporting
goods firm. The illustration for Lyons Company focuses on merchandise-related accounts. Thus, we do
not show the fixed assets (land, building, and equipment). Except for the merchandise-related
accounts, the work sheet for a merchandising company is the same as for a service company. Recall

p. 330 of 433

that use of a work sheet assists in the preparation of the adjusting and closing entries. The work sheet
also contains all the information needed for the preparation of the financial statements.
To further simplify this illustration, assume Lyons needs no adjusting entries at month-end. The
trial balance is from the ledger accounts at 2010 December 31. The USD 7,000 merchandise inventory
in the trial balance is the beginning inventory. The sales and sales-related accounts and the purchases
and purchases-related accounts summarize the merchandising activity for December 2010.
Lyons carries any revenue accounts (Sales) and contra purchases accounts (Purchase Discounts,
Purchase Returns and Allowances) in the Adjusted Trial Balance credit columns of the work sheet to
the Income Statement credit column. It carries beginning inventory, contra revenue accounts (Sales
Discounts, Sales Returns and Allowances), Purchases, Transportation-In, and expense accounts
(Selling Expenses, Administrative Expenses) in the Adjusted Trial Balance debit column to the Income
Statement debit column.
Assume that ending inventory is USD 8,000. Lyons enters this amount in the Income Statement
credit column because it is deducted from cost of goods available for sale (beginning inventory plus net
cost of purchases) in determining cost of goods sold. It also enters the ending inventory in the Balance
Sheet debit column to establish the proper balance in the Merchandise Inventory account. The
beginning and ending inventories are on the Income Statement because Lyons uses both to calculate
cost of goods sold in the income statement. Net income of USD 5,843 for the period balances the
Income Statement columns. The firm carries the net income to the Statement of Retained Earnings
credit column. Retained earnings of USD 18,843 balances the Statement of Retained Earnings
columns. Lyons Company carries the retained earnings to the Balance Sheet credit column.
Lyons carries all other asset account balances (Cash, Accounts Receivable, and ending Merchandise
Inventory) to the Balance Sheet debit column. It also carries the liability (Accounts Payable) and
Capital Stock account balances to the Balance Sheet credit column. The balance sheet columns total to
USD 29,543.
Once the work sheet has been completed, Lyons prepares the financial statements. After entering
any adjusting and closing entries in the journal, the firm posts them to the ledger. This process clears
the records for the next accounting period. Finally, it prepares a post-closing trial balance.
Income statement Exhibit 41 shows the income statement Lyons prepared from its work sheet in
Exhibit 40. The focus in this income statement is on determining the cost of goods sold.
Statement of retained earnings The statement of retained earnings, as you recall, is a financial
statement that summarizes the transactions affecting the Retained Earnings account balance. In

p. 331 of 433

Exhibit 42, the statement of retained earnings shows an increase in equity resulting from net income
and a decrease in equity resulting from dividends.

Acct.
no.

100
103
105
200
300
310
320
410
411
412
500
SOI
502
503
557
567

Account Titles

Cash
Accounts Receivable
Merchandise Inventory,
December 1
Accounts Payable
Capital Stock
Retained Earnings,
Decernl5er 1
Dividends
Sales
Sales Discounts
Sales Returns and
Allowances
Purchases
Purchases Discounts
Purchase Returns and
Allowances
Transportation-In
Miscellaneous Selling
Expenses
Miscellaneous
Administrative
Expenses

LYONS COMPANY
Worksheet
For the Month Ended 2010 December 31
Trial Balance

Adjustments

Adjusted Trial
Balance

Income
Statement

Debit

Debit

Debit

Debit

Credit

19,663
1,380
7,000

2,000
44
20
6,000

Credit

Credit

Credit

Statement of
Retained
Earnings
Debit
Credit

19,663
1,880
700
10,00
0
15,00
0
14,60
0

82
100

7,000

2,000
44
20
6,000

75
2,650

75
2,650

1,150
40,482 40,48
2

1,150
40,432

Net Income
Retained Earnings,
December 31

Balance
Sheet
Debit
19,653
1,880

700
10,00
0
15,00
0
14,60
0

82
100

7,000

8,000

8,000

15,000
14,600

2,000

44
20
6,000

32
100

75
2,650

1,150
40,48 16,939 22,782
2
5,843
5,343
22,732 22,782 2,000 20,343 29,543
18,S43
20,843 20,843 29,543

Exhibit 40: Work sheet for a merchandising company

p. 332 of 433

LYONS COMPANY
Income Statement
For the Month Ended 2010 December 31

Operating revenues:
Gross sales

$14,600

Less: Sales discounts

$ 44

Sales return and allowances

20

64

Net sales

$14,536

Cost of goods sold:

Merchandise inventory, 2010 January 1

$ 7,000

Purchases

$ 6,000

Less: Purchase discount

$ 82

Purchase returns and allowances

100 182

Net purchases

$5,818

Add: Transportation-in

75

Net cost of purchases

5,893

Cost of goods available for sale

$12,89
3
8,000

Less: Merchandise inventory, 2010 December 31

Cost of goods sold

4,893

Gross Margin

$ 9,643

Operating expenses:
Miscellaneous selling expense

$2,650

Miscellaneous administrative expense

1,150

Total operating expenses

3,800

Net income

$ 5,843

Exhibit 41: Income statement for a merchandising company

LYONS COMPANY
Statement of Retained Earnings
For the Month Ended 2010 December 31

Retained earnings, 2010 December 1

Add: Net income for the month
Total
Deduct: Dividends
Retained earnings, 2010 December 31

$15,000
5,843
$20,843
2,000
$18,843

Exhibit 42: Statement of retained earnings

p. 333 of 433

LYONS COMPANY
Balance Sheet 2010 December 31
Assets

Cash
Accounts receivable
Merchandise inventory
Total assets

$19,663
1,880
8,000
$29,543

Liabilities and Stockholders' Equity

Liabilities:
Accounts payable

$ 700

Stockholders' equity:
Capital stock
Retained earnings
Total stockholders' equity Total liabilities and
stockholders' equity

$ 10,000
18,843

28,843
$29,543

Exhibit 43: Balance sheet for a merchandising company

Balance sheet The balance sheet, Exhibit 43, contains the assets, liabilities, and stockholders'
equity items taken from the work sheet. Note the USD 8,000 ending inventory is a current asset. The
Retained Earnings account balance comes from the statement of retained earnings.
Recall from Chapter 4 that the closing process normally takes place after the accountant has
prepared the financial statements for the period. The closing process closes revenue and expense
accounts by transferring their balances to a clearing account called Income Summary and then to
Retained Earnings. The closing process reduces the revenue and expense account balances to zero so
that information for each accounting period may be accumulated separately.
Lyons's accountant would prepare closing entries directly from the work sheet in Exhibit 40 using
the same procedure presented in Chapter 4. The closing entries for Lyons Company follow.
The first journal entry debits all items appearing in the Income Statement credit column of the work
sheet and credits Income Summary for the total of the column, USD 22,782.
2010
Dec.
1st entry

31 Merchandise Inventory (ending)

Sales
Purchase Discounts
Purchase Returns and Allowances
Income Summary
To close accounts with a credit balance in the Income
Statement columns and to establish ending merchandise
inventory.

8,000
14,600
82
100
22,782

The second entry credits all items appearing in the Income Statement debit column and debits
Income Summary for the total of that column, USD 16,939.

p. 334 of 433

2010
Dec.

2nd entry

31 Income Summary
Merchandise Inventory (beginning)
Sales Discounts
Sales Returns and Allowance
Purchases
Transportation-In
Miscellaneous Selling Expenses
Miscellaneous Administrative Expenses
To close accounts with a debit balance in the Income
Statement columns.

16,939

7,000
44
20
6,000
75
2,650
1,150

The third entry closes the credit balance in the Income Summary account of USD 5,843 to the
Retained Earnings account.
2010
Dec.

5,843
31 Income Summary
Retained Earnings
To close the Income Summary account to the Retained
Earnings account.

5,843

The fourth entry closes the Dividends account balance of $2,000 to the Retained Earnings account
by debiting Retained Earnings and crediting Dividends.
2010
Dec.

2,000
31 Retained Earnings
Dividends
To close the Dividends account to the Retained Earnings
account.

2,000

Note how the first three closing entries tie into the totals in the Income Statement columns of the
work sheet in Exhibit 40. In the first closing journal entry, the credit to the Income Summary account
is equal to the total of the Income Statement credit column. In the second entry, the debit to the
Income Summary account is equal to the subtotal of the Income Statement debit column. The
difference between the totals of the two Income Statement columns (USD 5,843) represents net
income and is the amount of the third closing entry.

7.9.1 Demonstration problem

The following transactions occurred between Companies C and D in June 2010:
June 10 Company C purchased merchandise from Company D for USD 80,000; terms 2/10/EOM,
n/60, FOB destination, freight prepaid.
11 Company D paid freight of USD 1,200.

p. 335 of 433

14 Company C received an allowance of USD 4,000 from the gross selling price because of damaged
goods.
23 Company C returned USD 8,000 of goods purchased because they were not the quality ordered.
30 Company D received payment in full from Company C.
a. Journalize the transactions for Company C.
b. Journalize the transactions for Company D.

7.9.2 Solution to demonstration problem

a.
General Journal

Date
2010
June

Account Titles and Explanation

1
0

Post.
Ref.

Debit

Credit

Company C

Purchases
Accounts Payable

8 0 0 0 0
8 0 0 0 0

Purchased merchandise from Company D; terms

2/10/EOM, n/60
1
4

Accounts Payable

4 0 0 0

Purchase Return and Allowances

4 0 0 0

Received an allowance from Company D for damaged

goods.
2
3

Accounts Payable

8 0 0 0

Purchase Returns and Allowances

8 0 0 0

Returned merchandise to Company D because of

improper quality
3
0

Accounts Payable ($80,000 - $4,000 - $8,000)

Purchase Discounts ($68,000 x 0.02)
Cash ($68,000 - $1,360)

6 8 0 0 0
1 3 6 0
6 6 6 4 0

Paid the amount due to Company D.

b.

p. 336 of 433

General Journal

Date
2010
June

Account Titles and Explanation

1
0

Post.
Ref.

Debit

Credit

Company D

Accounts Receivable
Sales

8 0 0 0 0

8 0 0 0 0

Sold merchandise to Company C; terms 2/10/EOM,

n/60
1
1

Delivery Expense

1 2 0 0

Cash

1 2 0 0

Paid freight on sale of merchandise shipped FOB

destination,
freight prepaid.
1
4

Sales Returns and Allowances

4 0 0 0

Accounts Receivable

4 0 0 0

Granted an allowance to Company C for damaged

goods.
2
3

Sales Returns and Allowances

8 0 0 0

Accounts Receivable

8 0 0 0

Merchandise returned from Company C due to

improper quality.
3
0

Cash ($68,000 - $1,360)

Sales Discounts ($68,000 x 0.02)
Accounts Receivable ($80,000 - $4,000 - $8,000)

6 6 6 4 0
1 3 6 0
6 8 0 0 0

Received the amount due from Company C.

7.10 Key terms

Adjunct account Closely related to another account; its balance is added to the balance of the
related account in the financial statements.
Administrative expenses Expenses a company incurs in the overall management of a
business.
Cash discount A deduction from the invoice price that can be taken only if the invoice is paid
within a specified time. To the seller, it is a sales discount; to the buyer, it is a purchase discount.
Chain discount Occurs when the list price of a product is subject to a series of trade discounts.
Classified income statement Divides both revenues and expenses into operating and
nonoperating items. The statement also separates operating expenses into selling and
administrative expenses. Also called the multiple-step income statement.
Consigned goods Goods delivered to another party who attempts to sell the goods for the
owner at a commission.
Cost of goods available for sale Equal to beginning inventory plus net cost of purchases.

p. 337 of 433

Cost of goods sold Shows the cost to the seller of the goods sold to customers; under periodic
inventory procedure, cost of goods sold is computed as Beginning inventory + Net cost of
purchases - Ending inventory.
Delivery expense A selling expense recorded by the seller for freight costs incurred when
terms are FOB destination.
FOB destination Means free on board at destination; goods are shipped to their destination
without charge to the buyer; the seller is responsible for paying the freight charges.
FOB shipping point Means free on board at shipping point; buyer incurs all transportation
costs after the merchandise is loaded on a railroad car or truck at the point of shipment.
Freight collect Terms that require the buyer to pay the freight bill on arrival of the goods.
Freight prepaid Terms that indicate the seller has paid the freight bill at the time of shipment.
Gross margin or gross profit Net sales - Cost of goods sold; identifies the number of dollars
available to cover expenses other than cost of goods sold.
Gross margin percentage Gross margin divided by net sales.
Gross selling price (also called the invoice price) The list price less all trade discounts.
Income from operations Gross margin - Operating (selling and administrative) expenses.
Invoice A document prepared by the seller of merchandise and sent to the buyer. It contains
the details of a sale, such as the number of units sold, unit price, total price billed, terms of sale,
and manner of shipment. It is a purchase invoice from the buyer's point of view and a sales
invoice from the seller's point of view.
Manufacturers Companies that produce goods from raw materials and normally sell them to
wholesalers.
Merchandise in transit Merchandise in the hands of a freight company on the date of a
physical inventory.
Merchandise inventory The quantity of goods available for sale at any given time.
Net cost of purchases Net purchases + Transportation-in.
Net income Income from operations + Nonoperating revenues - Nonoperating expenses.
Net purchases Purchases - (Purchase discounts +Purchase returns and allowances).
Net sales Gross sales - (Sales discounts + Sales returns and allowances).
Nonoperating expenses (other expenses) Expenses incurred by a business that are not
related to the acquisition and sale of the products or services regularly offered for sale.
Nonoperating revenues (other revenues) Revenues not related to the sale of products or
services regularly offered for sale by a business.
Operating expenses Those expenses other than cost of goods sold incurred in the normal
business functions of a company.
Operating revenues Those revenues generated by the major activities of a business.
Passage of title A legal term used to indicate transfer of legal ownership of goods.
Periodic inventory procedure A method of accounting for merchandise acquired for sale to
customers wherein the cost of merchandise sold and the cost of merchandise on hand are
determined only at the end of the accounting period by taking a physical inventory.
Perpetual inventory procedure A method of accounting for merchandise acquired for sale
to customers wherein the Merchandise Inventory account is continuously updated to reflect

p. 338 of 433

items on hand; this account is debited for each purchase and credited for each sale so that the
current balance is shown in the account at all times.
Physical inventory Consists of counting physical units of each type of merchandise on hand.
Purchase discount See Cash discount.
Purchase Discounts account A contra account to Purchases that reduces the recorded gross
invoice cost of the purchase to the price actually paid.
Purchase Returns and Allowances account An account used under periodic inventory
procedure to record the cost of merchandise returned to a seller and to record reductions in
selling prices granted by a seller because merchandise was not satisfactory to a buyer; viewed as
a reduction in the recorded cost of purchases.
Purchases account An account used under periodic inventory procedure to record the cost of
goods or merchandise bought for resale during the current accounting period.
Retailers Companies that sell goods to final consumers.
Sales allowance A deduction from original invoiced sales price granted to a customer when
the customer keeps the merchandise but is dissatisfied for any of a number of reasons, including
inferior quality, damage, or deterioration in transit.
Sales discount See Cash discount.
Sales Discounts account A contra revenue account to Sales; it is shown as a deduction from
gross sales in the income statement.
Sales return From the seller's point of view, merchandise returned by a buyer for any of a
variety of reasons; to the buyer, a purchase return.
Sales Returns and Allowances account A contra revenue account to Sales used to record
the selling price of merchandise returned by buyers or reductions in selling prices granted.
Selling expenses Expenses a company incurs in selling and marketing efforts.
Trade discount A percentage deduction, or discount, from the specified list price or catalog
price of merchandise to arrive at the gross invoice price; granted to particular categories of
customers (e.g. retailers and wholesalers). Also see Chain discount.
Transportation-In account An account used under periodic inventory procedure to record
inward freight costs incurred in the acquisition of merchandise; a part of cost of goods sold.
Unclassified income statement Shows only major categories for revenues and expenses.
Also called the single-step income statement.
Wholesalers Companies that normally sell goods to other companies (retailers) for resale.

7.11 Self-test
7.11.1

True-false

Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.

o

To compute net sales, sales discounts are added to, and sales returns and allowances are
deducted from, gross sales.

Under perpetual inventory procedure, the Merchandise Inventory account is debited for
each purchase and credited for each sale.

p. 339 of 433

Purchase discounts and purchase returns and allowances are recorded in contra accounts to
the Purchases account.

In taking a physical inventory, consigned goods delivered to another party who attempts to
sell the goods are not included in the ending inventory of the company that sent the goods.

A classified income statement consists of only two categories of items, revenues and
expenses.

7.11.2

Multiple-choice

Select the best answer for each of the following questions.

A seller sold merchandise which has a list price of USD 4,000 on account, giving a trade discount of
20 per cent. The entry on the books of the seller is:
a. Accounts Receivable
Trade Discounts

3,200
800

Sales
b. Accounts Receivable

4,000
4,000

Sales
c.

4,000

Accounts Receivable

3,200

Trade Discounts

800

Sales
d. Accounts Receivable
Sales

4,000
3,200
3,200

X Company began the accounting period with USD 60,000 of merchandise, and net cost of
purchases was USD 240,000. A physical inventory showed USD 72,000 of merchandise unsold at the
end of the period. The cost of goods sold of Y Company for the period is:
a. USD 300,000.
b. USD 228,000.
c. USD 252,000.
d. USD 168,000.
e. None of the above.
A business purchased merchandise for USD 12,000 on account; terms are 2/10, n/30. If USD 2,000
of the merchandise was returned and the remaining amount due was paid within the discount period,
the purchase discount would be:
a. USD 240.
b. USD 200.
p. 340 of 433

c. USD 1,200.
d. USD 1,000.
e. USD 3,600.
A classified income statement consists of all of the following major sections except for:
a. Operating revenues.
b. Cost of goods sold.
c. Operating expenses.
d. Nonoperating revenues and expenses.
e. Current assets.
(Appendix) Closing entries for merchandise-related accounts include all of the following except for:
a. A credit to Sales Discounts.
b. A credit to Merchandise Inventory for the cost of ending inventory.
c. A debit to Purchase Discounts.
d. A credit to Transportation-In.
e. A debit to Sales.
Now turn to Answers to self-test at the end of the chapter to check your answers.

7.11.3

Questions
Which account titles are likely to appear in a merchandising company's ledger that do
not appear in the ledger of a service enterprise?

What entry is made to record a sale of merchandise on account under periodic inventory
procedure?

Describe trade discounts and chain discounts.

Sales discounts and sales returns and allowances are deducted from sales on the income
statement to arrive at net sales. Why not deduct these directly from the Sales account by
debiting Sales each time a sales discount, return, or allowance occurs?

What are the two basic procedures for accounting for inventory? How do these two
procedures differ?

What useful purpose does the Purchases account serve?

p. 341 of 433

What do the letters FOB stand for? When terms are FOB destination, who incurs the
cost of freight?

What type of an expense is delivery expense? Where is this expense reported in the
income statement?

Periodic inventory procedure is said to afford little control over inventory. Explain why.

How does the accountant arrive at the total dollar amount of the inventory after taking a
physical inventory?

How is cost of goods sold determined under periodic inventory procedure?

If the cost of goods available for sale and the cost of the ending inventory are known,
what other amount appearing on the income statement can be calculated?

What are the major sections in a classified income statement for a merchandising
company, and in what order do these sections appear?

What is gross margin? Why might management be interested in the percentage of gross
margin to net sales?

(Appendix) After closing entries are posted to the ledger, which types of accounts have
balances? Why?

The Limited, Inc. Based on the financial statements of The Limited in the Annual
Report Appendix, what were the 2000 operating expenses? For each of the three years
shown, what percentage of net sales were these expenses? Is the trend favorable or
unfavorable?

The Limited, Inc. Based on the financial statements of The Limited, Inc., in the
Annual Report Appendix, what were the 2000 cost of goods sold, occupancy, and buying
costs? For each of the three years shown, what percentage of net sales were these
expenses? Is the trend favorable or unfavorable?

7.11.4

Exercises

Exercise A In the following table, indicate how to increase or decrease (debit or credit) each
account, and indicate its normal balance (debit or credit).

Title of Account

Increased

Decreased

Normal

by

by

Balance

(debit

(debit

(debit

or credit)

or credit)

or credit)

Merchandise Inventory
Sales

p. 342 of 433

Sales Returns and Allowances

Sales Discounts
Accounts Receivable
Purchases
Purchase Returns and Allowances
Purchase Discounts
Accounts Payable
Transportation-In

Exercise B a. Silver Company purchased USD 56,000 of merchandise from Milton Company on
account. Before paying its account, Silver Company returned damaged merchandise with an invoice
price of USD 11,680. Assuming use of periodic inventory procedure, prepare entries on both
companies' books to record both the purchase/sale and the return.
b. Show how any of the required entries would change assuming that Milton Company granted an
allowance of USD 3,360 on the damaged goods instead of giving permission to return the merchandise.
Exercise C What is the last payment date on which the cash discount can be taken on goods sold
on March 5 for USD 51,200; terms 3/10/EOM, n/60? Assume that the bill is paid on this date and
prepare the correct entries on both the buyer's and seller's books to record the payment.
Exercise D You have purchased merchandise with a list price of USD 36,000. Because you are a
wholesaler, you are granted a trade discount of 49.6 per cent. The cash discount terms are 2/EOM,
n/60. How much will you remit if you pay the invoice by the end of the month of purchase? How much
will discounts on payment you remit if you do not pay the invoice until the following month?
Exercise E Lasky Company sold merchandise with a list price of USD 60,000 on July 1. For each
of the following independent assumptions, calculate (1) the gross selling price used to record the sale
and (2) the amount that the buyer would have to remit when paying the invoice.
Trade Discount
Granted
a. 30%, 20%
b. 40%, 10%
c. 30%, 10%, 5%
d. 40%

Credit
Terms

Date
Paid

2/10, n/30
2/EOM, n/60
3/10/EOM, n/60
1/10, n/30

July 10
August 10
August 10
July 12

Exercise F Raiser Company purchased goods at a gross selling price of USD 2,400 on August 1.
Discount terms of 2/10, n/30 were available. For each of the following independent situations,
p. 343 of 433

determine (1) the cash discount available on the final payment and (2) the amount paid if payment is
made within the discount period.
Purchase
Transportation
Terms
a. FOB shipping point
b. FOB destination
c. FOB shipping point
d. FOB destination

Freight
Paid (by)

Allowance
Granted

$240 (buyer)
120 (seller)
180 (seller)
192 (buyer)

$480
240
720
120

Exercise G Stuart Company purchased goods for USD 84,000 on June 14, under the following
terms: 3/10, n/ 30; FOB shipping point, freight collect. The bill for the freight was paid on June 15,
USD 1,200.
a. Assume that the invoice was paid on June 24, and prepare all entries required on Stuart
Company's books.
b. Assume that the invoice was paid on July 11. Prepare the entry to record the payment made on
that date.
Exercise H Cramer Company uses periodic inventory procedure. Determine the cost of goods sold
for the company assuming purchases during the period were USD 40,000, transportation-in was USD
300, purchase returns and allowances were USD 1,000, beginning inventory was USD 25,000,
purchase discounts were USD 2,000, and ending inventory was USD 13,000.
Exercise I In each case, use the following information to calculate the missing information:
Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Gross sales
Sales discounts
Sales returns and allowances
Net sales

$ 640,000
?
19,200
608,000

$?
25,600
44,800
1,209,600

$?
19,200
32,000

Merchandise inventory, January 1

256,000

Purchases

384,000

768,000

Purchase discounts
Purchase returns and allowances
Net purchases

7,680
24,320
352,000

13,440
31,360

12,800
32,000
672,000

Transportation-in
Net cost of purchases
Cost of goods available for sale
Merchandise inventory, December 31
Cost of goods sold
Gross margin

25,600
377,600
?
?
320,000

38,400
761,600
1,081,600
384,000
?
512,000

32,000
?
1,088,000
448,000
640,000
320,000

384,000

p. 344 of 433

Exercise J In each of the following equations supply the missing term(s):

a. Net sales = Gross sales - (______________________ + Sales returns and allowances).
b. Cost of goods sold = Beginning inventory + Net cost of purchases - ________ ________.
c. Gross margin = ________ ________ - Cost of goods sold.
d. Income from operations = __________ _________ - Operating expenses.
e. Net income = Income from operations + _________ ________ - ________ ________.
Exercise K Given the balances in this partial trial balance, indicate how the balances would be
treated in the work sheet. The ending inventory is USD 96. (The amounts are unusually small for ease
in rewriting the numbers. We purposely left out the Statement of Retained Earnings columns since
they are not used.)
Accounts Titles

Trial Balance
Debit
Credit

Adjustments
Debit

Credit

Adjusted
Trial Balance
Debit
Credit

Income Statement
Debit
Credit

Balance Sheet
Debit
Credit

Merchandise
Inventory

120

Sales

S40

Sales Discounts

18

Sales Returns
and Allowances

45

Purchases

600

Purchase
Discounts

12

Purchase Returns
and Allowances
Transportation-In

24
36

Exercise L Using the data in the previous exercise prepare closing entries for the preceding
accounts. Do not close the Income Summary account.

