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Table of Contents
Chapter 1

Sentence Review

Chapter 2

Purpose of Writing

24

Chapter 3

Steps in the Writing Process

32

Chapter 4

The Paragraph

36

Chapter 5

Paragraph Characteristics

46

Chapter 6

Types of Paragraphs

51

Chapter 7

Parts of the Essay

59

Chapter 8

Process Essays

70

Chapter 9

Division & Classification Essays

76

Chapter 10

Cause & Effect Essays

81

Chapter 11

Compare & Contrast Essay

92

Chapter 12

Problems & Solution Essays

102

Chapter 1- Sentence Review

Before beginning the task of writing paragraphs and essays this chapter will review some basic
concepts of the writing task. The activity of writing begins with words and these words are built upon to
form larger and larger units or groupings of words. From words, the activity progresses to phrases and
clauses to sentences, to paragraphs, to essays, to units or chapters to books. The first chapter of this
book will begin with a review of phrases and clauses followed by common problems that beginning
writers have with clauses and sentences. Next the chapter will cover the different kinds of sentences
that can be used when writing.

Phrases and clauses

A phrase is a group of two or more words that
has no subject or verb. Look at these examples:
A big, blue tambourine
An amazingly fast animal
4 AAA alkaline batteries
A clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb. There are two kinds of clauses:
independent clauses (also called main clauses) and dependent clauses (also called subordinate
clauses). An independent clause is a complete sentence and can stand-alone. A dependent clause is
not a complete sentence and cannot stand alone. It must be connected to an independent clause in
some way.
There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses.
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that starts with a subordinating conjunction. (see below for a
list of subordinating conjunctions). Adverb clauses function as adverbs and modify verbs, adjectives,
or other adverbs in an independent clause. It tells when (time), where (place), why (reason), how, how
long, or how far. An adverb clause can be placed before or after the independent clause. If it is placed
before the independent clause, a comma must be used to separate the two clauses. No comma is
needed if the adverb clause is placed after the independent clause.
Whenever I take the bus to class, I always arrive late.
I always arrive to class late whenever I take the bus.
An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) is a dependent clause that begins with a relative
pronoun (who, whom, which, whose, or that). An adjective clause functions as an adjective and
follows the noun or pronoun it modifies. It tells more about a person or thing.
Maria, who is in my class, drinks coffee everyday.
Three professional athletes, who are members of the Olympic swim team, were
arrested last night for disturbing the peace.
Please note the use of the following relative pronouns:
The word who (and whom) is used when referring to people.
The word which is used when referring to things.
The word that can be used to refer to people or things.
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A noun clause is a dependent clause that begins with a WH-question word (what, when, where, why,
who, how), that, whether, and if. A noun clause can function as a subject, object, or complement.
I know that people have different opinions about capital punishment.
I could be completely happy if I had a lot of money.
Clauses, whether independent or dependent, need to be joined together
in some way to make the writing smooth and to make the relationship
between the clauses clear. Clauses are joined together with the use of
clause connectors. There are four kinds of clause connectors:
subordinating conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions, correlative
conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs.
Subordinating conjunctions (also called subordinators) are words at the beginning of a dependent
clause and are used to connect an independent clause and a dependent clause. The subordinating
conjunction may appear at the beginning of the sentence or between the dependent and independent
clause. Note the punctuation with the use of subordinating conjunctions. If the subordinating
conjunction and the dependent clause are at the beginning of the sentence, a comma follows the
dependent clause. No comma is used if the subordinating conjunction and the dependent clause are
at the end of the sentence.
Look at these examples.
After I ate lunch, I went to the movies.
I went to the movie after I ate lunch.
If I walk more than six miles at one time, my feet are always sore.
My feet are always sore if I walk more than six miles at one time.
Look at the partial list of subordinating conjunctions below. Note that each subordinating conjunction
can introduce specific functions or situations.
Subordinating conjunctions
Time
when
whenever
after
since
until
once
Place
where
anywhere
Manner
as
as if
Reason
because
as
Purpose
so that
in order that
can/could
will/would
Concession although
though
Contrast
while
whereas
Distance
as + adverb + as
Result
so + adjective + that

while
as
by the time that
wherever
as though
since
may/might
have to
even though

as soon as
before
everywhere
in as much as

Coordinating conjunctions (also called coordinators) are used to connect two independent clauses,
both with equal importance in the sentence. A comma separates the two independent clauses, with
the coordinator immediately following the comma. Look at these examples.
Mr. Lee was already extremely tired, but he continued working until well after midnight.
Sam had not finished cooking dinner, nor had he completed all the homework before his
wife returned home.
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List of coordinating conjunctives

for

and

nor

but

or

yet

so

An easy way to remember the coordinators is with the mnemonic device FAN BOYS.
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of coordinating conjunctions that work together to join two similar
or contrasting thoughts together. The correlative conjunctions are:
both and

not only but also

either or

neither nor

Look at these examples.

The Democratic Party in America is committed to higher taxes for
both big business and the wealthy.
Cheetahs are not only fast but also powerful.
If a person is attempting to lose weight they should neither eat excessively
nor avoid exercise.
A popular axiom is You are either with us, or against us.
Conjunctive adverbs (such as besides, however, indeed), like coordinating conjunctions, are used to
connect two independent clauses together. Conjunctive adverbs, however, do not join two
independent clauses into a single grammatical unit, as coordinating conjunctions do; they merely
show the relationship between the two clauses. Look at this example.
Economical vehicles are widely available in the United States; however, many Americans still
prefer gas guzzling luxury cars.
In the sentence above, however does not join the two clauses into a grammatical unit, it just shows
how the two clauses are related. Because a conjunctive adverb does not bind clauses together, as
coordinating conjunctions do, they can be moved around. Look at these examples.
The Smiths had planned on going on a picnic; however, a sudden
thunderstorm forced them to cancel the outing.
The Smiths had planned on going on a picnic; a sudden thunderstorm
forced them to cancel the outing, however.
Compare the use of coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs and how the clauses are
combined into grammatical units.
Economical vehicles are widely available in the United States; but, many
Americans still prefer gas guzzling luxury cars.
Economical vehicles are widely available in the United States, many
Americans still prefer gas guzzling luxury cars but.
The sentences above demonstrate that but binds the two clauses into a grammatical unit, which does
not allow the movement of the coordinating conjunction to other places in the sentence.
Conjunctive adverbs are always placed between two independent clauses. Note the punctuation used
with conjunctive adverbs. A semi-colon separates the two independent clauses and a comma follows
the conjunctive adverb if it is between the clauses, or a period if at the end of the sentence.
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List of Conjunctive Adverbs

accordingly
furthermore
in contrast
meanwhile
on the other hand

besides
hence
indeed
moreover
otherwise

consequently
however
instead
nevertheless
therefore

for example
in addition
likewise
nonetheless
thus

Types of sentences
Four types of sentences can be used when writing. Writers should strive to use all four types of
sentences because doing so provides greater interest and enjoyment for the reader. Imagine having
to read a long passage containing only simple sentences. Boredom and tedium would soon set in.
Look carefully at the four types of sentences.
1. A simple sentence consists of one independent clause with one subject and verb.
A tornado is a destructive force in nature.

SUBJECT + VERB

Bicycles are a great way to travel short distances.

Exercise 1.1
Write four simple sentences in the space below.

1. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined together. The
independent clauses can be joined together in one of three ways.
a) with a coordinating conjunction
b) with a conjunctive adverb
c) with a semicolon

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
+
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

a. With a coordinating conjunction

Independent clause, + coordinator + independent clause
Phil thoroughly enjoys playing chess, but he detests checkers.
Luxury cars are very expensive, yet they can be just as unreliable as cheaper cars.

b. With a conjunctive adverb

Independent clause; + conjunctive adverb, + independent clause
Maureen can play the violin like a virtuoso; however, she cant
stand classical music.
A diet high in cholesterol can be dangerous to your health; indeed,
it can lead to high blood pressure and arterial-sclerosis.
c. With a semicolon
Independent clause; independent clause
My oldest sister is a teacher; my youngest is a lawyer.
Russia was the first country to put a man into space; the
United States was second.
Exercise 1.2
Write six compound sentences, two each with a coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverb, and a
semi-colon.

1. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
6. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Exercise 1.3
Add another dependent clause to the dependent clause below using the seven coordinating
conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to form a compound sentence. Be sure to include correct
punctuation.
1. Camels can thrive in the desert for ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Mr. Jackson can fly an airplane and _______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Ms. Kang cannot cook nor _______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
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4. I enjoy studying mathematics but _________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
5. To lose weight people can eat properly or __________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Millions of people go to church regularly on Sundays yet _____________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Mr. Wallace was starting to put on a few pounds so _________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. A complex sentence consists of one independent clause
and one or more dependent clauses. (See above for a
review of the three different kinds of dependent clauses).
The most important idea of the sentence is place in the
independent clause and the least important idea is placed
in the dependent clause.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
+
DEPENDENT CLAUSE
+
DEPENDENT CLAUSE

Complex sentence with adverb clause

Although winters in Colorado can be extremely cold, if you like to ski,
it is the place to be.
Hawaii is a great place to vacation, because of its white sandy beaches
and warm calm waters, unless of course, one doesnt like tropical environs.
Complex sentence with adjective clause
Ostriches are very large birds, which are found in Africa and Australia,
and are known for sticking their heads in the sand.
When Alice goes to the movies, she always has buttered popcorn and
Gummy Bears, which makes the total experience more enjoyable.
Complex sentence with noun clause
It makes no difference, which every way you go, you will still get there.
When John won the lottery, although he could buy any thing his heart desired, he was not
happy.
Exercise 1.4
Write six complex sentences in the space below. Write two sentences each using an adverb clause,
an adjective clause, and a noun clause.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 1.5
Write the following sentences into one complex sentence, using the subordinating conjunction,
coordinating conjunction, or conjunctive adverb in the parenthesis to join the clauses together.
Remember to use correct punctuation.
1. The price of gasoline went up forty cents a gallon.
The Elliots decided to cancel their vacation plans of driving to Florida. (since)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Traveling to other countries can be fun and rewarding.
Travelers should never carry too much money as a safety precaution.
They should use credit cards. (however, instead)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Smokers can no longer smoke in government buildings in the United States.
They also cannot smoke in many restaurants and bars. (nor)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Doctors also inform us that drinking a small amount of wine is good for the heart.
Doctors tell people that drinking excessively could cause damage to the liver. (on the other and)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. All religions preach that murder is a sin.
Throughout history there have been countless killings for the sake of religion. (but)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Americans believe in the right to bear arms.
Many Americans have handguns and rifles in their homes. (because)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Many women continue to drink during pregnancy
Research has shown that drinking alcohol during pregnancy could be detrimental to a babys
health. (although)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. Southern California has wonderful beaches for surfing.
Tom and his wife go to every chance they get. (which)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

4. A compound-complex sentence consists of two or

more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses. It is a combination of a compound sentence and
complex sentence, i.e. a complex sentence joined to
another sentence with a coordinating conjunction or
conjunctive adverb. Compound-complex sentences
can be difficult and confusing to punctuate. The
compound part of the sentence is punctuated like a
compound sentence; with a semi-colon and comma
(sentence 1), or with a comma before a coordinator
that connects two clauses (sentence 2). The complex
part of the sentence is punctuated like a complex
sentence; a comma follows a dependent adverb clause,
but no commas are used with noun clauses.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
+
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
+
DEPENDENT CLAUSE

1. That computers are a wonderful invention is obvious; however, much

of the software available for them is so complicated; they require an
enormous amounts of time and energy to master.
2. Allen always wanted to pursue a career in medicine, but because he
lacked the financial resources, he decided to become an engineer instead.
Exercise 1.6
Write six compound-complex sentences in the space below.

1. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Exercise 1.7
Rewrite the following sentences into one compound-complex sentence. Be sure to use correct
punctuation.
1. Driving a sports car can be fun.
It is very expensive.
There is the high cost of maintenance and the almost double premiums for insurance to
contend with.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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2. Reading is a favorite pastime for thousands of people.

Not only can an avid reader learn a lot, but also they can escape the realities of daily life.
Reading a good novel can take you to far away places and introduce you to new experiences.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Television programs specifically made for children are good educational tools.
Children can learn many things, not only the three Rs, but the marvelous wonders of the
world.
Social customs, habits, and beliefs are also easily conveyed to children through TV.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. There are many benefits from having a pet.
Responsibility is learned if the child has to feed, water, and watch out for illness or injury.
Playing with a pet can provide children with many hours of companionship and fun.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Learning to write in English can be extremely difficult.
Additional rules have to be observed when writing that are not used in speaking.
Some of these rules include punctuation, spelling, and use of complete sentences.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
6. The legal drinking age in some states was reduced to nineteen years ago.
This created many problems.
There was a dramatic increase in incidences of drunk driving and drinking related accidents.
Car accident fatalities among this age group soared.
The law was repealed several years later.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Common problems
This section will review some of the more common problems that beginning writers encounter. These
problems include sentence fragments, choppy sentences, stringy sentences, run-on sentences, and
comma splices.

Sentence fragments
Many beginning writers make the mistake of writing
sentence fragments, groups of words that are not
complete sentences. There are three reasons for
sentence fragments: there is either no subject in the
sentence or no verb in the sentence or there is no
independent clause.
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An independent clause is a sentence that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete
and logical thought. It can stand by itself. Look at these examples:
John works on Tuesday.
The sun shines.
Mary and Tony are engaged and will be married in March.
All three of the above sentences contain a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. Nothing has to be
added to the sentence for it to make sense. The reader can determine the meaning of the sentence.
A dependent clause may have a subject and/or verb, but it is not a complete thought and it can not
stand by itself. Dependent clauses are sometimes thought of as a sentence because they may contain
a subject and/or a verb, but because they do not express a complete thought, they are not complete
sentences. Look at these examples:
Rained everyday last week.
Sally and Min Ju everyday.
For example cakes and cookies.
By the time I get to Phoenix.
The four examples above are dependent clauses, not complete sentences.
The first example has no subject. For this clause to make sense a subject must be added. Adding it (it
being the weather) as the subject turns this dependent clause into an independent clause (or
sentence) that the reader can easily make sense of.
It rained everyday last week.
The second example has no verb. The reader does not know what Sally and Min Ju did everyday. Did
they play? Sing? Cry? Swim?
Sally and Min Ju played on the beach everyday on their vacation.
With the addition of a verb the reader knows exactly what action Sally and Min Ju
performed and the sentence makes sense.
The third example contains no subject or verb and it is impossible for the reader to understand its
meaning. Once a subject and verb are added the meaning of the sentence becomes clear.
Luke likes anything sweet for dessert, for example cakes and cookies.
The forth example contains both a subject and a verb, but it does not express a complete thought. The
reader cannot determine the meaning of the clause because something is missing. What is missing is
the thought about what action or event will happen when the person arrives in Phoenix. Will the sun
be shining by the time he gets to Phoenix or will his friend be in Amsterdam by the time he gets to
Phoenix or will he have slept for 36 hours by the time he gets to Phoenix?
By the time I get to Phoenix she will be returning home from work.
Adding the independent clause she will be returning home from work makes this into a
complete sentence. Now the reader fully understands the intended meaning of the
sentence.
Correcting a sentence fragment involves either adding a subject or adding a verb or changing the
dependent clause into an independent one, as the examples above have shown.
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Words that are commonly used to start dependent clauses are listed below. When editing and revising
written work, be sure to examine any sentence that begins with these words to ensure that it is indeed
a complete sentence and expresses a complete thought.
after
before
if
so that
whatever
whereas
who

although
despite
in spite of
though
when
wherever
whom

as
even if
since
unless
whenever
which
whose

because
even though
so
until
where
while

Exercise 1.8
Edit the following dependent clause to make them into complete sentences.
1. After I get home
_________________________________________________________________________
2. On Mondays Lance and Gertrude like
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Until it started to rain
__________________________________________________________________________
4. While I was there
_________________________________________________________________________
5. Is the greatest sport ever invented
_________________________________________________________________________
6. Especially math and history
_________________________________________________________________________
7. Such as milk and cookies
________________________________________________________________________
8. Because of the weather
_______________________________________________________________________
Choppy sentences
Another common problem which beginning
writers have are writing choppy sentences.
Choppy sentences are sentences that are
too short. They should be combined to make
longer sentences. Look at the examples below.
I like dogs. Dogs make good pets. Dogs are friendly and loyal.
Reading short sentences like this would be very boring and frustrating to read for long periods of time.
It makes for more interesting reading if the sentences are combined into one or two sentences, as
shown below.
I like dogs because they are friendly and loyal. These two traits make dogs good pets.

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Exercise 1.9
Edit the choppy sentences below into one or two sentences so they are more interesting to read.
1. Vegetables are good for you. Vegetables taste good. Vegetables are easy to prepare.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. I like movies. I go to movies every weekend. I like action movies best.
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Elephants are big. They live in Africa and Asia. They eat a lot of food.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Phil is a thrill seeker. He enjoys skydiving and bungee jumping. He goes every chance he gets.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. I hate housework. Housework is very boring. It takes too much time. I especially dislike mopping
the floor and ironing.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Stringy sentences
Some beginning writers have a tendency to write and write, producing very long sentences which
consist of too many independent clauses which are connected with and, but, or because. These
sentences are many times the result of writing the same way as we speak. These types of sentences
can also be difficult to comprehend and are tiresome to read. There is no hard and fast rule for the
number of independent clauses in a sentence, but a good of thumb is two. Stringy sentences can be
corrected by making separate sentences of some of the independent clauses and re-writing others to
make them compound or complex sentences. Look at this example.
Stringy
sentence

Taking a bath everyday is very important for personal

hygiene because if a person doesnt bathe everyday
they could become sick and they would start to smell
really bad and people would give them very funny looks
and not want to be around them.

Corrected

Taking a bath every day is important for personal hygiene. If

a person doesnt bath everyday they could become sick. In
additional, they would begin to smell; people would give them
funny looks and avoid them.

Exercise 1.10
Rewrite the following stringy sentences into more appropriate ones.
1. I have made it a point throughout my life to try to save at least a part of my monthly income and
put it into a savings account because I want to have a large nest egg to retire on, and I try never
to give into the impulse of dipping into it because I would regret it in the future.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
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2. Halloween was always a very special holiday for me when I was a child because I got to dress
up in a costume and went all over the neighborhood and got candy from all my neighbors, but I
never got sick eating all that candy at one time because my mother made me put most of it away
and I was only able to eat a little bit of it everyday, but it lasted a lot longer that way.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. When I was in high school I was in the marching band and it was great because we got to get
into all the football and basketball games free, but most of the other students had to pay to get
in, but we also had to march in all the parades that the city held during the year, which was okay
during the winter months but during the summer it was very hot so it was hard.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Run-on sentences
Run-on sentences consist of two or more independent clauses with no punctuation. Run-on sentences
can be just as frustrating as choppy sentences to read and can be more difficult for the reader to
understand.
My mother likes to cook and she cooks delicious cakes and cookies
and I love the smell of the house whenever she is baking something
because it makes my mouth water.
Run-on sentences can be corrected in one of three ways; by using a period to make separate
independent clauses, by using a subordinating conjunction to connect the clauses, or by adding extra
words. Note how much easier it is to read the above passage with correct punctuation and the use of
conjunctions.
My mother likes to cook. Her cakes and cookies are especially
delicious. I love the smell of the house whenever she is baking
because it makes my mouth water.
Exercise 1.11
Edit the following run-on sentence by using punctuation to make two or more independent clauses or
by adding a subordinating conjunction to connect the clauses, or by adding more words.
1. The first dog I had after graduating from college was named Fred and he was a great dog and
he loved to play ball and get a bath but he also had a tendency to chew my shoes and plants
when he was a puppy that made me very angry.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

15

2. The other day John got a speeding ticket when he was driving through a school zone at fortyfive kilometers per hour and the speed limit was only fifteen kilometers per hour but he didnt
realize it was the first day of school so he wasnt paying too much attention to the traffic sign in
the middle of the road and he was very angry at the policeman because he was rude and would
not give him a break.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Telephones are probably one of the best and most convenient devices produced in the twentieth
century because you can call anyone, anytime from just about anywhere especially now that
there are so many cell phones available and telephones dont really cost that much to buy or to
use.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Comma splice
A comma splice error occurs when a comma is used by itself to separate two
independent clauses. If a comma is used to separate two independent clauses, a
coordinating conjunction must also be included.
Commas splice: My family went to Australia, then they immigrated to Canada.
Corrected: My family went to Australia, and then they immigrated to Canada.
There are four methods to use to correct a comma splice.
The first method uses a period to separate the independent clauses.
My family went to Australia. Then they immigrated to Canada.
The second method uses a semicolon to separate the two independent clauses.
My family went to Australia; then they immigrated to Canada.
The third method uses a coordinating conjunction to separate the two independent clauses.
My family went to Australia, and then they immigrated to Canada.
The forth method changes one of the independent clauses to a dependent clause and starts it with a
subordinating conjunction.
My family went to Australia, before they immigrated to Canada.
After my family went to Australia, they immigrated to Canada.

