Experiment-1

Aim of the Experiment :To make the comparative study of various motherboards(Intel 80386, Intel 80486, Pentium Processor,
Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III) .
Intel 80386
The Intel 80386 ("eighty-three-eighty-six"), also known as i386 or just 386, is a 32-bit
microprocessor introduced in 1985. The first versions had 275,000 transistors and were the CPU of
many workstations and high-end personal computers of the time. The 32-bit 80386 can correctly
execute most code intended for the earlier 16-bit processors such as 8088 and 80286 that were
ubiquitous in early PCs. The 80386 added a 32-bit architecture and a paging translation unit, which
made it much easier to implement operating systems that used virtual memory. It also offered
support for register debugging.
The 80386 featured three operating modes: real mode, protected mode and virtual mode. The
protected mode which debuted in the 286 was extended to allow the 386 to address up to 4 GB of
memory. The all new virtual 8086 mode (or VM86) made it possible to run one or more real mode
programs in a protected environment, although some programs were not compatible.
Intel 80486
The Intel80486 ("eighty-four-eighty-six"), also known as the i486 or just 486 was a higher
performance follow-up to the Intel 80386microprocessor. The 80486 was introduced in 1989 and
was the first tightly pipelined x86 design as well as the first x86 chip to use more than a million
transistors, due to a large on-chip cache and an integrated floating-point unit. It represents a fourth
generation of binary compatible CPUs since the original 8086 of 1978. A 50 MHz 80486 executes
around 40 million instructions per second on average and is able to reach 50 MIPS peak
performance.
The instruction set of the i486 is very similar to its predecessor, the Intel 80386, with the addition
of only a few extra instructions, such as CMPXCHG which implements an compare-andswapatomic operation and XADD, a fetch-and-add atomic operation returning the original value
(unlike a standard ADD which "returns" flags only).
From a performance point of view, the architecture of the i486 is a vast improvement over the
80386. It has an on-chip unified instruction and data cache, an on-chip floating-point unit (FPU)
and an enhanced bus interface unit. Due to the tight pipelining, sequences of simple instructions
(such as ALU reg,reg) could sustain a single clock cycle throughput (one instruction completed
every clock).

Pentium Processor
The Pentium family of processors, which has its roots in the Intel486(TM) processor, uses the
Intel486 instruction set (with a few additional instructions). The term ''Pentium processor'' refers to
a family of microprocessors that share a common architecture and instruction set. The first Pentium
processors (the P5 variety) were introduced in 1993. This 5.0-V processor was fabricated in 0.8micron bipolar complementary metal oxide semiconductor (BiCMOS) technology. The P5
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processor runs at a clock frequency of either 60 or 66 MHz and has 3.1 million transistors.
The next version of the Pentium processor family, the P54C processor, was introduced in 1994. The
P54C processors are fabricated in 3.3-V, 0.6-micron BiCMOS technology. The P54C processor also
has System Management Mode (SMM) for advanced power management.
The Intel Pentium processor, like its predecessor the Intel486 microprocessor, is fully software
compatible with the installed base of over 100 million compatible Intel architecture systems. In
addition, the Intel Pentium processor provides new levels of performance to new and existing
software through a reimplementation of the Intel 32-bit instruction set architecture using the latest,
most advanced, design techniques. Optimized, dual execution units provide one-clock execution
for "core" instructions, while advanced technology, such as superscalar architecture, branch
prediction, and execution pipelining, enables multiple instructions to execute in parallel with high
efficiency. Separate code and data caches combined with wide 128-bit and 256-bit internal data
paths and a 64-bit, burstable, external bus allow these performance levels to be sustained in costeffective systems. The application of this advanced technology in the Intel Pentium processor
brings "state of the art" performance and capability to existing Intel architecture software as well as
new and advanced applications.
The Pentium processor has two primary operating modes and a "system management mode." The
operating mode determines which instructions and architectural features are accessible.
Pentium Pro
Intel Pentium Pro was the first processor from the Intel Pentium II processor family. Targeted for
the server and workstation market, the Pentium Pro included integrated 256KB, 512 KB or 1 MB
L2 cache running at the processor speed. The L2 cache in the Pentium Pro was not located on the
same die as the CPU core. The CPU was packaged in a "dual cavity" package, where one cavity
contained the processor die and another contained the L2 cache. As all other members of the
Pentium 2 family, the Pentium Pro was optimized to run 32-bit applications and, when running in
32-bit mode, it significantly outperformed Pentium and Pentium MMX CPUs at the same clock
speed. At the same time Pentium Pro performance with 16-bit applications was poor, and often the
processor was slightly slower than similarly clocked Pentium/Pentium MMX processors. Poor
performance of the Pentium II core with 16-bit applications was fixed in the desktop Pentium II
CPU.

