EEEB111

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS
MEASUREMENT LABORATORY

Experiment 4:
Loading Effects of Meters and Thevenins Theorem

EEEB 111 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT LABORATORY - UNITEN

Exp. 4, Page 1/18

EXPERIMENT 4:
Loading Effects of Meters and Thevenins Theorem

Assessed OBE Course Objectives: CO1, CO5, CO8 and CO9

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this laboratory experiment is to identify the loading effects of digital and
analogue voltmeter and to validate the Thevenins Theorem.

INTRODUCTION
Loading Effects in DC Measurements
1. The DArsonval Movement
Ideally, the internal resistance of a voltmeter is infinite () while the internal resistance of
an ammeter should be zero (0) ohms to minimize its effect on a circuit when taking
measurements.
However, because measuring instruments are not ideal, they do draw current from the
circuit thus causing an effect known as loading.
Most analog ammeters and voltmeters operate based on a current sensing mechanism
called a "DArsonval movement". In this mechanism, a wire coil wrapped around a soft
iron shaft is mounted between two magnetic lines, a proportionate torque is produced which
rotates the coil and moves an attached pointer along a calibrated scale.
There is always a resistance RM associated with the coil of a wire.

2. Analogue Ammeter
A single scale ammeter may be modeled as an ideal movement (short circuit) in series with
the movement resistance, RM. In order to create an ammeter scale with a larger full-scale
range, a shunt resistor is placed in parallel with the movement to draw off a proportionate
amount of the current (Figure 4.1a). Thus the total meter resistance of a multi range
ammeter is the parallel combination of the shunt resistance and the movement resistance
RM (Figure 4.1b).

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Figure 4.1a: Multi-range Ammeter

Figure 4.2a: Circuit without

Ammeter

Figure 4.1b: Equivalent

Ammeter Resistance

Figure 4.2b: Circuit with Ammeter

Since the ammeter is always connected in series with elements in the branch in which
current is to be measured, this meter resistance R meter = RM // Rshunt, affects the circuit by
placing an additional series resistance in the branch where current is being measured.
Also, since the shunt resistance must become progressively smaller to construct larger
scales, the meter resistance is dependent on scale.

3. Analogue Voltmeter
The DArsonval movement can be used as a voltmeter by calibrating the voltmeter scale
corresponding to the product of the current through the movement multiplied by the
movement resistance.
To increase the voltage scale, a resistor is placed in series with the movement resistance.
Placing the voltmeter in parallel with the element across which voltage is to be measured
loads the circuit by placing a parallel resistor Rmeter = RM + Rseries across the elements (see
Figures 4.3a and 4.4b).
This parallel resistance draws current from the rest of the circuit. Like the ammeter, the
voltmeter resistance is scale dependent.

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Figure 4.3a: Multi-range Voltmeter

Figure 4.4a: Circuit without

Voltmeter

Figure 4.3b: Equivalent

Voltmeter Resistance

Figure 4.4b: Circuit with

Voltmeter

4. Meter Scales
Many analog meters have an ohm/volt rating on the face of the meter. The meter resistance
for a particular scale may be found by the following formula:
Rmeter = (/ ) x (full-scale voltage selected)
/

Figure 4.5: Meter Scale of an analogue meter.

The digital voltmeter generally has very high input impedance (in the mega ohm range) so
that the loading effect is minimized.
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Summary:
Measurement devices connected in a circuit to determine the currents or the voltages are
theoretically designed to prevent any disturbance in the behavior of the circuit.
However, in practice such perfection is impossible. It is then normal to expect that these
measurement devices will slightly modify the voltage and the current distribution in the
circuit and introduce some errors in the measurements. This phenomenon is known as the
loading effect in a circuit.

Remarks:
When a measurement device has to be connected in a circuit, the following rules must be
respected:
1. A voltmeter must always be connected in parallel with the element(s) across which
the voltage is to be measured.
2. An ammeter must always be connected in series with the element(s) through which
the current is to be measured.

3. Make sure to verify the polarity of all voltages and the direction of all currents before
you connect the measurement device to avoid a deviation in the wrong direction that
might damage the meter.
4. First, select the largest range of values available on the meter and progressively
reduce the scale (increase the sensitivity) in order to achieve the most precise reading
that is possible without taking the risk of overloading the measurement device. This
procedure also ensures to minimize the relative instrumental error.