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Exercise 1.12
Edit the following sentences, correcting the comma splice. Use the four different methods describe
above to correct the error.
1. Roger gets up in the morning, then he brushes his teeth.
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Leopards hunt by night, they sleep during the day.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Coffee is a good beverage in the morning, caffeine helps people get going.
__________________________________________________________________________
4. One should never drink and drive, it could be very dangerous.
__________________________________________________________________________
Writing Tips
Selecting words in sentences
When writing, it is important to find the right words that best communicate your meaning. When
speaking, the listener has the opportunity to ask questions and get clarification of the things you say.
The speaker gets immediate feedback as to whether his intended message is clearly understood. This
is not the case when writing. The reader has no opportunity to ask for clarification, so the writer must
ensure that the words used are just the right ones to express his message. The best way to guarantee
this is to have a well developed and continually expanding vocabulary.
Here are points to keep in mind when searching for the right word that will give your writing style
clarity. Avoid clichs such as snug as a bug in a rug, cant tell a book by its cover, good as gold, cool
as a cucumber, or happy as a lark. Clichs are overused by some writers and merely demonstrate
their inability to write creatively and originally.
Using too many words can be as frustrating and difficult to read as using too little, so avoid wordiness.
Wordiness is using too many words, usually adverbs and adjectives, to describe something. For
example The eminent, renowned professor, although a shining paragon within his field of study, was
frustratingly incapable of sustaining the interest of his students during the mono-tonal presentation of
his lectures could be written more simply as: The famous professors lectures were boring.
Try to use words that have force and exactness. For example The streets are hot on a summers day
is a fairly non-descriptive statement. The statement The sizzling sidewalks emitted sufficient heat to
fry eggs is much more descriptive and forceful.
Eliminate repetitious, redundant, or unnecessary words. For example Although it is only my opinion, I
believe that the movie Gone with the Wind was the best movie ever produced. The expressions my
opinion and I believe are repetitious and express the same meaning.
Keep in mind that some words have more than one meaning and care should be taken when selecting
the right word. For example, the word bare can mean without clothes, empty, just enough, to remove
the covering from, to show (something), and to reveal deep secrets or feelings.
Also some things can be called by many different names such as sofa, couch, davenport, or
chesterfield.
Many words also express different connotations: neutral, positive, and negative. Look at these
examples:
17

Neutral
police officer
thin

Positive
officer of the law
slim/slender

Negative
cop
skinny

A useful tool that all writers should possess is a thesaurus. It can be invaluable in helping find just the
right word to express your meaning.

Vary word order and sentence structure

To reduce boredom for the reader and make the
composition much more enjoyable to read, vary the
word order of the sentences. If sentences start with
the same words the reader is likely to stop reading
and go watch TV. Paragraphs can be made more
interesting and varied by not always beginning with
the subject of the sentence. You could start with a
dependent clause (with words beginning with because,
since, or when). Prepositional phrases (beginning
with words like at, in, on, from, and with) can also be
used at the beginning of sentences to make them
more interesting to read.

The residents boarded up their

windows in preparation for the
upcoming hurricane.
Because a hurricane was coming, the
residents boarded up their windows.

One technique that can be used to help writers revise sentence structure is sentence modification.
Sentence modification can be accomplished in three ways: adding details, substituting precise details,
and deleting unnecessary details.
Adding details involves including descriptive words, such as adjectives and adverbs for greater
detail.
The dog slept under the tree.
The short-haired mangy dog slept contentedly under the enormous tree.
The second sentence is much more descriptive and provides greater detail.
Substituting precise details involves replacing vague and abstract words with more concrete and
sensory ones. Instead of using general or abstract words or ordinary, vague verbs, replace them with
exact names of things and vivid descriptive verbs that provide concrete sensory details that can be
perceived through the senses (seen, heard, tasted, smelled, touched) Instead of writing
Marias ring is shiny write
Marias engagement ring glimmers in the sunlight.
Deleting unnecessary details involves eliminating unnecessary words. A long sentence does not
necessary make a good sentence. Words that repeat the essential meaning of other words should be
deleted to improve sentence economy (the degree that a word contributes to the overall meaning of a
sentence).

18

The predators strong powerful vise like jaws ripped cruelly and ferociously into
the soft delicate underbelly of the frightened quivering prey.
The predators powerful jaws ripped ferociously into the soft underbelly
of the frightened prey.
The last technique for revising sentence structure is sentence combination, joining sentences or parts
of sentences together. Sentences can be joined together using either coordinating conjunctions (such
as and, but and for) or subordinating conjunctions (such as although, unless, because, if, etc).
Avoid faulty reasoning
Avoid faulty reasoning when writing your opinions. There are four kinds of faulty reasoning: false
analogy, over-generalization, irrelevant argument, and begging the question.
False analogy is comparing two things that are not similar.
Some people like to gamble.
They are just like thieves because they steal from other people.
Gamblers do not steal; they attempt to beat others in games of chance. The person who loses
always has the choice of not playing. The unfortunate people who are victims of theft do not
have a choice in the matter.
Over-generalization is stating that something is true
for all things or in all cases, when in reality it is only
true for some things or in some cases. Look at these
examples.
All college students drink.
All teenagers drive recklessly.
These statements are obviously not true since many college students do not drink and many
teenage drivers are very cautious and safe behind the wheel.
To avoid over-generalizations dont use never or always as adverbs of frequency- instead use rarely,
hardly ever, almost never, or usually not. Instead of using no, none, or all as quantifiers- use very few,
hardly any, almost none, almost all, or most of.
An irrelevant argument is one in which an example or a reason is given that does not relate to the
opinion. Consider this example.
I dont think the accountant was embezzling money from her company
because she was so nice to me.
Just because someone is nice does not mean that they cannot embezzle money,
nor do they have to be unfriendly and rude. Some of the best con men in the world
are very charming, which is one reason they make good con men.
When you give a reason for an opinion which only restates that opinion, you are begging the
question. Look at this example.
Stealing is wrong because it is immoral.
Wrong and immoral in this context basically mean the same thing. To eliminate begging the
question you need to state why stealing is wrong or immoral. Consider this:
Stealing is immoral because it deprives others of their hard earned possessions.
19

There are numerous structures that can be used to write sentences in English. The structure used will
many times depend on which part of the sentence the writer wants to emphasize. For example, the
following ideas could be included in a sentence:
* Public speaking makes me nervous.
* I have to give a speech on Friday.
* I hope my speech goes well.
These three thoughts could be combined into one sentence, but the sentence could be written in
several different ways, depending on what part of the sentence the writer wants to emphasize. For
example:
Public speaking always makes me nervous, so I hope my speech goes well on Friday.
(This sentence emphasizes the nervousness that the writer experiences.)
Friday I have to give a public speech, but Im a little nervous: I hope everything goes well.
(This sentence emphasizes when the speech will be made).
Im hoping that my public speech goes well on Friday; Im a little concerned because
speaking in public always makes me anxious.
(This sentence emphasizes that the speech goes well.)
Parallelism
Parallelism in writing is the repetition of the same grammatical forms or structures, (which includes
words, phrases, and clauses), when listing items that are being compared or contrasted.
Reading a passage that does not have a parallel form is distracting and confusing to the reader
because they must try to determine the relationship between similar ideas. If a list of items begins with
a noun, than all the other items in the list should be nouns. Similarly, if the first item in the list is a
dependent clause (or adjective, adverb, verb phrase, etc), than all the other items in the list should be
independent clauses (or adjectives, adverbs, verb phrase, etc.).
Parallelism is achieved with the use of coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) and
correlative conjunctions (both and, not only but also, neither nor, either or) to join ideas
together. Look at the following examples.
Parallel
Not parallel

Alice enjoys cooking, sewing, and knitting. (gerunds)

Alice likes cooking, sewing, and to cook.

Parallel
Not parallel

Mr. Thomas is educated, sophisticated, and domesticated. (adjectives)

Mr. Thomas is an educated man, sophisticated, and is domesticated.

Parallel
Not parallel

Dolphins swim with grace, power, and swiftness. (nouns)

Dolphins swim with grace, powerfully, and are swift.

Parallel
Not parallel

The gymnast moves gracefully, powerfully, and effortlessly. (adverbs)

The gymnast moves with grace, powerfully, and without effort.

Parallel
Not parallel

To be healthy, wealthy, and wise is a good thing to strive for. (infinitives)

To be healthy, have wealth, and wisely are good things to strive for.

20

Exercise 1.13
Rewrite the sentences below so that they contain parallel structures.
1. Bettys sister is an accomplished artist, writes childrens books, and a gourmet cook.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Three things that citizens can do themselves to help reduce air pollution is to join car pools,
walking or bicycling to work, or to use mass transportation.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. To learn a foreign language requires a lot of dedication, working hard, and being exposed to the
language continuously.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Thrill seekers must be brave, cool headedness, and yet be wary of caution.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Individuals who want to accumulate wealth need to save regularly, shopping wisely and frugally,
and have an investment plan.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Bill and Toms favorite activities are swimming, collecting stamps, and to exercise.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
7. A good soldier must always act bravely, unselfishly, and with purpose and be dedicated.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
8. The president promised voters he would lower taxes, increasing benefits for the elderly, and to
allocate more resources to education.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
9. As a student, the things I hated most were spending time in the library, writing term papers, and
tiredness from not getting enough sleep.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
10. Peacocks have large, brightly colored, and beauty plumage.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

21

Active and Passive Voice

Voice is the verb form that shows the relationship of the subject to the action of the verb. The passive
voice should be used when the receiver of the action is more important than the performer of the
action or when the performer of the action is unknown or unimportant.
In the active voice, the subject performs the action of the verb. Using the active voice makes your
writing more forceful, direct, and concise, so it should be used most often in writing.
In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is the receiver of the action of the verb.
The structure of a sentence in the active voice is:
subject + verb + object
Bob ate the candy bar.
Many young boys play baseball in the spring.
Many housewives watch soap operas while doing housework.
In the passive voice, what is done is important or stressed, not who did it. The structure of a sentence
in the passive voice is:
subject + auxiliary verb + past participle + agent
The candy bar was eaten by Bob.
Baseball is played by many young boys in the spring.
Soap operas are watched by many housewives while doing housework.

Exercise 1.14
Rewrite the following sentences in the passive voice.
1. Many college students in the United States consider their social life far more important than their
academic life.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Native American Indians of the Plain States ate buffalo meat as their primary food source.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. The atomic bomb completely decimated Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. After months of study, Min Ju finally passed the Bar Exam.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Most tobacconist regard Cuban cigars as the best in the world.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

22

Exercise 1.15
Rewrite the following sentences in the active voice.
1. The cat was chased by the dog across the yard.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Cookies are made by my mother every Saturday afternoon.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. The touchdown was scored by the quarterback with three seconds left on the clock.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. The final World Series game was won by the Arizona Diamondbacks.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. The five page report due at the end of the semester was assigned by the teacher.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

23

Chapter 2- Purpose of Writing

There are numerous reasons why people write. People write to
inform, to entertain, to persuade, and to describe various things in
their daily life. A business executive writes a memo to inform his
subordinates of changes in a business proposal. A teacher writes a
story to entertain her students. A newspaper columnist writes to
persuade his readers of the benefits of a political change. A person
writes a friend to describe the fun he is
having on a vacation.
Students at universities are obligated to write frequently in order to complete the course of their
studies. The purposes for which they write are also varied. Their aim is to persuade when writing
about the advantages of one political party over another for a political science class. To inform is their
aim when they write an essay on the impact that the abolition of slavery had on the lives of people in
the South for a history class. For a chemistry class, their aim is to describe when they write a report on
the results of an experiment. Their aim is to entertain when they write a short story for a creative
writing class.
Three factors must be considered when writing: the subject, the purpose,
and the audience. One of the biggest problems facing many writers is
deciding what to write about. Much of the time, the subject is determined
for students by the teacher or professor. In these situations a student should
attempt to find an angle or focus for the topic that is of interest to him or her.
If students write about things that are of personal interest to them, the writing
task is much easier and more enjoyable. There is greater motivation for
completing the research that may be needed, which will improve the quality
and substance of the project. In other cases the students may have to decide
the topic on their own. One suggestion is to write about yourself (your own
daily life experiences).
The purpose of writing has an influence on the style and format used. The style of writing to inform
readers of the advantages of recycling will be much different than the style used for describing an
amusing summer vacation story for English writing class. Keep in mind that the different styles of
writing are not mutually exclusive. One could write a paper that is both informative and entertaining,
for example using comical personal anecdotes when writing about things not to do when on a first
date. In an academic setting, the writing style is usually more formal, without the use of slang, than
when writing to a friend. The writing for university classes should be clear, concise and direct, in
addition to demonstrating the students ability for original writing and thinking.
There are several types of writing formats that a student may use when writing. A student would use a
narrative format when telling a story or listing events in a chronological order, such as a term paper for
a history class detailing the events that lead to World War I. A descriptive format may be used for a
special education class to describe the unusual behavior patterns of an autistic child. In a chemistry
class, an informative format may be used to explain the results of the interaction between two or more
chemicals. A persuasive format would be appropriate in a sociology science class to convince the
reader that euthanasia is nothing less than murder.

24

The audience that is being written to will also influence

the style that is used. Remember that different audiences
have different expectations and the writing style should
reflect this. In college classes the audience is most likely
the professor. For a businessman, the audience may be
a colleague, a competitor, a customer, or government
official. In these cases the style of writing should be very
formal and exact. Slang, idiomatic expressions, and
inappropriate vocabulary should never be used. On the
other hand, if writing a short story for an English creative
writing class, the style used will be much less formal.
The use of slang, idioms, questionable vocabulary, and
grammatical correctness may be welcomed to maintain
the readers interest and enhance the entertainment value
of the assignment.
Organization
Before attempting to write on any subject it is necessary to develop and organize your ideas and
thoughts. Without proper organization the writing may be disconnected, unclear, confusing and difficult
for the reader to understand. There are three common techniques that can be used to help you
organize and develop your ideas. These activities are brainstorming, clustering and free writing. Each
of these techniques is easy to use and one or all of them may be familiar.
Brainstorming is the technique of listing any and all ideas that occur
to the writer about a topic. Not all the ideas listed will be used in the
final product. Once they are all listed, some will be deleted or modified.
Ideas that do not relate well or specifically to the purpose of the
paragraph may need to be deleted. Some ideas may be changed so
that the ideas being presented flow more logically and smoothly.
Suppose that there is an assignment to write about team sports in
high school. What ideas could be incorporated into a well-written
paragraph? Listed below are some ideas generated from a
brainstorming session for high school sports.
Are fun
Develop a team-work attitude among students
Develop the body and mind
Develop cooperative behavior
Provide non-academic activity
Could be dangerous activities for students
Are expensive
Opportunities to develop new friendships
Takes time away from studying
May ostracize non-athletic students
May exert too much pressure on students to excel
Provides for new (learning) experiences
May develop students self confidence and self image
The ideas listed above include both positive and negative aspects of team sports. Using all these
ideas would result in a poorly written paragraph because the topic would be too broad for a single
paragraph. Some of the ideas indicate positive aspects of team sports and some of the ideas relate to
more negative aspects. A couple of the ideas seem to be about the same thing, and one of the items
listed may be irrelevant .The topic needs to be narrowed and organized a little more for a well-written
paragraph. One could either write about the positive aspects of team sports or the negative aspects,
but not both.

25

In the space below, separate the above items into either positive or negative aspects. Feel free to add
ideas of your own not listed.
Positive
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________

Negative
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

Write a short paragraph on either the positive or negative aspects of team sports in high school based
on the ideas you listed above.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 2.1
Write down a number brainstorming ideas for the topics listed below.
Musics affects on moods
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

Benefits of exercise
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

Games played as a child

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

Your pet peeves

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
26

How the telephone changed lives

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

Traits of good teachers

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

Clustering is another method that can be used to help organize thoughts about a topic. Clustering is
very similar to brainstorming in that ideas about the topic are put down on paper. In clustering, the
main topic is written within a circle in the middle of the page. Related ideas or thoughts are placed in
other circles around the main topic and connected to the topic by lines. If there are lots of bubbles in
the cluster, you need to decide what to write about and eliminate the items not specifically relevant to
the topic. You may have enough ideas or material for a couple of paragraphs. Look at the example
below, again using the topic of team sports in high school. In this example, only the positive aspects of
team sports are developed. Also note that related ideas are connected together. If other ideas occur to
you include them in the spaces provided.

Opportunities
to develop
new
friendships
Are
Fun

Provides nonacademic
activities for
students

Develops the
body and the
mind

Sports
Teams

Develops self
confidence

Provides for
new learning
experiences

Develops
cooperative
behavior

and self
Develops a
team attitude
among
students

Using the above ideas generated in the cluster diagram a well-organized paragraph could be written
about the benefits of team sports. Notice how related ideas are connected together. Team sports are
fun and so are non-academic activities. Team sports develop a teamwork attitude and also
cooperative behavior. Team sports provide for new learning experiences and for developing of new
friendships.
27

Exercise 2.2
Using the ideas above write a short paragraph about the benefits of team sports in high school.

Exercise 2.3
Organize the ideas generated on one of the topics in exercise 2.1 on brainstorming using the cluster
map below. Write central idea in the middle with other ideas branching out and connected with lines.

The third method that can be used to develop ideas for a

topic is free writing. Free writing is simply writing down ideas
quickly as you can, without regard to the final organization
of the ideas. An important point about free writing is not to
stop writing. If you get stuck with one idea, move on quickly
to another. Students should not spend too much time worrying
about grammar, sentence structure, or organization when
free-writing. The important thing is just to write. Organization
and correction come later. Look at the following example.

28

that occur to you as

I always liked team sports in high school. I met many new friends and it was fun.
The teams got to travel to other cities to play other high schools. Before playing high
school basketball, I was only interested in shooting the ball. I didnt care about defense
or what my teammates were doing. The coach was tough but he taught me a lot about
the sport. I really liked the feeling of accomplishment and self-satisfaction when we won
a game. I also liked being popular with all the girls because I could play so well. Practice
took a lot of time and I really didnt study as much as I probably should have, but it was
a lot more fun than studying.

In the above example many ideas are put down on paper. As can be seen, the ideas are very
disorganized and some are not really related well to the topic, but they represent a good place to start.
You now have thoughts that can be organized and related to each other to develop a well-written
paragraph. Once the free writing is completed it can be reread, keeping and reorganizing the ideas
that are relevant and eliminating the ideas that are irrelevant.
Exercise 2.4
Select one of the topics listed below and generate ideas for a possible paragraph by using free writing.
Tattoos
Premarital sex

Safe driving tips

Computer games

Benefits of a college education

Benefits of reading

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Points to Remember
The main idea or point of the paragraph is stated in the topic sentence, usually the first sentence of
the paragraph. The topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is about. After the topic
sentence is written, it needs to be supported by other sentences. The form of the support may be by
the use of examples, anecdotes, or facts and figures.
The paragraph should have unity, which is having a single focus and talking about only one thing. If
the paragraph talks about more than one thing, it lacks unity, an essential element of a well-written
paragraph.
Transitions must be used to ensure that the sentences are logically arranged and flow smoothly from
one idea to the next. A paragraph that fails to do this lacks continuity and cohesion (two other
elements of a good paragraph).