7.11.5

Problems

Problem A

a. Spencer Sporting Goods Company engaged in the following transactions in April

2010:
Apr. 1 Sold merchandise on account for USD 288,000; terms 2/10, n/30, FOB shipping point,
freight collect.
5 USD 43,200 of the goods sold on account on April 1 were returned for a full credit. Payment
for these goods had not yet been received.

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8 A sales allowance of USD 5,760 was granted on the merchandise sold on April 1 because the
merchandise was damaged in shipment.
10 Payment was received for the net amount due from the sale of April 1.
b. High Stereo Company engaged in the following transactions in July 2010.
July 2 Purchased stereo merchandise on account at a cost of USD 43,200; terms 2/10, n/30,
FOB destination, freight prepaid.
15 Sold merchandise for USD 64,800, terms 2/10, n/30, FOB destination, freight prepaid.
16 Paid freight costs on the merchandise sold, USD 2,160.
20 High Stereo Company was granted an allowance of USD 2,880 on the purchase of July 2
because of damaged merchandise.
31 Paid the amount due on the purchase of July 2.
Prepare journal entries to record the transactions.
Problem B Mars Musical Instrument Company and Tiger Company engaged in the following
transactions with each other during July 2010:
July 2 Mars Musical Instrument Company purchased merchandise on account with a list price of
USD 48,000 from Tiger Company. The terms were 3/EOM, n/60, FOB shipping point, freight
collect. Trade discounts of 15 per cent, 10 per cent, and 5 per cent were granted by Tiger Company.
5 The buyer paid the freight bill on the purchase of July 2, USD 1,104.
6 The buyer returned damaged merchandise with an invoice price of USD 2,790 to the seller and
received full credit.
On the last day of the discount period, the buyer paid the seller for the merchandise.
Prepare all the necessary journal entries for the buyer and the seller.
Problem C The following data for June 2010 are for Rusk Company's first month of operations:
June 1 Rusk Company was organized, and the stockholders invested USD 1,008,000 cash, USD
336,000 of merchandise inventory, and a USD 288,000 plot of land in exchange for capital stock.
4 Merchandise was purchased for cash, USD 432,000; FOB shipping point, freight collect.
9 Cash of USD 10,080 was paid to a trucking company for delivery of the merchandise
purchased June 4.
13 The company sold merchandise on account, USD 288,000; terms 2/10, n/ 30.
15 The company sold merchandise on account, USD 230,400; terms 2/10, n/30.
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16 Of the merchandise sold June 13, USD 31,680 was returned for credit.
20 Salaries for services received were paid as follows: to office employees, USD 31,680; to
salespersons, USD 83,520.
22 The company collected the amount due on the remaining USD 256,320 of accounts receivable
arising from the sale of June 13.
24 The company purchased merchandise on account at a cost of USD 345,600; terms 2/10,
n/30, FOB shipping point, freight collect.
26 The company returned USD 57,600 of the merchandise purchased June 24 to the vendor for
credit.
27 A trucking company was paid USD 7,200 for delivery to Rusk Company of the goods
purchased June 24.
29 The company sold merchandise on account, USD 384,000; terms 2/10, n/30.
30 Sold merchandise for cash, USD 172,800.
30 Payment was received for the sale of June 15.
30 Paid store rent for June, USD 43,200.
30 Paid the amount due on the purchase of June 24.
The inventory on hand at the close of business June 30 was USD 672,000 at cost.
a. Prepare journal entries for the transactions.
b. Post the journal entries to the proper ledger accounts. Use the account numbers in the chart of
accounts shown in a separate file at the end of the text. Assume that all postings are from page 20 of
the general journal.
c. Prepare a trial balance as of 2010 June 30.
d. Prepare a classified income statement for the month ended 2010 June 30. No adjusting
entries are needed.
Problem D The Western Wear Company, a wholesaler of western wear clothing, sells to retailers.
The company entered into the following transactions in May 2010:
May 1 The Western Wear Company was organized as a corporation. The stockholders purchased
stock at par for the following assets in the business: USD 462,000 cash, USD 168,000 merchandise,
and USD 105,000 land.
1 Paid rent on administrative offices for May, USD 25,200.
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5 The company purchased merchandise from Carl Company on account, USD 189,000; terms
2/10, n/30. Freight terms were FOB shipping point, freight collect.
8 Cash of USD 8,400 was paid to a trucking company for delivery of the merchandise purchased
May 5.
14 The company sold merchandise on account, USD 315,000; terms 2/10, n/30.
15 Paid Carl Company the amount due on the purchase of May 5.
16 Of the merchandise sold May 14, USD 13,860 was returned for credit.
19 Salaries for services received were paid for May as follows: office employees, USD 16,800;
salespersons, USD 33,600.
24 The company collected the amount due on USD 126,000 of the accounts receivable arising
from the sale of May 14.
25 The company purchased merchandise on account from Bond Company, USD 151,200; terms
2/10, n/30. Freight terms were FOB shipping point, freight collect.
27 Of the merchandise purchased May 25, USD 25,200 was returned to the vendor.
28 A trucking company was paid USD 2,100 for delivery to The Western Wear Company of the
goods purchased May 25.
29 The company sold merchandise on open account, USD 15,120; terms 2/10, n/30.
30 Cash sales were USD 74,088.
30 Cash of USD 100,800 was received from the sale of May 14.
31 Paid Bond Company for the merchandise purchased on May 25, taking into consideration the
merchandise returned on May 27.
The inventory on hand at the close of business on May 31 is USD 299,040.
From the data given for The Western Wear Company:
a. Prepare journal entries for the transactions.
b. Post the journal entries to the proper ledger accounts. Use the account numbers in the chart of
accounts shown in a separate file at the end of the text. Assume that all postings are from page 15 of
the general journal.
(There were no adjusting journal entries.)
c. Prepare a trial balance.
d. Prepare a classified income statement for the month ended 2010 May 31.
e. Prepare a classified balance sheet as of 2010 May 31.

p. 348 of 433

Problem E The following data are for Leone Lumber Company:

LEONE LUMBER COMPANY
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Acct.
No.

Account Title

Debits

100
103
105
107
108
112
170
171
200
300
310
410
412
418
500
502
503
505
508
509
510
511
536
540
567

Cash
Accounts Receivable
Merchandise Inventory, 2010 January 1
Supplies on Hand
Prepaid Insurance
Prepaid Rent
Equipment
Accumulated DepreciationEquipment
Accounts Payable
Capital Stock
Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1
Sales
Sales Returns and Allowances
Interest Revenue
Purchases
Purchases Returns and Allowances
Transportation-In
Advertising Expense
Sales Salaries Expense
Office Salaries Expense
Officers' Salaries Expense
Utilities Expense
Legal and Accounting Expense
Interest Expense
Miscellaneous Administrative Expense

$ 70,640
159,520
285,200
5,360
4,800
57,600
88,000

5,160
$ 500,840
$7,840
78,000
138,400
80,800
160,000
4,800
10,000
600
9,880
$1,667,440

Credits

$ 17,600
102,800
200,000
219,640
1,122,360
$ 1,000
$4,040

$1,667,440

A total of USD 3,400 of the prepaid insurance has expired.

An inventory of supplies showed that USD 1,700 are still on hand.
Prepaid rent expired during the year is USD 50,600.
Depreciation expense on store equipment is USD 8,800.
Accrued sales salaries are USD 4,000.
Accrued office salaries are USD 3,000.
Merchandise inventory on hand is USD 350,000.

Prepare the following:

a. A work sheet for the year ended 2010 December 31. Refer to the chart of accounts shown in a
separate file at the end of the text for any other account numbers you need.
b. A classified income statement. The only selling expenses are sales salaries, advertising, supplies,
and depreciation expenseequipment.
c. A statement of retained earnings.
d. A classified balance sheet.

p. 349 of 433

e. Required closing entries.

7.11.6

Alternate problems

Alternate problem A
a. Candle Carpet Company engaged in the following transactions in August 2010:
Aug. 2 Sold merchandise on account for USD 300,000; terms 2/10, n/30, FOB shipping point,
freight collect.
18 Received payment for the sale of August 2.
20 A total of USD 10,000 of the merchandise sold on August 2 was returned, and a full
refund was made because it was the wrong merchandise.
28 An allowance of USD 16,000 was granted on the sale of August 2 because some
merchandise was found to be damaged; USD 16,000 cash was returned to the customer.
b. Lee Furniture Company engaged in the following transactions in August 2010:
Aug. 4 Purchased merchandise on account at a cost of USD 140,000; terms 2/10, n/30, FOB
shipping point, freight collect.
6 Paid freight of USD 2,000 on the purchase of August 4.
10 Sold goods for USD 100,000; terms 2/10, n/30.
12 Returned USD 24,000 of the merchandise purchased on August 4.
14 Paid the amount due on the purchase of August 4.
Prepare journal entries for the transactions.
Alternate problem B Edwardo Auto Parts Company and Spoon Company engaged in the
following transactions with each other during August 2010:
Aug.15 Edwardo Auto Parts Company purchased merchandise on account with a list price of
USD 192,000 from Spoon Company. Trade discounts of 20 per cent and 10 per cent were allowed.
Terms were 2/10, n/30, FOB destination, freight prepaid.
16 The seller paid the freight charges, USD 2,400.
17 The buyer requested an allowance of USD 4,512 against the amount due because the goods
were damaged in transit.
20 The seller granted the allowance requested on August 17.
The buyer paid the amount due on the last day of the discount period. Record all of the entries
required on the books of both the buyer and the seller.
p. 350 of 433

Alternate problem C Gardner Company engaged in the following transactions in June 2010, the
company's first month of operations:
June 1 Stockholders invested USD 384,000 cash and USD 144,000 of merchandise inventory in the
business in exchange for capital stock.
3 Merchandise was purchased on account, USD 192,000; terms 2/10, n/30, FOB shipping point,
freight collect.
4 Paid height on the June 3 purchase, USD 5,280.
7 Merchandise was purchased on account, USD 96,000; terms 2/10, n/30, FOB destination, freight
prepaid.
10 Sold merchandise on account, USD 230,400; terms 2/10, n/30, FOB shipping point, freight
collect.
11 Returned USD 28,800 of the merchandise purchased on June 3.
12 Paid the amount due on the purchase of June 3.
13 Sold merchandise on account, USD 240,000; terms 2/10, n/30, FOB destination, height prepaid.
14 Paid height on sale of June 13, USD 14,400.
20 Paid the amount due on the purchase of June 7.
21 USD 48,000 of the goods sold on June 13 were returned for credit.
22 Received the amount due on sale of June 13.
25 Received the amount due on sale of June 10.
29 Paid rent for the administration building for June, USD 19,200.
30 Paid sales salaries of USD 57,600 for June.
30 Purchased merchandise on account, USD 48,000; terms 2/10, n/30, FOB destination, freight
prepaid.
The inventory on hand on June 30 was USD 288,000.
a. Prepare journal entries for the transactions.
b. Post the journal entries to the proper ledger accounts. Use the account numbers in the chart of
accounts shown in a separate file at the end of the text. Assume that all postings are from page 10 of the
general journal.
c. Prepare a trial balance as of 2010 June 30.
d. Prepare a classified income statement for the month ended 2010 June 30. No adjusting entries
are needed.
p. 351 of 433

Alternate problem D Organized on 2010 May 1, Noah Cabinet Company engaged in the
following transactions:
May 1 The stockholders invested USD 900,000 in this new business by purchasing capital stock.
1 Purchased merchandise on account from String Company, USD 46,800; terms n/60, FOB
shipping point, freight collect.
3 Sold merchandise for cash, USD 28,800.
6 Paid transportation charges on May 1 purchase, USD 1,440 cash.
7 Returned USD 3,600 of merchandise to String Company due to improper size.
10 Requested and received an allowance of USD 1,800 from String Company for improper quality of
certain items.
14 Sold merchandise on account to Texas Company, USD 18,000; terms 2/20, n/30, FOB shipping
point, freight collect.
16 Issued cash refund for return of merchandise relating to sale made on May 3, USD 180.
18 Purchased merchandise on account from Tan Company invoiced at USD 28,800; terms 2/15,
n/30, FOB shipping point, freight collect.
18 Received a bill for freight charges of USD 900 from Ball Trucking Company on the purchase
from Tan Company.
19 Texas Company returned USD 360 of merchandise purchased on May 14.
24 Returned USD 2,880 of defective merchandise to Tan Company. Received full credit.
28 Texas Company remitted balance due on sale of May 14.
31 Paid Tan Company for the purchase of May 18 after adjusting for transaction of May 24.
31 Paid miscellaneous selling expenses of USD 7,200.
31 Paid miscellaneous administrative expenses of USD 10,800.
The May 31st inventory is USD 57,600.
From the data for Noah Cabinet Company:
a. Journalize the transactions. Round all amounts to the nearest dollar.
b. Post the entries to the proper ledger accounts. Use the account numbers appearing in the chart of
account shown in a separate file at the end of the text. Assume all postings are from page 5 of the
general journal.
(There were no adjusting journal entries.)
p. 352 of 433

c. Prepare a trial balance.

d. Prepare a classified income statement for the month ended 2010 May 31.
Alternate problem E
The following data are for Bayer Lamp Company:
Bayer Lamp Company
Trial Balance
2010 December 31
Acct.

Account Title

Debits

Credits

100

Cash

$ 228,800

103

Accounts Receivable

193,200

105

Merchandise Inventory, 2010 January 1

166,400

108

Prepaid Insurance

11,600

130

Land

240,000

140

Building

440,000

141

Accumulated Depreciation Building

174

Store Fixtures

175

Accumulated Depreciation Store Fixtures

44,480

200

Accounts Payable

151,600

300

Capital Stock

400,000

310

Retained Earnings, 2010 January 1

480,720

410

Sales

411

Sales Discounts

14,800

412

Sales Returns and Allowances

8,000

418

Interest Revenue

500

Purchases

501

Purchases Discounts

502

Purchases Returns and Allowances

503

Transportation-In

29,200

505

Advertising Expense

48,000

508

Sales Salaries Expense

256,000

509

Office Salaries Expense

296,000

519

Delivery Expense

18,400

540

Interest Expense

8,000

No.

$ 132,000
222,400

2,206,000

1,600
1,251,600
10,400
5,600

$ 3,432,400

$ 3,432,400

Depreciation expense on the store building is USD 8,800.

Depreciation expense on the store fixtures is USD 22,240.
Accrued sales salaries are USD 5,600.
Insurance expired in 2010 is USD 10,000.
Cost of merchandise inventory on hand 2010 December 31, is USD 222,000.

p. 353 of 433

Prepare the following:

a. A work sheet for the year ended 2010 December 31. Refer to the chart of accounts shown in a
separate file at the end of the text for any other account numbers you need.
b. A classified income statement. The only administrative expenses are office salaries and
insurance. The building depreciation is on the store building.
c. A statement of retained earnings.
d. A classified balance sheet.
e. The required closing entries.

7.11.7

Beyond the numbersCritical thinking

Business decision case A Candy's Shirts, Inc., has an opportunity to purchase 40,000 shirts
with the logo of her favorite school in January 2009. Candy, who is not currently in business, is
considering buying these shirts and then renting a display cart from which to sell these shirts (called a
kiosk) in a shopping mall. Based on the following information and estimates, Candy needs to decide if
the business would be profitable:
Cost of the 40,000 shirts, all of which must be purchased in January 2009, is USD 440,000.
Candy thinks it would take two years to sell all of the shirts. She estimates her sales at 25,000

shirts in 2009 and 15,000 shirts in 2010.

Rent of the kiosk would be USD 1,500 per month in 2009 and USD 1,600 per month in 2010.
Candy can buy some counters on which to display the merchandise for USD 4,000. She could

sell the counters for USD 500 at the end of the second year.
Candy estimates the cost to decorate her kiosk would be USD 2,500.
Candy would hire employees and pay them USD 1 per shirt sold.
Candy plans to sell the shirts for USD 17 each.
Candy and her husband purchased USD 100,000 of capital stock in the business. Therefore, she

plans to borrow USD 400,000 from their family banker. Interest expense on this loan will be USD
52,000 in 2009 and USD 6,500 in 2010. Candy plans to repay USD 300,000 on 2010 January 2,
and the remaining USD 100,000 on 2010 July 1
Candy needs to rent some storage space because all 40,000 shirts cannot be stored at the kiosk.

Storage space costs USD 2,500 per year.

a. Prepare estimated income statements for 2009 and 2010 for Candy's business. Does it appear
that the business will be profitable?
p. 354 of 433

b. Will Candy have the cash available to pay the bank loan as she planned?
Business decision case B In the Annual report appendix, refer to the consolidated statements of
earnings for The Limited's most recent three years. Calculate the gross margin percentage and write an
explanation of what the results mean for each of the three years.
Annual report analysis C Refer to the consolidated statements of income of The Limited in the
Annual report appendix. Identify the 2000, 1999, and 1998 net sales; cost of goods sold; gross profit;
selling, administrative, and general expenses; and operating income. Do the results present a favorable
trend? Comment on the results.
Ethics case Writing experience D Based on the ethics case related to World Auto Parts
Corporation, respond in writing to the following questions:
a. Do you agree that the total impact of this practice could be as much as USD 10 million?
b. Are the small suppliers probably better off going along with the practice?
c. Is this practice ethical?
Group project E In teams of two or three students, go to the library (or find an annual report at
www.sec.gov/edgar.shtml) to locate one merchandising company's annual report for the most recent
year. Calculate the company's gross margin percentage for each of the most recent three years. As a
team, write a memorandum to the instructor showing your calculations and commenting on the
results. The heading of the memorandum should contain the date, to whom it is written, from whom,
and the subject matter.
Group project F In a team of two or three students, contact a variety of businesses in your area
and inquire as to the types of sales discount terms they offer to credit customers and the types of
purchase discount terms they are offered by their suppliers. Calculate the approximate annual rate of
interest implied in several of the more common discount terms. For instance, the book states that the
implied annual rate of interest on terms of 2/10, n/30 is 36 per cent, assuming we use a 360-day year.
Present your findings in a written report to your instructor.
Group project G In a team of two or three students, obtain access to several annual reports of
companies in different industries (see www.sec.gov/edgar.shtml.) Examine their income statements

p. 355 of 433

and identify differences in their formats. Discuss these differences within your group and then present
your findings in a report to your instructor.

7.11.8

Using the InternetA view of the real world

Visit the Fat Brains Toys website at:

http://fatbraintoys.com website
Browse around the site for interesting information. What products do they sell? What journal
entries would they make to record sales of these products? Write a report to your instructor
summarizing your experience at this site.

7.11.9

Answers to self-test

True-false
False. Sales discounts, as well as sales returns and allowances, are deducted from gross sales.
True. Under perpetual inventory procedure, the Merchandise Inventory account is debited for each
purchase and credited for each sale.
True. Purchase Discounts and Purchase Returns and Allowances are contra accounts to the
Purchases account. The balances of those accounts are deducted from purchases to arrive at net
purchases.
False. Consigned goods delivered to another party for attempted sale are included in the ending
inventory of the company that sent the goods.
False. An unclassified income statement, not a classified income statement, has only two categories
of items.
Multiple-choice
d. Trade discounts are not recorded on the books of either a buyer or a seller. In other words, the
invoice price of sales (purchases) is recorded: USD4,000 X0.8=USD3,200
b. The cost of goods sold is computed as follows:
Beginning inventory
Net cost of purchases
Cost of goods available for sale
Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold

$60,000
240,000
$ 300,000
72,000
$228,000

b. Purchase discounts are based on invoice prices less purchase returns and allowances, if any.

p. 356 of 433

e. All of the sections mentioned in (a-d) appear in a classified income statement. Current assets
appear on a classified balance sheet.
b. Merchandise Inventory is debited for the cost of ending inventory.

You may close debit balanced accounts (in the income statement) before credit balanced
accounts. This practice does not affect the balance of the Income Summary account or the
amount of net income.

p. 357 of 433

8 Measuring and reporting inventories

8.1 Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Explain and calculate the effects of inventory errors on certain financial statement items.

Indicate which costs are properly included in inventory.

Calculate cost of ending inventory and cost of goods sold under the four major inventory

costing methods using periodic and perpetual inventory procedures.

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the four major inventory costing methods.

Record merchandise transactions under perpetual inventory procedure.

Apply net realizable value and the lower-of-cost-or-market method of inventory.

Estimate cost of ending inventory using the gross margin and retail inventory methods.

Analyze and use the financial results- inventory turnover ratio.

8.2 Choosing an accounting career

Chapter 7 discusses how companies have a choice in inventory cost methods between specific
identification, FIFO, LIFO, and weighted-average. Similarly, one of the greatest benefits of obtaining
an accounting degree is the broad range of career choices available. There are over 40 different types of
accounting jobs available in public accounting, private industry, and governmental accounting. For
example,

check

out

the

list

of

accounting

jobs

at:

http://www.uncwil.edu/stuaff/career/Majors/accounting.htm#related careertitles.
One of the primary reasons many students go into accounting is successful job placement.
Accounting majors have been better able to find positions than majors in any of the other business
options, with the possible exception of management information systems (MIS). Even the relative
demand for MIS majors has diminished recently, while the demand for accounting majors remains
strong. We are currently experiencing a shortage of accounting majors across the nation. Another
important factor to keep in mind regarding job placement is where you would like to be three to five
years from now. Accounting offers an excellent foundation with opportunities for advancement,
whereby many accounting graduates make double their entry-level salary in only five years.
Many students pursue an accounting degree because it does not restrict their career opportunities
as much as having a different business degree. For example, with an accounting degree, a student can
p. 358 of 433

apply for positions in management, marketing, and finance, as well as accounting. In fact, many
recruiters in business favor accounting graduates because they recognize an accounting degree as a
more difficult business degree to obtain. However, management, marketing, and finance students
cannot apply for accounting positions because they lack necessary accounting coursework. In fact, with
some additional courses in systems, an accounting major is well equipped to pursue a career in any
business field including information systems.
Have you ever taken advantage of a pre-inventory sale at your favorite retail store? Many stores
offer bargain prices to reduce the merchandise on hand and to minimize the time and expense of
taking the inventory. A smaller inventory also enhances the probability of taking an accurate inventory
since the store has less merchandise to count. From Chapter 6 you know that companies use inventory
amounts to determine the cost of goods sold; this major expense affects a merchandising company's
net income. In this chapter, you learn how important inventories are in preparing an accurate income
statement, statement of retained earnings, and balance sheet.
This chapter discusses merchandise inventory carried by merchandising retailers and wholesalers.
Merchandise inventory is the quantity of goods held by a merchandising company for resale to
customers. Merchandising companies determine the quantity of inventory items by a physical count.
The merchandise inventory figure used by accountants depends on the quantity of inventory items
and the cost of the items. This chapter discusses four accepted methods of costing the items: (1)
specific identification; (2) first-in, first-out (FIFO); (3) last-in, first-out (LIFO); and (4) weightedaverage. Each method has advantages and disadvantages.
This chapter stresses the importance of having accurate inventory figures and the serious
consequences of using inaccurate inventory figures. When you finish this chapter, you should
understand how taking inventory connects with the cost of goods sold figure on the store's income
statement, the retained earnings amount on the statement of retained earnings, and both the inventory
figure and the retained earnings amount on the store's balance sheet.