Pentium II
The Pentium II brand refers to Intel's sixth-generation micro architecture ("P6") and x86compatible microprocessors introduced on May 7, 1997. Containing 7.5 million transistors (27.4
million in the case of the mobile Dixon with 256 KB L2 cache), the Pentium II featured an
improved version of the first P6-generation core of the Pentium Pro, which contained 5.5 million
transistors. However, its L2 cache subsystem was a downgrade when compared to Pentium Pros. In
early 1999, the Pentium II was superseded by the almost identical Pentium III, which basically only
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added SSE instructions to the CPU.

Pentium III
The Pentium III (marketed as Intel Pentium III Processor, informally PIII, also stylized as
Pentium !!! ) brand refers to Intel's 32-bit x86 desktop and mobile microprocessors based on the
sixth-generation P6 microarchitecture introduced on February 26, 1999. The brand's initial
processors were very similar to the earlier Pentium II-branded microprocessors. The most notable
differences were the addition of the SSE instruction set (to accelerate floating point and parallel
calculations), and the introduction of a controversial serial number embedded in the chip during the
manufacturing process.

Experiment-2
Aim of the Experiment :To study various cables, connections and ports used in computer communication.
Patch Cables
A patch cable connects two network devices. Patch cables are typically CAT5 / CAT5e Ethernet cables linking
a computer to a nearby network hub, switch or router. Ethernet patch cables are useful to those building home
computer networks and also to travelers who need wired access to Internet connections such as those provided
in hotel rooms. They are normally manufactured using stranded rather than solid sheathing in order to give
them pliability that reduces risk of breakage when unplugging or carrying them.
Ethernet Crossover Cables
A crossover cable directly connects two network devices of the same type to each other over Ethernet. Ethernet
crossover cables are commonly used when temporarily networking two devices in situations where a network
router, switch or hub is not present
USB Cable
A universal serial bus (USB) cable connects between a computer and a peripheral device such as a printer,
monitor, scanner, mouse or keyboard. It is part of the USB interface, which includes types of ports, cables and
connectors. Many USB devices have a captive, or attached, USB cable, such as the Apple USB Keyboard.
Other devices come with a standard USB cable that has a Type A connector on one end and a Type B connector
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on the other end.

Type A
Type A ports and connectors are small and rectangular and are typically used to plug a device into a Type A
USB port on a computer or a hub. Type A ports and connectors are sometimes referred to as "upstream".

Figure 2.1 USB Type A port and connector

Type B
Type B ports and connectors are small and square and are used to attach a USB cable to a USB device. Type B
ports and connectors are sometimes referred to as "downstream".

Figure 2.2 USB Type B port and connector

Unshielded Twisted Pair

(UTP) Cable
Twisted pair cabling comes
in two varieties: shielded and
unshielded.
Unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) is the most
popular and is generally the
best option for school networks. The
quality of UTP may vary
from telephone-grade wire to
extremely high-speed cable.
The cable has four pairs of wires
inside the jacket. Each pair is
twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the
twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic
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Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six
categories of wire (additional categories are emerging).

Figure 2.3 UTP CABLES

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency
interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If you must place cable in
environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place cable in extremely sensitive environments
that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded
cables can also help to extend the maximum distance of the cables.
Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations. Each pair of wires is individually
shielded with foil. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group). There is a
shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires (referred to as double shield
twisted pair).
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the
center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block any outside interference
from.Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it
can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable.