29

Exercise 2.5
Read each of the paragraphs below. On the space provided indicate the topic and the writers
purpose. Remember the purposes that people write are to inform, to entertain, and to persuade,
Littering is an unnecessary plight that affects all cities to some extent. It is one of
the few city problems that could quickly, easily, and economically be corrected. Littering
is the result of careless, uniformed, or uncaring individuals. Trash cans are visible and
within easy access to citizens on virtually every street corner. People need to simply
think before they toss. Think of the untarnished beauty that your streets could have if
not inundated with unsightly litter. Think of the savings to government coffers that would
not have to be allocated for cleaning up the mess. Think of the health and safety of your
children that could play in the streets and parks without fear of illness, disease, or injury;
litter is a potential source of these things. Think of the positive image that city visitors
would have in such a pristine environment. Everyone can do his part easily to make
their city one to be proud of: just think before you toss.
Topic:
__________________________________________
Purpose: __________________________________________

Scrabble is a word game that is fun and challenging for young and old alike. It is
easy to play. The only skill needed is the ability to spell. The game consists of a game
board about 36 centimeters square. The board is divided into 215 squares, each square
about two centimeters by two centimeters. There are also 100 tiles, about two
centimeters square, with letters printed on them. Each tile also has a number on it,
which represents the numerical value for that tile. The object of the game is to spell
words, placing then either horizontally or vertically on the board. The numerical value of
the word is determined by adding up all the numbers on the tiles used. Each player in
turn makes a word, using at least one of the letters already on the board. For added
excitement, some of the squares on the board are designated as double or triple letter
scores and double or triple word scores. These squares allow the players to accumulate
more points. The winner of the game is the person with the highest score after all the
tiles have been played. Try playing Scrabble today; its not only fun, but educational!
Topic: _________________________________________________
Purpose: ______________________________________________

Pigs are the cleanest of animals in spite of the bad press they sometimes receive. Pigs
prefer clean, cool areas to sleep in. When they relieve them selves of bodily waste, they
do it in one small area of the pen, away from where they sleep and spend most of their
time. Although it is true that pigs wallow in the mud, they dont do it because they like
dirt. Pigs have no sweat glands, so they roll around in mud to keep cool. In addition to
being clean animals, pigs are also intelligent. Many animal experts consider pigs to be
more trainable than dogs or cats. The next time someone says that your house looks
like a pigsty, take it as a compliment, and thank them.
Topic: ________________________________________

Purpose: _________________________________
30

Many people consider Leonardo de Vinci one of the most brilliant people ever born.
De Vinci was an Italian artist, architect, and inventor during the 13th and 14th centuries.
Two of de Vinces greatest paintings, the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, have
survived down the ages and still inspire people today with their unparalleled artistic
beauty. Between 1485 and 1490 de Vinci designed many buildings, ranging from
churches to fortresses. An inventor well before his time, de Vinci invented the
parachute. He also designed numerous devices for war and combat, including a
submarine, a tank, numerous weapons, and a helicopter 500 years before the airplane
was invented. Leonardo de Vinci, a great man whose works and achievements is still
loved and admired the world over even today.
Topic: ________________________________________________
Purpose: ______________________________________________

Ocean and tidal waves offer a vast source of untapped energy that both government
and industry need to exploit to benefit from its full potential. There are numerous
advantages to this source of power, when compared to fossil fuel or nuclear generating
plants. Once a power plant is built, the cost of continued operation and maintenance is
negligible. This source of power is also renewable, unlike fossil fuels which generate
much of the electrical power used today. In addition, there is no pollution created from
the burning of fossils fuels, nor is there the danger associated with nuclear power
plants. Tidal and wave devices appear to have only a minimal impact on the
environment, and may even have a positive effect on coastal erosion. Finally, the
energy produced is reliable and predictable, unlike the energy produced from wind
power. Although research and development of this form of energy is still in the infancy
stage, it offers future generations hope for a cheap, environmentally friendly source of
electrical power.
Topic: ____________________________________________
Purpose: __________________________________________

Arizona, a rich, vibrant state in southwestern United States, has something for
everyone. Its geography is varied; encompassing tall snow capped mountain ranges,
swift flowing and slow meandering rivers, grass lands on high plateaus, arid desert flatland
and blowing sand dunes. Although the summer months can be just short of sizzling, with
average July temperatures about 106, winters offer its many seasonal visitors a balmy
average temperature of just 66, even in the coldest of months. Although Arizona ranks
20th in population, with 5.1 million residents, it ranks sixth in land size with a total area of
113,462 square miles. Phoenix (the capital) and Tucson, the two largest metropolitan
areas in the state, offer just about all the attractions that big city dwellers value, including
art galleries and museums, fine restaurants, professional sports teams, universities, and
a host of leisure and recreational facilities and events. Tourists from around the world
visit to marvel at the magnificence of the Grand Canyon, to appreciate the quiet beauty of
the Painted Desert, to photograph the graceful flight of hovering hummingbirds at
Ramsey Canyon, and to view the spectacle of a rodeo in several southwestern cities of
the state. Arizona truly is a must see for any discriminating traveler.
Topic: ___________________________________________________

Purpose: ____________________________________________

31

Younger sisters can be incredibly stupid. Take mine for instance; she did something
that I have never seen before. Granted, she was only four years old at the time, but still
Heres what happened. I got a sling shot one year for my birthday and was having a great
time out in the back yard shooting old soda cans over with small pebbles, using the
slingshot. My sister came out, thought it looked fun, and wanted to give it a try. Being the
kind and generous brother I was, I let her have a go at it. Holding the handle of the
slingshot in her left hand, she selected a good pebble from the ground and placed it
tightly in the pouch of the sling with her right. Raising her arms up to her face she pulled
back on the elastic band, took careful aim, and let it go. Unfortunately, she got a little
confused. Instead of holding the handle at arms length and pulling the band toward her
nose, she did just the opposite. She held the handle close to her face and pulled the band
away from her. When she let go the pebble, band, and pouch hit her right in the nose.
Predictably, she ran into the house crying her eyes out. I, on the other hand, noting that
she was not seriously hurt or injured, laughed hysterically. She claims not to remember
this particular incident, even when I bring it up occasionally during moments of nostalgia.
Topic: ________________________________________________
Purpose: _____________________________________________

A man hates his wifes cat and one day decides to get rid of it. He takes the cat to a
park a couple of blocks from his home and lets it lose and returns home. When he was
driving into the driveway of his home the cat was there. The next day he decided to drive
farther, he drove two miles from his home and dropped the cat off. Upon entering his
driveway, he again found the cat already there. He continued doing this for several days,
driving farther and farther from his home everyday, but the cat always beat him home.
Finally he decided to drive way out of town. He took the road out of town, turned left and
drove several miles, turned right and went over a bridge, drove a couple more miles,
turned left again and drove for several more miles. When he thought he was a safe
distance from the house he let out the cat and started the drive home. After three hours
of driving around he called his home. When his wife answered, he asked if the cat was
there. The wife said Yes, why do you ask? The man said Put the cat on the phone, Im
lost and need directions.
Topic: ________________________________________________
Purpose: ______________________________________________

32

Chapter 3- Steps in the Writing Process

Writing is a continuous process of thinking, organizing,
re-thinking and re-organizing. Writing is not a finished
product. Writing involves a number of steps or activities.
All writers go through the same process, whether they
are writing a short letter to a friend or a dissertation for
a doctorate degree.

Seven steps in the writing process

1. Assessing the assignment
This step in the process involves determining what is to be written, for whom, and where to
get the information needed. Consideration must be given to the audience and the purpose
of the composition. The audience will set the tone (style or manner of expression) and
vocabulary use. The tone may be serious, humorous, personal, impersonal, formal, or
informal. The purpose of the composition will determine the rhetorical form used. A
persuasive essay is written in one way and an expository essay in another. Information for
the assignment may come from a variety of sources your own experiences or background
knowledge (which may include your opinions and feelings) or from extended research of a
specific topic with information gathered from a library or the Internet. In addition, one must
also think about how long the composition needs to be, when it needs to be completed, and
for academic papers, the format to be used.
2. Generating ideas
Brainstorming, clustering, and free writing activities can be used to help the writer develop
ideas. Discussion of the topic with classmates or doing limited research in a library may also
be used to aid the writer at this step. Keep in mind that if only a paragraph is being written, the
topic must be narrowed sufficiently so the topic is not too broad.
3. Organizing your ideas
Before writing the first words in any assignment, one must decide on the most logical way
to present the information. Depending on the topic, this may include chronological order,
order of importance, comparison, or cause and effect organization. Outlining is one method
to use when organizing your paper. When outlining, first determine the main topic and list
it. After the main topic is listed, supporting ideas are listed under the main topic. When
outlining, complete sentences do not need to be used, instead use short phrases. Another
method to use to organize your thoughts is a tree diagram. A tree diagram is a more visual
format than an outline. In a tree diagram, place the main idea at the top of the page and use
lines to connect the supporting ideas to the main point.
The following is a possible outline for a paragraph on the topic of cats as pets.
Cats make the best pets
A. good companions
are affectionate
always available
B. independent
easy to care for
take care of themselves
entertain themselves
are cleaner than dogs (litter box)
C. provide service
keep rats/other vermin out of house
33

4. Writing the first draft

The first draft is written after your ideas are generated and organized through the use of an outline or
tree diagram. It is important to consider your first attempt at the assignment as a draft, and not the
finished product. During the drafting stage, the focus should be to put the ideas down on paper
quickly and not worry about grammar, spelling, etc. Once the first draft is complete, it must be
critically reviewed and analyzed to identify grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors in the editing
stage. In addition, the writer should ensure that the organization and flow of ideas throughout the
paper is smooth, logical, and easily understood by the reader. Start by writing the topic sentence and
then develop supporting sentences, following the logical order developed in the outline. Ideas that
were not in the outline, but that occurred to you while writing the draft, can be inserted where needed
to improve the composition. If you draw a blank while looking for a particular word or phrase, leave it
blank and fill it in later.
5. Revising
Revision may be done immediately after the drafting stage. Some writers put the work aside and come
back to it later. This allows them to attack it with a fresher perspective. Revision involves adding or
eliminating material and reorganizing it by moving sentences around so the paragraph is more logical
and understandable. During the revision, your concern should be only content and organization, not
grammar, spelling, or punctuation.
It is important to make sure that the organization of your paper is complete before worrying
about how to revise sentences. Many students spend much time revising sentences, only to
find out latter that, because of a change in the organization of the paper, that the sentence
they so laboriously worked on is deleted.
There are several questions that can be asked during the revision stage that can help the
writer improve the material.
Have you achieved your stated purpose?
Have you said what you wanted to say?
What is the topic?
Is there a topic sentence and does it have a central focus?
Does the paragraph have unity and only talk about only one topic?
Are there any irrelevant sentences that do not support the topic sentence? If there
are, eliminate them.
Is enough detail included in the supporting sentences to make the ideas clear?
Are sufficient and appropriate transition signals used so the paper is logical and
coherent and easily understood by the reader?
Is there a conclusion? Does it need one?
6. Editing
In reality, editing takes place all the time when writing. In the editing stage the focus is on
checking spelling, grammar, punctuation, vocabulary, sentence structure, and page layout.
When editing, check the following points:
Spelling
Does the reader use American or British English? Remember that there are spelling
differences between some American and British English words. Whichever is used,
be consistent and dont use both British and English spelling in the same work.
Punctuation
Is there a period, question mark, or exclamation mark at the end of each sentence?
Are there ending and closing quotation marks?
Are commas, colons, and semi-colons used appropriately to separate dependent
and independent clauses?
34

 Grammar
Do all sentences have subject-verb agreement?
Is there number agreement of nouns, pronouns, and possessives?
Are there any sentence fragments?
Are the correct verb tenses used?
Vocabulary
Is just the right word used to express your meaning?
Are too many words repeated unnecessarily? Remember, using the same word
over and over again results in boredom for the reader.
Sentence structure
Can some sentences be rewritten, using a different structure, so they are more
easily understood by the reader?
Page layout
Is the composition visually appealing?
Are new paragraphs indented?
If a block design paragraph form is used, does a space separate paragraphs?
7. Publishing
In this stage the final copy of the composition is completed; the one that will be submitted for review.
In most instances the final product should be done on a computer or typed. Hand written compositions
may be difficult to read because of the differences in the quality of handwriting among individuals.
Computers or word processing program should ideally be used on all written assignments.
Some people may resist this idea if they have limited typing skills, but in the long run, it could save
time and effort. Revisions and editing of the composition are so much easier on a computer or word
processor. Typing mistakes are easily corrected, and even revisions of whole sentences, paragraphs,
or sections are simple and fast. In addition, most word processing programs nowadays have not only
spell checkers, which alert the writer to misspelled words, but also have grammatical functions that
advise the writer of possible problems with grammar and sentence structure. For a novice English
writer, a processing program is an indispensable tool.

Organizing information
Many topics are very broad or too general and may be difficult to write about effectively in a short
composition. In these cases it is important to narrow the topic so it can be covered effectively and
interestingly in a short composition. For example, the topic sports, is very broad and could cover
countless games, events, or activities. This topic could be narrowed further to sports in the United
States; however this topic is still too broad to write about in a short composition. It could be further
narrowed to professional basketball in America. This limited topic is much more manageable to write
about in a short composition, Of course, it could be narrowed even more to salaries of professional
basketball players, or cities with professional basketball teams in them, or the economic benefits of
professional basketball teams on small businesses, or professional basketball teams and its effect on
community pride.

35

Exercise 3.1
Select three of the topics below and narrow the topics down into ones that are manageable for a short
composition.
Gambling
Pollution
Health benefits of exercise
Computers
Space exploration

Religion
TV shows
Hobbies
Crime and punishment
Family recreational activities

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

36

Chapter 4- The Paragraph

A paragraph is a series of sentences all relating to the same topic
or central idea. The aim of all paragraphs is to communicate to the
reader that idea clearly and effectively. There is no hard and fast
rule about the length of a paragraph; it will depend on the topic
and what the writer wants to say. The paragraph should be long
enough to develop the idea expressed in the topic sentence
sufficiently. It should do what it sets out to do in the topic sentence.
If the topic sentence states that you will be explaining how to make
pizza, dont forget the steps about turning on the oven and at which
temperature and how long the pizza should cook. Regardless of the
length, the paragraph must contain only one idea. Any irrelevant
sentences must be eliminated from the paragraph to ensure that it
maintains its unity.
Parts of a Paragraph
There are three parts to a paragraph: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a conclusion. Think
of a paragraph as an Oreo cookie. The first and last sentences are like the top and bottom chocolate
cookie of an Oreo; they are general statements about the topic, which tie the paragraph together. The
middle sentences are like the white creamy filling, which contains information, facts, opinions, and
examples that support or develop the topic sentence.
1. Topic Sentence
There are differences between a topic sentence and a title. The title is above the paragraph and
expands the topic. It should indicate what the essay is about, provoke interest, and be brief. The topic
sentence is usually the first sentence in the paragraph and limits the topic of the paragraph. A title is
usually not a complete sentence. The topic sentence is always a complete thought or sentence. Most
words in the title are capitalized. Only the first word and proper nouns are capitalized in the topic
sentence.
The most important sentence of a paragraph is the topic sentence because it contains the main ideas
of the paragraph. There are three elements in a topic sentence: the topic, a controlling idea, and the
point of view of the writer.
A. Topic
The topic is the subject, what is being written about in the paragraph. The main idea
expressed in the topic sentence should not be too general or too specific. If it is too general,
it will be difficult to develop it adequately in a single paragraph. If it is too specific, there will
be nothing left to say to develop the idea in the paragraph.
Look at the following topic sentences.
Everyone can benefit from exercise.
This topic sentence is too general. There are many different kinds of exercise and different
kinds of exercise have different benefits. Not all of them can be developed within one
paragraph.

37

Doing aerobics for thirty minutes a day will strengthen a persons cardio- vascular
system by twenty five percent.
This topic sentence is too specific. There is nothing else that can be said to support this
statement in the remainder of the paragraph.
There are three reasons why I exercise everyday.
This sentence is an adequate topic sentence. It limits the discussion of the paragraph to only
discussing the reasons that the writer exercises. Telling what those three reasons are and
what benefits the writer gains from exercise can be expanded upon in the paragraph.
B. Controlling idea
The controlling idea limits the topic of the paragraph to one definite idea or one aspect of
the topic that represents a particular idea, feeling, or opinion. The controlling idea must not
be too broad; it must be specific enough for the subject to be discussed within one
paragraph.
Look at these three topic sentences. Each has same topic, but contain different controlling
ideas.
Topic
The Grand Canyon is a favorite vacation spot for travelers worldwide.
(controlling idea: vacation spot)
The Grand Canyon is noted for it awe inspiring panorama.
(controlling idea: panorama)
The Grand Canyon is an ideal area to view the geologic history of the earth.
(controlling idea: geologic history)
Topic
The television is a major source of home entertainment.
(controlling idea: home entertainment)
The television is an effective educational tool.
(controlling idea: educational tool)
The television has become smaller since its initial invention.
(controlling idea: become smaller)
A divided topic sentence is useful in ensuring the sentence has a controlling idea. In a divided topic
sentence, the writer specifies or explains the divisions of the topic. Look at the following sentences
that illustrate a divided topic sentence.
There are three major professional sports in America.
Five essential ingredients are required in learning a foreign language.
To become a successful, writer one needs four basic skills.
All three of the topic sentences above clearly limit what will be discussed in the paragraph
(three sports, five ingredients, and four skills).

38

C. Point of view
A good topic sentence also expresses the point of view of the writer. It may contain the
opinion or attitude of the writer. In the topic sentence
Digital cameras make photography easy and fun.
The writers point of view is easily determined- its easy and fun.
Compare with
Steven King has written many books.
In this statement the writers opinion of the works of Steven King is not evident, nor is there
any indication of whether being such a prolific writer is good or bad.
Exercise 4.1
Look at the following topic sentences and decide whether they are good or lacking. Put an X in the
space if it is a good topic sentence, a G or S if it is too general or specific, a C if it lacks a controlling
idea,
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____

The greatest boxer of all time was Mohammed Ali.

Jogging is good exercise.
Computers have changed the world.
Bananas are the best fruit because they contain all the essential vitamins needed
for a healthy body.
Using cell phones while driving can be a hazard.
Religion is a crutch.
The most challenging board game ever invented is chess.
AIDS kills people every day.
Music soothes the soul.
Lawyers are too plentiful in the Unites States.

Exercise 4.2
Rewrite the following general statements and make them more specific and suitable as topic
sentences.
1. Italian food is healthy and easy to prepare.
________________________________________________________________________
2. The United States government is over burdened with citizens complaints.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Natural disasters create havoc for everyone.
________________________________________________________________________
4. The extinction of species of life on earth will have a profound effect on future generations.
________________________________________________________________________
5. Fairy tales are beneficial to children.
________________________________________________________________________

39

Exercise 4.3
Identify the topic and controlling idea of the following topic sentences.
1. Childrens educational programs on TV are superior to cartoons for young minds.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
2. Racial discrimination in the work place is a waste of human resources.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
3. The exploration of space needlessly expends resources that could be put to better use
elsewhere.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
4. Hobbies provide people with many benefits.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
5. Learning a foreign language is also about learning the culture of that country.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
6. Becoming a doctor requires skills other than just medical knowledge.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
7. The time I spent in the Peace Corps was a horrendous experience.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
8. Driving in Korea presents foreign drivers with many challenges.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
9. A computer is a must for todays college students.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________
10. Teaching children the basics of fire prevention at home is fast and easy.
Topic: __________________________________________________
Controlling idea: __________________________________________

40

Exercise 4.4
Write topic sentences for the topics below.
Same sex marriage
Littering
Home safety
Reading for pleasure
Basic first aid

Dancing as exercise
Dieting
White sandy beaches
Favorite pets
Games played as a child

1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________________________
6. ________________________________________________________________________
7. ________________________________________________________________________
8. ________________________________________________________________________
9. ________________________________________________________________________
10. _______________________________________________________________________
2. Supporting sentences
The topic sentence is usually fairly general. The supporting sentences that follow it should be more
specific and develop the idea expressed in the topic sentence. Supporting sentences that are vague
merely restate the topic sentence. There are several methods that can be employed to make the
supporting sentences more specific. One is to use details, facts, statistics, examples, opinions,
research results, personal experience, or anecdotes. For example:
Seoul is a big city. (no statistics, just a broad statement)
Seoul, South Korea has a population of over 10 million people.
Another method of adding specificity is by using exact names of things rather than writing about them
in general terms. For example
He is a doctor. (a very general statement)
He is a pediatrician who has worked at City Hospital for the last 15 years.
(a very specific statement)
A final method is to use concrete words that allow the reader to imagine the topic being written about
in greater detail, and not just in general or abstract terms. For example:
Mr. Thompson enjoys life.
Mr. Thompson is almost always in a good mood, most often has a smile on his face,
is quick to laugh, and always sees the positive, even in terrible situations.

41

Look at the following paragraph and note the supporting sentences.