8.3 Inventories and cost of goods sold

Inventory is often the largest and most important asset owned by a merchandising business. The
inventory of some companies, like car dealerships or jewelry stores, may cost several times more than
any other asset the company owns. As an asset, the inventory figure has a direct impact on reporting
the solvency of the company in the balance sheet. As a factor in determining cost of goods sold, the
inventory figure has a direct impact on the profitability of the company's operations as reported in the
income statement. Thus, the importance of the inventory figure should not be underestimated.
p. 359 of 433

8.4 Importance of proper inventory valuation

A merchandising company can prepare accurate income statements, statements of retained
earnings, and balance sheets only if its inventory is correctly valued. On the income statement, a
company using periodic inventory procedure takes a physical inventory to determine the cost of goods
sold. Since the cost of goods sold figure affects the company's net income, it also affects the balance of
retained earnings on the statement of retained earnings. On the balance sheet, incorrect inventory
amounts affect both the reported ending inventory and retained earnings. Inventories appear on the
balance sheet under the heading "Current Assets", which reports current assets in a descending order
of liquidity. Because inventories are consumed or converted into cash within a year or one operating
cycle, whichever is longer, inventories usually follow cash and receivables on the balance sheet.
Recall that under periodic inventory procedure we determine the cost of goods sold figure by adding
the beginning inventory to the net cost of purchases and deducting the ending inventory. In each
accounting period, the appropriate expenses must be matched with the revenues of that period to
determine the net income. Applied to inventory, matching involves determining (1) how much of the
cost of goods available for sale during the period should be deducted from current revenues and (2)
how much should be allocated to goods on hand and thus carried forward as an asset ( merchandise
inventory) in the balance sheet to be matched against future revenues. Because we determine the cost
of goods sold by deducting the ending inventory from the cost of goods available for sale, a highly
significant relationship exists: Net income for an accounting period depends directly on the valuation
of ending inventory. This relationship involves three items:
First, a merchandising company must be sure that it has properly valued its ending inventory. If the
ending inventory is overstated, cost of goods sold is understated, resulting in an overstatement of gross
margin and net income. Also, overstatement of ending inventory causes current assets, total assets, and
retained earnings to be overstated. Thus, any change in the calculation of ending inventory is reflected,
dollar for dollar (ignoring any income tax effects), in net income, current assets, total assets, and
retained earnings.
Second, when a company misstates its ending inventory in the current year, the company carries
forward that misstatement into the next year. This misstatement occurs because the ending inventory
amount of the current year is the beginning inventory amount for the next year.
Third, an error in one period's ending inventory automatically causes an error in net income in the
opposite direction in the next period. After two years, however, the error washes out, and assets and
retained earnings are properly stated.

p. 360 of 433

Exhibit 44 and Exhibit 45 prove that net income for an accounting period depends directly on the
valuation of the inventory. Allen Company's income statements and the statements of retained
earnings for years 2009 and 2010 show this relationship.
ALLEN COMPANY

Income Statement
Sales
Cost of goods available for sale
Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold
Gross margin
Other expenses
Net income
Statement of Retained Earnings
Beginning retained earnings
Net income
Ending retained earnings

For Year Ended 2009 December 31

Ending Inventory
Ending Inventory
Overstated
Correctly Stated
By $5,000
$400,000
$400,000
$300,000
$300,000
35,000
40,000
265,000
260,000
$135,000
$140,000
$85,000
85,000
$ 50,000
$55,000
$120,000
50,000
$170,000

$120,000
55,000
$175,000

Exhibit 44: Effects of an overstated ending inventory

ALLEN COMPANY

Income Statement
Sales
Beginning inventory
Purchases
Cost of goods available for sale
Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold
Gross margin
Other expenses
Net income
Statement of Retained Earnings
Beginning retained earnings
Net income
Ending retained earnings

For Year Ended 2010 December 31

Beginning
Beginning
Inventory
Inventory
Overstated
Correctly Stated
By $5,000
$425,000
$425,000
$ 35,000
$40,000
290,000
290,000
$325,000
$330,000
45,000
45,000
280,000
285,000
$145,000
$140,000
53,500
53,500
$ 91,500
$ 86,500
$170,000
91,500
$261,500

$175,000
86,500
$261,500

Exhibit 45: Effects of an overstated beginning inventory

In Exhibit 44 the correctly stated ending inventory for the year 2009 is USD 35,000. As a result,
Allen has a gross margin of USD 135,000 and net income of USD 50,000. The statement of retained
earnings shows a beginning retained earnings of USD 120,000 and an ending retained earnings of USD
170,000. When the ending inventory is overstated by USD 5,000, as shown on the right in Exhibit 44,
the gross margin is USD 140,000, and net income is USD 55,000. The statement of retained earnings
p. 361 of 433

then has an ending retained earnings of USD 175,000. The ending inventory overstatement of USD
5,000 causes a USD 5,000 overstatement of net income and a USD 5,000 overstatement of retained
earnings. The balance sheet would show both an overstated inventory and an overstated retained
earnings. Due to the error in ending inventory, both the stockholders and creditors may overestimate
the profitability of the business.
Exhibit 45 is a continuation of Exhibit 44 and contains Allen's operating results for the year ended
2010 December 31. Note that the ending inventory in Exhibit 44 now becomes the beginning inventory
of Exhibit 45. However, Allen's inventory at 2010 December 31, is now an accurate inventory of USD
45,000. As a result, the gross margin in the income statement with the beginning inventory correctly
stated is USD 145,000, and Allen Company has net income of USD 91,500 and an ending retained
earnings of USD 261,500. In the income statement columns at the right, in which the beginning
inventory is overstated by USD 5,000, the gross margin is USD 140,000 and net income is USD
86,500, with the ending retained earnings also at USD 261,500.
Thus, in contrast to an overstated ending inventory, resulting in an overstatement of net income, an
overstated beginning inventory results in an understatement of net income. If the beginning inventory
is overstated, then cost of goods available for sale and cost of goods sold also are overstated.
Consequently, gross margin and net income are understated. Note, however, that when net income in
the second year is closed to retained earnings, the retained earnings account is stated at its proper
amount. The overstatement of net income in the first year is offset by the understatement of net
income in the second year. For the two years combined the net income is correct. At the end of the
second year, the balance sheet contains the correct amounts for both inventory and retained earnings.
Exhibit 46 summarizes the effects of errors of inventory valuation:
Ending Inventory

Beginning Inventory

Understated

Overstated

Understated

Overstated

Cost of good sold

Overstated

Understated

Understated

Overstated

Net income

Understated

Overstated

Overstated

Understated

Exhibit 46: Inventory errors

8.5 Determining inventory cost

To place the proper valuation on inventory, a business must answer the question: Which costs
should be included in inventory cost? Then, when the business purchases identical goods at different

p. 362 of 433

costs, it must answer the question: Which cost should be assigned to the items sold? In this section,
you learn how accountants answer these questions.
The costs included in inventory depend on two variables: quantity and price. To arrive at a current
inventory figure, companies must begin with an accurate physical count of inventory items. They
multiply the quantity of inventory by the unit cost to compute the cost of ending inventory. This section
discusses the taking of a physical inventory and the methods of costing the physical inventory under
both perpetual and periodic inventory procedures. The remainder of the chapter discusses departures
from the cost basis of inventory measurement.
As briefly described in Chapter 6, to take a physical inventory, a company must count, weigh,
measure, or estimate the physical quantities of the goods on hand. For example, a clothing store may
count its suits; a hardware store may weigh bolts, washers, and nails; a gasoline company may measure
gasoline in storage tanks; and a lumberyard may estimate quantities of lumber, coal, or other bulky
materials. Throughout the taking of a physical inventory, the goal should be accuracy.
Taking a physical inventory may disrupt the normal operations of a business. Thus, the count
should be administered as quickly and as efficiently as possible. The actual taking of the inventory is
not an accounting function; however, accountants often plan and coordinate the count. Proper forms
are required to record accurate counts and determine totals. Identification names or symbols must be
chosen, and those persons who count, weigh, or measure the inventory items must know these
symbols.
Inventory Tag
JMA Corp.
Inventory Tag No. 281

Date

Description
Location
Quantity Counted
Counted by
Checked by
Duplicate Inventory Tag
Inventory Tag No. 281

Date

Description
Location
Quantity Counted
Counted by
Checked by

p. 363 of 433

Exhibit 47: Inventory tag

Taking a physical inventory often involves using inventory tags, such as that in Exhibit 47. These
tags are consecutively numbered for control purposes. A tag usually consists of a stub and a detachable
duplicate section. The duplicate section facilitates checking discrepancies. The format of the tags can
vary. However, the tag usually provides space for (1) a detailed description and identification of
inventory items by product, class, and model; (2) location of items; (3) quantity of items on hand; and
(4) initials of the counters and checkers.
The descriptive information and count may be entered on one copy of the tag by one team of
counters. Another team of counters may record its count on the duplicate copy of the tag.
Discrepancies between counts of the same items by different teams are reconciled by supervisors, and
the correct counts are assembled on intermediate inventory sheets. Only when the inventory counts are
completed and checked does management send the final sheets to the accounting department for
pricing and extensions (quantity X price). The tabulated result is the dollar amount of the physical
inventory. Later in the chapter we explain the different methods accountants use to cost inventory.
Usually, inventory cost includes all the necessary outlays to obtain the goods, get the goods ready to
sell, and have the goods in the desired location for sale to customers. Thus, inventory cost includes:
Seller's invoice price less any purchase discount.
Cost of the buyer's insurance to cover the goods while in transit.
Transportation charges when borne by the buyer.
Handling costs, such as the cost of pressing clothes wrinkled during shipment.

In theory, the cost of each unit of inventory should include its net invoice price plus its share of
other costs incurred in shipment. The 1986 Tax Reform Act requires companies to assign these costs to
inventory for tax purposes. For accounting purposes, these cost assignments are recommended but not
required.
Practical difficulties arise in allocating some of these costs to inventory items. Assume, for example,
that the freight bill on a shipment of clothes does not separate out the cost of shipping one shirt. Also,
assume that the company wants to include the freight cost as part of the inventory cost of the shirt.
Then, the freight cost would have to be allocated to each unit because it cannot be measured directly.
In practice, allocations of freight, insurance, and handling costs to the individual units of inventory
purchased are often not worth the additional cost. Consequently, in the past many companies have not
assigned the costs of freight, insurance, and handling to inventory. Instead, they have expensed these
costs as incurred. When companies omit these costs from both beginning and ending inventories, they
p. 364 of 433

minimize the effect of expensing these costs on net income. The required allocation for tax purposes
has probably resulted in many companies using the same inventory amounts in their financial
statements.
Even if a company derives a cost for each unit in inventory, the inventory valuation problem is not
solved. Management must consider two other aspects of the problem:
If goods were purchased at varying unit costs, how should the cost of goods available for sale

be allocated between the units sold and those that remain in inventory? For example, assume
Hi-Fi Buys, Inc., purchased two identical DVD players for resale. One cost USD 250 and the
other, USD 200. If one was sold during the period, should Hi-Fi Buys assign it a cost of USD
250, USD 200, or an average cost of USD 225?
Does the fact that current replacement costs are less than the costs of some units in inventory

have any bearing on the amount at which inventory should be carried? Using the same
example, if Hi-Fi Buys can currently buy all DVD players for USD 200, is it reasonable to carry
some units in inventory at USD 250 rather than USD 200?
We answer these questions in the next section.
Generally companies should account for inventories at historical cost; that is, the cost at which the
items were purchased. However, this rule does not indicate how to assign costs to ending inventory and
to cost of goods sold when the goods have been purchased at different unit costs. For example, suppose
a retailer has three shirts on hand. One costs USD 20; another, USD 22; and a third, USD 24. If the
retailer sells two shirts for USD 30 each, what is the cost of the two shirts sold?
Accountants developed these four inventory costing methods to solve costing problems: (1) specific
identification; (2) first-in, first-out (FIFO); (3) last-in, first-out (LIFO); and (4) weighted-average.
Before explaining the inventory costing methods, we briefly introduce perpetual inventory procedure
and compare periodic and perpetual inventory procedures.
In Chapter 6, the emphasis was on periodic inventory procedure. Under periodic inventory
procedure, firms debit the Purchases account when goods are acquired; they use other accounts, such
as Purchase Discounts, Purchase Returns and Allowances, and Transportation-In, for purchase-related
transactions. Companies determine cost of goods sold only at the end of the period as the difference
between cost of goods available for sale and ending inventory. They keep no records of the cost of items
as they are sold, and have no information on possible inventory shortages. They assume any goods not
in ending inventory have been sold.

p. 365 of 433

Item

TV-96874

Location

Maximum

26

Minimum

Purchased
2008
Date

Sold

Unit
Units Cost

Total
Cost

10

$3,000

Units

Unit
Cost

Balance
Total
Cost

Beg. inv.
July 5

$300

7
12

12
10

315

320

$3,600

3,150

22

24

$300

300

1,800

315

630

2,560

Units

Unit
Cost

Total
Cost

$300

$2,400

18

300

5,400

300

1,800

300

1,800

10

315

3,150

315
315

2,520
2,520

320

2,560

Exhibit 48: Perpetual inventory record (FIFO method)

The availability of inventory management software packages is causing more and more businesses
to change from periodic to perpetual inventory procedure. Under perpetual inventory procedure,
companies have no Purchases and purchase-related accounts. Instead, they make all entries involving
merchandise purchased for sale to customers directly in the Merchandise Inventory account. Thus,
they debit or credit Merchandise Inventory in place of debiting or crediting Purchases, Purchase
Discounts, Purchase Returns and Allowances, and Transportation-In. At the time of each sale, firms
make two entries: the first debits Accounts Receivable or Cash and credits Sales at the retail selling
price. The second debits Cost of Goods Sold and credits Merchandise Inventory at cost. Therefore, at
the end of the period the Merchandise Inventory account shows the cost of the inventory that should be
on hand. Comparison of this amount with the cost obtained by taking and pricing a physical inventory
may reveal inventory shortages. Thus, perpetual inventory procedure is an important element in
providing internal control over goods in inventory.
Perpetual inventory records Even though companies could apply perpetual inventory
procedure manually, tracking units and dollars in and out of inventory is much easier using a
computer. Both manual and computer processing maintain a record for each item in inventory. Look at
Exhibit 48, an inventory record for Entertainment World, a firm that sells many different brands of
television sets. This inventory record shows the information on one particular brand and model of
television set carried in inventory. Other information on the record includes (1) the maximum and
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minimum number of units the company wishes to stock at any time, (2) when and how many units
were acquired and at what cost, and (3) when and how many units were sold and what cost was
assigned to cost of goods sold. The number of units on hand and their cost are readily available also.
Entertainment World assumes that the first units acquired are the first units sold. This assumption is
the first-in, first-out (FIFO) method of inventory costing; we will discuss it later.

An accounting perspective: Uses of technology

Keeping track of inventories under a perpetual inventory system is much more costeffective with computers. Under a manual system, the cost of an up-to-date inventory
for stores with high turnover would outweigh the benefit. Most retail stores use
scanning devices to read the inventory numbers of products purchased at the cash
register. These bar codes not only provide accurate sales prices but also record the
merchandise sold so that the total cost of the store's inventory is up to date.

The following comparison reveals several differences between accounting for inventories under
periodic and perpetual procedures. We explain these differences by using data from Exhibit 48 and
making additional assumptions. Later, we discuss other journal entries under perpetual inventory
procedure.
These entries record the purchase on July 5 under each of the methods:
Periodic Procedure
Purchases (+A)
Accounts Payable (+L)

3,000
3,000

Perpetual Procedure
Merchandise Inventory (+A) 3,000
Accounts Payable (+L)
3,000

Assuming the merchandise sold on July 7 was priced at USD 4,800, these entries record the sale:
Periodic Procedure
Accounts Receivable (+A)
Sales (+SE)

4,800

4,800

Perpetual Procedure
Accounts Receivable (+A) 4,800
Sales (+SE)
4,800
Cost of Goods Sold (-SE)
3,600
Merchandise Inventory(-A)
3,600

Several other transactions not included in Exhibit 48 could occur:

Assume that two of the units purchased on July 5 were returned to the supplier because they

were defective. The entries would be:

p. 367 of 433

Periodic Procedure
Accounts Payable
Purchase
Returns and
Allowances

600
600

Perpetual Procedure
Accounts Payable
Merchandise
Inventory

600
600

Assume that the supplier instead granted an allowance of USD 600 to the company because

of the defective merchandise. The entries would be:

Periodic Procedure
Accounts Payable (-L)
Purchase
Returns and
Allowances (-A)

Perpetual Procedure
Accounts Payable (-L)
Merchandise
Inventory (-A)

600

600
600

600

Assume that the company incurred and paid freight charges of USD 100 on the purchase of

July 5. The entries would be:

Periodic Procedure
Transportation-In (+A)
Cash (-A)

100
100

Perpetual Procedure
Merchandise Inventory
(+A)
Cash (-A)

100
100

In these entries, notice that under perpetual inventory procedure the Merchandise Inventory
account records purchases, purchase returns and allowances, purchase discounts, and transportationin. Also, when goods are sold, the seller debits (increases) Cost of Goods Sold and credits or reduces
Merchandise Inventory.
At the end of the accounting period, under perpetual inventory procedure, the only merchandiserelated expense account to be closed is Cost of Goods Sold. The Purchases, Purchase Returns and
Allowances, Purchase Discounts, and Transportation-In accounts do not even exist.

p. 368 of 433

Beginning Inventory and Purchases

Sales

Unit

Total

Date

Units

Cost

Cost

Date

Units

Price

Total

Beginning
inventory

10

$8.00

$ 80

March 10

10

$12.00

$120

March 2

10

8.50

85

July 14

20

12.00

240

May 28

20

8.40

168

September 7

10

14.00

140

August 12

10

9.00

90

November 22

20

14.00

280

October 12

20

8.80

176

December 21

10

9.10

91

80

$690

60

$780

Ending inventory = 20 units, determined By taking a physical inventory.

Exhibit 49: Beginning inventory, purchases and sales

An accounting perspective: Business insight

When you buy a box of breakfast cereal at the supermarket, the cashier scans the bar
code on the box. The name of the item and the price appear on a video display that you
can see. The information is also printed on the sales slip so that you can later compare
the items paid for with the items received. But this is not the end of the story. The
information is also fed to the store's computer to update the inventory records. The
information is included with other information and is used to order more merchandise
from the warehouse so the items can be replenished in the store. At a certain point, the
company also uses the reduced inventory levels to order more merchandise from
suppliers, such as wholesalers that supply the region with breakfast cereals and other
goods. The paperwork for the purchase and payment are often handled electronically
through a process called electronic data interchange (EDI) and electronic funds
transfer (EFT).

Using the data for purchases, sales, and beginning inventory in Exhibit 49, next we explain the four
inventory costing methods. Except for the specific identification method, we first present all of the
methods using periodic inventory procedure and then present all of the methods using perpetual
inventory procedure. Total goods available for sale consist of 80 units with a total cost of USD 690. A
physical inventory determined that 20 units are on hand at the end of the period. Sales revenue for the

p. 369 of 433

60 units sold was USD 780. The questions to be answered are: What is the cost of the 20 units in
inventory? What is the cost of the 60 units sold?
Specific identification The specific identification method of inventory costing attaches the
actual cost to an identifiable unit of product. Firms find this method easy to apply when purchasing
and selling large inventory items such as autos. Under the specific identification method, the firm must
identify each unit in inventory, unless it is unique, with a serial number or identification tag.
To illustrate, assume that the company in Exhibit 49 can identify the 20 units on hand at year-end
as 10 units from the August 12 purchase and 10 units from the December 21 purchase. The company
computes the ending inventory as shown in Exhibit 50; it subtracts the USD 181 ending inventory cost
from the USD 690 cost of goods available for sale to obtain the USD 509 cost of goods sold. Note that
you can also determine the cost of goods sold for the year by recording the cost of each unit sold. The
USD 509 cost of goods sold is an expense on the income statement, and the USD 181 ending inventory
is a current asset on the balance sheet.
The specific identification costing method attaches cost to an identifiable unit of inventory. The
method does not involve any assumptions about the flow of the costs as in the other inventory costing
methods. Conceptually, the method matches the cost to the physical flow of the inventory and
eliminates the emphasis on the timing of the cost determination. Therefore, periodic and perpetual
inventory procedures produce the same results for the specific identification method.

Ending inventory composed of purchases made on:

August 12
December 21
Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold composed of:
Beginning inventory
Purchases made on:
March 2
May 28
October 12
Cost of goods available for sale
Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold

Units

Unit
Cost

Total
Cost

10
10
20

$ 9.00
9.10

$ 90
91
$181

10

8.00

$ 80

10
20
20

8.50
8.40
8.80

85
168
176
$509
$690
181
$509

Exhibit 50: Determining ending inventory under specific identification

FIFO (first-in, first-out) under periodic inventory procedure The FIFO (first-in, firstout) method of inventory costing assumes that the costs of the first goods purchased are those charged

p. 370 of 433

to cost of goods sold when the company actually sells goods. This method assumes the first goods
purchased are the first goods sold. In some companies, the first units in (bought) must be the first units
out (sold) to avoid large losses from spoilage. Such items as fresh dairy products, fruits, and vegetables
should be sold on a FIFO basis. In these cases, an assumed first-in, first-out flow corresponds with the
actual physical flow of goods.
Because a company using FIFO assumes the older units are sold first and the newer units are still
on hand, the ending inventory consists of the most recent purchases. When using periodic inventory
procedure, to determine the cost of the ending inventory at the end of the period under FIFO, you
would begin by listing the cost of the most recent purchase. If the ending inventory contains more units
than acquired in the most recent purchase, it also includes units from the next-to-the-latest purchase
at the unit cost incurred, and so on. You would list these units from the latest purchases until that
number agrees with the units in the ending inventory.
In Exhibit 51, you can see how to determine the cost of ending inventory under FIFO using periodic
inventory procedure. The company assumes that the 20 units in inventory consist of 10 units
purchased December 21 and 10 units purchased October 12. The total cost of ending inventory is USD
179, and the cost of goods sold is USD 511.
We show the relationship between the cost of goods sold and the cost of ending inventory under
FIFO using periodic inventory procedure in Exhibit 52. The 80 units in cost of goods available for sale
consists of the beginning inventory and all of the purchases during the period. Under FIFO, the ending
inventory of 20 units consists of the most recent purchases10 units of the December 21 purchase and
10 units of the October 12 purchasecosting USD 179. We assume the beginning inventory and other
earlier purchases have been sold during the period, representing the cost of goods sold of USD 511.

p. 371 of 433

Ending inventory composed of purchases made on:

December 21
October 12
Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold composed of:
Beginning inventory
Purchases made on:
March 2
May 28
August 12
October 12
Cost of goods available for sale
Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold

Unit
Cost

Total
Cost

10
10
20

$9.10
8.80

$ 91
88
$179

10

8.00

$ 80

10
20
10
10

8.50
8.40
9.00
8.80

85
168
90
88
$511

Units

$690
179
$511

Exhibit 51: Determining FIFO cost of ending inventory under periodic inventory procedure

Exhibit 52: FIFO flow of costs

LIFO (last-in, first-out) under periodic inventory procedure The LIFO (last-in, firstout) method of inventory costing assumes that the costs of the most recent purchases are the first
costs charged to cost of goods sold when the company actually sells the goods.
In Exhibit 53, we show the use of LIFO under periodic inventory procedure. Since the company
charges the latest costs to cost of goods sold under periodic inventory procedure, the ending inventory
always consists of the oldest costs. Therefore, when determining the cost of inventory under periodic

p. 372 of 433

inventory procedure, the company lists the oldest units and their costs. The first units listed are those
in beginning inventory, then the first purchase, and so on, until the number listed agrees with the units
in ending inventory. Thus, ending inventory in Exhibit 53 consists of the 10 units from beginning
inventory and the 10 units purchased on March 2. The total cost of these 20 units, USD 165, is the
ending inventory cost; the cost of goods sold is USD 525. Exhibit 54 is a graphic representation of the
LIFO flow of costs under periodic inventory procedure.