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Figure 2.4 COXIAL CABLE

Fibre Optic Cable

Fibre optic cabling consists of a centre glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials. It
transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it
ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It also has the capability to
carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include
services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fibre optic cabling is comparable to
copper cabling; however, it is the centre core of fibre cables is made from glass or plastic fibres. A plastic
coating then cushions the fibrecentre help to strengthen the cables and prevent breakage

PS/2 port and its specification

Connect a PC to its keyboard and mouse. Though both ports look identical as shown in Fig. 1, the mouse
(green) and keyboard (purple) ports are not interchangeable. Usually both ports are color coded or labelled

VGA Port and its specification

Connect a PC to a monitor. This is a venerable but now completely standard monitor interface. The original
VGA monitors could do no more than 640480. During the mid 1990s, more advanced monitors were called
SVGA (for Super). Since all monitors can display more than 640480 today, the two terms are now
interchangeable. This HDD-15 port seems to have evolved facing upside-down on most machines as shown in
Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.6 VGA PORT

Serial port and its specification and applications

This port connects a PC to an external modem, serial mouse, etc. DOS calls these ports COM1-COM4. You
can refer to Fig. 3. The small version is slightly more popular than the large version. Dating from the PC XT,
these are ubiquitous but rarely used.

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Fig. 2.7 SERIAL PORT

Both the small (male DB-9) and large (male DB-25) versions are electrically identical, and can be interchanged
with a simple adapter.They both speak RS-232, a relatively slow (around 105Kbps max) and error-prone
protocol. The default controller is CPU-intensive and low data rate. A better UART, common on modern
machines, is the 16550A, which has a 1KB buffer.

Parallel Ports and its specification

This port connects a PC to
a printer. DOS calls this port LPT1.
Another PC XT holdover,
this port is virtually always used to
connect to a printer. A slow
but bidirectional 8-bit clocked or
unclocked port, this DB-25
port can also be used by scanners, tape
drives, and other peripherals. It looks like a Mac SCSI port, but isnt. When connected to a printer, it always
terminates in a Centronics 36 connector.

Fig. 2.8 PARALLEL PORT.

USB Port and its specification

Connect a PC to a USB printer, hard drive, scanner, CD drive, keyboard, mouse, etc. First introduced around
1997, and famously not supported by MS Windows 95 and NT 4.0 (one of the few reasons to use Windows 98
or 2000).This port may eventually replace everything except the VGA port. These ports are available at the
front or back of the cabinet

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Fig. 2.9 USB PORT

USB uses a 4-wire parasitic serial protocol, running at 12 Mbps. It is not daisy-chainable but is hub-able and
hot-pluggable. Most PC USB peripherals can also be used on Macs without any extra setup; but a few lack the
necessary drivers.

RJ45 connector
RJ45 is a standard type of connector for network cables. RJ45 connectors are most commonly seen with
Ethernet cables and networks. RJ45 connectors feature eight pins to which the wire strands of a cable interface
electrically.
Ethernet port
An Ethernet port is an opening on computer network equipment that Ethernet cables plug into. These ports are
alternatively called jacks or sockets. Ethernet ports accept cables with RJ-45 connectors. Most computers
include one built-in Ethernet port for connecting the device to a wired network.A computer's Ethernet port is
connected to its internal Ethernet network adapter.

Fig. 2.10 ETHERNET CARD

DVI Monitor port

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The DVI connector on a device is given one of three names, depending on which signals it implements:

DVI-D (digital only, single link or dual link)

DVI-A (analog only)

DVI-I (integrated, combines digital and analog in the same connector; digital may be single or dual link)