The invention of the automobile has provided many benefits to travelers. With a car,
man is able to travel vast distances in short periods of time. What once took a two or
three weeks on horseback can now be done in a matter of hours. The comfort enjoyed
by travelers, compared to a horse drawn wagon, is amazing. No longer do travelers
have to endure the bone-jarring ordeal of riding on a stiff leather saddle or splinterinfested wagon seat. Their voyage is now made on softly cushioned seats that can be
adjusted to fit the sojourners level of comfort. Travelers are no longer subjected to the
harsh elements of the weather. In the past, travelers had to suffer the biting cold of
winter and the blistering heat of summer, not to mention the suffering encountered by
gale force winds, blinding snow, and drenching rain. Today people can enjoy a soothing
and relaxing trip thanks to the totally enclosed interiors that offer air conditioning and
heating units in most vehicles. Needless to say, with all the advantages an automobile
has to offer, no one would dream of using the expression Get a horse today.

Exercise 4.5
Select two topics that you wrote topic sentences for in exercise 4.4. Write five or six supporting
sentences for each topic.

1. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

42

3. Concluding sentence
The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. Single
paragraph compositions should have a concluding sentence, however,
it may not be necessary all the time for a multi-paragraph composition.
The function of the concluding sentence is to signal the end of the
paragraph. Concluding sentences can either be a restatement of the topic
sentence, a summary of the supporting sentences, or contain a final
comment about the topic. The concluding sentence in a paragraph should
be a general statement that relates to the idea expressed in the topic
sentence, and not another fact or detail of support. If restating the topic
sentence, it should be expressed in different words, not an exact copy of
the topic sentence.
In the above paragraph about automobiles, the concluding sentence was a final comment about
automobiles. A concluding sentence that restates the topic sentence could be The examples
mentioned above clearly demonstrate the many advantages of the automobile. A concluding
sentence that summarizes the supporting sentences could be Speed, comfort, and a controlled
environment are just a few of the advantages that a modern day car has over a horse.
Many words or phrases can be used to signal the end of the paragraph in the concluding sentence.
Here are just a few (These require a comma followed them):
finally
therefore
indeed

in conclusion
thus
in brief

in summary
as a result
in short

Other phrases (which do not require commas) include:

we can see that . . .
it is clear that. . .
these examples show that. . .
there can be no doubt that. . .
the evidence suggest that. . .
Exercise 4.6
Read the sentences below and number the proper order for the sentences in a paragraph.
____
____
____
____
____
____

Temperatures on the continent frequently drop below 100 below zero.

It is no wonder that this harsh environment has no permanent residents.
Antarctica, the continent at the South Pole, is one of the coldest spots on earth.
The continent receives no sunlight for several months out of the year.
More than 95% of the land surface is covered by a tightly packed ice cap.
The sunlight it does receive is so slanted because of the tilt of the planets axis, that
the warmth for the sunlight is negligible.
____ The land is covered by thousands of feet of snow and ice.

43

Exercise 4.7
Read the following paragraphs and write a topic sentence and a concluding sentence for each.

Topic sentence: _____________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Acid rain is the result of pollutants, which are released into the atmosphere from
automobiles and industry, which fall back to earth after being trapped by rain and snow.
There have been numerous scientific studies of the effects of acid rain on the
ecosystem in recent years. Pollutants contained in acid rain are destroying plant and
animal life when it enters lakes and rivers. Millions of acres of trees and plants have
been damaged or destroyed because of the harmful effects of acid rain on these
delicate ecosystems.
Concluding sentence: ______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Topic sentence: ______________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
It has only recently come under more intense investigation by proponents of western
medical practices. Acupuncture involves the insertion of small needles, with the
application of heat and electrical stimulation at precise acupuncture points on the body.
According to traditional Chinese doctors, the balance of yin and yang (opposing forces
that regulate spiritual, emotional, physical, and mental balance) are essential for good
health. Blockage of the gi flow (the energy that flows through the body via meridians or
pathways) creates an imbalance of yin and yang, which results in health problems or
illness. The insertion of needles into the skin during acupuncture treatments unblock
these channels and allow energy flows to optimize, resulting in improved health.
Concluding sentence: _________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Topic sentence: ______________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Angina refers to the pain caused from a lack of blood supply to the heart. The blood
supply is reduced due to a buildup of plague (deposits of cholesterol) in the arterial
walls. The pain of angina is brought on by physical exertion and normally subsides with
rest. The pain is typically located in the center of the chest, but may also radiate to the
left arm, neck, jaw, left chest, or back.
Concluding sentence: _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

44

Topic sentence: ______________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Area 51, located on the desert floor of Groom Lake, Nevada, is reported to be a topsecret military base established in the early 1950s. The base, according to the
government, is a testing facility for advanced aircraft being developed by the military.
The U-2 spy plane was tested there in the early 1950s. Other aircraft tested there
include the SR-71 Blackbird, the F-117 stealth fighter, and Orthrop's B-2 stealth
bomber. In 1989, a former employee of Area 51 claimed that the base was testing
UFOs that the government received by trading with aliens. Some believe that Area 51 is
the site of a crash of an alien spacecraft and that secret research is being conducted on
the remains of the craft and its occupants.
Concluding sentence: ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Topic sentence: ______________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
First, when another driver pulls into the lane I am driving in and I have to slow down. It
doesnt matter if the other person is driving safely and there is no immediate danger of a
collision. I get peeved if I have to slow down just a little, even two or three miles an hour
for a few seconds, while the guy in front of me picks up speed. I see no reason why I
should slow down because someone else is in a hurry. The second thing that really gets
my in an uproar is when someone passes me on the right. In some states in the United
States it is actually against the law to pass on the right. Dont those people realize that
passing on the right is dangerous? Have they never heard of the blind spot in the rear
view mirror? Do they not care that they could be putting peoples lives in jeopardy? The
last thing that I really hate to see when I drive is when a pedestrian walks into the road
without looking. Are they nuts? Do they have a death wish? Are they just plain stupid!
Have their parents never taught them that it is a bad idea to walk in front of a one ton
car traveling at forty miles an hour? Do they have no concept of bodily injury or death?
Concluding sentence: ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

45

Chapter 5- Paragraph Characteristics

A well-written paragraph has to have four characteristics: unity, completeness, cohesion, and
continuity.
Unity means discussing only one idea in the paragraph, the idea presented in the topic sentence. If a
sentence in the paragraph does not relate to the topic sentence, it is irrelevant and should be deleted.
For example, if the topic sentence states that the paragraph is about the advantages of CDs over
cassette tapes, talk only about advantages not disadvantages. Discussing the disadvantages does
not support the topic sentence and should not be included in the paragraph.
Lack of unity may also occur if the writer adds too much to the topic. For example, in the following
topic sentence The two biggest problems facing most candidates for public office are lack of
money and lack of public exposure, only these two things should be discussed in the paragraph. If
a sentence about candidates inability to garner the public confidence is included in the paragraph, it is
irrelevant and should not be included in the paragraph. The topic sentence stated that only two items
would be discussed. Adding a sentence about garnering public confidence is not related to the topic
sentence and results in a lack of unity.
Exercise 5.1
The following paragraph lacks unity because some of the sentences do not relate to the topic
sentence. Cross those sentences out.

Robert Goddard is considered to be the father of modern rocketry. Goddard, a

physics professor at Clark University in Worcester Massachusetts, predicted in 1920 a
rocket would be able to reach the moon. He speculated that with a big enough rocket
and fuel that was powerful enough, space travel was a possibility. Weightlessness could
also be experienced on a trip to the moon. His first determined that rockets could fly in
the vacuum of outer space, from his experiments with airtight chambers. After
calculating the energy-to-weight ratios of various fuels he learned the fuel needed for a
rocket would not come from black powder, like that used in firecrackers and TNT. Ever
since Goddard was a child he had a fascination with pyrotechnics. He discovered that
what was needed was a liquid fuel that could supply greater propulsion. His experiments
in chemistry lead to a fuel like kerosene or liquid hydrogen, combined with liquid
oxygen, which was needed in airless space for combustion. One newspaper ridiculed
him at the time stating that his musings were farfetched and unscientific. As any child
knows, Goddards prediction became a reality when man first stepped on the moon in
July 1969.

Completeness is similar to unity, except that instead of including sentences that are irrelevant,
completeness is ensuring that all the necessary supporting sentences are included to fully explain and
support the topic.
For example, if a topic sentence states that three things are needed obtain a visa and only two are
mentioned in the supporting sentences, the paragraph is incomplete. All three items must be
mentioned for the paragraph to have completeness. Another example, if a topic sentence promises to
list the steps needed to change a flat tire, but neglects to mention that the car must be jacked up
before taking off the wheels, the paragraph is incomplete. All the steps needed to change a tire must
be included in the paragraph to ensure completeness.
46

Cohesion is the smooth, continuous flow of thoughts of the sentences and ideas presented according
to some logical principle. Cohesion allows the reader to follow the flow of ideas within the text without
effort, confusion, or frustration because all the sentences are connected together and sequenced in a
rational order in their support of the topic sentence. For example, if a paragraph is about how to
change a flat tire, a sentence about removing the tire from the axle should not come before a
sentence about jacking up the car. When actually completing this task, the car must always be jacked
up first before removing the flat tire from the axle. If the supporting sentences in the paragraph are
arranged without rational order the paragraph lacks cohesiveness.
The principle used in the ordering of the sentences within a paragraph depends on the kind of
paragraph being written. Chronological ordering is appropriate for narratives, which use a time order
of events to relate the sequence in which things happen. An example would be a paragraph about
instructions for assembling a model airplane.
A descriptive paragraph uses spatial ordering to ensure cohesion. In a descriptive paragraph, items
could be describe from left to right, top to bottom, front to back, etc. For example, when describing
people, a writer may start from the head and work down.
The principles of logic and reason are used in expository paragraphs, which arrange the sentences
into a logical pattern. For example, if writing a paragraph about how to play a game the logical order
may be first to explain the object of the game, what materials are needed for the game, and then the
rules of the game.
To ensure cohesion, transition words are used to connect the gaps between sentences in a
paragraph. Usually transition words are at the beginning of a sentence to relate a sentence to the one
preceding it, but transition words can come within sentences to connect one idea to another within a
sentence.
Continuity is the combined inclusion of the three characteristics mentioned above: unity,
completeness, and cohesion. Having all three characteristics in the paragraph ensures that the
connection between ideas presented is smooth and even. For a paragraph to have continuity it must
have all three of these characteristics. If a paragraph lacks unity, it has no continuity. If a paragraph
lacks completeness, it has no continuity. If a paragraph lacks cohesion, it has no continuity.
More on cohesiveness
As previously noted, one characteristic of a good paragraph
is cohesion; sentences that stick together in supporting the
topic sentence. There are five devices that can be used to
connect sentences together to ensure cohesion. These are
personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, the definite
article, use of synonyms, and linking or transitional words.
Personal Pronouns are words that refer back to and substitute for nouns (called antecedents)
previously mentioned. Before a pronoun can be used in a text, an antecedent must precede it, so the
pronoun has something to refer back to. Look at the following example.
The rich yuppie admired the sports car in the show window. He decided to buy it.
The personal pronouns in the second sentence, he and it, refer back to the nouns yuppie and car in
the previous sentence.

47

Without the use of pronouns, a sentence may become awkward to read and in some cases may not
seem to relate to each other. Look at the following sentences.
The rich yuppie admired the sports car in the show window. The rich
yuppie had always wanted to buy a sports car. In the rich yuppies mind,
owning a sports car represented success and achievement. Being quite
wealthy, the rich yuppie could easily afford such an expensive sports car.
The rich yuppie decided to buy the sports car.
The relationship between these sentences may confuse the reader if it is not known that the rich
yuppie referred to is always the same person, they could easily refer to two different rich yuppies. In
addition to adding cohesion to a paragraph, the use of pronouns allows for more interesting reading.
Imagine having to read the paragraph above, which used no pronouns. Having to read a passage like
this would soon become monotonous.
Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) are also tools for connecting sentences together.
As with personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns require an antecedent (a previously mentioned
noun) before their use. Look at this example.
Please note the Yankees baseball cap in the display case. This cap was worn by
Babe Ruth in the World Series.
If a demonstrative pronoun (this in the second sentence) is not used in the above example the
sentences may not appear to be connected or related to each other. If a (cap) were used instead of
this it would be unclear if the cap in the display case was the same cap worn by The Babe.
The definite article (instead of a demonstrative pronoun) may also
be used to join these sentences. Just like pronouns, before using the
definite article, it must be preceded by a noun, which it can refer back to.
The previously mention noun (antecedent) is usually in the previous
sentence. Look at the example below.
I bought an album yesterday. The album was by the Beatles.
Using the definite article, it becomes clear that the Beatles album was the one purchased yesterday,
and not some other album. Without the use of the definite article, the relationship between two
sentences may not be as clear.
I bought an anniversary present yesterday. An anniversary present is for my grandparents.
In the second sentence, because an was used, it is not clear whether the present in the second
sentence is the one that was purchased yesterday. To ensure there is no misunderstanding the (and
not an) should be used.
Another cohesive devise, synonyms, are used to enable the writer to add variety to his writing by
preventing the repetition of nouns or phrases, which may make the passage boring and uninteresting
to read. As with the other listed cohesive devices, synonyms require an antecedent before their use.
Note the synonyms for car in the passage below and how it adds variety and spice to the paragraph.
Bob purchased his first car at the age of 17. The vehicle was an
old clunker and only cost $200 and was in a constant state of repair.
In spite of its problems, the automobile allowed Bob a degree of
freedom he had never experienced before.

48

The final cohesive device is linking or transitional words. Transition words are words that link
ideas or sentences together and show the relationship between them. They guide the reader through
the passage by letting him or her know which direction the text is going. Coordinating
conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, or prepositions are frequently used linking words.
Transition words can be divided into six groups, each group serving a different function in the way in
which it combines sentences or phrases together. Look carefully at the lists below.
A. Transitions which indicate additions, repetitions, or intensification:
also
in addition
besides
too
another
further
furthermore
in other words
indeed
in fact
finally
to sum up
first
second
after all
once again
to repeat
and so on
again
any more
to conclude usually
habitually
as a matter of fact
including
nevertheless
to put it another way
B. Transitions which indicate comparisons, contrasts, or contradictions:
similarly
likewise
by comparison
in the like manner
as well as
as
as if
unlike
however
though
regardless
on the other hand
in spite of
despite
but
yet
whereas
even though even when
rather than
instead
instead of
on the contrary
nevertheless
in fact
nonetheless then again
to put it another way
either or
neither nor
C. Transitions which indicate a time or space relationship:
before
now
next
after that
in time
later
following
after so much time
finally
earlier
at first (last) then
just then
until
soon
the next day (night)
while
meanwhile
beside
between
beyond
across
over
at
from
to
into
outside
inside
eventually
since
ever since
even
when
D. Transitions which limit or prepare for an example:
if
unless
when
provided that
in case
in particular that
that is
namely
for example for instance to illustrate
such as
E. Transitions which indicate a cause or result:
because
for
therefore
so
as a result
consequently

thus
that (this) reason

F. Transitions which indicate obvious truths or grant opposition:

no doubt
doubtless
undoubtedly
without a doubt
of course
naturally
surely
certainly
in fact
granted
granted that
conceding that

49

moreover

Exercise 5.2
The cohesiveness of the paragraph below could be improved with the addition of transition words.
Insert appropriate transition words from the list below in the blanks.
undoubtedly
furthermore
as a result

whereas
following
in addition

although
nonetheless

Tutankhamen, ____________ not as notable a pharaoh as Seti I or Rameses II,

____________ gained wide-spread fame because of his tomb. Howard Carter
discovered Tutankhamens tomb in 1922 in the Valley of the Kings. Surprisingly, the
tomb was largely intact; ____________ most Egyptian tombs had been pillaged and
plundered over the last 3000 years by grave robbers. The treasures revealed in the
tomb include his mummy and solid gold sarcophagus. ____________ a priceless gold
mask, wall paintings, furniture, chariots, statues, jewelry items, weapons, games,
clothing, cosmetic equipment, and other artifacts were discovered. ____________,
these items have given archeologists a unique portrait of the life of ancient Egyptian
royalty. ___________, to add to the tombs myth, ____________ the opening of the
tomb a number of unexplained and mysterious deaths sparked rumors of the mummys
curse. ____________, it was widely believed that anyone disturbing the peaceful
remains of the tomb was doomed to a terrible death. Much more can be learned about
the legend and treasures of Tutankhamen by visiting the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

50

Chapter 6- Types of Paragraphs

The order of the sentences in a paragraph must be in some sort of logical order so it can be easily
read and understood by the reader. The kind of logical organization used partly depends on the topic
and what the writer wants to say about it. There are several kinds of paragraphs narrative,
descriptive, process, compare and contrast, cause and effect, problem analysis and solution and
persuasion. Each kind of paragraph has a different purpose and different method of organization.

Narrative Paragraph
A narrative paragraph tells a story and its purpose is to provide information about an event. In a
narrative paragraph, events are related to the reader in the correct chronological order as they
happened. A narrative paragraph is used when writing about such things as: a vacation trip taken to
Africa, your first day in a foreign country, mans journey into space, or the events leading
to the end of slavery in America. When telling a story elements that should be included are the chain
of events of the story, the characters or people involved, when and where the event occurred, and
possibly the theme or moral of the story.

Narrative Paragraph
My girlfriend and I went on vacation to Hawaii about a year ago. We spent a week
there and had a great time. We stayed at a very nice hotel right on the beach in
Honolulu. We spent a lot of time on the beach, of course, swimming, wading, walking,
and soaking in the sun. At night we always went out to a fine restaurant for a romantic
dinner on the beach. We even took in a show once. One day we went snorkeling. That
was fantastic! The numbers and varieties of brightly colored fish we saw were just
amazing. I thought about trying my hand at surfing and parasailing, but I chickened out.
On another day, we did the typical vacationers tour; we went to a Marine Museum, a
traditional Hawaii market, and The Arizona War Memorial. One night we went to a luau.
The food at the luau was delicious, as were the tropical drinks. The organizers of the
luau taught all the women how to do the hula; all the men sat back, watch the dancing,
and drank Mai Tais. The luau was fun, but I thought it was over-crowed. There were a
least 150 people there. In spite of the crowds, Hawaii certain is a vacation paradise.

Exercise 6.1
Write your own narrative paragraph on a separate sheet of paper.

Descriptive Paragraph
W hen one wa nt s t o descr ib e t he wa y somet h ing l ook s lik e i n a p h ys ic al s en se a
descriptive paragraph is used. A descriptive paragraph would be used for such things as describing
the physical appearance of your favorite uncle, the layout of the library at a school, the awesome
grandeur of the Pyramids, or the stunning beauty of the Mona Lisa. The organizational flow of
sentences in the paragraph should be based on some logical principle and could vary based on the
writers style or intent. For example, if describing a person, one may start the description from head
and work down to the feet, or vise versa. Additional supporting sentences may include information
about the persons eye color, hair color and style, height, weight, physical stature, and distinguishing
marks. If describing a room, one could describe from left to right or front to back or from the center
outward. Items that may be included in the supporting sentences may include the color of the walls,
51

the size of the room, the furniture or dcor of the room, the location of the furniture, windows or doors
in the room. If describing the beauty of a famous landmark one could start with the landmark itself and
expand outward to include the landscape around it, the sky above, and the horizon beyond.
Supporting sentences may include information on the size, shape, and color of the landmark, its
location, the kinds of vegetation in the vicinity, and the immediate or distant geologic characteristics of
the landscape.

Descriptive Paragraph
Kangaroos are strange and amazing animals. There are three species of kangaroos
and they can weigh between forty and two hundred pounds (18 to 95 kg) and range in
height between three and nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters). A kangaroo has two large hind
legs (with four toes) and a long, powerful, tapered tail that is used for balance when
hopping and leaping. Kangaroos can walk and stand upright and they move about by
hopping on their hind legs. Their front legs are short and small, with hands and five
unequal digits (fingers) similar to a humans. The digits are used for grasping objects
and also have sharp claws that are used for fighting. Kangaroos have long pointed ears
and a long and well-defined muzzle, with distinctive black and white patches on both
sides of the muzzle. Their head resembles that of a dear. The fur of the kangaroos is
soft and woolly and may have stripes on the head, back, or upper limbs. Depending on
the species, the color of the fur can be reddish brown, grayish brown, or chocolate
brown. One distinguishing feature of kangaroos is that the females have a pouch in
which the babies reside until mature. To see these amazing animals up close one has to
travel to Australia, as that is the only place kangaroos can be indigenously found.