Ending inventory composed of:

Beginning inventory
March 2 purchase
Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold composed of purchases made on:
December 21
October 12
August 12
May 28

Units

Unit
Cost

Total
Cost

10
10
20

$8.00
8.50

$ 80
85
$165

10
20
10
20

9.10
8.80
9.00
8.40

$ 91
176
90
168
$525
$690
165
$525

Cost of goods available for sale

Ending inventory
Cost of goods sold

Exhibit 53: Determining LIFO cost of ending inventory under periodic inventory procedure

Exhibit 54: LIFO flow of costs under periodic inventory procedure

p. 373 of 433

Weighted-average under periodic inventory procedure The weighted-average method

of inventory costing is a means of costing ending inventory using a weighted-average unit cost.
Companies most often use the weighted-average method to determine a cost for units that are basically
the same, such as identical games in a toy store or identical electrical tools in a hardware store. Since
the units are alike, firms can assign the same unit cost to them.
Under periodic inventory procedure, a company determines the average cost at the end of the
accounting period by dividing the total units purchased plus those in beginning inventory into total
cost of goods available for sale. The ending inventory is carried at this per unit cost. To see how a
company uses the weighted-average method to determine inventory costs using periodic inventory
procedure, look at Exhibit 55. Note that we compute weighted-average cost per unit by dividing the
cost of units available for sale, USD 690, by the total number of units available for sale, 80. Thus, the
weighted-average cost per unit is USD 8.625, meaning that each unit sold or remaining in inventory is
valued at USD 8.625.

Beginning inventory
Purchases
March 2
May 28
August 12
October 12
December 21
Total
Weighted-average unit cost is
$690 / 80, or $8.625
Ending inventory then is $8.625 x 20
Cost of goods sold:
$8.625 x 60

Units
10
10
20
10
20
10
80

Unit
Cost
$8.00

Total
Cost
$ 80.00

8.50
8.40
9.00
8.80
9.10

85.00
168.00
90.00
176.00
91.00
$690.00
172.50
$517.50

Exhibit 55: Determining ending inventory under weighted-average method using periodic inventory
procedure

p. 374 of 433

Purchased

Sold

Unit Total
Date

Units

Cost Cost

10

$8.50 $85

Units

Balance

Unit

Total

Cost

Cost

Beg. inv.
Mar. 2

Mar. 10
May 28

10
20

10

8.50

(B)85

10

8.40

(C)85

10
20

10

8.40

(D)84

8.80 176

Nov. 22

Dec 21

10

9.00 90

Sept. 7
Oct. 12

(A)$80

8.40 168

July 14

Aug. 12

$8.00

9.10 91

10

9.00

(E)90

10

8.80

(F)88

Unit

Total

Units

Cost

Cost

10

$8.00

80

10(A)

8.00

80

10

8.50

85

10

8.50

85

10(B)

8.50

85

20(C)

8.40

168

10

8.40

84

10(D)

8.40

84

10

9.00

90

10

9.00

90

10(E)

9.00

90

20(F)

8.80

176

10

8.80

88

10

8.80

88

10

9.10

91

Total cost of ending inventory =

Sales are assumed to be

from the oldest units on
hand

Total of $179 would agree

with balance already
existing in Merchandise
Inventory account.

$179

Exhibit 56: Determining FIFO cost of ending inventory under perpetual inventory procedure
FIFO under perpetual inventory procedure Under perpetual inventory procedure, the ending
balance in the Merchandise Inventory account reflects the most recent purchases as a result of making
the required entries during the period. Also, the firm has already recorded the cost of goods sold in the
Cost of Goods Sold account. Exhibit 56 shows how to determine the cost of ending inventory under
FIFO using perpetual inventory procedure. This illustration uses the same format as the earlier
perpetual inventory record in Exhibit 48. The company keeps a record of the balance in the inventory
account as it makes purchases and sells items from inventory.

p. 375 of 433

Purchased

Sold

Date
Beg. inv.

Units

Unit
Cost

Total
Cost

Mar. 2

10

$8.50

$85

Mar. 10
May 28

10
20

8.40

20
10

9.00

10
20

8.80

20
10

9.10

85

8.40

168

9.00

90

176

Nov. 22
Dec. 21

$8.50

Total
Cost

90

Sept. 7
Oct. 12

Unit
Cost

168

July 14
Aug.12

Units

Balance

8.80

91

176

Units

Unit
Cost
$8.00

Total
Cost
80

10
10

8.00
8.50

80
85

10

8.00

80

10
20

8.00
8.40

80
168

10

8.00

80

10
10

8.00
9.00

80
90

10

8.00

80

10
20

8.00
8.80

80
176

10

8.00

80

10
10

8.00
9.10

80
91

Total cost of ending inventory =

Sales are assumed

to be from most
recent purchases

Total of $171
would agree with
balance already
existing in
Merchandise
Inventory account.

$171

Exhibit 57: Determining LIFO cost of ending inventory under perpetual inventory procedure
Notice in Exhibit 56 that each time a sale occurs, the company assumes the items sold are the oldest
on hand. Thus, after each transaction, it can readily determine the balance in the Merchandise
Inventory account from the perpetual inventory record. The balance after the December 21 purchase
represents the 20 units from the most recent purchases. The total cost of ending inventory is USD 179,
which the company reports as a current asset on the balance sheet. During the accounting period, as
sales occurred the firm would have debited a total of USD 511 to Cost of Goods Sold. Adding this USD
511 to the ending inventory of USD 179 accounts for the USD 690 cost of goods available for sale.
Under FIFO, using either perpetual or periodic inventory procedures results in the same total amounts
for ending inventory and for cost of goods sold.
LIFO under perpetual inventory procedure Look at Exhibit 57 to see the LIFO method using
perpetual inventory procedure. Under this procedure, the inventory composition and balance are
updated with each purchase and sale. Notice in Exhibit 57 that each time a sale occurs, the items sold
are assumed to be the most recent ones acquired. Despite numerous purchases and sales during the

p. 376 of 433

year, the ending inventory still includes the 10 units from beginning inventory in our example. The
remainder of the ending inventory consists of the last purchase because no sale occurred after the
December 21 purchase. The total cost of the 20 units in ending inventory is USD 171; the cost of goods
sold is USD 519. Exhibit 58 shows graphically the LIFO flow of costs under perpetual inventory
procedure.
Applying LIFO on a perpetual basis during the accounting period, as shown in Exhibit 57, results in
different ending inventory and cost of goods sold figures than applying LIFO only at year-end using
periodic inventory procedure. (Compare Exhibit 57 and Exhibit 53 to verify that ending inventory and
cost of goods sold are different under the two procedures.) For this reason, if LIFO is applied on a
perpetual basis during the period, special adjustments are sometimes necessary at year-end to take full
advantage of using LIFO for tax purposes. Complicated applications of LIFO perpetual inventory
procedures that require such adjustments are beyond the scope of this text.

Exhibit 58: LIFO flow of costs under perpetual inventory procedure

p. 377 of 433

Purchased

Sold

Date
Beg. inv.

Units

Unit
Cost

Total
Cost

Mar. 2

10

$8.50

$85

Mar. 10
May 28

10
20

8.40

20
10

9.00

10
20

8.80

8.35

8.675

8.758
10

9.10

$82.50

167.00

86.75

176

Nov. 22
Dec 21

$8.25

Total
Cost

90

Sept. 7
Oct. 12

Unit
Cost

168

July 14
Aug. 12

Units

Balance

91

175.17

Units
10

Unit
Cost
$8.00

Total Cost
80.00

20

8.25aA

165.00

10

8.25

82.80

30

8.35b

250.50

10

8.35

83.50

20

8.675c

173.50

10

8.675

86.75

30

8.758 c

262.75

10

8.758

87.58

20

$8.929e

$178.58C

a$165.00/2 = $8.25. b$250.50/30 = $8.35. c$173.50/20 = $8.675. d$262.75/30 = $8.758.

0
= $8.929 * rounding difference.
e$175.58/2
0
A

A new unit cost is calculated after each purchase. BThe unit cost of sales is the most recently calculated cost. C Balance
of $178.58 would agree with balance already existing in the Merchandise Inventory account.

Exhibit 59: Determining ending inventory under weighted-average method using perpetual
inventory procedure
Look at Exhibit 58 and Exhibit 54, the flow of inventory costs under LIFO using both the perpetual
and periodic inventory procedures. Note that ending inventory and cost of goods sold are different
under the two procedures.
Weighted-average under perpetual inventory procedure Under perpetual inventory
procedure, firms compute a new weighted-average unit cost after each purchase by dividing total cost
of goods available for sale by total units available for sale. The unit cost is a moving weighted-average
because it changes after each purchase. In Exhibit 59, you can see how to compute the moving
weighted-average using perpetual inventory procedure. The new weighted-average unit cost computed
after each purchase is the unit cost for inventory items sold until a new purchase is made. The unit cost
of the 20 units in ending inventory is USD 8.929 for a total inventory cost of USD 178.58. Cost of goods
sold under this procedure is USD 690 minus the USD 178.58, or USD 511.42.

p. 378 of 433

Advantages and disadvantages of specific identification Companies that use the specific
identification method of inventory costing state their cost of goods sold and ending inventory at the
actual cost of specific units sold and on hand. Some accountants argue that this method provides the
most precise matching of costs and revenues and is, therefore, the most theoretically sound method.
This statement is true for some one-of-a-kind items, such as autos or real estate. For these items, use of
any other method would seem illogical.
One disadvantage of the specific identification method is that it permits the manipulation of
income. For example, assume that a company bought three identical units of a given product at
different prices. One unit cost USD 2,000, the second cost USD 2,100, and the third cost USD 2,200.
The company sold one unit for USD 2,800. The units are alike, so the customer does not care which of
the identical units the company ships. However, the gross margin on the sale could be either USD 800,
USD 700, or USD 600, depending on which unit the company ships.
Advantages and disadvantages of FIFO The FIFO method has four major advantages: (1) it is
easy to apply, (2) the assumed flow of costs corresponds with the normal physical flow of goods, (3) no
manipulation of income is possible, and (4) the balance sheet amount for inventory is likely to
approximate the current market value. All the advantages of FIFO occur because when a company sells
goods, the first costs it removes from inventory are the oldest unit costs. A company cannot manipulate
income by choosing which unit to ship because the cost of a unit sold is not determined by a serial
number. Instead, the cost attached to the unit sold is always the oldest cost. Under FIFO, purchases at
the end of the period have no effect on cost of goods sold or net income.
The disadvantages of FIFO include (1) the recognition of paper profits and (2) a heavier tax burden
if used for tax purposes in periods of inflation. We discuss these disadvantages later as advantages of
LIFO.
Advantages and disadvantages of LIFO The advantages of the LIFO method are based on the
fact that prices have risen almost constantly for decades. LIFO supporters claim this upward trend in
prices leads to inventory, or paper, profits if the FIFO method is used. Inventory, or paper, profits
are equal to the current replacement cost of a unit of inventory at the time of sale minus the unit's
historical cost.
For example, assume a company has three units of a product on hand, each purchased at a different
cost: USD 12, USD 15, and USD 20 (the most recent cost). The sales price of the unit normally rises
because the unit's replacement cost is rising. Assume that the company sells one unit for USD 30. FIFO
gross margin would be USD 18 (USD 30 USD 12), while LIFO would show a gross margin of USD 10
(USD 30 USD 20). LIFO supporters would say that the extra USD 8 gross margin shown under FIFO
p. 379 of 433

represents inventory (paper) profit; it is merely the additional amount that the company must spend
over cost of goods sold to purchase another unit of inventory (USD 8 + USD 12 = USD 20). Thus, the
profit is not real; it exists only on paper. The company cannot distribute the USD 8 to owners, but must
retain it to continue handling that particular product. LIFO shows the actual profits that the company
can distribute to the owners while still replenishing inventory.
During periods of inflation, LIFO shows the largest cost of goods sold of any of the costing methods
because the newest costs charged to cost of goods sold are also the highest costs. The larger the cost of
goods sold, the smaller the net income.
Those who favor LIFO argue that its use leads to a better matching of costs and revenues than the
other methods. When a company uses LIFO, the income statement reports both sales revenue and cost
of goods sold in current dollars. The resulting gross margin is a better indicator of management's
ability to generate income than gross margin computed using FIFO, which may include substantial
inventory (paper) profits.
Supporters of FIFO argue that LIFO (1) matches the cost of goods not sold against revenues, (2)
grossly understates inventory, and (3) permits income manipulation.
The first criticismthat LIFO matches the cost of goods not sold against revenuesis an extension
of the debate over whether the assumed flow of costs should agree with the physical flow of goods.
LIFO supporters contend that it makes more sense to match current costs against current revenues
than to worry about matching costs for the physical flow of goods.
The second criticismthat LIFO grossly understates inventoryis valid. A company may report
LIFO inventory at a fraction of its current replacement cost, especially if the historical costs are from
several decades ago. LIFO supporters contend that the increased usefulness of the income statement
more than offsets the negative effect of this undervaluation of inventory on the balance sheet.
The third criticismthat LIFO permits income manipulationis also valid. Income manipulation is
possible under LIFO. For example, assume that management wishes to reduce income. The company
could purchase an abnormal amount of goods at current high prices near the end of the current period,
with the purpose of selling the goods in the next period. Under LIFO, these higher costs are charged to
cost of goods sold in the current period, resulting in a substantial decline in reported net income. To
obtain higher income, management could delay making the normal amount of purchases until the next
period and thus include some of the older, lower costs in cost of goods sold.
Tax benefit of LIFO The LIFO method results in the lowest taxable income, and thus the lowest
income taxes, when prices are rising. The Internal Revenue Service allows companies to use LIFO for
tax purposes only if they use LIFO for financial reporting purposes. Companies may also report an
p. 380 of 433

alternative inventory amount in the notes to their financial statements for comparison purposes.
Because of high inflation during the 1970s, many companies switched from FIFO to LIFO for tax
advantages.
Advantages and disadvantages of weighted-average When a company uses the weightedaverage method and prices are rising, its cost of goods sold is less than that obtained under LIFO, but
more than that obtained under FIFO. Inventory is not as badly understated as under LIFO, but it is not
as up-to-date as under FIFO. Weighted-average costing takes a middle-of-the-road approach. A
company can manipulate income under the weighted-average costing method by buying or failing to
buy goods near year-end. However, the averaging process reduces the effects of buying or not buying.
The four inventory costing methods, specific identification, FIFO, LIFO, and weighted-average,
involve assumptions about how costs flow through a business. In some instances, assumed cost flows
may correspond with the actual physical flow of goods. For example, fresh meats and dairy products
must flow in a FIFO manner to avoid spoilage losses. In contrast, firms use coal stacked in a pile in a
LIFO manner because the newest units purchased are unloaded on top of the pile and sold first.
Gasoline held in a tank is a good example of an inventory that has an average physical flow. As the tank
is refilled, the new gasoline mixes with the old. Thus, any amount used is a blend of the old gas with the
new.
Although physical flows are sometimes cited as support for an inventory method, accountants now
recognize that an inventory method's assumed cost flows need not necessarily correspond with the
actual physical flow of the goods. In fact, good reasons exist for simply ignoring physical flows and
choosing an inventory method based on other criteria.
In Exhibit 60 and Exhibit 61, we use data from Exhibit 49 to show the cost of goods sold, inventory
cost, and gross margin for each of the four basic costing methods using perpetual and periodic
inventory procedures. The differences for the four methods occur because the company paid different
prices for goods purchased. No differences would occur if purchase prices were constant. Since a
company's purchase prices are seldom constant, inventory costing method affects cost of goods sold,
inventory cost, gross margin, and net income. Therefore, companies must disclose on their financial
statements which inventory costing methods were used.
Which is the correct method? All four methods of inventory costing are acceptable; no single
method is the only correct method. Different methods are attractive under different conditions.
If a company wants to match sales revenue with current cost of goods sold, it would use LIFO. If a
company seeks to reduce its income taxes in a period of rising prices, it would also use LIFO. On the

p. 381 of 433

other hand, LIFO often charges against revenues the cost of goods not actually sold. Also, LIFO may
allow the company to manipulate net income by changing the timing of additional purchases.
The FIFO and specific identification methods result in a more precise matching of historical cost
with revenue. However, FIFO can give rise to paper profits, while specific identification can give rise to
income manipulation. The weighted-average method also allows manipulation of income. Only under
FIFO is the manipulation of net income not possible.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

Management decides which inventory costing method or methods (LIFO, FIFO, etc.)
to use. Also, management must determine which method is the most meaningful and
useful in representing economic results. Then, it must use the selected method
consistently.
The principal business of Kellwood Company is the marketing, merchandising, and
manufacturing of apparel, primarily for women. Note in the following footnote from
Kellwood's financial statements that it, like other companies, uses several costing
methods within the same enterprise:
Summary of significant accounting policies
3. Inventories and revenue recognition
Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or market. The first-in, first-out (FIFO)
method is used to determine the value of 46 per cent of the domestic inventories, and
the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method is used to value the remaining domestic
inventories. Inventories of foreign subsidiaries are valued using the specific
identification method. Sales are recognized when goods are shipped.

Generally, companies use the inventory method that best fits their individual circumstances.
However, this freedom of choice does not include changing inventory methods every year or so,
especially if the goal is to report higher income. Continuous switching of methods violates the
accounting principle of consistency, which requires using the same accounting methods from period to
period in preparing financial statements. Consistency of methods in preparing financial statements
enables financial statement users to compare statements of a company from period to period and
determine trends.

p. 382 of 433

Specific
Identification
$780.00

Sales
Cost of goods sold:
Beginning inventory
$ 80.00
Purchases
610.00
Cost of goods available for sale $690.00
Ending inventory
181.00
Cost of goods sold
$509.00
Gross Margin
$271.00

FIFO
$780.00

LIFO
$780.00

WeightedAverage
$780.00

$ 80.00
610.00
$690.00
179.00
$511.00
$269.00

$ 80.00
610.00
$690.00
171.00
$519.00
$261.00

$ 80.00
610.00
$690.00
178.58
$511.42
$268.58

Exhibit 60: Effects of different inventory costing methods using perpetual inventory procedure
Specific
Identification
$780.00

Sales
Cost of goods sold:
Beginning inventory
$ 80.00
Purchases
610.00
Cost of goods available for sale $690.00
Ending inventory
181.00
Cost of goods sold
$509.00
Gross Margin
$271.00

FIFO
$780.00

LIFO
$780.00

WeightedAverage
$780.00

$ 80.00
610.00
$690.00
179.00
$511.00
$269.00

$ 80.00
610.00
$690.00
165.00
$525.00
$255.00

$ 80.00
610.00
$690.00
172.50
$517.50
$262.50

Exhibit 61: Effects of different inventory costing methods using periodic inventory procedure

p. 383 of 433

An accounting perspective: Business insight

Sometimes, companies change inventory methods in spite of the principle of
consistency. Improved financial reporting is the only justification for a change in
inventory method. A company that changes its inventory method must make a full
disclosure of the change. Usually, the company makes a full disclosure in a footnote to
the financial statements. The footnote consists of a complete description of the change,
the reasons why the change was made, and, if possible, the effect of the change on net
income.
J. M. Tull Industries, Inc., sells a diverse range of metals (aluminum, brass, copper,
steel, stainless steel, and nickel alloys) for severe corrosion conditions and hightemperature applications. For example, when J. M. Tull changed from lower of
average cost or market to LIFO, the following footnote appeared in its annual report:
Note B. Change in accounting method for inventory
The company changed its method of determining inventory cost from the lower of
average cost or market method to the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method for
substantially all inventory. This change was made because management believes
LIFO more clearly reflects income by providing a closer matching of current cost
against current revenue.

Now we illustrate in more detail the journal entries made when using perpetual inventory
procedure. Data from Exhibit 56 serves as the basis for some of the entries.
You would debit the Merchandise Inventory account to record the increases in the asset due to
purchase costs and transportation-in costs. You would credit Merchandise Inventory to record the
decreases in the asset brought about by purchase returns and allowances, purchase discounts, and cost
of goods sold to customers. The balance in the account is the cost of the inventory that should be on
hand at any date. This entry records the purchase of 10 units on March 2 in Exhibit 56 :
Mar.

Merchandise Inventory (+A)

Accounts Payable (+L)
To record purchases of 10 units at $8.50 on
account.

85
85

p. 384 of 433

You would also record the 10 units sold on the perpetual inventory record in Exhibit 56. Perpetual
inventory procedure requires two journal entries for each sale. One entry is at selling pricea debit to
Accounts Receivable (or Cash) and a credit to Sales. The other entry is at costa debit to Cost of Goods
Sold and a credit to Merchandise Inventory. Assuming that the 10 units sold on March 10 in Exhibit 56
had a retail price of USD 13 each, you would record the following entries:
Mar.

10 Accounts Receivable (+A)

Sales (+SE)
To record 10 units sold at $13 each on account.
10 Cost of Goods Sold (-SE)
Merchandise Inventory (-A)
To record cost of $8 on each of the 10 units sold.

130
130
80
80

When a company sells merchandise to customers, it transfers the cost of the merchandise from an
asset account (Merchandise Inventory) to an expense account (Cost of Goods Sold). The company
makes this transfer because the sale reduces the asset, and the cost of the goods sold is one of the
expenses of making the sale. Thus, the Cost of Goods Sold account accumulates the cost of all the
merchandise that the company sells during a period.
A sales return also requires two entries, one at selling price and one at cost. Assume that a customer
returned merchandise that cost USD 20 and originally sold for USD 32. The entry to reduce the
accounts receivable and to record the sales return of USD 32 is:
Mar.

17 Sales Return and Allowances (-SE)

Accounts Receivable (-A)
To record the reduction in amount owed by a
customer upon return of goods.

32
32

The entry that increases the Merchandise Inventory account and decreases the Cost of Goods Sold
account by USD 20 is as follows:
Mar.

17 Merchandise Inventory (+A)

Cost of Goods Sold (+SE)
To record replacement of goods returned to
inventory.

20
20

Sales returns affect both revenues and cost of goods sold because the goods charged to cost of goods
sold are actually returned to the seller. In contrast, sales allowances granted to customers affect only
revenues because the customers do not have to return goods. Thus, if the company had granted a sales
allowance of USD 32 on March 17, only the first entry would be required.
p. 385 of 433

The balance of the Merchandise Inventory account is the cost of the inventory that should be on
hand. This fact is a major reason some companies choose to use perpetual inventory procedure. The
cost of inventory that should be on hand is readily available. A physical inventory determines the
accuracy of the account balance. Management may investigate any major discrepancies between the
balance in the account and the cost based on the physical count. It thereby achieves greater control
over inventory. When a shortage is discovered, an adjusting entry is required. Assuming a USD 15
shortage (at cost) is discovered, the entry is:
Dec.