Most DVI connector types

The exception being DVI-A contain pins that pass digital video signals. These come in two varieties: single
link and dual link. Single-link DVI employs a single 165 MHz transmitter that supports resolutions up to
1920 1200 at 60 Hz. Dual-link DVI adds six additional pins (located in the center of the connector) for a
second transmitter increasing the bandwidth and supporting resolutions up to 2560 1600 at 60 Hz.
Modem RJ-11 port
RJ-11 is a standard Phone Jack.It is possible to connect the telephone line to the RJ11 port on a computer to
receive calls. This configuration requites call management software that is compatible with the network
adapter. Such software usually provides the capability to receive faxes and store them as computer files. It
usually also enable the user to create a switchboard structure with extensions and voice mail. Calls can be
directed to an automated message, or placed on hold where the caller listens to music or a message recorded on
the computer.
The RJ11 port contains six channels at the bottom, each with a copper metal strip. This strip is a contact and
creates a connection when corresponding metal strips in the plug tough the socket strips. The plug is held in
place with a plastic spring at the top. A phone line travels over two wires, and so only the the two central
contacts actually connect to anything. The remaining four contacts can be used to add in two more lines
entering the computer or telephone.

Fig. 2.14 RJ-11 PORT

DB-9 connector
The DB9 (originally DE-9) connector is an analog 9-pin plug of the D-Subminiature connector family (D-Sub
or Sub-D).
DB9 connectors are designed to work with the EIA/TIA 232 serial interface standard, which determined the
function of all nine pins as a standard, so that multiple companies could design them into their products. DB9
connectors were commonly used for serial peripheral devices like keyboards, mice, joysticks, etc. Also they are
used on DB9 cable assemblies for data connectivity. Today, the DB9 has mostly been replaced by more modern
interfaces such as USB, PS/2, Fire wire, and others.

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Fig. 2.15 DB-9 CONNECTOR

DB-25 connector
The DB25 (originally DE-25) connector is an analog 25-pin plug of the D-Sub miniature connector family (DSub or Sub-D). As with the DB9 connector, the DB25 is mainly used for serial connections, allowing for the
asynchronous transmission of data as provided by standard RS-232 (RS-232C). It is also used for parallel port
connections, and was originally used to connect printers, and as a result is sometimes known as a "printer port"
(LPT for short).

Fig. 2.16 DB-25 CONNECTOR

Experiment-3
Aim of the Experiment: - To study various cards used in a Computer System.

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Ethernet Card
An Ethernet card is one kind of network adapter. These adapters support the Ethernet standard for highspeed network connections via cables. Ethernet cards are sometimes known as network interface cards
(NICs).
The Ethernet card was created to build a Local Area Network (LAN). Once Ethernet cable is connected to
the Ethernet cards of two or more computers over the LAN, one can transfer files and data. This can be
carried out for external hardware such as printers and scanners when information from one computer
needs to be transferred to another computer.

Fig 3.1 ETHERNET CARD

Sound Card
A sound card (also known as an audio card) is a computer expansion card that facilitates the input and
output of audio signals to and from a computer under control of computer programs. Typical uses of
sound cards include providing the audio component for multimedia applications such as music
composition, editing video or audio, presentation, education, and entertainment (games). Many computers
have sound capabilities built in, while others require additional expansion cards to provide for audio
capability.

Fig 3.2 SOUND CARD

Video/Graphics Card
A video card, video adapter, graphics-accelerator card, display adapter or graphics card is an expansion
card whose function is to generate and output images to a display. Many video cards offer added
functions, such as accelerated rendering of 3D scenes and 2D graphics, video capture, TV-tuner adapter,
MPEG-2/MPEG-4 decoding, FireWire, light pen, TV output, or the ability to connect multiple monitors
(multi-monitor). Other modern high performance video cards are used for more graphically demanding
purposes, such as PC games.

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Network Interface card

A network interface card provides the computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to a network.
Personal computers and workstations on a local area network (LAN) typically contain a network interface
card specifically designed for the LAN transmission technology. In computer networking, a NIC provides
the hardware interface between a computer and a network. A NIC technically is network adapter hardware
in the form factor of an add-in card such as a PCI or PCMCIA card.
Some NIC cards work with wired connections while others are wireless. Most NICs support either wired
Ethernet or WiFi wireless standards. Ethernet NICs plug into the system bus of the PC and include jacks
for network cables, while WiFi NICs contain built-in transmitters / receivers (transceivers).