Exercise 6.2
Select one of the topics below and write a descriptive paragraph about it..

Your bedroom
A friend
An elephant

Your college campus

A TV
Your own idea

Process Paragraph
An process paragraph is used when explaining something such as how to do something, how
something is done, or how something works. Topics suitable for an process format include how to
overcome a fear of heights, how to bake a cake, or how a hydroelectric generator works.
Keep in mind that the present and future tense are most often used in describing a process, very
seldom is the past tense used. In addition, when writing a process paragraph, it is important for the
reader to be able to follow the sequence of steps easily. For this reason, the use of transition words is
essential. Below is a list of commonly used transition words for process paragraphs.
first
that

second
then

third
next

after
before

52

Process Paragraph 1 (how something works)

The design and operation of a household toaster is simplicity itself. Modern toasters
work on electricity. Electricity passes through thin wires that are on both sides of the slot
where the bread is placed. The wires become red hot when the electricity passes
through them, which generates a tremendous amount of heat. This heat burns the bread
to make the toast. The degree that the bread burns can be regulated with a dial. On a
low setting, the toast becomes lightly toasted; with a higher setting, the toast becomes
darker. The dial controls the amount of time that the bread is in the toaster, not the
amount of heat generated. Most toasters contain a lever that is pushed down, which
lowers the bread into the device so the bread is beside the heating filaments. The toast
pops up, away from the heating filaments, when the time that is set with the control knob
expires. The electricity stops passing through the wires and the heat soon dissipates.
Some of the newer toasters have no lever to push down; instead the bread is
automatically lowered into the toaster when it is placed in the slots. Most toasters are
made for two slices of bread, but four slice toasters are available, to meet the ever
increasing time demands on working moms. Toasters are fast, convenient, and easy to
use tools that help make breakfast quick and easy.

Process Paragraph 2 (how to make something)

Making tacos, a Mexican dish, is fast and easy. There are six basic ingredients: corn
tortillas, ground beef (hamburger meat), lettuce, tomatoes, onions, and shredded
cheese. For a serving of six, use these amounts of ingredients: six uncooked corn
tortillas, one half pound of ground beef, one quarter head of lettuce, one large tomato,
one medium sized onion, and four ounces of shredded Cheddar cheese. First, dice the
lettuce, tomatoes, onions, and shred the cheese and put them into separate bowls.
Second, brown the ground beef in a frying pan, being sure to mash the beef into small
bits. Season the beef with salt and pepper to taste. Then, put in six to eight tablespoons
of cooking oil in another small frying pan and cook the tortillas over medium to high
heat. To make soft tacos, cook the tortillas for 30 seconds on one side and then turn
over and cook the other side for 30 seconds. After cooking the tortillas, place the
cooked tortilla on a paper towel to remove the excess grease. To make the taco, take
the soft tortilla and fold it in haft, spoon into the tortilla shell a tablespoon or so of the
cooked ground beef. On top of this add small equal amounts of cheese, lettuce,
tomatoes, and onions. The taco is now ready eat, just pick it up with your hands and
chow down (no spoons or forks are required). Keep in mind that the ingredients have a
tendency to fall out of the taco when eating, so eat carefully. The debris that falls on the
plate can be eaten later with a fork, or if keeping with custom, just use your fingers.
Some people like to add a little zest to their tacos by adding a dash or two of hot taco
sauce and a dab of sour cream or guacamole. Tacos make a fast, easy, and delicious
meal.

Exercise 6.3 Select one of the topics below and write a process paragraph.
How to make your favorite food
How to fail a class
How to stop the hiccups
How to be a millionaire
How an electric can opener works

How to impress a teacher

How to make a kite
How to find the perfect mate
How to master English
Your own idea

53

Compare and Contrast Paragraph

In a compare and contrast paragraph the writer is pointing out the
similarities and/or differences between two or more things. A compare
and contrast paragraph could be used to show that one thing is
superior to another or to show changes over time. Suitable topics
for a compare and contrast paragraph include city versus country
living or modes of transportation today versus 100 years ago.
There are two methods for organizing a compare and contrast paragraph: point-by-point or block. In a
point-by-point organizational method, two topics are compared or contrasted point by point. In a point
by point method, one aspect is talked about for both items being compared, then another point is
discussed for both items, and so on. For example, in a paragraph comparing shopping at a superstore
(such as Wal-Mart) and shopping at specialty stores, the first point may be convenience. The writer
would discuss the advantages or disadvantages for both stores. A second point may be price. Again
the writer would talk about the advantages or disadvantages of one over the other. The paragraph
continues in this manner until all points of comparison are covered. Look at the example below.

Compare and Contrast Paragraph: Point by Point Method

Shopping at a superstore is far more superior than shopping at a specialty shore.
Shopping at a super store is much more convenient and time saving. First, a super store
provides for one stop shopping, you can get every thing you need under one roof. If
shopping at specialty shops, one may have to drive all over town, spending half a day
doing so, to complete all of the purchases. Prices may also be much cheaper at a
superstore. Super stores are able to buy in bulk, passing on the savings to the
customer. Many specialty stores are unable to provide this benefit to their customers.
Parking at a super store is generally fast and easy since they always have large,
spacious parking lots. Finding a parking space for a specialty shop may be difficult. A
person may end up parking one or two blocks away, and may have to pay a parking fee.
A super store may also provide the customer with greater choice. The electronics
department of a super store could have 10 different brands of televisions, with several
models of each brand to choose from. A specialty store may only have two or three
brands, the brands that they carry, to choose from. All in all, why would any one want to
shop at a specialty store?

In a block method of organization the writer would write about the two things being compared or
contrasted separately. Using the shopping example cited above, the writer would first write about all
the advantages or disadvantages of shopping at a superstore. The remainder of the paragraph would
discuss the advantages or disadvantages of shopping at specialty shops. Look at the example below.

54

Compare and Contrast Paragraph: Block Method

Shopping at a superstore is far superior than shopping at a specialty store. Shopping
at a super store is much more convenient and time saving. First, a super store provides
for one stop shopping, you can get every thing you need under one roof. Prices may
also be much cheaper at a super store. Super stores are able to buy in bulk, passing on
the savings to the customer. Parking at a super store is generally fast and easy since
they always have large, spacious parking lots. Finally, a super store may also provide
the customer with greater choice. The electronics department of a super store could
have 10 different brands of televisions, with several models of each brand to choose
from. On the other hand, if shopping at specialty shops, one may have to drive all over
town, spending half a day doing so, to complete all of the purchases. Many specialty
stores are unable to purchase their merchandise in bulk; therefore customers may end
up paying a higher price. Finding a parking space for a specialty shop may be difficult. A
person may end up parking one or two blocks away, and may have to pay a parking fee.
A specialty store may only have two or three brands, the brands that they carry, thus
limiting their customers choices. All in all, why would any one want to shop at a
specialty store?

Exercise 6.4
Write a compare and contrast paragraph using one of the topics below.
City and country living
Audio-tapes and CDs
Your mother and father
Your own idea

A sports car and a luxury car

Two countries
Typewriters and computers for typing

Cause and Effect Paragraph

In a cause and effect paragraph the writer analyzes the causes or
factors that brought about an event and examines the results or
consequences of that event. The paragraph could contain only the
causes of an event or situation or could contain only the effects of
an event or situation, or it could contain both the causes and effects.
Topics that may utilize a cause and effect method of organization
include examining the cause of air pollution and its effect on plant
life or the rates of illiteracy in a country and the effects on the
employability of its citizens.
Effect Paragraph
When the United States lowered the legal drinking age from 21 to 18 about 30 years
ago it created unforeseen problems. One problem was the increase in the number of
alcohol-related automobile accidents among 18 to 21 year old drivers. The accident rate
nearly doubled within six moths after the law was enacted. In addition to the accident
rate, the number of fatalities resulting from alcohol related car accidents increased
dramatically. As would be expected, the insurance rates for this age group also
increased due to the larger number of accidents. At the time that the law was passed,
there was a national sentiment that if 18 year olds were old enough to die in a war, they
were old enough to handle the responsibility of alcohol use. Clearly this was not the
case. Less than three years later the law was repealed and the drinking age was
re-instated to 21.

55

Exercise 6.5
Select one of the topics below and write an effect paragraph about it..
Water pollution
Being laid off from work
Cell phones on daily life

Unemployment
A new baby in the family
Your own idea

Cause Paragraph
There are several reasons many high schools in the United States have begun to
change their curriculum from the traditional academic focus to a vocational focus. Many
students in high schools have no desire, or lack the financial resources, to attend
college. Students found the courses offered irrelevant to their lives, which effected their
attendance and performance in classes. Receiving a traditional high school education
did not prepare them for the world of work because they had no skills to offer an
employer, other than the three Rs. The students and their parents needed a curriculum
that taught the student specific skills that could be used immediately upon graduation to
join the work force. Schools now offer courses in automotive repair, construction,
nurses aid training, cooking, and secretarial or office work. Businesses also supported
this change. Training new employees in the most basic skills for a particular job costs
time and money. Employers required a work force with skills that could be put to work
immediately. The changing of focus of the high school curriculum in America has
resulted in more motivated students and a better skilled work force.

Exercise 6.6
Select one of the topics below and write a cause paragraph about it.
Stress
Failing a class
Crime Your own idea

Longer life expectancies among people

Rising divorce rates

56

Problem Analysis and Solution Paragraph

In a problem analysis and solution paragraph the writer identifies a problem and offers solutions for
that problem. Topics that may be found in a problem and solution paragraph include employees
consistently reporting late for work or a lack of parking space in a downtown area.

Problem and Solution Paragraph

Rush hour traffic jams are a major source of annoyance and inconvenience for
millions of big city dwellers. Most large metropolitan areas have a number of modes of
mass transportation that can be utilized by commuters to eliminate the daily headaches
and hassles of traffic jams. The first is the subway. Subways are fast, inexpensive,
easily accessible, and have routes to most areas of a city that a person may need to
travel to. In addition, they can be a source of fun and entertainment. There is no doubt
that a person can meet a wide variety of people using the subway. A second alternative
is a bus. Although buses may be a little slower than subways, they also have the same
advantages as a subway in that they too are relatively inexpensive, easily accessible,
and travel to most areas of a city that a person may need to go to. One disadvantage,
however, is that buses generally do not run as frequently as subways, so a person may
have to wait a much longer time for the next bus to arrive. A third alternative is the taxi.
Although taxis can be quite expensive, they have the advantage of dropping the
passenger off at the exact location he or she is going, thus eliminating the need for
additional walking to their final destination. Car pools, if used more extensively, could
also be a means to reduce traffic jams. Car pools are ideal for people that live in the
same area and work in the same place. They have the advantage of being Inexpensive,
in that all riders could pitch in for the cost of the gas. Also its a great opportunity to
socialize with coworkers and maybe even reduce the stress and frustration associated
with bumper-to-bumper traffic. Finally, for those who live close to their place of work, a
bicycle may be just the ticket. Not only does a cyclist beat the traffic, they can get a
good work-out at the same time and have a healthier life. So, if you are tired of the daily
grind of getting to work, try another mode of getting there, and relax.

Exercise 6.7
On a separate sheet of paper, select one of the topics below and write a problem analysis
and solution paragraph.
The homeless
Sexual discrimination
Domestic violence

Over-population
Political corruption
High cost of medical care

57

Drug use
Employment for youth
Drunk Drivers

Persuasion Paragraph
In a persuasion paragraph the writer attempts to persuade others to his particular point of view or tries
to convince others to do something. If writing about the benefits of a tax cut or allowing prayers in
school, one would use a persuasion format. The writer may use facts and figures, emotional appeal,
or intellectual arguments to sway the readers opinion.

Persuasion paragraph
Euthanasia is a merciful and humane termination of prolonged suffering, and not
murder, as some proponents insist. There is no sane reason why a person with a
terminal illness should have to suffer the agony, humiliation, and degradation of a slow,
certain death when other alternatives are available. Certainly no one wants to die, but
like taxes, it is unavoidable. Life is indeed a precious gift that should be cherished and
celebrated. For those unlucky souls inflected with a painful terminal illness, they should
have the option of passing quietly, peacefully, and quickly. What rational person would
choose the never-ending torment that comes with the slow, excruciating death of a
terminal illness? Loved ones too suffer from a prolonged terminal illness. They
experience the grief, agony, and pain of losing someone every time they visit the
hospital. This continued exposure creates emotional, physical, and psychological stress
that is unnecessary and in most cases probably unwanted. Prolonged terminal illnesses
also put a great burden on familys financial resources. With the high cost of medical
care today, this could (and many times does) create a financial crisis that takes years to
overcome. In addition, time and resources of the hospital are inefficiently utilized.
Medical facilities may be turning away patients that need urgent care if their beds are
filled with patients that are afflicted with incurable diseases. This in turn could create
grave social problems for a community. We are all going to die, let us hope that we have
the option of going out serenely.

Exercise 6.8
On a separate sheet of paper, select one of the topics below and write a persuasion paragraph.
The death penalty
Mandatory military service
Abortion
Interracial marriage
Access to Internet pornography

Legalization of drugs
The existence of God
Elimination of testing in schools
Political part affiliation
You own idea

58

Chapter 7- Parts of the Essay

Essay Organization
An essay or composition is a collection of paragraphs that cover one particular topic. The organization
of an essay is essentially the same as a paragraph. It contains an introduction, just as a paragraph
contains a topic sentence. The introductory paragraph lets the reader know what the essay will be
about. An essay has body paragraphs, which develop the topic stated in the introduction, in the same
way that supporting sentences develop the topic sentence in a paragraph. The body paragraphs,
usually the longest part of the essay, contain support for the thesis statement. An essay contains a
concluding paragraph, just as a paragraph contains a concluding sentence. The concluding paragraph
summarizes the information in the essay or may contain the writers opinion or prediction of the topic.
For an essay, a topic sentence and a concluding sentence may be not needed for all paragraphs. If
the thesis statement contains a predictor, it will clearly show what the topic of the paragraphs will be.
Even if no topic sentence is used, the writer still needs to have good transition and unity to tie the
paragraphs together cohesively.

The Introduction
There are two primary functions of the introductory paragraph: to indicate what the essay will be about
and to attract the attention of the reader. The introduction may include making an initial general
statement and narrowing it down to the thesis statement or explaining the importance of the topic. In
addition, the introduction may provide the reader with background information, set the limits of the
discussion, or to clarify the meaning of words. Without an introduction the essays begins too abruptly
and may cause confusion for the reader.
If the introduction does not grab the reader, they may stop reading and seek entertainment or
information elsewhere. There are several techniques that can be used in introductions to help get the
attention of the reader. These are anecdotes, quotes, surprise with an unexpected view, questions,
interesting facts or statistics, background or historical information, or a combination of these.
The topic of the essay is contained in the thesis statement. The thesis statement is the most important
sentence in an essay, just as the topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph. The
thesis statement is similar to the topic sentence and serves the same function in an essay as the topic
sentences does for the paragraph. It tells what the essay is about, just as the topic sentence tells the
reader what the paragraph is about. The thesis statement is the last sentence in the introductory
paragraph. It lets the reader know what will be discussed in the remaining paragraphs and expresses
the opinion or point of view of the writer. It contains the same components as the topic sentence. It
contains the topic, a controlling idea, and opinion. The topic is what the essay will be about. The
controlling idea is what will be said about the topic. There can only be one controlling idea in the thesis
statement. The thesis statement must also contain an opinion. If the thesis statement contains a fact,
it cannot be supported and the writer cannot write an essay about it.

59

Thesis statements may also have additional characteristics. The

thesis statement indicates the central purpose for the essay and
controls the essay. It gives a plan for the essay and the essay
must follow that plan. The thesis statement may indicate how
many paragraphs the essay will be, the organization of the
essay, and the content of each paragraph. For example, in the
thesis statement The primary causes for the gradual collapse
of the British Empire were political differences, economic factors,
and geographic distance, one paragraph each will be devoted to
explaining the three causes of the collapse: political differences,
economic factors, and geographic distance. The order of the ideas
presented in the body paragraphs must match the order indicated
in the thesis statement. In the above example the first body
paragraph must be about political differences, the second paragraph
must be about economic factors, and the third must be about
geographic distance.
When writing thesis statements keep in mind these simple rules:
1) it must be a statement, not a question
2) it must be complete sentence
3) it must be an opinion, not a fact
4) it must have one, and only one, a controlling idea
5) it must state the writers position on the topic
Exercise 7.1
Look at the following thesis statements. Place an X in the space provided if it is an ineffective thesis
statement. If the statement is an effective thesis statement leave the space blank. If the statement is
ineffective as a thesis statement, indicate in the space provided what it is lacking:
T- lacks a topic, CI- lacks a controlling idea, O- lacks an opinion.
___ Computers save time, money, and effort.
___ Habitual gamblers waste resources.
___ The three most common reasons for divorce are economic difficulties, incompatibility, and
unfaithfulness.
___ George Washington was the first president of the United States.
___ Are money and religion the two main causes of war?
___ Hawaii is a great vacation spot because of the sun, sand, and surf.
___ There are three qualities that a good secretary must have.
___ Dream interpretation is a major concern for Freudian psychologists.
___ Three popular Disney characters are Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, and Winnie the Pooh.
___ The only proven methods to lose weight are diet and exercise.

60

Exercise 7.2
Look at the topics below and write effective thesis statements for them.
Benefits of exercise
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Advantages of Oriental medicine
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Educational TV
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Beatles music
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Advertisement
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Boring hobbies
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Difficulties of learning a foreign language
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Punk rock
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Tattoos
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
College sports
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

61

Exercise 7.3
Arrange the following sentences into the proper order to form a coherent introductory paragraph.
Place the number of the sentence in then space provided on the left.
1.
___ Lets face it, not everyone can afford a fifty-dollar steak, especially if there are six in the
family.
___ For others, the most important thing is the quality of the food.
___ For individuals on the go, a deciding factor many times is the speed of service and
convenience of the restaurant.
___ Everyone has a favorite restaurant that they like to go to.
___ There are many things that influence a persons choice of where they will dine.
___ Price is a deciding factor for many people.
___ The reasons I choose a restaurant are its location, its price, and its service.
___ Fortunately for those on a tight budget, good food can be found in inexpensive and
moderately priced restaurants, as well as in expensive restaurants.
___ Trendy restaurants are the perfect choice for those want-to-be socially popular individuals
who want to dine with the in-crowd.
2.
___ There are three reasons why I like being single: it is cheaper, there is greater personal
freedom, and I can live my lifestyle without interference.
___ Considering the pressures of todays society on marriage and family, remaining single is a
difficult and courageous decision, but one that could ensure happiness and contentment
throughout life.
___ The changes that must be endured affect them emotionally, psychologically,
interpersonally, physically, socially, and financially.
___ Others, those with a little better grasp on reality, consider marriage as not the beginning of
a new life, but the death of an old one.
___ Once those fatal words I do are uttered, life changes dramatically and irrevocably.
___ No more can a carefree single person go through life as they please.
___ They must forevermore consider their life long partners position, perception, and feelings
on just about everything.
___ They consider marriage as the start of a new life.
___ Many people, especially the young and naive, eagerly anticipate of the day they will walk
down the aisle with the person of their dreams.
3.
___ In many parts of the world today, the younger generation has
embraced tattoos as symbols of their freedom, individuality,
and independence.
___ Other societies have shunned the acceptance and practice of tattooing.
___ Tattoos have been a part of mans culture since ink and needle were
first developed.
___ These same individuals, sometime in the future, will regret the day they
made the impulsive decision to get a tattoo.
___ Tattoos have been accepted in some societies, and indeed are or have
been an integral part of the rite of passage.
___ Three reasons why a person should not get a tattoo are that they are
painful, they are permanent, and they are often ugly.
___ Although the idea of getting a tattoo may sound appealing at first,
consideration must be given to the consequences.

62

Exercise 7.4
Write introductory paragraphs for the thesis statements below.
1. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The three biggest ways I waste time are by watching TV, talking on the phone, and
daydreaming.
2. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
There are three reasons why I like being single: it is cheaper, there is greater personal
freedom, and I can live my lifestyle without interference.
3. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The reasons I like my favorite restaurant are its location, its price, and its service.
4. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
If I were living in a foreign country, I would miss most the food, my family and friends, and
the television programs.
5. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The three most important things to consider when buying a used car are the mileage, the
number of dents in the car, and the price.