31 Loss from Inventory Shortage (-SE)

Merchandise Inventory (-A)
To record inventory shortage

15
15

Assume that the Cost of Goods Sold account had a balance of USD 200,000 by year-end when it is
closed to Income Summary. There are no other purchase-related accounts to be closed. The entry to
close the Cost of Goods Sold account is:
Dec.

31 Income Summary
Cost of Goods Sold
To close Cost of Goods Sold account to Income
Summary at the end of the year.

200,000

200,000

8.6 Departures from cost basis of inventory measurement

Generally, companies should use historical cost to value inventories and cost of goods sold.
However, some circumstances justify departures from historical cost. One of these circumstances is
when the utility or value of inventory items is less than their cost. A decline in the selling price of the
goods or their replacement cost may indicate such a loss of utility. This section explains how
accountants handle some of these departures from the cost basis of inventory measurement.
Companies should not carry goods in inventory at more than their net realizable value. Net
realizable value is the estimated selling price of an item less the estimated costs that the company
incurs in preparing the item for sale and selling it. Damaged, obsolete, or shopworn goods often have a
net realizable value lower than their historical cost and must be written down to their net realizable
value. However, goods do not have to be damaged, obsolete, or shopworn for this situation to occur.
Technological changes and increased competition have caused significant reductions in selling prices
for such products as computers, TVs, DVD players, and digital cameras.

p. 386 of 433

To illustrate a necessary write-down in the cost of inventory, assume that an automobile dealer has
a demonstrator on hand. The dealer acquired the auto at a cost of USD 18,000. The auto had an
original selling price of USD 19,600. Since the dealer used the auto as a demonstrator and the new
models are coming in, the auto now has an estimated selling price of only USD 18,100. However, the
dealer can get the USD 18,100 only if the demonstrator receives some scheduled maintenance,
including a tune-up and some paint damage repairs. This work and the sales commission cost USD
300. The net realizable value of the demonstrator, then, is USD 17,800 (selling price of USD 18,100
less costs of USD 300). For inventory purposes, the required journal entry is:
Loss Due to the Decline in Market Value of Inventory (-SE)
Merchandise Inventory (-A)
To write down inventory to net realizable value ($18,000 $17,800)

200
200

This entry treats the USD 200 inventory decline as a loss in the period in which the decline in utility
occurred. Such an entry is necessary only when the net realizable value is less than cost. If net
realizable value declines but still exceeds cost, the dealer would continue to carry the item at cost.
The lower-of-cost-or-market (LCM) method is an inventory costing method that values
inventory at the lower of its historical cost or its current market (replacement) cost. The term cost
refers to historical cost of inventory as determined under the specific identification, FIFO, LIFO, or
weighted-average inventory method. Market generally refers to a merchandise item's replacement cost
in the quantity usually purchased. The basic assumption of the LCM method is that if the purchase
price of an item has fallen, its selling price also has fallen or will fall. The LCM method has long been
accepted in accounting.
Under LCM, inventory items are written down to market value when the market value is less than
the cost of the items. For example, assume that the market value of the inventory is USD 39,600 and its
cost is USD 40,000. Then, the company would record a USD 400 loss because the inventory has lost
some of its revenue-generating ability. The company must recognize the loss in the period the loss
occurred. On the other hand, if ending inventory has a market value of USD 45,000 and a cost of USD
40,000, the company would not recognize this increase in value. To do so would recognize revenue
before the time of sale.
LCM applied A company may apply LCM to each inventory item (such as Monopoly), each
inventory class (such as games), or total inventory. To see how the company would apply the method to
individual items and total inventory, look at Exhibit 62.

p. 387 of 433

If LCM is applied on an item-by-item basis, ending inventory would be USD 5,000. The company
would deduct the USD 5,000 ending inventory from cost of goods available for sale on the income
statement and report this inventory in the current assets section of the balance sheet. Under the class
method, a company applies LCM to the total cost and total market for each class of items compared.
One class might be games; another might be toys. Then, the company values each class at the lower of
its cost or market amount. If LCM is applied on a total inventory basis, ending inventory would be USD
5,100, since total cost of USD 5,100 is lower than total market of USD 5,150.
An annual report of Du Pont contains an actual example of applying LCM. The report states that
"substantially all inventories are valued at cost as determined by the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method;
in the aggregate, such valuations are not in excess of market". The term in the aggregate means that Du
Pont applied LCM to total inventory.

An accounting perspective: Business insight

Procter & Gamble markets a broad range of laundry, cleaning, paper, beauty care,
health care, food, and beverage products around the world. Procter & Gamble's
footnote in its Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements in its annual report
illustrates that companies often disclose LCM in their notes to financial statements.
Inventories are valued at cost, which is not in excess of current market price. Cost is
primarily determined by either the average cost or the first-in, first-out method. The
replacement cost of last-in, first-out inventories exceeds carrying value by
approximately USD 169 [million].

Item
1
2
3

Quantity
100 units
200 units
500 units

Unit
Cost
$10
8
5

Unit
Market
$9.00
8 .7 5
5.00

Total
Cost
$1,000
1,600
2,500
$5,100

Total
Market
$ 900
1 ,7 5 0
2,500
$5,150

LCM on
Item-by-Item
Basis
$ 900
1,600
2,500
$5,000

Exhibit 62: Application of lower-of-cost-or-market method

p. 388 of 433

M e r c h a n d i s e i n v e n t o r y, 2 0 1 0
January
Net cost of purchases
C o s t o f g o o d s a va i l a b l e f o r s a l e
Less estimated cost of goods sold:
Net sales
Gross margin (30% of $700,000)
Estimated cost of goods sold
E s t i m a t e d i n v e n t o r y, 2 0 1 0
December 31

$ 40,000
480,000
$520,000
$700,000
210,000

490,000
$ 30,000

Exhibit 63: Inventory estimation using gross margin method

A company using periodic inventory procedure may estimate its inventory for any of the following
reasons:
To obtain an inventory cost for use in monthly or quarterly financial statements without

taking a physical inventory. The effort of taking a physical inventory can be very expensive and
disrupts normal business operations; once a year is often enough.
To compare with physical inventories to determine whether shortages exist.
To determine the amount recoverable from an insurance company when fire has destroyed

inventory or the inventory has been stolen.

Next, we introduce two recognized methods of estimating the cost of ending inventory when a
company has not taken a physical inventorythe gross margin method and the retail inventory
method.
Gross margin method The steps in calculating ending inventory under the gross margin method
are:
Estimate gross margin (based on net sales) using the same gross margin rate experienced in

prior accounting periods.

Determine estimated cost of goods sold by deducting estimated gross margin from net sales.
Determine estimated ending inventory by deducting estimated cost of goods sold from cost of

goods available for sale.

Thus, the gross margin method estimates ending inventory by deducting estimated cost of goods
sold from cost of goods available for sale.
The gross margin method assumes that a fairly stable relationship exists between gross margin and
net sales. In other words, gross margin has been a fairly constant percentage of net sales, and this
relationship has continued into the current period. If this percentage relationship has changed, the
gross margin method does not yield satisfactory results.

p. 389 of 433

To illustrate the gross margin method of computing inventory, assume that for several years Field
Company has maintained a 30 per cent gross margin on net sales. The following data for 2010 are
available: The January 1 inventory was USD 40,000; net cost of purchases of merchandise was USD
480,000; and net sales of merchandise were USD 700,000. As shown in Exhibit 63, Field can estimate
the inventory for 2010 December 31, by deducting the estimated cost of goods sold from the actual cost
of goods available for sale.
An alternative format for calculating estimated ending inventory uses the standard income
statement format and solves for the one unknown (ending inventory):
Net sales
Less cost of goods sold:
Merchandise inventory, 2010 January 1
Net cost of purchases
Cost of goods available for sale
Less estimated inventory, 2010 December 31

$700,000
$ 40,000
480,000
$520,000

Estimated cost of goods sold

490,000

Estimated gross margin

$210,000

(70% of
net sales
(30% of
net sales)

We know that:
Costs of goods available for saleEnding inventory=Cost of goods sold
Therefore (let X = Ending inventory):
USD 520,000 - X = USD 490,000
X = USD 30,000
The gross margin method is not precise enough to be used for year-end financial statements. At
year-end, a physical inventory must be taken and valued by either the specific identification, FIFO,
LIFO, or weighted-average methods.
Retail inventory method Retail stores frequently use the retail inventory method to estimate
ending inventory at times other than year-end. Taking a physical inventory during an accounting
period (such as monthly or quarterly) is too time consuming and significantly interferes with business
operations. The retail inventory method estimates the cost of the ending inventory by applying a
cost/retail price ratio to ending inventory stated at retail prices. The advantage of this method is that
companies can estimate ending inventory (at cost) without taking a physical inventory. Thus, the use of
this estimate permits the preparation of interim financial statements (monthly or quarterly) without

p. 390 of 433

taking a physical inventory. The steps for finding the ending inventory by the retail inventory method
are:
Total the beginning inventory and the net amount of goods purchased during the period at

both cost and retail prices.

Divide the cost of goods available for sale by the retail price of the goods available for sale to

find the cost/retail price ratio.

Deduct the retail sales from the retail price of the goods available for sale to determine ending

inventory at retail.
Multiply the cost/retail price ratio or percentage by the ending inventory at retail prices to

reduce it to the ending inventory at cost.

Merchandise inventory, 2010 January 1
Purchases
Purchase returns
Purchase allowances
Transportation-in
Goods available for sale
Cost/retail price ratio:
$204,000/$340,000=60%
Sales
Ending inventory at retail prices
Times cost/retail price ratio
Ending inventory at cost, 2010 March 31

Cost
$ 22,000
182,000
(2,000)
(3,000)
5,000
$204,000

$ 36,000

Retail
$ 40,000
303,000
(3,000)
$340,000
280,000
$ 60,000
x 60%

Exhibit 64: Inventory estimation

In Exhibit 64, we show the retail inventory method. In the exhibit, the cost (USD 22,000) and retail
(USD 40,000) amounts for beginning inventory are available from the preceding period's computation.
The amounts for the first quarter purchases, purchase returns, purchase allowances, and
transportation-in came from the accounting records. The amounts for purchase allowances and
transportation-in appear only in the cost column. The first quarter sales amount (USD 280,000) is
from the Sales account and stated at retail (sales) prices. The difference between what was available for
sale at retail prices and what was sold at retail prices (which is sales) equals what should be on hand
(March 31 inventory of USD 60,000) expressed in retail prices. The retail price of the March 31
inventory needs to be converted into cost for use in the financial statements. We do this by multiplying
it times the cost/retail price ratio. In the example, the cost/retail price ratio is 60 per cent, which
means that on the average, 60 cents of each sales dollar is cost of goods sold. To find the 2010 March
31, inventory at cost (USD 36,000), we multiplied the ending inventory at retail (USD 60,000) by 60
per cent.

p. 391 of 433

Once the March 31 inventory has been estimated at cost (USD 36,000), we deduct the cost of the
inventory from cost of goods available for sale (USD 204,000) to determine cost of goods sold (USD
168,000). We can also find the cost of goods sold by multiplying the cost/retail price ratio of 60 per
cent by sales of USD 280,000.
For the next quarterly period, the USD 36,000 and USD 60,000 amounts would appear on the
schedule as beginning inventory at cost and retail, respectively. We would include other quarterly data
regarding purchases, purchase returns, purchase allowances, and transportation-in to determine goods
available for sale at cost and at retail. From these amounts, we could compute a new cost/retail price
ratio for the second quarter.
At the end of each year, merchandisers usually take a physical inventory at retail prices. Since the
retail prices are on the individual items (while the cost is not), taking an inventory at retail prices is
more convenient than taking an inventory at cost. Accountants can then compare the results of the
physical inventory to the calculation of inventory at retail under the retail inventory method for the
fourth quarter to determine whether a shortage exists.
Both the gross margin and the retail inventory methods can help you detect inventory shortages. To
illustrate how you can determine inventory shortages using the retail method, assume that a physical
inventory taken at year end, showed only USD 62,000 of retail-priced goods in the store. Assume that
use of the retail method for the fourth quarter showed that USD 66,000 of goods should be on hand,
thus indicating a USD 4,000 inventory shortage at retail. After converting the USD 4,000 to USD
2,400 of cost (USD 4,000 X 0.60) you would report this as a "Loss from inventory shortage" in the
income statement. Knowledge of such shortages may lead management to reduce or prevent them, by
increasing security or improving the training of employees.

p. 392 of 433

An ethical perspective: Dorsey hardware

Terry Dorsey started Dorsey Hardware, a small hardware store, two years ago and has
struggled to make it successful. The first year of operations resulted in a substantial
loss; in the second year, there was a small net income. His initial cash investment was
almost depleted because he had to withdraw money for living expenses. The current
year of operations looked much better. His customer base was growing and seemed to
be loyal. To increase sales, however, Terry had to invest his remaining funds and the
proceeds of a USD 40,000 bank loan into doubling the size of his inventory and
purchasing some new display shelves and a new truck.
At the end of the third year, Terry's accountant asked him for his ending inventory
figure and later told him that initial estimates indicated that net income (and taxable
income) for the year would be approximately USD 80,000. Terry was delighted until he
learned that the federal income taxes on that income would be about USD 17,250. He
told the accountant that he did not have enough cash to pay the taxes and could not
even borrow it, since he already had an outstanding loan at the bank.
Terry asked the accountant for a copy of the income statement figures so he could see if
any items had been overlooked that might reduce his net income. He noticed that
ending inventory of USD 160,000 had been deducted from cost of goods available for
sale of USD 640,000 to arrive at cost of goods sold of USD 480,000. Net sales of USD
720,000 and expenses of USD 160,000 could not be changed. But Terry hit on a
scheme to reduce his net income. The next day he told his accountant that he had made
an error in determining ending inventory and that its correct amount was USD
120,000. This lower inventory amount would increase cost of goods sold by USD
40,000 and reduce net income by that same amount. The resulting income taxes would
be about USD 6,000, which was just about what Terry had paid in estimated taxes.
To justify his action in his own mind, Terry used the following arguments: (1) federal
taxes are too high, and the federal government seems to be taxing the little guy out of
existence; (2) no harm is really done because, when the business becomes more
profitable, I will use correct inventory amounts, and this loan from the government will
be paid back; (3) since I am the only one who knows the correct ending inventory I will
not get caught; and (4) I bet a lot of other people do the same thing.

p. 393 of 433

8.7 Analyzing and using financial resultsinventory turnover

ratio
An important ratio for managers, investors, and creditors to consider when analyzing a company's
inventory is the inventory turnover ratio. This ratio tests whether a company is generating a sufficient
volume of business based on its inventory. To calculate the inventory turnover ratio:
Inventory turnover ratio=

Cost of goods sold

Average inventory

Inventory turnover measures the efficiency of the firm in managing and selling inventory: thus, it
gauges the liquidity of the firm's inventory. A high inventory turnover is generally a sign of efficient
inventory management and profit for the firm; the faster inventory sells, the less time funds are tied up
in inventory. A relatively low turnover could be the result of a company carrying too much inventory or
stocking inventory that is obsolete, slow-moving, or inferior.
In assessing inventory turnover, analysts also consider the type of industry. When making
comparisons among firms, they check the cost-flow assumption used to value inventory and cost of
products sold.
Abercrombie & Fitch reported the following financial data for 2000 (in thousands):
Cost of goods sold.......
Beginning inventory......
Ending inventory........

$728,229
75,262
120,997

Their inventory turnover is:

USD 728,229/[(USD 75,262 + USD 120,997)/2] = 7.4 times
You should now understand the importance of taking an accurate physical inventory and knowing
how to value this inventory. In the next chapter, you will learn the general principles of internal control
and how to control cash. Cash is one of a company's most important and mobile assets.

8.8 Understanding the learning objectives

Net income for an accounting period depends directly on the valuation of ending inventory.
If ending inventory is overstated, cost of goods sold is understated, resulting in an overstatement

of gross margin, net income, and retained earnings.

p. 394 of 433

 When ending inventory is misstated in the current year, companies carry that misstatement

forward into the next year.

An error in the net income of one year caused by misstated ending inventory automatically

causes an error in net income in the opposite direction in the next period because of the misstated
beginning inventory.
Inventory cost includes all necessary outlays to obtain the goods, get the goods ready to sell, and

have the goods in the desired location for sale to customers.

Inventory cost includes:

a. Seller's gross selling price less purchase discount.

b. Cost of insurance on the goods while in transit.
c. Transportation charges when borne by the buyer.
d. Handling costs, such as the cost of pressing clothes wrinkled during shipment.
Specific identification: Attaches actual cost of each unit of product to units in ending

inventory and cost of goods sold. Specific identification creates precise matching in determining
net income.
FIFO (first-in, first-out): Ending inventory consists of the most recent purchases. FIFO

assumes that the costs of the first goods purchased are those charged to cost of goods sold when
goods are sold. During periods of rising prices, FIFO creates higher net income since the costs
charged to cost of goods sold are lower.
LIFO (last-in, first-out): Ending inventory consists of the oldest costs. LIFO assumes that the

costs of the most recent purchases are the first costs charged to cost of goods sold. Net income is
usually lower under LIFO since the costs charged to cost of goods sold are higher due to inflation.
The ending inventory may differ between perpetual and periodic inventory procedures.
Weighted-average: Ending inventory is priced using a weighted-average unit cost. Under

perpetual inventory procedure, a new weighted-average is determined after each purchase. Under
periodic procedure, the average is determined at the end of the accounting period by dividing the
total number of units purchased plus those in beginning inventory into total cost of goods
available for sale. In determining cost of goods sold, this average unit cost is applied to each item.
Under the weighted-average method, in a period of rising prices net income is usually higher than
income under LIFO and lower than income under FIFO.
Specific identification: Advantages: (1) States cost of goods sold and ending inventory at the

actual cost of specific units sold and on hand, and (2) provides the most precise matching of costs
and revenues. Disadvantage: Income manipulation is possible.
p. 395 of 433

 FIFO: Advantages: (1) FIFO is easy to apply, (2) the assumed flow of costs often corresponds

with the normal physical flow of goods, (3) no manipulation of income is possible, and (4) the
balance sheet amount for inventory is likely to approximate the current market value.
Disadvantages: (1) Recognizes paper profits, and (2) tax burden is heavier if used for tax purposes
when prices are rising.
LIFO: Advantages: (1) LIFO reports both sales revenue and cost of goods sold in current dollars,

and (2) lower income taxes result if used for tax purposes when prices are rising. Disadvantages:
(1) Often matches the cost of goods not sold against revenues, (2) grossly understates inventory,
and (3) permits income manipulation.
Weighted-average: Advantages: Due to the averaging process, the effects of year-end buying

or not buying are lessened. Disadvantage: Manipulation of income is possible.

Perpetual inventory procedure requires an entry to Merchandise Inventory whenever goods are

purchased, returned, sold, or otherwise adjusted, so that inventory records reflect actual units on
hand at all times. Thus, an entry is required to record cost of goods sold for each sale.
Companies should not carry goods in inventory at more than their net realizable value. Net

realizable value is the estimated selling price of an item less the estimated costs incurred in
preparing the item for sale and selling it. Inventory items are written down to market value when
the market value is less than the cost of the items. If market value is greater than cost, the increase
in value is not recognized. LCM may be applied to each inventory item, each inventory class, or
total inventory.
The steps in calculating ending inventory under the gross margin method are:

a. Estimate gross margin (based on net sales) using the same gross margin rate experienced
in prior accounting periods.
b. Determine estimated cost of goods sold by deducting estimated gross margin from net
sales.
c. Determine estimated ending inventory by deducting estimated cost of goods sold from cost
of goods available for sale.
The retail inventory method estimates the cost of the ending inventory by applying a cost/retail

price ratio to ending inventory stated at retail prices. To find the cost/retail price ratio, divide the
cost of goods available for sale by the retail price of the goods available for sale.
(Cost of goods sold)
Inventory turnover ration=
(Average inventory )

p. 396 of 433

 Inventory turnover measures the efficiency of the firm in managing and selling inventory. It

gauges the liquidity of the firm's inventory.

8.8.1 Demonstration problem

Demonstration problem A Following are data related to Adler Company's beginning inventory,
purchases, and sales:
Beginning Inventory
and Purchases
Units
Beginning inventory 6,250
March 15 5,000
May 10 8,750
August 12 6,250
November 20 3,750
30,000

Sales
@
@
@
@
@

Unit
Cost
$3.00
3.12
3.30
3.48
3.72

February 3
May 4
September 16
October 9

Units
5,250
4,500
8,000
7,250
25,000

a. Compute the ending inventory under each of the following methods:

Specific identification (assume ending inventory is taken equally from the August 12 and November
20 purchases).
FIFO: (a) Assume use of perpetual inventory procedure.
(b) Assume use of periodic inventory procedure.
LIFO: (a) Assume use of perpetual inventory procedure.
(b) Assume use of periodic inventory procedure.
Weighted-average: (a) Assume use of perpetual inventory procedure.
(b) Assume use of periodic inventory procedure.
(Carry unit cost to four decimal places and round total cost to nearest dollar.)
b. Give the journal entries to record the individual purchases and sales (Cost of Goods Sold entry
only) under the LIFO method and perpetual procedure.
Demonstration problem B a. Joel Company reported annual net income as follows:
2007.... USD 27,200
2008.... USD 28,400
2009.... USD 24,000
Analysis of the inventories shows that certain clerical errors were made with the following results:

p. 397 of 433

Incorrect inventory amount

Correct inventory amount

2007 December 31

$4,800

$5,680

2008 December 31

5,600

4,680

What is the corrected net income for 2007, 2008, and 2009?
b. The records of Little Corporation show the following account balances on the day a fire destroyed
the company's inventory:
Merchandise inventory, January 1 USD 40,000
Net cost of purchases (to date) USD 200,000
Sales (to date) USD 300,000
Average rate of gross margin for the past five years 30 per cent of net sales.
Compute an estimated value of the ending inventory using the gross margin method.
c. The records of Draper Company show the following account balances at year-end:
Cost
Retail
Merchandise inventory, January 1
.$17,600 $25,000
Purchases
68,000 100,000
Transportation-in
1,900
Sales
101,000
Compute the estimated ending inventory at cost using the retail inventory method.

8.8.2 Solution to demonstration problem

Solution to demonstration problem A a. The ending inventory is 5,000 units, calculated as
follows:
Units
6,250
23,750
30,000
25,000
5,000

Beginning inventory
Purchases
Goods available
Sales
Ending inventory

Ending inventory under specific identification:

Purchased

Units

November 20
August 12

2,500
2,500

Unit
Cost
$3.72
3.48

Total
Cost
$ 9,300
8,700
$ 18,000

p. 398 of 433

2. Ending inventory under FIFO:

(a) Perpetual:
Date

Purchased
Unit Total
Units
Cost Cost

Beg. inv.
Feb. 3
Mar. 15 5,000

8,750

Aug. 12

6,250

3.48

$3.00

1,000
3,500

3.00
3.12

21,750

Oct. 9
3,750

5,250

3.30 28,875

Sept. 16

Nov. 20

Sold
Unit
Cost

$3.12 $15,600

May 4
May 10

Units

3.72

13,950

1,500
6,500
2,250
5,000

3.12
3.30
3.30
3.48

Ending inventory = (1,250 X $3.48)

Total
Cost

Balance
Unit

Units

6,250
$15,750 1,000
1,000
5,000
3,000
1,500
10,920
1,500
8,750
1,500
8,750
6,250
4,680
2,250
21,450 6,250
7,425
1,250
17,400
1,250
3,750
+ (3,750 X $3.72) =

$3.00
3.00
3.00
3.12
3.12

$18,750
3,000
3,000
15,600
4,680

3.12
3.30
3.12
3.30
3.48
3.30
3.48
3.48

4,680
28,875
4,680
28,875
21,750
7,425
21,750
4,350

3.48
3.72
$18,300

4,350
13,950

(b) Periodic:
Purchased

Units

November 20
August 12

3,750
1,250
5,000

*Note that the cost of ending

inventory is the same as under
perpetual.