FIG 3.3 NETWORK INTERFACE CARD

TV Tuner Card
It allows television signals to be received by a computer. Most TV tuners also function as video capture
cards, allowing them to record television programs onto a hard disk much like the digital video recorder
(DVR) does. The interfaces for TV tuner cards are most commonly either PCI bus expansion card or the
newer PCI Express (PCIe) bus for many modern cards. These cards typically include one or more
software drivers to expose the cards' features, via various operating systems, to software applications that
further process the video for specific purposes. As a class, the cards are used to capture baseband analog
composite video, S-Video, and, in models equipped with tuners, RF modulated video. Unlike video
editing cards, these cards tend to not have dedicated hardware for processing video beyond the analog-todigital conversion. Most, but not all, video capture cards also support one or more channels of audio.

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FIG 3.4 TV TUNNER CARD

Accelerator card
A printed circuit board that enhances a computer's performance by substituting a faster microprocessor
without replacing the entire motherboard and associated components. A graphic accelerator is a type of
video adapter that contains its own processor to boost performance levels. These processors are
specialized for computing graphical transformations, so they achieve better results than the generalpurpose CPU used by the computer. In addition, they free up the computer's CPU to execute other
commands while the graphics accelerator is handling graphics computations.
The popularity of graphical applications, and especially multimedia applications, has made graphics
accelerators not only a common enhancement, but a necessity. Most computer manufacturers now bundle
a graphics accelerator with their mid-range and high-end systems.

Experiment-4
Aim of the Experiment:- To study, remove and replace Floppy drive.
Floppy disk drive
A floppy disk drive is a hardware device that reads one of the first types of portable data storage media
floppy diskettes, also known as floppy disks. The circuitry of this drive is

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Fig. 4.1 FLOPPY DISK DRIVE

The floppy disk drive has many parts that are needed in order for it to work properly. Among the most
important of these are the read and write heads. Most floppy drives have two of these heads. These are used to
get information from the disk and transfer information to the disk. Some floppy disks have tabs that can be
moved to prevent the writing of information on a disk, even if an attempt is made. A motor spins the disk and
does so at a rate of at least 360 revolutions per second.
The other major parts of a floppy disk drive include the stepper motor and circuit board. The stepper motor is
responsible for moving the read/write heads where they need to be. The circuit board is responsible for taking
the information and transferring it between the computer and floppy disk drive. The circuit board is also
responsible for controlling the motors of the floppy disk drive.

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Experiment-5
Aim of the Experiment:-To study, remove and replace Hard disk.
Hard disk
In any computer system the hard disk is considered as the secondary memory device that is used for
the primary data storage. The hard disk drive is the most popularly used secondary memory device
is because the access speed and the reliability of the data it can offer. In the case of the tape drives
the access speed is much low and the data transfer is comparatively low than the hard disk drive.
The components of hard disk are shown in Fig.4.1.
The primary function of the primary memory is to load the programs so that the CPU Central
Processing Unit can easily and speedily access and execute the instructions. The primary memory
can only boot the computer system; but it is the hard disk drive that is responsible for the loading
and the proper functioning of any operating system. The operating system is a necessary for the
computers to run to the expectations of the user. Hence the hard disk is a must for the loading of the
hard disk drive. The importance of the primary memory is that it is a compulsion that is necessary
for the start-up of the computer. A computer can start up even without a hard disk. But since there is
no operating system that is present in the computer hence it is not possible to load the operating
system. The computer will display a message usually in such a situation stating that Disk Boot
Failure.

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Fig. 5.1 HDD DIAGARM

The information that is required to boot a computer is stored in the hard disk boot sector. Also the
importance of the hard disk drive is to store the backup of the data or any information that is
created by the user. Apart from the hard disk drives the other storage devices like the optical disks
that are the CD ROM, DVD ROM etc. can be used for the purpose of the backup of the data or user
information. The floppy disks can also be used for the backup of the data. The hard disk
specification should also match the expectations of the computers; that is the storage capacity and
access speed.