63

Body paragraphs
The body or supporting paragraphs are the paragraphs after the introduction that contains the support
or development of the ideas presented in the thesis statement. One of the problems that many
students face is coming up with ideas for the supporting sentences. The sentences in the body
paragraph must have concrete support to convince the reader of the writers point of view. Without
concrete and sufficient support, the essay is too vague or too general. Concrete support can be
established by using facts, statistics, illustrations, examples, and personal experience. Without solid
supporting sentences the reader must guess what the writer means, and the writer will fail to convince
the reader of his position.
For beginning writers, all body (supporting) paragraphs should have topic and concluding sentences.
The topic sentence for the body paragraphs should introduce the points or sub-topics stated in the
thesis statement, if any. Experienced writers may eliminate the topic and concluding sentences, but
only if the thesis statement contains the topic for each paragraph. In addition, writers must ensure that
there are good transitions between sentences and paragraphs. The relationship between paragraphs
and how they are connected must be clearly understood by the reader. At times it may be appropriate
for the concluding sentence of one paragraph to serve as a bridge to introduce the topic for the next
paragraph.

Recreational trends
Year Movies
1985

53%

Sports
32%

Computer Year Movies

15%

1995

39%

Action Football
Games
Action
15%
33%
10%
31%
Comedy Basketball Surfing
Comedy
35%
35%
5%
21%
Drama Baseball Business
Drama
23%
25%
50%
26%
Romance Other
Other
Romance
27%
7%
35%
22%
30%
25%
2000 21%
1990 45%
Action Football
Games
Action
22%
32%
17%
35%
Comedy Basketball Surfing
Comedy
29%
36%
12%
23%

Sports

Computer

25%

36%

Football
Games
31%
22%
Basketball Surfing
36%
26%
Baseball Business
24%
33%
Other
Other
9%
19%
19%
60%
Football
29%
Basketball
36%

Games
25%
Surfing
45%

Drama
24%

Baseball
24%

Business
41%

Drama
25%

Baseball
25%

Business
19%

Romance
25%

Other
8%

Other
30%

Romance
17%

Other
10%

Other
11%

64

Exercise 7.5
The essay below uses information from the above chart to summarize information about national
trends of how people spend their recreational time. However, the essay is very vague and offers no
concrete support for its claims. In addition, the essays use of transitional signals is poor. On a
separate sheet of paper, rewrite the paragraph, using more specific information provided in the chart
to support its claims. Also include appropriate transition signals to improve the readability of the
composition.

The trend in recreational activities has changed over the last 20 years, according to a
survey conducted by the National Free Time Association. The Association polled over
ten thousand people, in a random sampling of a cross section of American citizens. The
Association wanted to know how the public has changed the way they spend their free
time. People were surveyed in three categories: movies, sports, and computer use.
The time that Americans spend watching movies has declined by about half over
the last twenty years. The kinds of movies that are preferred have also changed
somewhat. The percentage of people preferring action movies has vacillated, going up
and down from 1985 to 2000. The same thing can be said about the percentage of
people that enjoy comedies. The percentage of people that enjoy dramas has remained
fairly constant during that time. Romance movies have taken an overall decline in
preference over the last twenty years.
The popularity of sports as a national pastime has seen quite a significant decrease
also over the survey period. The percentages of viewers for the each of the three major
American sports (baseball, football, and basketball) have remained about the same.
About a third of people prefer baseball, about a third prefer football, and about a third
prefer basketball. The popularity of football has decreased a little, but the popularity of
basketball has increased slightly over the last twenty years. Baseball has maintained
about the same amount of popularity during that time. The popularity of other sports has
increased a little.
The most notable change in the way Americans prefer to spend their free time is
the area of computers. The percentage of people that use a computer as a vehicle for
recreation increased between 1985 and 2000. The reason that people use a computer
has also changed. The percentage of people that use a computer to play games has
increased. Surfing the Internet for recreation has also risen dramatically over the time
period, it now being the main reason that people use a computer. The use of business
related software and other software programs have seen a steady decline. In 1985 most
computer use was involved with business related software or other software
programs. By the year 2000, this had declined significantly.
The way that Americans spend their free time has changed over the last twenty
years. People still watch movies, but the kinds of movies they watch has changed,
although not significantly. The popularity of sports has seen an overall decline, although
the percentage of fans that prefer one sport over another has remained fairly constant,
with about a third of the people liking football, about a third liking baseball, and a third
liking baseball. Computer use, specifically games and surfing the Internet, has shown to
be the most significant change in how Americans spend their free time.

65

Exercise 7.6
Write three supporting paragraphs for each topic using the introductory paragraphs below. Be sure to
write the supporting paragraphs in the same order as listed in the thesis statement

Everyone has a favorite restaurant that they like to go out to eat at. There are many
things that influence a persons choice of where they will dine. The price is a deciding
factor for many people. Lets face it, not everyone can afford a fifty-dollar steak,
especially if there are six in the family. For others, the most important thing is the quality
of the food. Fortunately for those on a tight budget, good food can be found in
inexpensive and moderately priced restaurants, as well as in expensive restaurants. For
individuals on the go, a deciding factor is many times the speed of service and
convenience of the restaurant. Trendy restaurants are the perfect choice for those wantto-be socially popular individuals who want to dine with the in-crowd. The reasons I
choose a restaurant are its location, its price, and its service.

Many people, especially the young and naive, eagerly anticipate the day they will
walk down the aisle with the person of their dreams. They consider marriage as the start
of a new life. Others, those with a little better grasp on reality, consider marriage as not
the beginning of a new life, but the death of an old one. Once those fatal words I do are
uttered, life changes dramatically and irrevocably. The changes that must be endured
affect them emotionally, psychologically, interpersonally, physically, socially, and
financially. No more can a carefree single person go through life as they please. They
must forevermore consider their life long partners position, perception, and feelings on
just about everything. Considering the pressures of todays society on marriage and
family, remaining single is a difficult and courageous decision, but one that could ensure
happiness and contentment throughout life. There are three reasons why I like being
single: it is cheaper, there is greater personal freedom, and I can live my lifestyle without
interference.

Tattoos have been a part of mans culture since ink and needle were first invented.
Tattoos have been accepted in some societies, and indeed are, or have been, an
integral part of the rite of passage. Other societies have shunned the acceptance and
practice of tattooing. In many parts of the world today, the younger generation has
embraced tattoos as symbols of their freedom, individuality, and independence. These
same individuals, sometime in the future, will regret the day they made the impulsive
decision to get a tattoo. Although the idea of getting a tattoo may sound appealing at
first, consideration must be given to the consequences. Three reasons why a person
should not get a tattoo are that they are painful, they are permanent, and they are ugly.

66

Concluding Paragraph
The concluding paragraph of an essay is the last paragraph. It has an important function, to ensure
that the reader has a clear understanding of the point the writer is making. There are several devises
or techniques that a concluding paragraph may encompass, depending on the type
of essay being written or the writers intent.
A concluding paragraph may involve a:
Summary of the main points
A restatement of the ideas in the thesis statement
A final comment about the topic
A prediction
A recommendation
A possible solution
The writers opinion

67

Exercise 7.7
Read the following short composition and write a concluding paragraph. Be sure to incorporate some
of the ideas listed above in the paragraph.
Several years ago, Mr. Adams underwent angioplasty, a medical treatment for
angina. Angina is a condition that results in a decrease of oxygen to the heart, causing
chest pain. If treated appropriately and in time, it need not be debilitating or life
threatening. In order to maintain his health his doctor recommended a number of
changes that Mr. Adams had to make in his lifestyle. At first he thought that these life
style changes would be very difficult, but to his surprise he found that they were not as
bad as he had anticipated. The three life style changes were increased exercise, a
proper diet, and reduction of daily stress.
Mr. Adams went on a regular, though not strenuous, exercise program. As
explained by the doctor, exercise was necessary to help reduce the amount of
cholesterol in his body. A high level of cholesterol is the major cause of the
narrowing of the arteries. At first Mr. Adams began exercising slowly. He walked
everyday for thirty minutes, at a fairly slow pace. Over the next several months he
gradually increased the amount of time, the distance, and the pace of his walk. At the
end of four months he was able to walk four miles in one hour without difficulty. In
addition to lowering his cholesterol level, Mr. Adams found that he was in better shape,
had more energy, and was more alert at work and home.
The biggest problem Mr. Adams encountered was changing his diet. Prior to the
medical procedure, he was fond of greasy, fried foods, sweet and fattening desserts,
and an ample amount of alcoholic beverages. Although unsatisfying at first, the change
to a more nutritionally balanced diet was not as bad as he thought it would be.
Fortunately his wife was a great cook and was very supportive of his need to change his
eating habits. She found and prepared many delicious recipes for meals that reduced
the amount of sugar, fat, and cholesterol in his diet. Instead of T-bone steaks and
French fried potatoes he had baked chicken or fish and brown rice. Corn or a baked
potato smothered in butter and sour cream were replaced with a fresh green salad, with
just a dab of salad dressing. Sliced fruits, yogurt, and nuts substituted for the cakes,
pies, and ice cream for dessert he used to have. After a while, Mr. Adams found that he
did not even miss his old foods and always left the dinner table satisfied.
To reduce the stress in his life Mr. Adams did a number of things. First, he enrolled
in a meditation class. The classes taught him how to let go of the daily stresses, relax,
and enjoy life to the fullest. He made changes at work too. Mr. Adams was a successful
grocery store owner. Before his life change, he worked twelve to sixteen hours a day
and had a compulsion to oversee everything. Because of his doctors recommendations,
he delegated much more responsibility and authority to his assistant managers. He
worked fewer hours, took longer lunch breaks and vacations, and performed less work
than he did in the past. He even found that work was much more enjoyable, not only for
him, but for his employees. To further reduce stress, Mr. Adams took up a hobby; he
started working with pottery. He discovered that when molding clay he forgot all about
work, he did not focus on irritating habits of his wife, children, or friends, and utterly
enjoyed the process and sense of accomplishment of creating something with his own
hands. By reducing the stress in his life Mr. Adams discovered a whole new tranquil
world that he could take pleasure in.
Concluding paragraph: _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

68

Exercise 7.8
Look back at exercise 7.6 and write a concluding paragraph for the essays written about restaurants,
being single, and tattoos.

69

Chapter 8- Process Essays

Just as there are several types of paragraphs, there are
several types of essays, each with a different purpose
and form of organization. The remaining chapters of this
book will be devoted to these different forms of essay
organization. All the writing tasks in this section that are
completed by the student should have at least five
paragraphs: an introduction, three body paragraphs,
and a conclusion.
The purpose of a process essay is to provide instruction. There are two kinds of process essays:
analytical and instructional. An instructional process essay tells how to do something, such as how
to assemble a bicycle, how to speak in public, or how to bake banana bread. After reading an
instructional process essay, the reader should be able to do the thing described.
An analytical process essay tells how something works or how something happens, such as how a
carburetor works or how steam is used to generate electricity. Regardless of the type of process
essay being written, the steps or procedures being described should be organized in some kind of
sequential or logical order. In addition, process essays are primarily written using the present (and
sometimes the future) tense.

Model thesis statements for process essays

There are several words or phrases that can be used in the thesis statement that indicate it is a
process essay. Look at the following examples and be sure to include phrases such as these in
the thesis statement.
process of
the evolution of . . .
phases in (of) . . .

the procedure of (for) . . .

stages of . . .
course of

the development of . . .
steps in . . .
growth of

Look carefully at the model thesis statements below. These kinds of structures and formats can be
used for thesis statements in a process essay.
Instructional Process
1. It is __________

to

__________ if you ____________, ___________ and _________.

It is easy to accumulate wealth if you reduce frivolous spending, increase monthly savings
and invest for long term growth.
2. _____________ is ___________ when you have _________________.
Planting a flower garden is simple when you prepare the soil correctly, plant at the correct
time and water and weed regularly.
3. There are ______________ to follow __________________: ________, ________, ________.
There are three easy steps to follow in changing oil in a car: drain the old oil, replace the oil
filter and add the new oil..

70

Analytical Process
1. A ________________________ works by ___________________________.
A washing machine works by combining the function of three internal
components: a water pump, a tub, and sensors and/or timers.
2. By _______________________ it is easy to explain how a ______________ works.
By combing three internal components (water pump, tub, and sensors/timers),
it is easy to explain how a washing machine works.
Transition Words for Process Essays
Since a process paper is used to tell how to do something, words that relate to the
sequencing of items are needed as transition signals or words. Look at the following examples.
first
after that
soon
while
last

second
next
afterward
during
then

third
finally
every time
at this point
prior to

etc.
before
whenever
as soon as
and

since
the next step
meanwhile
when
later (on)

Writing a Process Essay

Writing a five paragraph essay may seem daunting at first, however, if the following format scheme is
followed, with the essay broken down into its constituent parts, the task is much more manageable.
The following guidelines can be used to make the writing process less overwhelming. Not all of the
components need to be included in the essay, however. The writer should consider each component
to determine which elements are appropriate, based on the topic and writers intent.
Use the following process essay guidelines to assist in your writing.

Process Essay Guidelines

Introductory paragraph
1. Is the process identified?
2. Is the importance of the process indicated?
3. Are reasons included for explaining the process?
4. Are the materials, equipment, or supplies needed for the process included?
5. Does the flow of sentences move from the general to the more specific?
6. Does the thesis statement provide a guide or outline for the rest of the essay?
Supporting Paragraphs
1. Do the supporting paragraphs illustrate the steps in the process?
2. Are appropriate transition signals used to delineate and order the steps in the
process to ensure cohesion?
3. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a controlling idea?
4. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the paragraph relate to the topic
sentence?
5. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph?
Concluding Paragraph
1. Does the paragraph restate the importance of the process?
2. Does the paragraph summarize the main steps in the process?
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement?
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the writer?
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the essay?
71

Exercise 8.1
Look at the topics below and list, in outline form, the steps that should be followed to complete the
process. The topics may not have an equal number of steps. Then write a thesis statement for each
topic, following the model thesis statement examples cited above.
Guide inventory
How to do break up with your boyfriend or girlfriend
_______________________________ ______________________________
_______________________________ ______________________________
_______________________________ ______________________________
_______________________________ ______________________________
_______________________________ ______________________________
_______________________________ ______________________________
Thesis statement: __________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
How to cheat on a test
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________

______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

Thesis statement: __________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
How a bicycle works
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________

______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

Thesis statement: __________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
How an electric razor works
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________

_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________

Thesis statement: ________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

72

Exercise 8.2
Read the following instructional process essay on how to make pancakes. Note the use of the
transition words and phrases.

One of my favorite breakfast treats is pancakes. Millions of men, women, and

children everywhere start their day with this delicious mouth watering meal. The simple
ingredients for this culinary delight are seven fluid ounces of milk, three fluid ounces of
water, four ounces of plain flour, two eggs, and a dab of butter. For added gratification,
many people include diced strawberries, blueberries, apples, peaches, or any other
variety of fruit that tantalizes their taste buds. Making pancakes is easy if you follow
these simple steps for mixing the ingredients, cooking the batter and final preparation.
Begin by sifting the flour into a mixing large bowl. Once sifted, make a well in the
center of the flour and break two eggs into it. Then, mix the flour and eggs, using a
whisk, while gradually adding small amounts of the milk and water. Whisk the mixture
until the batter is smooth and lump free. Be sure to use a spatula to scrape any excess
flour off the sides of the bowl. Once the batter is mixed thoroughly, the fruit is added and
stirred in.
Now the mixture is ready for cooking. Begin by placing a medium or large sized pan
over medium heat and coating the bottom of the pan with a small amount of butter. The
coating of butter ensures that the pancake does not stick to the pan. Using a ladle, pour
about a half a cup of batter into the center of the heated pan. As soon as the batter hits
the pan, tip the pan so the batter spreads out, forming a circular shape seven to eight
inches in diameter. Cook for 30 to 60 seconds until the bottom of the pancake is golden
brown and small air bubbles appear on the top. Using a spatula, flip the pancake over
and cook an additional 30 to 60 seconds.
When the pancake is done, remove it from the pan and place on a plate. Using a
kitchen knife, smear a dab of butter over the top of the pancake. Then pour one or two
tablespoons of maple or pancake syrup evenly over the pancake. Many people like their
pancakes in stacks, putting three or four pancakes on top of each other, with butter and
syrup between layers. The breakfast is now ready to eat. For added pleasure, wash
down the pancakes with a glass of milk, your favorite juice, or a cup of coffee.
Pancakes are a traditional and appetizing America breakfast and making them is
fast and easy. They are a great way to start the day and provide sustenance for a busy
morning. Treat your family and yourself to a tasty and filling pancake breakfast soon.

Exercise 8.3
Answer the following questions about the text above.
1. What is the thesis statement? __________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the readers attention (refer to page 59)?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a process is being discussed?
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (Refer to page 71)________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
73

Exercise 8.4
Read the following analytical essay on how a washing machine works.

The modern washing machine is indeed a valuable and indispensable time and labor
saving device in todays fast paced world. Thanks to the inventiveness of modern
technology women (and men) no longer have to spend hours of back breaking toil
pounding their shirts and pants against rocks in the nearest stream to enjoy soil free,
sweet smelling attire. The operation of a modern washing machine involves the
interaction of three essential components: the tub and agitator, the timers and control
settings, and the pumps.
The tub is the circular shaped container in which the clothes are placed in the
machine. During the washing cycle, the tub slowly rotates back and forth. This motion
causes the clothes to gentle brush against each other. This brushing motion (along with
the effects of the detergent) results in the removal of dirt and soil from the clothes.
At the bottom of the tub are small fin-like projections called agitators. The purpose of the
agitators is to increase the movement and churning of the clothes. During the spin cycle,
the tub rotates very quickly, forcing the clothes against the sides of the tub through
centrifugal force. Excess water in the clothes is removed by this action, which eliminates
the need for hand wringing prior to drying.
The timers and control setting are electronic components which regulate the actions
of the machine through the various cycles. There are three basic cycles: wash, rinse,
and spin. In the wash cycle, detergent is added to facilitate the removal of dirt. In the
rinse cycle, clean water is added to the tub to remove the dirt and detergent. The spin
cycle removes excess water from the clothes so they are ready for drying. The actions
and time spend on these three basic cycles are determined by these components. The
actions of the machine can be adjusted according to a number of factors including the
size of the load, the type of clothes being washed (cottons, silks, whites, colored, etc.),
the water level in the tub, and the time the machine spends in each cycle.
The pumps are the components of the machine that add water to and remove water
from the tub. The water is added to the tub at the beginning of the wash and rinse
cycles. The water flows into the tub from a hose located at the top of the tub. The tub
contains hundreds of small holes (about an eight of an inch in diameter). The water is
removed from the tub through these holes between and wash and rinse cycle and
during the spin cycle.
Clean, sweet smelling clothes are essential for personal well being, satisfying social
interactions, and professional success. One hundred years ago ensuring that one had
an adequate supply of fresh, dirt-free apparel was a monumental task. However, today,
with the modern washing machine, maintaining ones wardrobe requires nothing more
than the press of a few buttons.

Exercise 8.5
Answer the following questions about the text above.
1. What is the thesis statement? ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the three components of a washing machine?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
74

3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (Refer to page 71)
____________________________________________________________________________
4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the readers attention (refer to page 59)?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a process is being discussed?
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. List three supporting facts that are included in the essay.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 8.6
Select one of the topics below and write a five-paragraph essay about it.
How to lose weight
How to train a dog
How to stop smoking
How to get an F in a class
How to stop children from fighting

How to make a hamburger

How to make your favorite dish
How to put up a tent
How to do laundry
How to make impress a potential employer

75

Chapter 9- Division and Classification Essays

Another way to organize a topic is through classification. In a
classification essay, the topic (people, things, or events) is
divided, grouped, or categorized according to some principle.
The classification principle may or may not be clearly stated,
but the writer needs to ensure that the categories are mutually
exclusive, that they do not overlap. For example the topic
games could not be divided into board games, card games,
and games of chance because they are not mutually exclusive.
Many card games and some board games are also games of
chance- thus the categories overlap. The categories would need to be changed to ensure that they
are mutually exclusive. However, the topic games could be divided into card games and board games.
Other suitable topics for a classification essay include modes of transportation (planes, trains,
automobiles, boats), automobiles (luxury, mid-sized, compact, off road), major components of food
(proteins, fats, or carbohydrates), and movies (romance, comedy, drama, action).
Topics can be categorized in any number of ways, and the classification principle used will be
determined by the focus of the essay. For example, automobiles can be classified according to these
various principles:
Size (big, mid-sized, compact)
Price (below $15,000, between $15,000 and $30,000, over $30,000)
Manufacturer (Ford, Toyota, Daewoo, General Motors)
Class (sedan, sports car, luxury car, van, truck)
Engine size (under 500 cc, between 500 and 1000 cc, over 1000 cc)
Function (basic transportation, storage/hauling capacity, speed, luxury)
When writing a classification essay, the thesis statement must contain the topic classified and the
categories of the group. For the work in this book, there should be at least three groups. For most
essays, each grouping mentioned in the thesis statement would require at least one supporting
paragraph. The supporting paragraphs should contain at least one example of the type of
classification being written about.