Unit
Cost
$3.72
3.48

Total
Cost
$ 13,950
4,350
$ 18,300 *

p. 399 of 433

3. Ending inventory under LIFO:

(a) Perpetual:
Purchased
Units Unit
Cost

Date

Total
Cost

Units

Sold
Unit
Cost

Total
Cost

Beg. inv.
Feb. 3

5,250

Mar. 15

5,000

$3.00

4,500

3.12

14,040

Sept. 16

6,250
1,750

3.48
3.30

21,750
5,775

Oct. 9

7,000
250

3.30
3.12

23,100
780

May 10
Aug. 12

Nov. 20

8,750

3.30

28,875

6,250

3.48

21,750

3,750

Ending inventory
=

Balance
Unit

6,250

$3.00

$18,750

3.00

3,000

1,000
5,000
1,000
500
1,000
500
8,750
1,000
500
8,750
6,250
1,000
500
7,000
1,000
250
1,000
250
3,750
$3.72) =

3.00
3.12
3.00
3.12
3.00
3.12
3.30
3.00
3.12
3.30
3.48
3.00
3.12
3.30
3.00
3.12
3.00
3.12
3.72
$17,730

3,000
15,600
3,000
1,560
3,000
1,560
28,875
3,000
1,560
28,875
21,750
3,000
1,560
23,100
3,000
780
3,000
780
13,950

Unit

Total

Cost
$3.00

Cost
$ 15,000

$15,750 1,000

$3.12 $15,600

May 4

Units

3.72

13,950

(1,00
0

X $3.00) + (250 X $3.12) + (3,750

X

(b) Periodic:

Merchandise Inventory, January 1

Units
5,000

p. 400 of 433

4. Ending inventory under weighted-average:

(a) Perpetual:
Date
Beg. inv.
Feb. 3
Mar. 15

Purchased
Unit Total
Units Cost Cost

Units

Sold
Unit
Cost

5,250

$3.00

4,500

3.10

Balance
Unit
Units
Cost
Total Cost
6,250 $3.0000
$18,750
$15,750 1,000
3.0000 3,000
6,000
3.1000 18,600
a
Total
Cost

5,000

$3.12 $15,600

May 4
May 10

8,750

3.30 28,875

1,500
10,250

3.1000
3.2707
b

4,650
33,525

Aug. 12

6,250

3.48 21,750

16,500

3.3500
c

55,275

8,500
1,250
5.000

3.3500
3.3500
3.6274
d

28,475 *
4,187 *
18,137

Sept. 16
Oct. 9
Nov. 20

8,000
7,250
3,750

3.35
3.35

13,950

26,800
24,288

3.72 13,950

Ending inventory = (5,000 X $3.6274) =

$18,137
a $18,600 = $3.100 b $33,525 = $3.2707 c $55,275 = $3.3500 d $18,137 = $3.6274
6,000 10,250 16,500 5,000
* Rounding difference.
Unit

(b) Periodic
Purchased
M e r c h a n d i s e I n v e n t o r y, J a n u a r y
1
March 15

Units
6,250

Cost
$3.00

5,000

3.12

May 10

8 ,7 5 0

3.30

August 12

6,250

3.48

November 20

3 ,7 5 0

3 .7 2

30,000
Weighted-average unit cost = $98,925/30,000 = $3.2975
Ending inventory cost = $3.2975 x 5,000 = $16,488*

Total

Cost
1 8 ,7 5
0
15,60
0
28,87
5
2 1 ,7 5
0
13,95
0
98,92
5

*Rounding difference

p. 401 of 433

b. Journal entries under LIFO perpetual:

Feb.

Mar.

15

May

4
10

Aug.

12

Sept. 16

Oct.

Nov.

20

Cost of Goods Sold (-SE)

Merchandise Inventory (-A)
To record cost of $3 on 5,200 units sold
Merchandise Inventory (+A)
Accounts Payable (+L)
To record purchase of 5,000 units at $3.12 on
Account.
Cost of Goods Sold (-SE)
Merchandise Inventory (-A)
To record cost of $3.12 on 4,500 units sold.
Merchandise Inventory (+A)
Accounts Payable (+L)
To record purchase of 8,750 units at $3.30 on
account.
Merchandise Inventory (+A)
Accounts Payable (+L)
To record purchase of 6,250 units at $3.48 on
account
Cost of Goods Sold (-SE)
Merchandise Inventory (-A)
To record costs of $3.48 and $3.30 on 6,250 units
at 1,750 units sold, respectively.
Cost of Goods Sold (-SE)
Merchandise Inventory (-A)
To record costs of $3.30 and $3.12 on 7,000 units
and 250 units sold, respectively.
Merchandise Inventory (+A)
Accounts Payable (+L)
To record purchase of 3,750 units at $3.72 on
account.

15,750

15,750

15,600

15,600

14,040

14,040

28,875

28,875

21,750

21,750

27,525

27,525

23,880

23,880

13,950

13,950

Solution to demonstration problem B a. Corrected net income:

Net income as reported
Adjustments
(1)
(2)

2007
$ 27,200
880

2008
28,400
(880)
(920)

(3)
Corrected net income
$ 28,080
26,600
(1) Ending inventory understated ($ 5,680 - $ 4,800 = $ 880)
(2) Beginning inventory understated (5,680 4,800 = 880)
Ending inventory overstated (5,600 4,680 = 920)
(3) Beginning inventory overstated (5,600 4,680 = 920)

2009
24,000

Total
$ 79,600

920
24,920

$ 79,600

p. 402 of 433

b. Computation of inventory:
Merchandise Inventory, January 1

$
40,000
200,000
$
240,000

Net cost of purchases

Cost of goods available for sale
Less estimated cost of goods sold:
Net Sales
Gross margin ($300,000 X 0.30)
Estimated cost of goods sold
Inventory at cost, estimated by
gross margin method.

$ 300,000
90,000

210,000
$
30,000

c. Computation of inventory:
Merchandise Inventory, January 1
Purchases
Transportation-in
Goods available for sale
$
Cost/retail price ratio:
$87,500/$125,000 = 70%
Sales
Ending inventory at retail price
Times cost/retail price ratio
Ending inventory at cost, December 31.

Cost
$ 17,600

Retail
$ 25,000

68,000
1,900
$ 87,500

100,000

$ 125,000

101,000
$24,000
X
70%
$ 16,800

8.8.3 Key terms

FIFO (first-in, first-out) A method of costing inventory that assumes the costs of the first
goods purchased are those charged to cost of goods sold when the company actually sells goods.
Gross margin method A procedure for estimating inventory cost in which estimated cost of
goods sold (determined using an estimated gross margin) is deducted from the cost of goods
available for sale to determine estimated ending inventory. The estimated gross margin is
calculated using gross margin rates (in relation to net sales) of prior periods.
Inventory, or paper, profits Equal to the current replacement cost to purchase a unit of
inventory at time of sale minus the unit's historical cost.
Inventory turnover ratio Cost of goods sold/Average inventory.
LIFO (last-in, first-out) A method of costing inventory that assumes the costs of the most
recent purchases are the first costs charged to cost of goods sold when the company actually sells
the goods.
Lower-of-cost-or-market (LCM) method An inventory costing method that values
inventory at the lower of its historical cost or its current market (replacement) cost.
Merchandise inventory The quantity of goods held by a merchandising company for resale to
customers.
Net realizable value Estimated selling price of an item less the estimated costs incurred in
preparing the item for sale and selling it.
Retail inventory method A procedure for estimating the cost of the ending inventory by
applying a cost/ retail price ratio to ending inventory stated at retail prices.
p. 403 of 433

Specific identification method An inventory costing method that attaches the actual cost to
an identifiable unit of product.
Weighted-average method A method of costing ending inventory using a weighted-average
unit cost. Under perpetual inventory procedure, a new weighted-average is calculated after each
purchase. Under periodic procedure, the weighted-average is determined by dividing the total
number of units purchased plus those in beginning inventory into total cost of goods available
for sale. Units in the ending inventory are carried at this per unit cost.

8.8.4 Self-test
8.8.4.1 True-false
Indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false.
(1) Overstated ending inventory results in an overstatement of cost of goods sold and an
understatement of gross margin and net income.
(2) In a period of rising prices, FIFO results in the lowest cost of goods sold.
(3) Under LCM, inventory is written down to market value when the market value is less than the
cost, and inventory is written up to market value when the market value is greater than the
cost.
(4) Under the gross margin method, an estimate must be made of gross margin to determine
estimated cost of goods sold and estimated ending inventory.
(5) To use the retail inventory method, both cost and retail prices must be known for the goods
available for sale.
(6) Under perpetual procedure, cost of goods sold is determined as a result of the closing entries
made at the end of the period.

8.8.4.2 Multiple-choice
Select the best answer for each of the following questions.
Jack Company began the accounting period with inventory of 3,000 units at USD 30 each. During
the period, the company purchased an additional 5,000 units at USD 36 each and sold 4,600 units.
Assume the use of periodic inventory procedure for the following six questions.
Cost of ending inventory using FIFO is:
a. USD 104,400.
b. USD 122,400.
c. USD 120,000.
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d. USD 147,600.
e. None of the above.
Cost of goods sold using FIFO is:
a. USD 165,600.
b. USD 150,000.
c. USD 147,600.
d. USD 122,400.
e. None of the above.
Cost of ending inventory using LIFO is:
a. USD 104,400.
b. USD 114,750.
c. USD 156,000.
d. USD 122,400.
e. None of the above.
Cost of goods sold using LIFO is:
a. USD 155,250.
b. USD 114,000.
c. USD 147,600.
d. USD 165,600.
e. None of the above.
Cost of ending inventory using weighted-average is:
a. USD 114,750.
b. USD 157,600.
c. USD 122,400.
d. USD 109,650.
e. None of the above.

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Cost of goods sold using weighted-average is:

a. USD 147,200.
b. USD 160,350.
c. USD 155,250.
d. USD 114,000.
e. None of the above.
During a period of rising prices, which inventory method might be expected to give the highest net
income?
a. Weighted-average.
b. FIFO.
c. LIFO.
d. Specific identification.
e. Cannot determine.
Now turn to Answers to self-test at the end of the chapter to check your answers.

8.8.4.3 Questions

Why is proper inventory valuation so important?

Why does an understated ending inventory understate net income for the period by the
same amount?

Why does an error in ending inventory affect two accounting periods?

What is the meaning of taking a physical inventory?

What is the accountant's responsibility regarding taking a physical inventory?

Which cost elements are included in inventory? What practical problems arise by
including the costs of such elements?

Which accounts that are used under periodic inventory procedure are not used under
perpetual inventory procedure?

What entries are necessary under perpetual inventory procedure when goods are sold?

Why is there closer control over inventory under perpetual inventory procedure than
under periodic inventory procedure?

Why is perpetual inventory procedure being used increasingly in business?

p. 406 of 433

What is the cost flow assumption? What is meant by the physical flow of goods? Does a
relationship between cost flows and the physical flow of goods exist, or should such a
relationship exist?

Indicate how a company can manipulate its net income if it uses LIFO. Is the same
opportunity available under FIFO? Why or why not?

What are the main advantages of using FIFO and LIFO?

Which inventory method is the correct one? Can a company change inventory methods?

Why are ending inventory and cost of goods sold the same under FIFO perpetual and
FIFO periodic?

Would you agree with the following statement? Reducing the amount of taxes payable
currently is a valid objective of business management and, since LIFO results in such a
reduction, all businesses should use LIFO.

What is net realizable value, and how is it used?

Why is it acceptable accounting practice to recognize a loss by writing down an item in

inventory to market, but unacceptable to recognize a gain by writing up an inventory
item?

Under what conditions would the gross margin method of computing an estimated
inventory yield approximately correct amounts?

What are the main reasons for estimating ending inventory?

Should a company rely exclusively on the gross margin method to determine the ending
inventory and cost of goods sold for the end-of-year financial statements?

How can the retail method be used to estimate inventory?

The Limited Based on the notes to the financial statements of The Limited contained
in the Annual Report Appendix, what inventory methods were used?

8.8.4.4 Exercises
Exercise A Crocker Company reported annual net income as follows:
2008
2009
2010

$484,480
487,680
409,984

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Analysis of its inventories revealed the following incorrect inventory amounts and these correct
amounts:
Incorrect Inventory
Amount

Correct inventory
amount

2008 December 31

$ 76,800

$89,600

2009 December 31

86,400

77,600

Compute the annual net income for each of the three years assuming the correct inventories had
been used.
Exercise B Slate Truck Company manufactures trucks and identifies each truck with a unique
serial plate. On December 31, a customer ordered 5 trucks from the company, which currently has 20
trucks in its inventory. Ten of these trucks cost USD 20,000 each, and the other 10 cost USD 25,000
each. If Slate wished to minimize its net income, which trucks would it ship? By how much could Slate
reduce net income by selecting units from one group versus the other group?
Exercise C Miami Discount Company inventory records show:

Beginning inventory
Purchases:
February 14
March 18
July 21
September 27
November 27
Sales:
April 15
August 20
October 3

Units
3,000

Unit
Cost
$38.00

Total
Cost
$114,000

900
2,400
1,800
1,800
600

39.00
40.00
40.30
40.60
41.00

35,100
96,000
72,540
73,080
24,600

2,800
2,000
1,500

The December 31 inventory was 4,200 units. Miami Discount Company uses perpetual inventory
procedure. Present a schedule showing the measurement of the ending inventory using FIFO perpetual
inventory procedure.
Exercise D Using the data in the previous exercise for Miami Discount Company, present a
schedule showing the measurement of the ending inventory using LIFO perpetual inventory procedure.

p. 408 of 433

Exercise E London Company had a beginning inventory of 160 units at USD 24 (total = USD
3,840) and the following inventory transactions during the year:
January 8, sold 40 units.
January 11, purchased 80 units at USD 30.00.
January 15, purchased 80 units at USD 32.00.
January 22, sold 80 units.
Using the preceding information, price the ending inventory at its weighted-average cost, assuming
perpetual inventory procedure.
Exercise F Kettle Company made the following purchases of Product A in its first year of
operations:
Units
January 2
March 31
July 5
November 1

1,400
1,200
2,400
1,800

@
@
@
@

Unit
Cost
$7.40
7.00
7.60
8.00

The ending inventory that year consisted of 2,400 units. Kettle uses periodic inventory procedure.
a. Compute the cost of the ending inventory using each of the following methods: (1) FIFO, (2)
LIFO, and (3) weighted-average.
b. Which method would yield the highest amount of gross margin? Explain why it does.
Exercise G The following are selected transactions and other data of the Custer Company:
Purchased 20 units at USD 360 per unit on account on 2010 September 18.
Sold 6 units on account for USD 576 per unit on 2010 September 20.
Discovered a shortage of USD 2,640 at year-end after a physical inventory.
Prepare journal entries for these transactions using FIFO perpetual inventory procedure. Assume
the beginning inventory consists of 20 units at USD 336 per unit.
Exercise H Following are selected transactions of Gamble Company:
Purchased 100 units of merchandise at USD 240 each; terms 2/10, n/30.
Paid the invoice in transaction 1 within the discount period.
Sold 80 units at USD 384 each for cash.
Purchased 100 units at USD 360; terms 2/10, n/30.

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Paid the invoice in transaction 4 within the discount period.

Sold 60 units at USD 552 each for cash.
Prepare journal entries for the six preceding items. Assume Gamble uses FIFO perpetual inventory
procedure.
Exercise I Wells Company had the following transactions during February:
Purchased 135 units at USD 65 on account.
Sold 108 units at USD 90 on account.
Purchased 170 units at USD 75 on account.
Sold 122 units at USD 95 on account.
Sold 67 units at USD 100 on account.
The beginning inventory consisted of 67 units purchased at a cost of USD 55.
Prepare the journal entries relating to inventory for these five transactions, assuming Wells
accounts for inventory using perpetual inventory procedure and the LIFO inventory method. Do not
record the entries for sales.
Exercise J Following are inventory data for Kintech Company:
January 1 inventory on hand, 400 units at USD 28.80.
January sales were 80 units.
February sales totaled 120 units.
March 1, purchased 200 units at USD 30.24.
Sales for March through August were 160 units.
September 1, purchased 40 units at USD 33.12.
September through December sales were 180 units.
Exercise K A company purchased 1,000 units of a product at USD 12.00 and 2,000 units at USD
13.20. It sold all of these units at USD 18.00 each at a time when the current cost to replace the units
sold was USD 13.80. Compute the amount of gross margin under FIFO that LIFO supporters would
call inventory, or paper, profits.
Exercise L Clayton Company's inventory was 12,000 units with a cost of USD 160 each on 2010
January 1. During 2010, numerous units were purchased and sold. Also during 2010, the purchase
price of this product fell steadily until at year-end it was USD 120. The inventory at year-end was

p. 410 of 433

18,000 units. State which method of inventory measurement, LIFO or FIFO, would have resulted in
higher reported net income, and explain briefly.
Exercise M Levi Motor Company owns a luxury automobile that it has used as a demonstrator for
eight months. The auto has a list or sticker price of USD 85,000 and cost Levi USD 75,000. At the end
of the fiscal year, the auto is on hand and has an expected selling price of USD 80,000. Costs expected
to be incurred to sell the auto include tune-up and maintenance costs of USD 3,000, advertising of
USD 1,000, and a commission of 5 per cent of the selling price to the employee selling the auto.
Compute the amount at which the auto should be carried in inventory.
Exercise N Pure Sound Systems used one sound system as a floor model. It cost USD 3,600 and
had an original selling price of USD 4,800. After six months, the sound system was damaged and
replaced by a newer model. The sound system had an estimated selling price of USD 2,880, but when
the company performed USD 480 in repairs, it could be sold for USD 3,840. Prepare the journal entry,
if any, that must be made on Pure Sound's books to record the decline in market value.
Exercise O Your assistant has compiled the following data:

Item
A
B
C
D

Quantity
(units)
300
300
900
500

Unit
Cost
$ 57.60
28.80
21.60
12.00

Unit
Market
$ 55.20
33.60
21.60
13.20

Total
Cost
$17,280
8,640
19,440
6,000

Total
Market
$16,560
10,080
19,440
6,600

Calculate the dollar amount of the ending inventory using the LCM method, applied on an item-byitem basis, and the amount of the decline from cost to lower-of-cost-or-market.
Exercise P Use the data in the previous exercise to compute the cost of the ending inventory using
the LCM method applied to the total inventory.
Exercise Q Tilley-Mill Company takes a physical inventory at the end of each calendar-year
accounting period to establish the ending inventory amount for financial statement purposes. Its
financial statements for the past few years indicate an average gross margin on net sales of 25 per cent.
On July 18, a fire destroyed the entire store building and its contents. The records in a fireproof vault
were intact. Through July 17, these records show:

p. 411 of 433

Merchandise inventory, January 1 USD 672,000

Merchandise purchases USD 9,408,000
Purchase returns USD 134,400
Transportation-in USD 504,000
Sales USD 14,336,000
Sales returns USD 672,000
The company was fully covered by insurance and asks you to determine the amount of its claim for
loss of merchandise.
Exercise R Ryan Company takes a physical inventory at the end of each calendar-year accounting
period. Its financial statements for the past few years indicate an average gross margin on net sales of
30 per cent.
On June 12, a fire destroyed the entire store building and the inventory. The records in a fireproof
vault were intact. Through June 11, these records show:
Merchandise inventory, January 1
Merchandise purchases
Purchase returns
Transportation -in
Sales

$120,000
$3,000,000
$36,000
$204,000
$3,720,000

The company was fully covered by insurance and asks you to determine the amount of its claim for
loss of merchandise.
Exercise S Victoria Falls Company, Inc., records show the following account balances for the year
ending 2010 December 31:
Cost

Retail

Beginning inventory

USD 42,000

USD 57,500

Purchases

25000

37500

Transportation-in

500

Sales

52500

Using these data, compute the estimated cost of ending inventory using the retail method of
inventory valuation.

p. 412 of 433

8.8.4.5 Problems
Problem A Kelley Company reported net income of USD 358,050 for 2009, USD 371,400 for
2010, and USD 325,800 for 2011, using the incorrect inventory amounts shown for 2009 December 31,
and 2010. Recently, Kelley corrected the inventory amounts for those dates. Kelley used the correct
2011 December 31, inventory amount in calculating 2011 net income.
Incorrect

Correct

2009 December 31

USD 72,600

USD 86,200

2010 December 31

84000

70200

Prepare a schedule that shows: (a) the reported net income for each year, (b) the amount of
correction needed for each year, and (c) the correct net income for each year.
Problem B An examination of the financial records of Lanal Company on 2009 December 31,
disclosed the following with regard to merchandise inventory for 2009 and prior years:
2005 December 31, inventory was correct.
2006 December 31, inventory was overstated USD 200,000.
2007 December 31, inventory was overstated USD 100,000.
2081 December 31, inventory was understated USD 220,000.
2009 December 31, inventory was correct.
The reported net income for each year was:
2006
2007
2008
2009

$384,000
544,000
670,000
846,000

a. Prepare a schedule of corrected net income for each of the four years, 2006-2009.
b. What error(s) would have been included in each December 31 balance sheet? Assume each year's
error is independent of the other years' errors.
c. Comment on the implications of your corrected net income as contrasted with reported net
income.
Problem C Brett Company sells personal computers and uses the specific identification method to
account for its inventory. On 2010 November 30, the company had 46 Orange III personal computers
on hand that were acquired on the following dates and at these stated costs:

p. 413 of 433

Units
10
@
20
@
16
@

July 3
September 10
November 29

Unit cost
$10,080
$ 9,600
$10,700

Brett sold 36 Orange III computers at USD 12,720 each in December. There were no purchases of
this model in December.
a. Compute the gross margin on December sales of Orange III computers assuming the company
shipped those units that would maximize reported gross margin.
b. Repeat part (a) assuming the company shipped those units that would minimize reported gross
margin for December.
c. In view of your answers to parts (a) and (b), what would be your reaction to an assertion that the
specific identification method should not be considered an acceptable method for costing inventory?
Problem D The inventory records of Thimble Company show the following:
March 1 Beginning inventory consists of 10 units costing USD 40 per unit.
3 Sold 5 units at USD 94 per unit.
10 Purchased 16 units at USD 48 per unit.
12 Sold 8 units at USD 96 per unit.
20 Sold 7 units at USD 96 per unit.
25 Purchased 16 units at USD 50 per unit.
31 Sold 8 units at USD 96 per unit.
Assume all purchases and sales are made on credit.
Using FIFO perpetual inventory procedure, prepare the appropriate journal entries for March.
Problem E The following purchases and sales for Ripple Company are for April 2010. There was
no inventory on April 1.
Purchases
April
April
April
April