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Thevenins Theorem
1. Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Thvenins theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where:
VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals
RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
This is shown in the following Figure 4.6:

Figure 4.6: A linear two-terminal circuit in (a)

represented by its Thvenin equivalent in (b)

VTh is the open-circuit voltage across the terminal as illustrated in Figure 4.7a.
RTh is the input resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off as
illustrated in Figure 4.7b.

Figure 4.7:

Illustrations of VTH in (a)and RTH in (b)

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2. Maximum Power Transfer

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit
can deliver to a load.

Figure 4.8: Maximum Power Transfer Circuit

For the circuit shown in Figure 4.8, the power delivered to the load is
2
VTh
P = i2 R L = (
) RL
R Th + R L

For the circuit shown in Figure 4.8, VTh and RTh are fixed. By varying the load resistance,
RL, the power delivered to the load varies as illustrated in Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9: Graph of Power delivered to RL, PRL versus RL

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance, i.e. when RL= RTh. Therefore,

=
4

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PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENT

1. Calculate the voltage across R2, V2 in the circuit of Figure 4.10.

R1 = 100 k

+
VS =10 V

V2
_

R2 = 100 k

Figure 4.10: Voltage Divider Circuit

2. An analogue voltmeter with a meter resistance, Rmeter = 200 k is used to measure V2.
a. Re-draw the circuit of Figure 4.10 to include the voltmeters internal resistance.

b. Calculate the voltage across R2, V2 in the circuit re-drawn above.

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3. Calculate the VTh and RTh of the circuit shown in of Figure 4.11 at terminals A-B, where
RL is the load across terminals A-B. Then, draw the Thvenin equivalent circuit.
R1 = 1k

R3 = 3.3k
A

VS=10V

R2 = 2.2k

RL

B
Figure 4.11: Circuit to be simplified for equivalent VTh and RTh

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UNIVERSITI TENAGA NASIONAL

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
College of Engineering
Semester: I / II / Special
Academic Year: 20 .. / 20 ..
COURSE CODE: EEEB111
LAB
INSTRUCTOR:
TITLE: Loading Effects of Meters and Thevenins Theorem

EXPERIMENT NO.:
DATE
:

4
TIME:

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this laboratory experiment is to identify the loading effects of digital
and analogue voltmeter, used in measuring voltage values and to validate the
Thevenins Theorem.
MARKS:

PRE-LAB:
Q1
Q2
Q3

/1
/2
/2

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS:
Part A : Voltmeter Loading Study
Table 4.1
VS measured
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Part B : Thevenins Theorem
Table 4.4
VS measured
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 4.7

/1
/0.5
/2
/1
/2
/0.5
/2
/2
/4

POST-LAB:
Part A : Voltmeter Loading Study
Q1
Q2
Q3
Part B : Thevenins Theorem
Q1

/1
/2
/1
/2

Q2

/2

CONCLUSIONS:

/2
TOTAL:
/30

INSTRUCTORS COMMENTS:
STUDENT NAME:

STUDENT ID:

GROUP MEMBER:

STUDENT ID:

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SECTION:

Exp. 4, Page 10/18

EQUIPMENT
1. Resistors: 100k(2), 1 k(2), 2.2 k, 3.3 k
2. Decade Resistance Box
3. Analogue Multimeter (VOM)
4. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
5. DC Power Supply
6. DMM Probes x 2nos.
7. Crocodile Clips Connectors x 2nos.
8. Protoboard
9. Wire 22 AWG x 2nos.

PROCEDURES
This laboratory experiment is to create awareness about the loading effects present in voltage
measuring devices.

Part A: Voltmeter Loading Study

a. Refer to Figure 4.10 in Pre-Lab.

b. Measure the resistance of resistors R1 and R2 with the DMM.
c. Record the values in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Measured values of resistors

Resistors

Nominal Value
()

R1

100k

R2

100k

Measured Value
()

d. Construct the circuit in Figure 4.10.

e. Set the source voltage VS = 10V, using the DMM for setting accuracy.
Measured VS = ___________

f. Measure the voltage across R2, V2 with the DMM and VOM using 10V scale.
g. Record the results in Table 4.2.