Model thesis statements for classification essays

Look at the following model thesis statements that could be used for a classification essay.
1. There are _______________ ________ of _________: _________, _________and ________.
There are three major classes of wines: red, white and sparkling.
2. A _______ can be _______ into ______ including _______, _________ and _______.
A novel can be classified into several genres including mysteries, romance and thriller.
3. __________ ___________ _____________ into ___________: ________, ________, ________.
Financial managers group investments into three types: stocks, bonds, and real estate.

76

Transition Words for Classification Essays

Two classes of transition words or linking words are typically used in classification essays; these are
words or phrases that introduce examples and words or phrases that express consequences.
Look at the following examples.
To introduce examples:
for example,
for instance,
namely,
including,

such as,

To express consequences:
therefore
for this reason
as a consequence
and consequently

as a result

Use the following classification essay guidelines to assist in your writing.

Classification Essay Guidelines

Introductory paragraph
1. Is background information included for the groups to be classified?
2. Is the reason for the classification given?
3 Does the flow of sentences move from the general to the more specific?
4. Does the thesis statement include a guide for the essay that indicates how the topic
is divided or include the names and numbers of the groups?
Supporting paragraphs
1. Does each paragraph discuss only one group of the classification?
2. Does each paragraph have at least one example of items in the group?
3. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis statement?
4. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a controlling idea?
5. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the paragraphs relevant to the topic?
6. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph?
7. Is coherence achieved by the logical ordering of the paragraphs and the use
appropriate transition signals?
Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph restate the importance of the classification method?
2. Does the paragraph summarize the groupings?
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement?
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the writer?
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the essay?

77

Exercise 9.1
Look at the topics below and develop ideas for classification. Write a thesis statement for each one,
using the different model thesis statements as a guide.
Books
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Thesis statement: ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
News Programs
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Thesis statement: __________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Restaurants
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Thesis statement: __________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Holidays
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Thesis statement: __________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Drinks
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Thesis statement: __________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

78

Exercise 9.2
Read the following classification essay and answer the questions that follow.

People the world over enhance their dining experience with a glass of wine. A fine
glass of wine and softly lit candles are universally accepted as the finishing touches to a
romantic meal. Many times the kind of wine chosen depends on the food eaten and the
occasion. The three most common types of wine are white, red, and sparkling.
White wines are traditionally eaten with fish. They vary in color, from pale yellow or
green to light brown. The flavor of a white wine can also be guessed from its color. Pale
colored white wines indicate a young wine with a bitter taste. A brown wine indicates an
older, decaying wine. A golden yellow colored white wine is an indication of a nicely
aged wine. Types of white wine include Chablis, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc.
If the entre for the day is meat, a red wine is suitable. Red wines also vary in color.
The color for ideal red wines ranges from deep red to mahogany. The color of the wine
can also help indicate its age. A purple colored wine indicates a young wine, while
brown indicates an older wine. Red wines are not sweet, as white wines, but instead
have a tangy taste. The bitterness in red wines is a result of the tannin from the grape
skins, which also provides the rich color. The types of red wine include Burgundy,
Bordeaux, and Cabernet Sauvignon.
Sparkling wines are traditionally served on special occasions, such as weddings and
anniversaries. The sparkling wines vary in color from gold to bright pink. Sparkling wines
are noted for their effervescence. Although the name Champagne has become a
blanket term for all sparkling wines, the only true champagne comes from the
Champagne region of France. Sparkling wines made outside of the Champagne region
are called Mousseux in France, Cava in Spain, Sekt in Germany, and Spumante in Italy.
Wine can enhance the overall enjoyment of fine dining. Depending on the occasion,
one may have white, red, or sparkling wine. Each has its own unique color and taste.
There are a great number of wines to available to choose from, each distinctive and
able to satisfy any palette.

1. What is the thesis statement? _____________________________________________

2. How many groups are there in the classification? _____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (Refer to page 71)
_____________________________________________________________________
4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the readers attention (refer to page
59)?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a process is being
discussed? ____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
6. List three supporting facts that are included in the essay.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
79

Exercise 9.3
Select one of the topics below and write a five-paragraph classification essay.
Kinds of students
Kinds of teachers
Kinds of movies
Kinds of errors made by students
Kinds of diets
Kinds of sports (one-on-one, team, individual)
Kinds of housing (single dwelling, apartments, condos)
Kinds of cars (sports, family, luxury)
Kinds of card games (poker, blackjack, Baccarat)
Kinds of medicine (oral, topical, injected)

80

Chapter 10- Cause and Effect Essays

In a cause and effect essay, the reasons and results of something that has occurred are examined. If
analyzing causes, the factors contributing to a situation are explored. In analyzing effects, the
consequences of a situation are investigated. Appropriate topics for a cause and effect essay may be
the Federal Reserve Banks decision to raise interest rates and the effect it has on business loans or
the cause of college students partying all night and the effects of this behavior on their grades.
When writing a cause and effect essay it is vital to examine not only the most obvious causes, but also
the more obscure reasons as well. When examining the effects it is important to include both the
expected and unexpected consequences.
The ordering of the causes and effects must also be considered when writing. A writer may list the
most frequent cause first, then the next most frequent cause, etc. When discussing effects, a writer
may list the most serious first, then a less serious one, etc. Depending on the topic, the causes and
effects may be ordered according to a chain order, chronological order, or order of importance.
There are two kinds of organization that can be used in cause and effect essays: block or chain. In a
block organization format, the causes are written about in one or more paragraphs. A transition
paragraph is then written. The purpose of the transition paragraph is to alert the reader the cause part
of the essay is concluded and to introduce the effect part. Depending on the topic, a transition
paragraph may not always be needed. The concluding sentence of the last paragraph of the causes
may serve adequately as a transition to introduce the next part for the reader. Following the transition
paragraph are one or more paragraphs that examine the consequences of the situation.
In a chain organization the causes and effects are linked- the first cause
leading to an effect, which leads to a second cause, which leads to
another effect, etc. In chain organization you write about the first cause
and its effect in one paragraph, then the second cause and effect in the
next paragraph, and so on until all of the causes and effects are included.
Look at this tragic example. A man loses his job. This causes him to have
no money. The effect of having no money results in him not eating well.
Because he is not eating well, his immune system becomes weak. The
result of his weakened immune system causes sickness. Because he is
sick (and cant afford medical treatment because he has no job or money)
he dies.
The type of organization used will depend on the topic. A block organization format may be best if
there is no direct cause and effect relationship. A chain organization format may be best for smaller
topics or for topics in which the causes and effects are closely related. In a chain organization, the
causes and effects are linked together in a logical manner. One event causes a second event, which
in turns causes another event, etc.
A writer may choose to write about only the causes of a situation or only the effects of a situation. It is
not required to write about both in the same essay. In this situation, the introductory paragraph would
mention briefly which one is being discussed, the cause or the effect. For example, an essay on the
causes of insomnia may include only a sentence or two on the effects of insomnia in the
introduction. The supporting paragraphs would be devoted to further expanding on the causes that
were outlined in the thesis statement. An essay examining the effects of water pollution may only
contain a brief statement about its causes in the introductory paragraph, but a detailed examination of
its effects in the supporting paragraphs.

81

Model thesis statements for cause and effect essays

Look at the following model sentences that can be used for cause and effect essays.
1. There are ____________ _______ (for, of) ________: _______, _______ and _______.
There are three reasons smoking is bad for ones health: cardio-vascular health, increased
risk of cancer and a decrease in overall fitness and well being.
2. There are _________ _________ reasons why _________: ________, ________ and ________.
There are three reasons why people exercise regularly: weight lose, physical fitness and
mental health.
3. ______________ has (had) ________________ on ______________ including ________,
________, and ________.
My promotion has had several beneficial effects on my life style including financial rewards,
travel opportunities and more quality time with family.

Transition Words for Cause and Effect Essays

There are a number of transition words or phrases that are commonly associated with cause and
effects essays. Look closely at the following and incorporate them into your writing.
Transition signals for cause
the first cause
due to
the reason for

the next reason

for this reason
for

because (of)
as
since

Transition signals for effect

to result from
the consequences of
the effect of
consequently

to be the result of
as a result (of)
and that is why
therefore

as a consequence (of)
for this reason
to have an effect on
thus

82

Use the following cause and effect essay guidelines to assist in your writing.

Cause and Effect Essay Guidelines

Introductory paragraph
1. Does the paragraph include background information about the topic being
discussed?
2. Does the paragraph state whether you are discussing the causes or effects?
3. Does the paragraph contain interesting facts, statements, or anecdotes that grab the
readers attention?
4. Does the thesis statement identify the main causes or effects?
Supporting paragraphs
1. Does each paragraph discuss only one cause (or effect) as stated in the thesis
statement and is the order of the paragraphs the same as the thesis statement?
2. Is support for the causes (or effects) supported by facts, examples, or quotations?
3. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis statement?
4. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a controlling idea?
5. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the paragraphs relevant to the topic?
6. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph?
7. Are appropriate transition signals used to indicate the relationship between a cause
and an effect?
Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph contain a suggested recommendation or prediction about the
topic?
2. Does the paragraph summarize the main causes or effects?
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement ?
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the writer?
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the essay?

83

Exercise 10.
Write three possible causes and/or effects for the topics listed below. Then write a thesis statement for
each topic, using the different sentence patterns described above.
1. Causes of delinquency
1. __________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Effects of delinquency on families
1. __________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Causes of stress
1. __________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Effects of stress
1. __________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Causes of racial prejudice
1. __________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Effects of racial prejudice
1. __________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
Thesis statement
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
84

Exercise 10.2
Combine the two sentences below into one sentence which shows a cause and effect relationship.
Look at the following example.
Many people in modern society eat foods that contain high amounts of fat and cholesterol.
More people are dying today from heart disease because they have a diet high in fat and
cholesterol.
Many people have a diet containing of high amounts of fat and cholesterol, and as
these foods lead to heart disease, people are dying prematurely.
1. The number of Korean women in the work place is increasing.
Korean women are gaining more financial independence.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Crime is rampant in many parts of the world.
Poverty is a leading contributing factor to the crime rate.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Tattoos and body piercing are very common today among teenagers.
Teenagers tend to participate in the latest fads and trends.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Constant exposure to loud noise can cause a loss of hearing.
Many old Rock and Roll musicians have a hearing loss.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Bob always fought and argued with his wife.
His wife divorced him after three years of marriage.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Many people are overweight.
One cause of high blood pressure is obesity.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. The incidence of skin cancer is higher among people living in desert regions.
Research has shown that extended exposure to ultraviolet radiation increases the likelihood of
skin cancer.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8. In the past, it was a common belief that sitting to close to a TV set could hurt your eyes.
Many parents in the 1950s and 1960s told their children to move back from the TV set.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

85

Exercise 10.3
Read the block organization essay below about effects of changing family roles on stay at home dads.
The traditional family structure and roles are changing with the every-increasing trend
in the United States of the stay-at-home dad. In these family units, the father stays at
home and takes care of the house, while the mother becomes the breadwinner. The
primary reasons for this shift are either the husband simply fell into the role after losing
his job or the couple made a conscious decision to reverse roles. Fortunately, with the
increased wages of women in the workplace in modern society, this is a viable option for
many couples. This change affects all members of the family. The effects of a stay-athome father include improved relationships with his children, increased awareness and
appreciation of a traditional mothers role, and greater development of the fathers
domestic skills.
Stay-at-home dads have a unique opportunity to greatly enhance the relationship
they have with their children. Dads who work often find it difficult to spend the amount of
quality time they would like with their children. The demands of the job always seem to
interfere. Just to keep up, many dads are forced to work overtime, either at the office or
at home, and on weekends. For stay-at-home dads this is no longer a problem. Since
they stay at home, they are there to see the children off to school and welcome them
when they return. In addition, more time can be spent with the kids helping them do their
home work, taking them to baseball practice or ballet lessons, or just hanging out and
playing games, watching TV together, or talking. This increased time strengthens the
already strong bond between father and child, not to mention the opportunity to really
get to know each other. This has not only immeasurable immediate benefits for both
father and son or daughter, but long lasting rewards as well.
Non-working fathers also develop a greater awareness and appreciation of the job
mothers really do. It is often said that a mothers job is never done, and stay-at-home
dads learn this all too well. A housewife is constantly busy: she cleans house, she
shops, she cooks, she does laundry, she manages household finances, she settles
disputes between siblings (and their friends), she provides first aid, she educates her
children, she disciplines her children, she coordinates the familys social calendar, and
she taxis her children and their friends all over town. And this is only a partial list; the list
goes on and on. After a couple of weeks of managing the household, stay-at-home dads
really learn what a mother does. With this knowledge comes a deeper appreciation of
the hard work and sacrifices that his wife had make day in and day out. This in turn
nurtures the love between husband and wife.
The domestic skills that stay-at-home dads develop and enhance amaze even their
wives. In the past, many working fathers had no idea of how to do even the simplest
household tasks, such as separating the whites from the colored clothes when doing
laundry, or ironing, or preparing anything other than peanut butter and jelly sandwiches
for lunch. But, as they say, with necessity comes invention. For the sake of efficiency,
family harmony, and maybe even basic survival, stay-at-home dads learn many new
skills. They learn about nutrition and how to prepare a delicious meal. They learn how to
keep clothes clean and bright. They learn how to disinfect a bathroom and make a
kitchen sparkle. They learn how to deal effectively with repairmen, salesmen, telephone
solicitors, rude store clerks, noisy neighbors, and screaming kids. They learn to plan,
organize, and complete the 101 things that need to be done during the typical day of a
typical mom.
In some modern households, the traditional roles of the husband and wife are
changing, either by necessity or design. Mothers go off to work in the morning and
fathers remain at home a take care of the house. This change results in positive benefits
for everyone, but especially the father. A stay-at-home dad can build better relationships
with his children, develop a greater appreciation for his wife, and learn many useful
skills that will enhance his familys life and wellbeing.

86

Questions
1. What is the thesis statement? ____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the three major benefits for a stay-at-home dad? _____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (refer to page 71)
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the readers attention (refer to page 59)?
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

87

Exercise 10.4
Read the chain organization essay below about the effects of drug abuse.

Drugs have become an ever-increasing personal and social problem in many

countries throughout the world. Over the last fifty years the use of drugs has spread
from bad guys to just about every segment of society; to the rich, middle class, and
poor, to the educated and uneducated, to the professional and laborer, to men and
women, to the social elite and the dregs of society. Abusing drugs causes a devastating
chain reaction that ruins the lives of thousands of people daily. The habitual use of
drugs may lead to loss of jobs, financial ruin, crime and imprisonment.
More times than not, the use of drugs leads to unemployment. Individuals under the
influence of drugs are unable to adequately perform their duties and responsibilities at
work. They come in late or fail to show up at all, the work they do complete may be
substandard or inefficiently performed, they create strained relationships with
supervisors or co-workers, and they may be a health and safety risk to themselves and
others. They simply become a liability to their employer and soon find themselves out of
a job.
Without a means of support, drug users become a financial drain on those around
them. They borrow money from their family and friends in order to pay for not only
basic necessities, but sadly, for drugs as well. Most of the time, this borrowed money is
never again seen by the lender. Credit cards and cash advances from banks are soon
maxed out, with little or no hope of ever being repaid. Household and personal items
such as audio systems, TV sets, wedding rings, and family heirlooms are eventually
sold off at less than their true value at pawnshops. Just about everything a drug abuser
owns is likely to be put on the auction block in order to get money for his addiction.
When all legitimate means of obtaining money are exhausted, illegitimate means are
pursued. Drug users will do just about anything to obtain money so they can satisfy their
craving. After being denied loans from family and friends, these once trustworthy
individuals stoop to stealing from the people they love. Strangers are next on the list.
The addict will resort to breaking into houses to steal valuables that can be pawned, or
even worse, begin mugging people on the street or robbing small time merchants for the
meager amount of cash in their tills. No behavior is too despicable or immoral, as long
as the drug user can obtain what he needs.
Once the person has turned to a life of crime, the inevitable consequence is police
intervention and imprisonment. A drug user may evade law enforcement officials for a
while, maybe even years, but eventually he will be caught. He will be locked away in a
six by ten foot cell for two to five. With any luck, and good behavior, he could be out
sooner. His family and friends may sadly think that this is for the best. In prison, the
addict may overcome his addition, become rehabilitated, and rejoin society a changed
man.
Drugs ruin a mans life faster and surer than lack of education, poverty, or illness.
They strip a man of his dignity, his honor, his loved ones, and his self-respect. An
innocent decision to try a drug at a party on a Saturday night can lead to a devastating
chain of events, such as unemployment, financial ruin, lose of family and friends, crime,
and finally prison. For many drug users this uncontrollable spiral of tragedy is
unstoppable, yet so easily preventable. Just say no.

88

Questions
1. What is the thesis statement? ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the sequential chain of events in the passage?
_________________________ ? ____________________________
_________________________ ? ____________________________
_________________________ ? ____________________________
_________________________ ? ___________________________
_________________________ ? ___________________________
3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (refer to page 71)
____________________________________________________________________________
4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the readers attention (refer to page 59)?
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a cause of effect is being discussed?
__________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

89

Exercise 10.5
Read the following essay on the causes of acne and answer the questions below about it.
Whats one of the biggest problems that adolescents face? Is it acceptance by their
peers? It is pressure to excel in school? Is it getting along with their parents?
Undoubtedly these are all problems encountered by teenagers. However, the fear,
embarrassment, and trauma associated with acne pales in comparison. Countless
hours and vast amounts of money are spent on avoiding and eliminating these unsightly
blemishes. Acne is a skin disorder that occurs when excess oil (called sebum) combines
with dead skin cells to clog pores. Pimples, whiteheads, and blackheads are formed
when bacteria form in these clogged pores. There are four basic factors that result in the
development of acne: hormones, increased sebum production, changes inside the
follicle, and bacteria.
As young people reach adolescence, between the ages of 11 and 14, their bodies
begin to produce the hormone androgen. The production of androgens causes the
sebaceous glands to enlarge, which is normal. Acne is the result of androgens over
stimulating the sebaceous glands, which causes the glands to enlarge more than
normal. This enlargement results in facial blemishes.
The stimulation of the sebaceous gland by the androgens produces more sebum.
This oily substance builds up in the follicle (the opening of the skin which hair grows
from) and moves up the shaft of the hair to the skin. The sebum mixes with bacteria and
dead skin cells from the lining of the follicle as it moves up the hair shaft. This mixture of
substances clogs the follicle and results in blackheads.
After the sebaceous gland is stimulated by androgens, it produces more sebum. The
oily sebum accumulates in the follicle, and travels up the hair shaft to the surface of the
skin. As it travels up the hair shaft it also mixes with normal skin bacteria and dead skin
cells that have been shed from the lining of the follicle. The greater the sebum
production, the greater the likelihood that the hair follicle will become clogged and result
in pimples and blackheads.
Propionibacterium acnes or P. acnes are normal bacteria that reside on skin, even
with people who are not afflicted with acne. The P. acnes multiply quickly as sebum
accumulates in the clogged sebaceous gland. This bacterium produces chemicals,
which can cause inflammation in the follicle and the surrounding skin. Two types of acne
breakouts can occur: comedones. (or non-inflamed 'blackheads'), or inflamed lesions,
which contain pus, called pustules.
Acne affects virtually all teenagers, to lesser or greater degrees, at one time or
another during puberty. Fortunately there are numerous medical, hygienic, and
environmental measures that young people can take to reduce or control the outbreak
of acne.