3
10
22
28

Units
3,200
1,600
2,000
1,800

Sales
@
@
@
@

Unit
Cost
$33.00
34.00
35.00
36.00

April 6
April 12
April 25

Units
1,500
1,400
2,300

p. 414 of 433

a. Compute the ending inventory as of 2010 April 30, using perpetual inventory procedure, under
each of the following methods: (1) FIFO, (2) LIFO, and (3) weighted-average (carry unit cost to four
decimal places and round total cost to nearest dollar).
b. Repeat a using periodic inventory procedure.
Problem F Refer to the data in problem E
a. Using LIFO perpetual inventory procedure, prepare the journal entries for the purchases and
sales (Cost of Goods Sold entry only).
b. Repeat (a) using LIFO periodic inventory procedure, including closing entries. (Note: You may
want to refer to the Appendix in Chapter 6 for this part.)
Problem G The following data relate to the beginning inventory, purchases, and sales of Braxton
Company for the year 2010:
Merchandise Inventory, January 1
Purchases:
February 2
April 5
June 15
September 30
November 28
Sales:
March 10
May 15
July 6
August 23
December 22

Units
1,400

Unit
Cost
@ $5.04

1,000
2,000
1,200
1,400
1,800

@
@
@
@
@

4.80
3.60
3.00
2.88
4.20

900
1,800
800
600
2,500

a. Assuming use of perpetual inventory procedure, compute the ending inventory and cost of goods
sold under each of the following methods: (1) FIFO, (2) LIFO, and (3) weighted-average (carry unit
cost to four decimal places and round total cost to nearest dollar).
b. Repeat (a) assuming use of periodic inventory procedure.
Problem H Welch Company accounts for a product it sells using LIFO periodic inventory
procedure. Product data for the year ended 2009 December 31, are shown below. Merchandise
inventory on January 1 was 3,000 units at USD 14.40 each.

p. 415 of 433

Purchases
January 5
March 31
August 12
December 26

Sales

Units
6,000
18,000
12,000
6,000

@
@
@
@

Unit
Cost
$18.00
21.60
27.00
28.80

January 10
April 2
August 22
December 24

Units
4,000
15,000
16,000
3,000

@
@
@
@

Unit
Co st
$28.80
32.40
36.00
39.60

a. Compute the gross margin earned on sales of this product for 2009.
b. Repeat part (a) assuming that the December 26 purchase was made in January 2010.
c. Recompute the gross margin assuming that 10,000 rather than 6,000 units were purchased on
December 26 at the same cost per unit.
d. Solve parts (a), (b), and (c) using the FIFO method.
Problem I The accountant for Gentry Company prepared the following schedule of the company's
inventory at 2009 December 31, and used the LCM method applied to total inventory in determining
cost of goods sold:
Item
Q
R
S
T

Quantity
4,200
2,400
5,400
4,800

Unit
Cost
$7.20
6.00
4.80
4.20

Unit
Market
$7.20
5.76
4.56
4.32

a. State whether this approach is an acceptable method of inventory measurement and show the
calculations used to determine the amounts.
b. Compute the amount of the ending inventory using the LCM method on an item-by-item basis.
c. State the effect on net income in 2009 if the method in (b) was used rather than the method
referred to in (a).
Problem J As part of a loan agreement with a local bank, Brazos Company must present quarterly
and cumulative income statements for the year 2009. The company uses periodic inventory procedure
and marks its merchandise to sell at a price yielding a gross margin of 30 per cent. Selected data for the
first six months of 2009 are as follows:

Sales
Purchases
Purchase returns and allowances
Purchase discounts
Sales returns and allowances
Transportation-in
Miscellaneous selling expenses
Miscellaneous administrative expenses

First
Quarter
$248,000
160,000
9,600
3,200
8,000
8,000
25,600
9,600

Second
Quarter
$256,000
184,000
11,200
3,520
4,800
8,320
24,000
8,000

p. 416 of 433

The cost of the physical inventory taken 2008 December 31, was USD 30,400.
a. Indicate how income statements can be prepared without taking a physical inventory at the end
of each of the first two quarters of 2009.
b. Prepare income statements for the first quarter, the second quarter, and the first six months of
2009.
Cobb Company records show the following information for 2010:
Cost
Sales
Purchases
Transportation-in
Merchandise inventory,
January 1
Purchase returns

$2/0,000
26,280

Retail
$350,400
420,000

12,000
15,120

1/,400
18,600

Compute the estimated year-end inventory balance at cost using the retail method of estimating
inventory.

8.8.4.6 Alternate problems

Alternate problem A Harris Company reported net income of USD 312,000 for 2009, USD
324,000 for 2010, and USD 348,000
Recently Harris corrected these inventory amounts. Harris used the correct 2011 December 31,
inventory amount in calculating 2011 net income.
2009 December 31
2010 December 31

$96,000
91,200

$108,000
84,000

Prepare a schedule that shows: (a) the reported net income for each year, (b) the amount of
correction needed for each year, and (c) the correct net income for each year.
Alternate problem B An examination of the financial records of Jersey Company on 2009
December 31, disclosed the following with regard to merchandise inventory for 2009 and prior years:
2008 December 31, inventory was correct.
2009 December 31, inventory was understated USD 50,000.
2010 December 31, inventory was overstated USD 35,000.
2011 December 31, inventory was understated USD 30,000.
2012 December 31, inventory was correct.
The reported net income for each year was:
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2009
2010
2011
2012

$292,500
$355,000
$382,500
$350,000

a. Prepare a schedule of corrected net income for each of the four years, 2009-2012.
b. What errors would have been included in each December 31 balance sheet? Assume each year's
error is independent of the other years' errors.
c. Comment on the implications of the corrected net income as contrasted with reported net
income.
Alternate problem C High Surf Company sells the Ultra-Light model wind surfer and uses the
specific identification method to account for its inventory. The Ultra-Lights are identical except for
identifying serial numbers. On 2009 August 1, the company had three Ultra-Lights that cost USD
14,000 each in its inventory. During the month, the company purchased the following:

August 3
August 17
August 28

Units
5
6
6

@
@
@

Unit cost
$13,000
$14,500
15,000

High Surf Company sold 13 Ultra-Lights in August at USD 20,000 each.

a. Compute the gross margin earned by the company in August if it shipped the units that would
maximize gross margin.
b. Repeat part (a) assuming the company shipped the units that would minimize gross margin.
c. Do you think High Surf Company should be permitted to use the specific identification method of
accounting for Ultra-Lights in view of the manipulation possible as shown by your calculations in (a)
and (b)?
Alternate problem D The inventory records of Coral Company show the following:
Jan. 1 Beginning inventory consists of 12 units costing USD 48 per unit.
5 Purchased 15 units @ USD 49.92 per unit.
10 Sold 9 units @ USD 108 per unit.
12 Sold 7 units @ USD108 per unit.
20 Purchased 20 units @ USD 50.16 per unit.
22 Purchased 5 units @ USD 48 per unit.

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30 Sold 20 units @ USD 110.40 per unit.

Assume all purchases and sales are made on account.
a. Using FIFO perpetual inventory procedure, compute cost of goods sold for January.
b. Using FIFO perpetual inventory procedure, prepare the journal entries for January.
c. Compute the cost of goods sold under FIFO periodic inventory procedure. Is there a difference
between the amount computed using the two different procedures?
Alternate problem E Following are data for Dandy Company for the year 2010:
Units

M e r c h a n d i s e I n v e n t o r y,
January 1
Purchases:
Fe b r u a r y 2

700

500

April 5
June 1 5
September 30
November 28

1,000
600
700
900
4,400

@
@

Sales:
March 5
July 18
August 12
October 15

@
@
@

Unit
Cost
$20.4
0

21.00
24.00
2/.00
30.00
31.20

400
1,200
800
900
3,300

a. Compute the ending inventory as of 2010 December 31, assuming use of perpetual inventory
procedure, under each of the following methods: (1) FIFO, (2) LIFO, and (3) weighted-average (carry
unit cost to four decimal places and round total cost to nearest dollar).
b. Compute the ending inventory as of 2010 December 31, assuming use of periodic inventory
procedure, under each of the following methods: (1) FIFO, (2) LIFO, and (3) weighted-average.
Alternate problem F Refer to the data in alternate problem E
a. Give the journal entries to record the purchases and sales (Cost of Goods Sold entry only) for the
year under FIFO perpetual.
b. Give the journal entries to record the purchases for the year and necessary year-end entries to
charge Income Summary with the cost of goods sold for the year under FIFO periodic. (Note: You may
want to refer to the Appendix in Chapter 6 for this part.)
Alternate problem G Following are data related to a product of Coen Company for the year 2010:

p. 419 of 433

Merchandise Inventory, January 1

Purchases:
March 10
May 24
July 15
September 20
December 1
Sales:
April 5
June 13
October 9
November 21

Units
2,100

Unit
Cost
@ $12.60

1,500
3,000
1,800
2,100
2,700

@
@
@
@
@

12.00
11.20
10.50
9.00
10.00

1,400
2,900
2,300
1,700

a. Assuming use of perpetual inventory procedure, compute the ending inventory and cost of goods
sold under each of the following methods: (1) FIFO, (2) LIFO, and (3) weighted-average (carry unit
cost to four decimal places and round total cost to nearest dollar).
b. Assuming use of periodic inventory procedure, compute the ending inventory and cost of goods
sold under each of the following methods: (1) FIFO, (2), LIFO, and (3) weighted-average (carry unit
cost to four decimal places and round total cost to nearest dollar).
Alternate problem H Star Company accounts for its inventory using the LIFO method under
periodic inventory procedure. Data on purchases, sales, and inventory for the year ended 2009
December 31, are:
Units
Merchandise inventory,
January 1
Purchases:
January /
July 7
December 21

Unit
Cost

2,000

$20

5,000
10,000
6,000

@
@
@

24
28
32

During 2009, 16,000 units were sold for USD 1,280,000, leaving an inventory on 2009 December
31, of 7,000 units.
a. Compute the gross margin earned on sales during 2009.
b. Compute the change in gross margin that would have resulted if the purchase of December 21
had been delayed until 2010 January 6.
c. Recompute the gross margin assuming that 9,000 units rather than 6,000 units were purchased
on December 21 at the same cost per unit.
d. Solve parts (a), (b), and (c) using the FIFO method.

p. 420 of 433

Alternate problem I Data on the ending inventory of Jannis Company on 2009 December 31,
are:
Item
1
2
3
4
5
6

Quantity
8,400
16,800
5,600
14,000
11,200
2,800

Unit
Cost
$3.20
2.88
2.80
3.84
3.60
3.04

Unit
Market
$3.12
3.04
2.88
3.60
3.68
2.88

a. Compute the ending inventory applying the LCM method to the total inventory.
b. Determine the ending inventory by applying the LCM method on an item-by-item basis.
Alternate problem J The sales and cost of goods sold for Lively Company for the past five years
were as follows:
Year
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

Sales
(net)
$ 9,984,960
10,794,240
12,346,560
11,926,080
12,747,840

Cost of
Goods Sold
$ 6,240,600
6,746,400
7,716,600
7,272,000
7,920,000

The following information is for the seven months ended 2009 July 31:
Sales
Purchases
Purchase returns
Sales returns
Merchandise inventory,
2009 January 1

$7,748,000
4,588,800
28,800
173,760
948,000

To secure a loan, Lively Company has been asked to present current financial statements. However,
the company does not wish to take a complete physical inventory as of 2009 July 31.
a. Indicate how financial statements can be prepared without taking a complete physical inventory.
b. From the data given, compute the estimated inventory as of 2009 July 31.
Alternate problem K Apple Company's records contained the following inventory information:

Sales
Purchases
Purchase returns
Transportation-in
Merchandise inventory
January 1

Cost
$396,000
8,400
10,800

Retail
$420,000
582,000
12,000

21,600

30,000

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8.8.5 Beyond the numbersCritical thinking

Business decision case A Susan Green and Carol Lewis, were interested in starting part-time
business activities to supplement their family incomes. Both heard a presentation by the manufacturer
of an exercise device and decided to become a distributor of this exerciser. Green's sales territory is
Cobb County, and Lewis's sales territory is Gwinnett County. Each owns her own business.
To induce Green and Lewis to become distributors, the manufacturer made price concessions on the
first 1,000 units purchased. The manufacturer sold the first 200 units at USD 15 each, the next 300 at
USD 18 per unit, and the next 500 at USD 19 per unit. After that, Green and Lewis had to pay USD 20
per unit.
During the first year, each bought 1,200 units; coincidentally, both sold exactly 950 units for USD
27 each. Green had USD 2,600 of selling expenses; Lewis incurred USD 1,700 of selling expenses.
(Green's expenses were considerably higher because on December 28 she distributed 4,000 sales
brochures to households in her territory at a cost of USD 800. The brochures stressed that people
would want to take off the extra pounds gained during the holiday season; also, these exercisers were
inexpensive and could be used at home.)
At the end of the year, both had to determine their net incomes. Green received a B in the
accounting course she took at State University. She remembered the FIFO inventory method and plans
to use it. Lewis knows nothing about inventory costing methods. However, her husband is acquainted
with the LIFO inventory method used at the company where he works. He will help her compute the
cost of the ending inventory and the cost of goods using LIFO.
a. Prepare income statements for Green and Lewis.
b. Which business has performed better? Explain why.
c. Determine the inventory turnovers for Green and Lewis.

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Business decision case B Connie Dalton owns and operates a sporting goods store. On February
2 the store suffered extensive fire damage, and all of the inventory was destroyed. Dalton uses periodic
inventory procedure and has the following information in her accounting records, which were
undamaged:
Merchandise Inventory, January 1
Purchases:
January 8
January 20
January 30
Net Sales:
During January
February 1 and 2

$ 80,000
32,000
48,000
64,000
240,000
16,000

Dalton's gross margin rate on net sales has been 40 per cent for the past three years. Her insurance
company offered to pay USD 56,000 to settle this inventory loss unless Dalton can show that she
suffered a greater loss. She has asked you, her CPA, to help her in determining her loss.
Answer these questions: Based on your analysis, should Dalton settle for USD 56,000? If not, how
can she show that she suffered a greater loss? What is your estimate of her loss?
Annual report analysis C Refer to the financial statements of The Limited in the Annual Report
Appendix. Describe how inventory values are determined (see Footnote 1). Also, determine the
inventory turnover ratio for 2000.
Ethics case Writing experience D Respond in writing to the following questions based on the
ethics case concerning Terry Dorsey:
a. Do you believe that Terry's scheme will work?
b. What would you do if you were Terry's accountant?
c. Comment on each of Terry's points of justification.
Group project E In teams of two or three students, interview the manager of a merchandising
company. Inquire about inventory control methods, inventory costing methods, and any other
information about the company's inventory procedures. As a team, write a memorandum to your
instructor summarizing the results of the interview. The heading of the memorandum should include
the date, to whom it is written, from whom, and the subject matter.

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Group project F In a team of two or three students, locate and visit a nearby retail store that uses
perpetual inventory procedure and a computerized inventory management system. Investigate how the
system works by interviewing a knowledgeable person in the company. Write a report to your
instructor and make a short presentation to the class on your findings.
Group project G With a small group of students, identify and visit a retail store that uses periodic
inventory procedure and uses the retail inventory method for preparing interim (monthly or quarterly)
financial reports. Discover how the retail inventory method is applied and how the end-of-year
inventory amount is calculated. Write a report to your instructor summarizing your findings.

8.8.6 Using the InternetA view of the real world

Visit the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy website at:
http://www.nasba.org
Find the address of the state board of accountancy in your state. Also check out some of the
information provided at websites of other state boards by clicking on any sites that appear at the end of
a listing for a particular state. In a report to your instructor, summarize what you learned about state
boards at some of these sites.
Visit the Lexis-Nexis website at:
http://www.lexis-nexis.com
Determine the kinds of information that can be obtained at this site. Specifically, what kinds of
products and services are available? What is the background of Lexis-Nexis? What pricing information
is available for using its services? Write a report to your instructor summarizing your findings.

8.8.7 Answers to self-test

8.8.7.1 True-false
False. Overstated ending inventory results in an understatement of cost of goods sold and an
overstatement of gross margin and net income.
True. The cost of goods sold consists of the earliest purchases at the lowest costs in a period of
rising prices.
False. Under LCM, inventory is adjusted to market value only when the market (replacement)
value is less than the cost.
True. The first step in the gross margin method is to estimate gross margin using the gross margin
rate experienced in the past.
p. 424 of 433

True. The cost/retail ratio is computed by dividing the cost of goods available for sale by the retail
price of the goods available for sale.
False. Under perpetual procedure, the Cost of Goods Sold account is updated as sales occur.

8.8.7.2 Multiple-choice
b. The cost of ending inventory using FIFO consists of the most recent purchase:
Cost of ending inventory=3,400 USD36= USD122,400
c. The cost of goods sold using FIFO is:
Cost of goods available for sale=(3,000 USD30)+(5,000USD36)=USD 270,000
Cost of goods sold=USD 270,000 USD122,400= USD147,600
a. The cost of ending inventory using LIFO is:
(3,000 USD30)+(400 USD36)=USD 104,400
d. The cost of goods sold using LIFO is:
USD270,000 USD104,400=USD165,600
a. The cost of ending inventory using weighted-average cost is computed:
Unit cost=USD 270,0008,000=USD 33.75
Cost of ending inventory=3,400 X USD 33.75=USD114,750
c. The cost of goods sold using weighted-average cost is:
USD270,000 USD114,750=USD155,250

b. During a period of rising prices, FIFO results in the lowest cost of goods sold, thus the
highest net income.

p. 425 of 433

Alphabetical Index
academic accountants............................................................................................................................................21
accounting cycle..........................................31, 77, 86, 87, 123, 124, 126, 167, 190, 191, 214, 215, 229, 232, 234
Accounting Education Change Commission....................................................................................................6, 26
accounting equation........................................30, 39-48, 53, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62-64, 66, 70, 75, 78, 81, 82, 86, 191
Accounting period...............................................................................................................................................169
Accounting Principles Board (APB).....................................................................................................................24
Accounting Review...............................................................................................................................................24
Accounting Review, The.......................................................................................................................................24
accounting system...........................................15, 40, 41, 78, 79, 87, 123, 209, 210, 214, 215, 229, 233, 256, 261
accounting theory........................................................................224, 254, 255, 270, 279, 283, 284, 295, 298, 299
Accounting year..................................................................................................................................................169
Accounts Payable 36-38, 42-44, 48, 51, 54, 56-59, 61, 65-69, 71, 72, 79, 84, 92, 96, 98-100, 103, 104, 108, 109,
111-113, 115, 118-122, 129, 131-134, 136, 138, 139, 150, 186, 195, 196, 200, 210-212, 216, 218, 222, 226,
227, 229, 232, 234, 235, 237, 239-248, 252, 253, 316-318, 320-322, 330, 332, 333, 335, 337, 344, 350, 354,
368, 369, 385, 403
Accounts Receivable.....37, 38, 42-44, 47, 48, 51, 54, 56-58, 61, 65, 66, 68-72, 75, 76, 79, 92, 99-101, 108-110,
112, 116, 118-122, 125, 129, 131-134, 136, 138, 139, 150, 162-164, 169, 170, 172, 186, 195, 200, 201, 210212, 216, 219, 220, 223, 226, 227, 229, 232, 234, 235, 237, 239-242, 244-248, 252, 253, 259, 261, 299, 306,
307, 310-312, 320-322, 329, 332, 333, 335, 338, 341, 344, 348-350, 354, 367, 368, 386
accrual basis. . .92, 123, 144-146, 163, 167, 169, 173-175, 181, 185, 187, 257, 272, 283, 286, 288, 293, 295, 301
Accrual basis of accounting................................................................................................................................123
accrued assets and liabilities...............................................................................................................................170
Accrued revenues and expenses..........................................................................................................................170
Accumulated amortization..................................................................................................................218, 221, 229
Accumulated Depreciation. .158-160, 168, 170, 171, 182, 183, 186, 188, 195, 211, 218, 221, 227-229, 235, 238248, 252, 259, 284, 299, 300, 320, 350, 354
Accumulated Depreciation account.............................................................................158-160, 170, 171, 188, 299
Adjunct account..................................................................................................................................319, 320, 338
adjusting entries......87, 118, 144-151, 155, 156, 162, 166-168, 170-173, 175, 180, 181, 184-187, 192, 194, 196,
200, 201, 224-226, 228, 229, 233, 253, 257, 259, 260, 332, 348, 352
administrative expenses.......................................266, 294, 296, 297, 324-327, 331, 332, 336, 338, 353, 355, 417
AECC..................................................................................................................................................................6, 9
AICPA.................................................................................................17, 23, 24, 28, 147, 210, 261, 262, 266, 301
Allowances account.....................................................................................................309, 311, 312, 318, 330, 340
American Accounting Association....................................................................................................15, 23-25, 261
assets......4, 33, 35-49, 51, 52, 54, 57-63, 68, 69, 71, 72, 74-76, 78, 80-82, 84-86, 90-93, 113, 116-118, 124, 130,
141, 146-149, 156, 157, 159, 160, 162, 165, 167, 170, 171, 174, 178, 186-188, 190-192, 194, 197, 200, 209,
216-226, 229-232, 234, 235, 238, 251, 256, 258-263, 267, 269, 270, 273, 277-279, 281, 284, 285, 290, 293,
296, 306, 331, 335, 342, 348, 358, 361, 389, 395
balance sheet.......7, 16, 30, 34-39, 41, 44, 45, 47, 48, 51, 54-56, 58-62, 65, 67-73, 76, 78, 90, 93, 118, 124, 140,
141, 145, 147, 150, 151, 153, 155, 156, 158, 159, 161-166, 168, 170, 171, 178, 188, 190-192, 196-200, 208,
215-223, 225, 227, 229-235, 240, 244, 245, 248, 250-253, 256, 258-260, 273, 275, 293, 324, 331-333, 335,
346, 349, 350, 355, 358, 360, 361, 363, 371, 377, 380, 381, 389, 397, 414, 419

p. 426 of 433

bias..............................................................................................................................260, 275, 276, 284, 285, 295

bonds payable......................................................................................................................................223, 229, 230
book value............................................................................................158-160, 170, 261, 267, 284, 285, 299, 300
Buildings ............................................................................................................................................119, 121, 228
Business emphasis...................................................................................................................................................6
business entity concept..................................................................31, 32, 40, 58, 61, 256, 284, 286, 288, 293, 301
Business transactions..........................................................................................................................................123
calendar year.......................................................................................................................147, 169, 170, 188, 291
capital stock......36, 38, 42, 44, 46-48, 51, 54-58, 62-72, 82, 84, 85, 89, 91-93, 105-108, 111, 112, 118, 119, 121,
122, 124, 125, 127-136, 138, 139, 143, 150, 181, 186, 192, 195, 197, 200, 202, 209, 211, 226, 227, 234, 235,
237, 239-248, 252, 332, 333, 335, 347, 350, 352-355
cash basis of accounting......................................................145, 146, 167, 170, 173-175, 181, 185, 257, 264, 287
cash discount...............................................................................309, 310, 317, 318, 328, 330, 338, 340, 344, 345
cash equivalents...................................................................................................................116, 218, 219, 229, 281
CC-BY-NC-.............................................................................................................................................................3
Certified Internal Auditor......................................................................................................................................20
Certified Management Accountants......................................................................................................................20
Certified Public Accountant........................................................................17, 23, 25, 75, 147, 210, 261, 266, 301
Chain discount.....................................................................................................................................308, 338, 340
Chart of accounts................................................................................................................................................123
CIA........................................................................................................................................................................20
classified balance sheet...7, 190, 191, 215-217, 219, 223, 225, 229, 232, 233, 240, 244, 245, 248, 250, 253, 349,
350, 355, 358
classified income statement..................303, 304, 324-327, 330, 338, 341-343, 348-350, 352, 354, 355, 357, 358
closing process..............................................................45, 201, 202, 208, 226, 229, 231, 232, 236, 251, 304, 335
Comparability......................................................................................................276, 277, 283, 284, 292, 295, 297
completed-contract method.........................................................................................265, 284, 286, 293, 294, 297
Compound journal entry.....................................................................................................................................123
Conservatism.........................................................................................................267-270, 283-285, 288-290, 294
Consigned goods.........................................................................................................................322, 338, 341, 357
consistency..........................................................258, 260, 276, 283, 284, 287, 290, 293, 295, 296, 302, 383, 385
Construction in progress.....................................................................................................................218, 221, 229
continuity............................................................................................41, 58, 59, 62, 256, 260, 283, 285, 290, 294
contra asset account............................................................................................................151, 159, 170, 188, 221
Copyright....................................................................................................................................................221, 229
Corporation...24, 33, 35, 38-40, 42, 45, 52, 53, 55, 58, 60, 63, 71, 76, 82, 91, 140, 212, 214, 222, 224, 230, 235,
238, 256, 289, 293, 328, 348, 356, 399
cost....2, 23, 32, 41, 52, 56, 58, 59, 62, 66, 68, 69, 71, 92, 100, 136, 148, 149, 151, 152, 156-159, 168, 170, 176,
180-183, 186, 214, 216-218, 221, 235, 259, 261, 264, 265, 267-270, 273, 274, 277, 279-281, 283-285, 288291, 294-297, 303, 305, 308, 313-316, 318-328, 330-332, 334, 338-343, 345-348, 351, 354-413, 415-423,
425, 426
cost of goods available for sale. .314, 316, 323, 324, 326, 330, 332, 334, 338, 343, 345, 357, 361-363, 366, 371375, 377, 379, 384, 389-394, 396, 397, 404, 405, 426
cost of goods sold. 267, 291, 303, 305, 313-316, 319, 321-328, 330-332, 334, 339-343, 345, 346, 356, 357, 359363, 366-369, 371-382, 384-387, 390-398, 403-408, 416, 417, 420-422, 425, 426
cost principle...............................................................................................................................261, 284, 285, 296
Cost-benefit consideration..........................................................................................................................268, 285
CPA.................................17-20, 22-25, 28, 32, 50, 77, 78, 142, 147, 210, 233, 261, 262, 266, 268, 298, 301, 424