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Table 4.2: Measured values of V2

Measured Voltage (V)
DMM

VOM 10 V scale

V2
Most DMMs have an internal impedance of 10M or greater. For the VOM, however, the
internal resistance can be found on the scale used from the ohm/volt rating.

h. Find the ohm/volt rating (/V) on the VOM.

i. Then, calculate the Rmeter for the VOM on the 10V. Use the following formula:
Rmeter = (VOM s

(ohms)
ratings) x (full-scale
V ( volts)

voltage selected)

j. Record the results in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Meters internal resistances
Meter
resistance

DMM ()

Rmeter

10 M

VOM 10V scale

()

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Part B: Thevenins Theorem

1. Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

a. Refer to Figure 4.11 in Pre-Lab.

b. Measure the resistance of resistors R1, R2 and R3 and record in Table 4.4.
c. A resistor acting as load, RL, is to be connected at terminal A-B. Use RL = 1k.
Measure and the record the resistance of RL in Table 4.4.

d. Set VS to 10V using the DMM, and record the value:

VS measured = ____________
Table 4.4:

Resistance of Circuit of Figure 4.11 and RL

Resistors

Nominal Value
()

R1

1k

R2

2.1k

R3

3.3k

RL

1k

Measured Value
()

e. Construct circuit as per Figure 4.12 with RL = 1k connected as load across terminals
A-B.

f. Measure voltage across RL (i.e. VRL ) and record in Table 4.6.

R1 = 1k

R3 = 3.3k
A

VS=10V

RL = 1.0k

R2 = 2.2k

B
Figure 4.12: Circuit to be simplified to equivalent VTh and RTh

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g. Based on the measured value of VS, R1, R2 and R3, calculate the VTh and RTh. Show the
calculations in Table 4.5. Calculation should be similar to Pre-Lab exercise.
Table 4.5:

Calculation of RTh and VTh

Thevenin Resistance,RTh ()

Thevenin Voltage, VTh

(V)

Based on
measured
value of
VS, R1,
R2 and R3

h. Construct the equivalent Thevenin circuit in Figure 4.13 using the VTh and RTh
calculated in (g). For RTh use decade resistor box. Use RL = 1k.

calculated RTh
(use decade box)

Supply voltage =
calculated VTh

RL= 1k
B

Figure 4.13: Thvenin equivalent circuit, calculated VTh and RTh

i. Measure voltage across RL (VRL ) and record in Table 4.6

Table 4.6: Measured values of
VRL
Circuit of
Figure 4.12

VRL

VRL
Equivalent
Thevenin circuit

VRL

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2. Maximum Power Transfer

a. Set the value of RL to 500 using the decade resistor box. Measure RL and record in
Table 4.7.

b. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 4.14. R1 = 3.3k and VS= 7V are closest values
to reflect the the VTh and RTh calculated in Table 4.5.

c. Measure the voltage across RL, VRL and record in Table 4.7.
d. Calculate the PRL using the formula given in Table 4.7. You are required to use
measured value of RL for the calculation of PRL .

R1= 3.3k

+
VS = 7V

VRL

RL
(use decade box)

DMM

Figure 4.14: Maximum Power Transfer Circuit

e. Repeat the previous procedures for all the values of RL as in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Measured values for VRL

RL ()

Measured Value RL
()

VRL (V)

and PRL

PRL =

V2R

RL

(W)

500
1k
2k
3k
4k
5k
6k
7k
8k

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POST-LAB ASSIGNMENT:
Show workings of all calculations.
Part A: Voltmeter Loading Study
1. Calculate the ideal value of voltage V2. Use only the DMM measured R1, R2 and VS values.

2. With the internal resistance found in Table 4.3 calculate the theoretical value of V2 for
DMM and VOM on 10 V scale. Use only the DMM measured R1, R2 and VS values. Record
in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8: Calculated values of V2

Voltage calculated (V)
DMM

VOM 10V scale

V2

3. What is the effect towards the value of a measured current, IRN flowing through a resistor,
RN using an ammeter? Explain.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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Part B: Thevenins Theorem

1. Plot a graph of PRL versus RL on the graph paper provided. Use appropriate scale for
axis and Y-axis.

X-

2. Referring to the graph, what is value of RL resulted in maximum power transfer to RL.
Record the value in Table 4.8
Table 4.8: Values of RL resulting in maximum power transfer
Maximum
Measured Value
Power
Theoretical
Transfer
value
% Error
(From Graph PRL
versus RL)

RL

CONCLUSIONS:
Identify TWO (2) main understandings that you have gained from this experiment.

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