Questions
1. What is the thesis statement? ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the four causes of acme?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

90

3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (Refer to page 71)
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the readers attention (refer to page 59)?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a cause and effect
is being discussed? ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 10.6
Select one of the topics below and write a five-paragraph essay about it.
Long-term causes/effects of hitting a child
The causes/effects of overuse of credit cards
The causes/effects of noise of pollution
The causes/effects of water pollution
The causes/effects of discrimination
The causes/effects of shyness
The causes/effects of crime
The causes/effects of teenage pregnancies
The causes/effects of minor facial tic on social and professional relationships

91

Chapter 11- Compare and Contrast Essays

The purpose of compare and contrast essays is to show
how people, things, places, events, etc. are similar or
different. Comparisons are used to note the similarity
between items and contrast is used to note the
differences between items. A compare and contrast
essay can be used to prove a point, to show superiority
of one item over another, or to show changes over time
between two items or situations. When writing a
comparison/contrast essay the writer can focus on only
the comparisons, or only the contrasts, or on both the
comparisons and contrasts.
There are two methods of organization that can be used for a compare and contrast essay: block or
point-by-point. In a block form of organization all the similarities between the items or situation are
written in one or more paragraphs and all the differences in other paragraphs. In a point-by-point
format, several aspects of the topic are identified and compared and contrasted. The first supporting
paragraph would discuss the similarities and differences between the first facet, the second body
paragraph would discuss the similarities and differences between the second facet, and so on. Within
this format, an order of importance organization could be used, with the most important feature
focused on first, then the next important feature, and so on. The reverse order could also be used,
with the least important item first.

Model thesis statements for cause and effect essays

1. There are ___________ similarities (differences) between ______________ and __________,
including ________, _______ and ________.
There are a number of similarities between Canada and America including language, culture
and football.
2. ____________ and _____________ are similar (different) in _________ ways: ________,
________ and ________.
Korea and Japan are similar in three ways: culture, climate, and industry.
3. _______________ and ___________ have ____________ in common, among them is _______,
________ and ________.
Los Angels and Phoenix have many things in common, among them is a diverse population,
cultural and sports facilities and a vast industrial concerns.
4. ____________ is different from (is similar to) ________ in ___________, namely ________,
________ and ________.
American football is different than to rugby in several ways, namely the protective gear worn,
how the ball is advanced and what happens after a tackle.

92

Transition Words for Cause and Effect Essays

There are numerous transition words or phrases that can be used in compare and contrast essays.
Look at the following and use them in your writing.
Contrast
but
in contrast
although
but
whereas
although
differ from
(be) different from
Comparison
likewise
similar to
similarly
compare (to/with)
both

different from
while
even though
in contrast (to)
different from
even though
(be) unlike

similarly
like wise
as
both and
the same

however
whereas
yet
however
nonetheless
still
(by/in) comparison
(be) dissimilar to
in the same way
also
just like
neither nor

93

on the other hand

unlike
while
on the contrary
nevertheless
though

like
to
the same as
not only but also

Use the following compare and contrast essay guidelines to assist in your writing.

Compare and Contrast Essay Guidelines

Point-by-point method
Introductory paragraph
1. Does the paragraph include background information about the topic being
discussed?
2. Does the paragraph explain the reason for making the comparison and/or contrast?
3. Does the paragraph contain interesting facts, statements, or anecdotes that grab the
readers attention?
4. Does the flow of sentences move from the general to the more specific?
5. Does the thesis statement identify the items or situations things being compared
and/or contrasted?
Supporting paragraphs
1. Is the first facet in the thesis statement of the items being compared and/or
contrasted identified in the first paragraph(s)?
2. Is the second facet in the thesis statement of the items being compared and/or
contrasted discussed in the next paragraph(s)?
3. Does each paragraph clearly state that a comparison and/or contrast is being made?
4. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis statement?
5. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a controlling idea?
6. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the paragraphs relevant to the topic?
7. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph?
8. Are appropriate transition signals used to indicate comparisons and/or contrasts?
Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph summarize the reason for making the comparison and/or
contrast?
2. Does the paragraph summarize the main points in the comparison and/or contrast?
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement?
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the writer?
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the essay?

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Compare and Contrast Essay Guidelines

Block method
Introductory paragraph
1. Does the paragraph include background information about the topic being
discussed?
2. Does the paragraph explain the reason for making the comparison and/or contrast?
3. Does the paragraph contain interesting facts, statements, or anecdotes that grab the
readers attention?
4. Does the flow of sentences move from the general to the more specific?
5. Does the thesis statement identify the items or situations things being compared
and/or contrasted?
Supporting paragraphs
1. Are the similarities between the items or situations in the first supporting
paragraph(s) described?
2. Are the differences between the items or situations in the next supporting
paragraph(s) described?
3. Does each paragraph clearly state that a comparison and/or contrast is being made?
4. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis statement?
5. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a controlling idea?
6. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the paragraphs relevant to the topic?
7. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph?
8. Are appropriate transition signals used to indicate comparisons and/or contrasts?
Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph summarize the reason for making the comparison and/or
contrast?
2. Does the paragraph summarize the main points in the comparison or contrast?
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement?
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the writer?
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the essay?

Exercise 11.1
Write thesis statements for the topics listed below, using one each of the models thesis statements
above.
1. Western food and your countrys traditional food
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Jogging and aerobics for exercise
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Buses and taxis as forms of public transportation
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Two cities in your country
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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5. Two of your professors

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 11.2
Combine the two sentences below into one, making a comparison or contrast between the two ideas,
using the transition words cited above. Look at the example below.
The Indians of the eastern part of the United States lived in teepees.
The Indians in the western United States lived in teepees.
Both the Indians of the eastern and western United States lived in teepees.
1. Robert Frost was an American poet.
Edgar Allen Poe was an American poet.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. The United States has an extensive space program.
Russia has an extensive space program.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. To receive a bachelors degree in the America requires four years of college.
To receive a bachelors degree in the Korea requires four years of college.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Gold jewelry is a common anniversary present for husbands to give their wives.
Silver jewelry is a common anniversary present for husbands to give their wives.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. In the 1950s, a popular childrens toy was the hula-hoop.
In the 1950s, a popular childrens toy was the yo-yo.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. In the past, man got around by horse and wagon.
Today people use an automobile for transportation.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Much of the world today has a capitalistic economic system.
Cuba and North Korea have a socialist economic system.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8. Hawaii is an ideal spot, for a warm and sunny vacation on a sandy beach.
For people who prefer a cooler climate and majestic mountain views, Colorado is the place to
go.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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9. For a cheap night out on the town, many people go to their favorite bar.
Many couples have their anniversary dinner at fine French restaurants.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
10. Christians believe that Jesus has appeared on Earth and will return on Judgment Day.
People of the Jewish faith believe that Jesus is yet to come.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 11.3
Look at the two pictures below and make a list of items that could be used for a comparison and
contrast.

Comparison
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Contrast
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________

Exercise 11.4
For the topics below, list possible ideas for a comparison and contrast.
EX: skiing and snowboarding
Compare (similarities)
1. both cold weather sports
2. both require balance and
coordination
3. both require ski slope

Contrast (differences)
1.less equipment with snow boarding
2. skiing more expensive
3. skiing more difficult to master

1. Movie theaters or videos for entertainment

Similarity 1: ____________________ Difference 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________ Difference 2: ___________________
Similarity 3: ____________________ Difference 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________ Difference 4: ____________________
2. Newspapers and TV for news
Similarity 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________
Similarity 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________

Difference 1: ____________________
Difference 2: ____________________
Difference 3: ____________________
Difference 4: ____________________
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3. Desk top and notebook computers

Similarity 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________
Similarity 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________

Difference 1: ____________________
Difference 2: ____________________
Difference 3: ____________________
Difference 4: ____________________

4. Vegetables and candy for snacks

Similarity 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________
Similarity 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________

Difference 1: ____________________
Difference 2: ____________________
Difference 3: ____________________
Difference 4: ____________________

5. Married or single life

Similarity 1: ____________________
Similarity 2: ____________________
Similarity 3: ____________________
Similarity 4: ____________________

Difference 1: ____________________
Difference 2: ____________________
Difference 3: ____________________
Difference 4: ____________________

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Exercise 11.5
Read the two essays below comparing digital and film cameras: one written in a block comparison and
the other a point-by-point comparison

Block Comparison
A picture is worth a thousand words, so the saying goes. Virtually every one has a
camera to capture those precious moments that can be relived years into the future. A
father remembers with pride the snapshot of his son hitting his first homerun. A mother
gazes lovingly at her daughters wedding photo and recalls how beautiful she looked.
Children reminisce about the joy experienced from opening up that special Christmas
present that Santa brought. Modern technology has provided two ways for these images
to be captured so they last forever. But which type of camera is best: a digital camera or
the older camera that uses film? Digital cameras offer several advantages over film
cameras, including less ongoing cost, storage and lasting quality of pictures and instant
error correction.
Although the purchase price of digital cameras is generally more expensive than the
older film cameras, in the long run they prove to be more economical. With a digital
camera one memory card can be purchased for forty to eighty dollars (depending on the
amount of memory you require) and it can be used over and over again. This will add up
to quite a savings through the years. The problems of picture quality and storage are
virtually eliminated with a digital camera. Memory cards are very small and take up
hardly any space at all. All your favorite photos can also be stored on your PC. Unlike a
film photo, in which you have to take what you get, with todays software programs you
can touch up those less than ideal shots by adding color, contrast, sharpness,
distortions, etc. The only real concern, if you store the pictures on a PC, is that your
hard drive may someday crash and you could lose all those memories. A digital camera
allows you to get just the right picture. If a picture is taken that is not just perfect, no
problem. Just erase it from memory and try again a few seconds later. No more will the
frustrations and disappointments of not getting the perfect picture haunt you a week
after you took it.
Initially the purchase price of a film camera may be cheaper than a digital camera, but
one still needs to buy the film and pay for the cost of developing the pictures. This can
be up to ten to fifteen dollars for a roll of 24 exposures. If you are an avid shutterbug,
this could add to hundreds of dollars a year or more. Old photographs become brittle,
yellowed, bent, and faded over time. Once the photographs are developed they also
require a place to store them, usually a photo album or in many cases, an old shoe box.
Not only does this take up space in drawers or closets, but also guarantees that some of
your favorite snapshots will be lost or discarded over time. Amateur photographers can
really destroy a good picture. How many times have you gotten a roll of film back from
the developer, only to see your thumb or finger displayed prominently on a photo? Or
that great shot of an arching rainbow that is virtually invisible against the brightness of
the noonday sun? What a waste of time and money, not to mention the lost memories.
Memories can be preserved for a lifetime on a simple
photograph. It would be a shame if you were deprived of your most precious memories
because the pictures faded or became lost. With a digital camera those images will be
preserved forever and will be as clear and sharp as the day they were taken. If you
havent done so already, get rid of the old Kodak and get a new digital camera. Your
children and grandchildren will thank you

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Point- By- Point Comparison

A picture is worth a thousand words, so the saying goes. Virtually every one has a
camera to capture those precious moments that can be relived years into the future. A
father remembers with pride the snapshot of his son hitting his first homerun. A mother
gazes lovingly at her daughters wedding photo and recalls how beautiful she looked.
Children reminisce about the joy experienced from opening up that special Christmas
present that Santa brought. Modern technology has provided two ways for these images
to be captured so they last forever. But which camera is best: a digital camera or an
older camera that uses film? Digital cameras offer several advantages over film
cameras including less ongoing cost, storage and lasting quality of pictures and instant
error correction.
Although the purchase price of digital cameras is generally more expensive than the
older film cameras, in the long run they prove to be more economical. After the initial
purchase price of a film camera, one still needs to buy the film and pay for the cost of
developing the pictures. This can be up to ten to fifteen dollars for a roll of 24
exposures. If you are an avid shutterbug, this could add to hundreds of dollars a year or
more. On the other hand, with digital cameras, one memory card can be purchased for
forty to eighty dollars (depending on the amount of memory you require) and it can be
used over and over again. This will add up to quite a savings through the years.
Old photographs become brittle, yellowed, bent, and faded over time. Once the
photographs are developed they also require a place to store them, usually a photo
album or in many cases, an old shoe box. Not only does this take up space in drawers
or closets, but also guarantees that some of your favorite snapshots will be lost or
discarded over time. These problems are virtually eliminated with a digital camera.
Memory cards are very small and take up hardly any space at all. Digital storage of your
favorite photos also eliminates bent, yellowed, or faded reproductions. All your favorite
photos can also be stored on your PC. Unlike a film photo, in which you have to take
what you get, with todays software programs you can touch up those less than ideal
shots by adding color, contrast, sharpness, distortions, etc. The only real concern, if you
store the pictures on a PC, is that your hard drive may someday crash and you could
lose all those memories.
Amateur photographers can really destroy a good picture. How many times have
gotten a roll of film back from the developer, only to see your thumb or finger displayed
prominently on a photo? Or that great shot of an arching rainbow that is virtually
invisible against the brightness of the noonday sun? What a waste of time and money,
not to mention the lost memories. With a digital camera, that becomes a thing of the
past. If a picture is taken that is not just perfect, no problem. Just erase it from memory
and try again a few seconds later. No more will the frustrations and disappointments of
not getting the perfect picture haunt you a week after you took it.
Memories can be preserved for a lifetime on a simple photograph. It would be a
shame if you were deprived of your most precious memories because the pictures faded
or became lost. With a digital camera those images will be preserved forever and will be
as clear and sharp as the day they were taken. If you havent done so already, get rid of
the old Kodak and get a new digital camera. Your children and grandchildren will thank
you.

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Questions
1. What is the thesis statement? ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the advantages of digital cameras over film cameras according to the passage?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (refer to page 71)
__________________________________________________________________________
4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the readers attention (refer to page 59)?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a comparison or contrast is being
discussed?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 11.6
Select one of the topics below and write a comparison or contrast essay.
Fruits and vegetables
Rock and Roll and classical music
Two restaurants
Your mother and father
Two makes of cars
Two department stores
LP records and CDs
Capitalistic and socialistic forms of government
Movies and the theater
Two places as vacation spots

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Chapter 12- Problem/Solution Essays

A problem/solution essay is used to identify and describe a problem and offer a possible
solution to it. Appropriate topics for a problem/solution essay may be easing of parking
problems in a downtown area, bedwetting, littering, or the high cost of medical care.

Model thesis statements for problem/solution essays

1. The _____ _____________ to _____ are to ________, _______, and ______.
The three most effective methods to get rich are to save regularly every month,
to invest in real estate, and to eliminate frivolous expenses.
The best ways to make up with your wife or girlfriend after a fight are to buy her
flowers, take her out to dinner, and sincerely apologize over and over again.
The easiest means to stop your parents from nagging at you are to agree with
everything they say, do the things that need to be done before they tell you,
blame your siblings for everything that happens.
2. ______ solutions for __________________ are ___________, _________,
and _________.
Possible solutions for the elimination of the budget deficit are increasing taxes,
curtailing social programs, and eliminating government waste.
Potential solutions for reducing teenage smoking are increasing the cost of
cigarettes, massive educational programs, and increased punishment.
Three prospective solutions for high medical costs are limiting frivolous
malpractice lawsuits, a national health care program, and increased use of
medical practitioners for routine medical problems.

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Use the following problem/solution guideline essay guidelines to assist in your writing.

Problem/Solution Essay Guideline

Introductory paragraph
1. Does the paragraph include background information about the problem?
2. Does the paragraph identify the problem and indicate its seriousness?
3. Does the paragraph contain interesting facts, statements, or anecdotes that grab the
readers attention?
4. Does the thesis statement identify possible solutions?
Supporting paragraph
1. Does each paragraph discuss one possible solution to the problem?
2. Is sufficient information and detail included to explain each solution?
3. Are the paragraphs organized according to order of importance of the solutions?
4. Do all paragraphs relate to and support the thesis statement?
5. Does the topic sentence of each paragraph have a controlling idea?
6. Is unity achieved by having all the sentences in the paragraphs relevant to the topic?
7. Is there a logical concluding sentence for each paragraph?
Concluding paragraph
1. Does the paragraph summarize the solutions the problem?
2. Does the paragraph draw a conclusion or make a prediction based on suggestions
for solutions?
3. Does the paragraph restate the thesis statement?
4. Does the paragraph contain any final thoughts of the writer?
5. Does the paragraph effectively indicate the end of the essay?

Exercise 12.1
Write a thesis statement for the topics listed below.
1. Culture shock
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Jet lag
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Forgetting boyfriends/girlfriends/husbands/wifes birthday
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Getting children to go to bed early
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Drunk Driving
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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6. Illegal immigrants
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12.2
Select three of the topics from above and write three possible solutions for the problem
Topic 1: _____________________________________________________________________
Solution 1 ______________________________________________________________
Solution 2______________________________________________________________
Solution 3______________________________________________________________
Topic 2: _____________________________________________________________________
Solution 1______________________________________________________________
Solution 2______________________________________________________________
Solution 3______________________________________________________________
Topic 3: _____________________________________________________________________
Solution 1______________________________________________________________
Solution 2______________________________________________________________
Solution 3______________________________________________________________

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Exercise 12.3
Read the solution essay below about a healthy heart.

Is your heart as healthy as it should be? Many doctors would probable answer no.
Millions of people throughout the world are currently living sedentary lifestyles and
eating vast amounts of food lacking in nutritional value, and by doing so they are in
advertently creating problems for their heart. Improving their situation could be
accomplished fairly easily, without incurring monumental medical bills or making
depressing changes in their lifestyles. These minor changes include exercise, diet, and
meditation.
There have been countless studies conducted by medical professions that tout the
benefits of even modest amounts of exercise. Exercise accomplishes two vital things at
once. When people exercise, they burn calories, which results in reducing body fat.
Maintaining an appropriate weight is essential for good cardiovascular health. People
who are overweight place an extra burden on the heart; it has to work much harder to
circulate the blood through the body. This extra exertion causes weakening of the heart
over time. In addition to burning calories, exercise strengthens the heart. The heart is a
muscle, and like all muscles in the body, it needs to be exercised regularly to maintain
peak performance. The exercise does not need to be exceedingly strenuous or time
consuming. A person doesnt have to turn into a professional athlete to enjoy the
benefits of exercise. Doctors report that even 30 minutes of light exercise a day will
result in benefits to ones heart.
Another fairly easy change is to modify ones diet. With the hectic schedule of many
people today fast foods have allowed individuals to eat on the run and not waste time.
Unfortunately, most fast food today is lacking in nutrition. It is loaded with sugar, fat, and
salt. It may taste delicious, but the price people pay for a little convenience is too high.
Foods high in sugar will eventually add unwanted pounds. Foods high in fats, if eaten
for long periods of time, increase the amount of cholesterol in the body, which
eventually leads to the narrowing of the arterial walls. Foods high in salt increase blood
pressure. Increased blood pressure makes the heart work much harder to circulate the
blood, which will eventually weaken it. To improve this situation all one has to do is start
eating better. Instead of three eggs, a large pile of bacon, and toast loaded with butter
for breakfast one could eat oatmeal, a bowl of non-sugary cereal with skim milk, and a
glass of juice. Instead of munching down on a candy bar or cookies for a snack try a
carrot or celery stick. Not only do these snacks keep the calorie count down, they are a
good form of roughage.
Meditation and deep breathing exercises are other ways to benefit your heart,
especially if you are prone to high blood pressure. Sitting quietly, thinking of nothing at
all and letting your body and mind relax completely does wonders for the heart, not to
mention the turmoil of the mind. It has been estimated that 60% of all doctor visits are
stress related. Increased stress increases blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration
rate. Meditation and deep breathing can help reduce stress, thus providing benefits to
the cardiovascular system. Research has shown that meditation and deep breathing
exercises lower blood pressure, without the adverse effects that could occur with
medication. Meditation also reduces another cardiovascular risk, a higher than average
heart rate, which also weakens the heart over time.
Many things in life are important, and a healthy heart tops the list. No matter what one
accumulates or accomplishes in life, if your have a bad heart it all could end in a
heartbeat, literally. There are easy and effective means to ensure that a person
maintains a strong heart that are simple to maintain and dont involve vast financial
resources. So do yourself and your loved ones a favor- take a quiet, relaxing walk down
to the corner grocery store and pick up a brunch of grapes for lunch.

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Questions
1. What is the thesis statement? ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the three methods listed that can improve cardiovascular health?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What kind of conclusion does the text have? (refer to page 71)
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What technique is used in the introduction to grab the readers attention (refer to page 59)?
_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the transition words used in the essay that indicate a solution is being discussed?
_________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. List three supporting facts that were included in the essay.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12.5
Write a problem/solution essay for one of the topics below.
Littering
Sexual discrimination
Teenagers rebelling
Learning a new language
Depletion of natural resources

Air pollution
Lack of parking spaces
Insomnia
Over population
The cost of space exploration

106