p. 427 of 433

Credit balance.....................................................................................................................................................123
Creditors and lenders............................................................................................................................................22
Cross-indexing....................................................................................................................................................123
current assets.........................................................116, 217-220, 222-226, 229, 230, 232, 238, 342, 358, 361, 389
Current liabilities..................................................................................................217-219, 222-226, 229, 232, 238
current ratio.............................................................................................7, 190, 215, 223, 224, 226, 229, 250, 251
Curriculum concerns...............................................................................................................................................5
customers....22, 31, 34, 35, 37, 40, 45, 53, 54, 56, 58, 59, 63, 72, 79, 92, 105, 127, 128, 130-133, 135, 138, 141,
145, 160, 161, 163, 171, 184, 185, 210, 216, 219, 220, 222, 229, 231, 249, 250, 253, 256, 260, 263, 282, 284,
292, 301, 304-306, 308, 310, 313, 322, 324, 339, 340, 356, 360, 365, 367, 385, 386, 396, 404
Debit balance ......................................................................................................................................................123
deferred items..............................................................................................149, 151, 162, 167, 168, 170, 173, 175
Delivery Expense.................................................................................................320-322, 326, 338, 339, 343, 354
Depreciable amount....................................................................................................................................158, 170
Depreciable asset.........................................................................................................................................157, 170
depreciation accounting......................................................................................................................157, 170, 257
Depreciation expense..150, 157, 158, 160, 169, 170, 188, 193, 195, 198, 201, 204, 206, 226-228, 237, 239, 240,
243-245, 248, 252, 253, 257, 267, 269, 275, 326, 327, 350, 354
depreciation formula...................................................................................................................157, 158, 170, 174
Dividend......................35, 49, 58, 59, 63, 64, 73, 79, 83, 84, 86, 91, 104, 120, 123-125, 131, 134, 135, 139, 202
Dividends payable.......................................................................................................................................222, 229
Double-entry procedure......................................................................................................................................123
Earning principle.........................................................................................................................263, 285, 293, 294
Edwards...................................................................................................................................................................2
Employees and their unions..................................................................................................................................22
end-of-chapter materials...................................................................................................................................9, 26
entity............31-33, 40, 41, 58, 59, 61, 147, 169, 191, 256, 257, 259, 260, 277, 278, 283-288, 290, 293-295, 301
entrepreneur..........................................................................................................................................................30
equities..................................................................................................................39, 42, 52-54, 58-60, 65, 74, 259
equity ratio....................................................................................................................................30, 52, 54, 59, 74
estimated useful life............................................................................................................157, 170, 176, 180, 184
ethical behavior...............................................................................................................................................25, 26
ethics.................................................................................................................5, 9, 25, 26, 75, 141, 300, 356, 424
exchange-price....................................................................41, 59, 61, 62, 261, 270, 283, 285, 288, 290, 294, 296
exchange-price (or cost) principle.......................................................................................................261, 285, 288
expenses....4, 23, 35-37, 45, 46, 49, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 61, 63, 66, 68-70, 72, 73, 81-83, 85, 90-92, 113, 117,
120, 123, 126, 129, 140, 141, 145-151, 153, 157, 164, 167-170, 173-175, 187, 192, 194, 196-198, 202-204,
206, 218-220, 222, 229, 230, 241, 249, 253, 257-261, 263, 264, 266-268, 270, 278, 285, 291, 293, 294, 296,
297, 301, 305, 320, 324-328, 330-334, 336, 338-343, 346, 350, 353, 355, 356, 361, 362, 386, 394, 417, 423
Exposure Drafts.....................................................................................................................................................25
FASB.......................................................................................24, 25, 255, 261, 269, 271, 273, 277, 279, 283, 297
feedback value.....................................................................................................................273, 285, 292, 295, 297
Financial Accounting 1, 2, 14, 20-25, 39, 41, 78, 224, 254, 255, 260, 261, 269-271, 273, 277, 279, 285, 298-300
Financial Accounting Standards Board...................................................23-25, 254, 255, 261, 269, 273, 277, 300
Financial Analysts Federation...............................................................................................................................25
Financial Executives Institute.................................................................................................................23, 25, 261
financial reporting objectives......................................................................................................271, 283, 285, 297
financial statements4, 15-17, 19, 21, 22, 25, 28, 30, 31, 34, 39-41, 48, 49, 53, 62, 64, 74, 79, 80, 86, 87, 93,

p. 428 of 433

114, 115, 117, 123, 127, 130, 145, 147-151, 155, 156, 159, 160, 166, 170-174, 176, 177, 181, 191, 199-201,
213-216, 224, 225, 229, 231-233, 256-260, 262, 266, 268, 270, 271, 275-277, 279, 280, 283-285, 288-291,
295, 296, 298-301, 315, 320, 332, 335, 338, 343, 366, 382, 383, 385, 389-392, 408, 412, 413, 422, 424
fiscal year............................................................................................................137, 147, 170, 188, 239, 244, 412
FOB destination...........................................263, 299, 306, 319-322, 330, 336, 338, 339, 343, 345, 347, 351, 352
FOB shipping point...............................................................................263, 319-322, 330, 339, 345-349, 351-353
freight collect .....................................................................................................................................................322
freight prepaid.............................................................................319, 320, 322, 330, 336, 338, 339, 347, 351, 352
full disclosure principle...............................................................................................261, 268, 276, 284, 285, 289
GAAP................................................................................................................................22, 23, 33, 260, 271, 277
Gain and loss recognition principle....................................................................................................261, 267, 285
Gains...........................................................................................................................267, 270, 278, 281, 282, 285
GASB....................................................................................................................................................................24
general public................................................................................................................................................22, 254
generally accepted accounting principles......................4, 22, 23, 33, 187, 260-262, 270, 277, 279, 288, 293, 298
Global Text Project.................................................................................................................................................2
Going-concern...............................................................................................41, 58, 59, 61, 62, 256, 285, 288, 293
goodwill..............................................................................................................................................221, 229, 281
Governmental Accounting Standards Board...................................................................................................23, 24
Governmental units...............................................................................................................................................22
gross margin.....4, 264-266, 285, 287, 291, 293, 294, 296, 303-305, 325-329, 331, 334, 339, 343, 345, 346, 356,
359, 361-363, 380-382, 384, 390, 391, 393, 395, 397, 399, 404, 405, 408, 410-413, 415, 417, 419, 421, 424,
425
gross margin percentage..........................................................................4, 264, 265, 287, 303, 304, 329, 339, 356
gross profit..........................................................................................................................264, 327, 329, 339, 356
gross selling price................................................................................................307-309, 329, 337, 339, 344, 396
Hermanson..............................................................................................................................................................2
historical cost..............................................................................................261, 285, 366, 380, 383, 387, 388, 404
Horizontal analysis..............................................................................................................................................123
IASB......................................................................................................................................................................28
IASC......................................................................................................................................................................28
IFRS................................................................................................................................................................28, 29
Income from operations..............................................................................................................326, 328, 339, 346
income statement16, 30, 34-39, 41, 45, 48, 51, 54, 56, 57, 59-61, 65, 67-69, 71, 72, 76, 78, 83, 84, 90, 145, 147,
148, 153, 155, 156, 158, 161, 163-165, 171, 184, 187, 188, 190, 192, 195-199, 202-204, 225, 227, 231-234,
236, 237, 240, 244, 245, 248, 250, 251, 253, 258-260, 275, 298, 303-306, 310, 312-314, 316, 317, 319, 320,
322, 324-328, 330-336, 338, 340-343, 346, 348-350, 352, 354, 355, 357, 358, 360-363, 371, 381, 389, 391,
393, 394
Income Summary account...........................202-204, 206, 207, 225, 228, 229, 231, 232, 236, 252, 336, 346, 358
Income taxes payable..........................................................................................................................218, 222, 230
installment basis...................................................................................264, 265, 283, 285-287, 291, 293, 296, 301
Institute of Certified Management Accountants...................................................................................................20
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.........................................................................................................29
Institute of Management Accountants.......................................................................................................20, 23, 25
intangible assets .................................................................................................................................................217
Interest Payable...........................................................................................................166, 174, 222, 230, 240, 245
Interest Receivable......................................150, 162, 163, 172, 189, 195, 200, 201, 211, 219, 220, 230, 240, 245
Internal Auditors...................................................................................................................................................20

p. 429 of 433

International Accounting Standards......................................................................................................................28

International Financial Reporting Standards.................................................................................................28, 262
invoice..................................135, 267, 299, 306-310, 317, 328, 329, 338-340, 344, 345, 347, 357, 365, 410, 411
invoice price.................................................................................307-310, 317, 329, 338-340, 344, 347, 357, 365
Journal entry........................................................................................................................................................123
Journal of Accountancy.........................................................................................................................................24
Land38, 41, 56-58, 64, 65, 67-69, 72, 118-122, 138, 186, 218, 220, 226, 227, 230, 231, 238, 240, 242, 245, 251,
273, 279, 294, 295, 297, 331, 347, 348, 354
Leasehold improvements....................................................................................................................218, 221, 230
Leaseholds...................................................................................................................................................221, 230
Ledger.................................................................................................................................................................123
liabilities.......4, 36-40, 42-44, 46-48, 51, 52, 54, 57-61, 63, 68, 69, 71, 72, 74, 76, 78, 81, 82, 84-86, 90-93, 113,
116, 118, 124, 140, 147, 149, 161, 162, 164, 165, 168, 170, 174, 178, 191, 192, 194, 197, 200, 209, 216-219,
222-226, 229-232, 234, 238, 259, 261, 262, 277, 278, 296, 335
liquidation...........................................................................................................................................256, 285, 293
long-term assets.................................................................................................38, 41, 62, 220, 230, 232, 267, 285
Long-term investment.........................................................................................................................220, 221, 230
Long-term liabilities............................................................................................217, 218, 223, 226, 229, 230, 238
losses.........................................................................19, 32, 52, 197, 267, 270, 275, 278, 281, 282, 285, 372, 382
Maher......................................................................................................................................................................2
management advisory...........................................................................................................................................19
Manufacturers.......................................................................................................................................34, 304, 339
manufacturing companies...........................................................................................................33, 34, 54, 59, 267
marketable securities...........................................................................................................219, 224, 230, 238, 281
matching principle.......................................................147, 148, 158, 170, 175, 261, 267, 270, 285, 286, 294, 296
Materiality.............................................................................................268-270, 277, 283-285, 288-290, 292, 295
McCubbrey..............................................................................................................................................................2
Merchandise in transit.................................................................................................................................322, 339
Merchandise Inventory 230, 313-316, 321-326, 329, 331-336, 339, 340, 342, 343, 345, 347, 350, 352, 354, 357,
358, 360, 361, 367-369, 376, 377, 379, 385-388, 390-392, 397, 399, 401-404, 413, 414, 416, 418, 420-422,
424
Merchandising companies...........................33, 34, 53, 59, 282, 304, 305, 307, 310, 313, 315, 327, 329, 331, 360
Modifying conventions........................................................................................254, 255, 268-270, 283, 285, 288
Money measurement...........................................................................41, 59, 62, 76, 256, 257, 260, 283, 285, 287
Net cost of purchases. .313, 314, 316, 319, 321-323, 326, 328, 330, 332, 334, 338, 339, 341, 345, 346, 357, 361,
390, 391, 399, 404
net income.35-38, 46-48, 52, 55, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 69, 73, 148, 165-168, 177, 178, 180, 184, 195-199, 202,
206, 207, 221, 225, 227, 229, 232-237, 250, 252, 258-260, 263, 266, 269, 270, 274, 284, 290, 291, 293, 294,
296, 297, 299, 300, 305, 326-328, 331-334, 336, 339, 346, 358, 360-363, 366, 380-383, 385, 394-396, 398,
399, 403, 405, 407-409, 412, 414, 417-419, 425, 426
net purchases...............................................................................314, 317, 319, 323, 325, 328, 334, 339, 345, 357
net sales......166, 306, 312, 313, 322, 325, 327, 328, 330, 334, 339, 340, 342, 343, 345, 346, 356, 390, 391, 394,
397, 399, 404, 412, 413, 424
neutrality.....................................................................................................................275, 276, 285, 292, 295, 297
Nominal accounts................................................................................................................................................123
Nonoperating expenses........................................................................................................................326-328, 339
Nonoperating revenues................................................................................................325-328, 330, 331, 339, 342
Note38, 41, 42, 44, 47, 48, 56, 59, 63-66, 70, 79, 82, 86, 92, 106, 109, 113, 114, 123, 129-132, 135, 136, 138,

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151, 166, 172, 183, 192, 196, 197, 203, 204, 217, 219, 220, 222, 230, 273, 280, 310, 325, 327, 335, 336, 363,
371, 375, 379, 383, 385, 400, 416, 420
notes payable. .36-38, 42-44, 46-48, 51, 54, 56, 57, 59, 61, 65, 66, 70, 79, 82, 106, 107, 118, 119, 121, 122, 131,
132, 136, 138, 183, 222, 223, 226, 227, 230, 238-240, 242, 245, 247, 248
Objectives and overall approach of the eighth edition...........................................................................................6
office equipment................................36-38, 42-44, 51, 64, 132, 134-136, 186, 220, 230, 242-245, 248, 326, 327
office furniture.....................................................................................................................133-136, 220, 230, 248
operating cycle....................................................................................................................219, 222, 229, 230, 361
Operating expenses..........................................................66, 68, 324-327, 330, 331, 334, 338, 339, 342, 343, 346
Operating revenues.............................................................................306, 312, 325, 326, 330, 331, 334, 339, 342
Owners and prospective owners...........................................................................................................................22
Pacioli......................................................................................................................................................14, 79, 142
Paid-in Capital.....................................................................................................................219, 223, 230, 284, 299
partnership.......................................................................................................................32, 53-55, 59, 60, 63, 214
Passage of title....................................................................................................................................319, 330, 339
Patent...........................................................................................................................................................221, 230
Pedagogy.................................................................................................................................................................8
percentage-of-completion...........................................................................265, 266, 283, 285, 291, 294, 296, 297
Period costs.................................................................................................................................................267, 285
periodic inventory procedure.......314-316, 321, 324, 330, 339, 340, 342-345, 361, 366, 370-375, 378, 384, 390,
398, 405, 407, 410, 416, 417, 420, 421, 424, 425
Periodicity....................................................................41, 59, 62, 76, 256-260, 283, 286-288, 290, 293, 295, 302
Permanent accounts.............................................................................................................................................124
perpetual inventory procedure......314, 315, 330, 339, 340, 357, 359, 366-370, 376-379, 384-387, 396-398, 405,
407, 409-411, 415, 416, 420, 421, 425
Philosophy and purpose..........................................................................................................................................4
physical inventory......155, 156, 180, 299, 315, 316, 321, 322, 339-341, 343, 361, 364, 365, 367, 370, 387, 390393, 395, 407, 410, 412, 413, 418, 422
post-closing trial balance................87, 118, 190, 208, 209, 224, 225, 229-231, 233, 237, 240, 246, 251-253, 332
Predictive value...........................................................................................................273, 274, 286, 292, 295, 297
Prepaid expense...........................................................................................................151, 153, 155-157, 165, 170
prepaid expenses.........................................................................................149, 151, 157, 170, 219, 220, 230, 259
private sector...........................................................................................................................................24, 28, 300
Product costs...............................................................................................................................................267, 286
profitability..................................................34, 39, 40, 52-54, 59, 60, 86, 148, 191, 256, 305, 325, 328, 360, 363
Property, plant, and equipment....................................................................................174, 220, 225, 229, 230, 238
purchase discount........................................................................309, 317, 325, 334, 338, 340, 341, 356, 365, 396
Purchase Discounts account........................................................................................................................317, 340
Purchase returns....314, 317-319, 321-323, 325, 328, 330, 332-335, 337, 339-341, 344-346, 357, 366, 367, 369,
385, 392, 393, 413, 417, 418, 422
Purchases account................................................................................................316, 317, 319, 340-342, 357, 366
qualitative characteristics............................................................271, 273, 274, 277, 283, 286, 288, 289, 297, 298
Retained Earnings.................................................................................................................................................51
real accounts........................................................................................................................................................124
Realization principle...........................................................................................................263, 283, 286, 293, 294
Relevance....................................................................................215, 273, 275, 276, 283, 286, 292, 295, 298, 302
reliability.......................................................................................14, 262, 275, 276, 283, 286, 292, 295, 298, 302
representational faithfulness.......................................................................................................275, 286, 292, 298

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retailers........................................................................................................281, 304, 307, 308, 313, 340, 348, 360

retained earnings. .16, 30, 34-39, 45-49, 51, 54-72, 76, 78, 82-86, 91, 92, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 126, 132-134,
136-139, 145, 165, 186, 190, 192, 195-202, 207-209, 211, 219, 223, 225-229, 231-236, 238-248, 251-253,
259, 260, 275, 331-336, 346, 350, 354, 355, 360-363, 395
revenue recognition principle......................................................................................261, 263, 267, 286, 287, 296
revenues....4, 20, 35-37, 42, 45-47, 49, 51, 54, 57, 59, 61, 63, 69, 72, 81-83, 85, 90-92, 113, 123, 124, 126, 145149, 151, 153, 160, 162, 165, 167-170, 173-175, 187, 192, 194, 196-198, 202, 206, 219, 222, 229-232, 257,
258, 260, 261, 263-268, 270, 275, 278, 280, 281, 285, 286, 288, 289, 293, 301, 305-307, 312, 324-331, 334,
338-342, 361, 380, 381, 383, 386, 396, 397
revenues received in advance......................................................................................................................222, 231
Salaries Payable...................150, 165, 169, 170, 189, 195, 200, 201, 211, 222, 227, 228, 231, 232, 240, 245, 252
sales allowance............................................................................................................311, 312, 330, 340, 347, 386
sales discount...............................................................................................................309-312, 338, 340, 342, 356
Sales Discounts account......................................................................................................309, 310, 312, 330, 340
Sales Return.................................................................................................................310-312, 325, 334, 340, 386
Sales returns. .306, 309-313, 328, 330, 332, 333, 336, 338-340, 342, 344-346, 350, 354, 357, 386, 413, 417, 422
scrap value...................................................................................................................................................157, 170
SEC.................................................................................................................................................24, 28, 261, 300
Securities and Exchange Act of 1934...................................................................................................................24
Securities and Exchange Commission.........................................................................................19, 23-25, 28, 261
selling expenses...........................................................293, 320, 326, 327, 331-333, 336, 340, 350, 353, 417, 423
service companies...............................................................................................................33, 34, 53, 59, 282, 304
service potential .................................................................................................................................................152
shareholders....................................................................................................................................................33, 60
Simple journal entry............................................................................................................................................124
Single proprietorship...............................................................................................................32, 53, 55, 59, 60, 63
solvency......................................................................................................34, 37, 39, 53, 59, 62, 74, 86, 191, 360
stable dollar assumption..............................................................................................................257, 286, 294, 295
statement of cash flows...................................................................16, 30, 34, 38, 39, 41, 54, 60, 61, 78, 145, 275
statement of retained earnings....16, 30, 34-37, 39, 54, 56, 57, 60, 61, 65, 67, 68, 72, 76, 78, 145, 190, 192, 195200, 225, 227, 231-235, 240, 244, 245, 248, 251, 253, 259, 275, 332-335, 346, 350, 355, 360-362
stockholders 16, 21, 23, 27, 33-40, 42-49, 51-55, 57-62, 64, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 74-76, 78-82, 85, 86, 89-93, 104,
106-109, 113, 117, 118, 120, 123-125, 127, 140, 143, 147, 167, 178, 186, 191, 192, 197, 200, 202, 216-219,
222, 223, 226, 229, 231, 232, 238, 252, 259, 261-263, 275, 276, 281, 335, 347, 348, 352, 353, 363
stockholders' equity.....36, 42-44, 46-48, 51, 52, 58, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 78-82, 85, 86, 90-93, 113, 117, 118, 123,
124, 127, 143, 191, 192, 197, 200, 216-219, 223, 226, 229, 231, 232, 238, 252, 259, 261, 275, 281, 335
stockholders equity........................................................................37-40, 42, 44-49, 52-55, 58-62, 64, 74-76, 147
straight-line.................................................................................................................157, 158, 170, 174, 257, 281
Summa de Arithmetica..........................................................................................................................................14
summary of transactions......................................................................41, 44, 51, 57, 60, 65, 66, 68-70, 72, 75, 80
T-account.............................................................................................................................................................124
Tax services.....................................................................................................................................................16, 19
Taxes withheld from employees..........................................................................................................222, 231, 238
Temporary accounts............................................................................................................................................124
Textbook Equity..................................................................................................................................................2, 3
time periods.......................................................................................41, 59, 62, 147, 170, 257, 259, 260, 286, 290
Timeliness...........................................................................................................................274, 286, 292, 295, 297
Trade Discount....................................................................................................................308, 309, 340, 341, 344

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transaction...39-48, 53, 56, 59-64, 66, 68-70, 72, 75, 79-83, 86-104, 106, 107, 115, 118, 123-125, 128-130, 145,
149, 150, 153, 155, 181, 184, 185, 191, 258-261, 263, 286, 296, 300, 301, 306, 317, 320, 329, 353, 377, 410,
411
Transportation-In account...........................................................................................................................319, 340
unclassified balance sheet...........................................................................................................216, 217, 231, 233
unclassified income statement....................................................................................................324, 325, 340, 357
unearned revenue........................................................................................................................149, 160, 171, 173
Unearned revenues .....................................................................................................................................222, 231
verifiability..................................................................................................................275, 276, 286, 292, 295, 297
wholesalers..................................................................................................................304, 308, 339, 340, 360, 370
work sheet 87, 117, 190-193, 195-197, 199, 200, 202-204, 224-227, 229, 231-237, 241, 243, 244, 246-248, 251,
253, 303, 304, 331-333, 335, 336, 346, 350, 355
work sheet ....................................................................................................................................................87, 200

End of Volume 1, Chapters 1 - 8.

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