PROCESS TO REMOVE THE HARD DISK DRIVE

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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Turn off your computer and unplug it from everything

Open the computer case
Locate the hard drive inside the computer case.
Determine how the hard drive is connected to the computer
Take the hard drive from where it rested in the tower.
Remove the IDE ribbon cable
Remove the power connector

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FIG 5.2 HDD CONNECTION(STEP 4)

FIG 5.3 REMOVAL OF IDE CABLES(STEP 6)

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Experiment-6
Aim of the Experiment:-To study, remove and replace CD ROM drives.
CD ROM
These drives are necessary today for most programs. A single CD can store up to 650 MB of data (newer
CD-Rs allow for 700 MB of data, perhaps more with over burn). Fast CD-ROM drives have been a big
topic in the past, but all of todays CD-ROM drives are sufficiently fast. Of course, its nice to have the little
bits of extra speed. However, when you consider CD-ROM drives are generally used just to install a program
or copy CDs, both of which are usually done rarely on most users computers, the extra speed isnt usually
very important. The speed can play a big role if you do a lot of CD burning at high speeds or some audio
extraction from audio CDs (i.e. converting CDs to MP3s).

FIG 6.1 CD ROM DRIVE

REMOVING THE CD ROM DRIVE
1. Open the computer case
2. Look for the existing CD/DVD drive and unplug the power and data cables.
3. Remove the screws from the CD/DVD drive and then remove it from the chassis.
4. Adjust the jumpers on the back of the drive
5. Slide the CD/DVD drive into the drive bay on the computer
6. Move the cables back, but do not disconnect them.
7. Connect the data and power cables to the CD/DVD drive.

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FIG 6.2 REMOVABLE OF CD DRIVE FROM CHASSIS

FIG 6.2 REMOVAL OF CABLE

Experiment-7
Aim of the Experiment:- To study monitor its circuitry and various presets and some elementary faults
detection.
1.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
A CRT monitor contains millions of tiny red, green, and blue phosphor dots that glow when
struck by an electron beam that travels across the screen to create a visible image. In a cathode
ray tube, the "cathode" is a heated filament. The heated filament is in a vacuum created inside a
glass "tube." The "ray" is a stream of electrons generated by an electron gun that naturally pour
off a heated cathode into the vacuum.This screen is coated with phosphor, an organic material
that glows when struck by the electron beam.

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FIG 7.1 CRT MONITOR

2.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor is a computer monitor or display that uses LCD
technology to show clear images, and is found mostly in laptop computers and flat panel
monitors. This technology has replaced the traditional cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors, which
were the previous standard and once were considered to have better picture quality than early
LCD variants.
Various different LCD technologies are used today, including:

In Plane Switching (IPS) Panel Technology: These panels are considered to have the best
color accuracy, viewing angles and image quality in LCD technology.

Vertical Alignment (VA) Panel Technology: These panels are considered to be in the
middle of TN and IPS technology. Compared to TN panels, they offer wider viewing angles and
better color quality but have slower response times.

FIG 7.2 LCD MONITOR

3.

LED (Light-Emitting Diodes)

An LED is an electronic device that emits light when an electrical current is passed through it.
Early LEDs produced only red light, but modern LEDs can produce several different colors,
including red, green, and blue (RGB) light. Recent advances in LED technology have made it
possible for LEDs to produce white light as well. LEDs are commonly used for indicator lights
(such as power on/off lights) on electronic devices. They also have several other applications,
including electronic signs, clock displays, and flashlights. Since LEDs are energy efficient and
have a long lifespan (often more than 100,000 hours), they have begun to replace traditional light
bulbs in several areas.

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FIG 7.3 LED MONITOR

4.

Plasma
A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large TV displays 30
inches (76 cm) or larger. They are called "plasma" displays because the technology utilizes small
cells containing electrically charged ionized gases, or what are in essence chambers more
commonly known as fluorescent lamps.
Power consumption varies greatly with picture content, with bright scenes drawing significantly
more power than darker ones this is also true for CRTs as well as modern LCDs where LED
backlight brightness is adjusted dynamically. The plasma that illuminates the screen can reach a
temperature of at least 1200 C (2200 F). Typical power consumption is 400 watts for a 127 cm
(50 in) screen. 200 to 310 watts for a 127 cm (50 in) display when set to cinema mode.

Experiment-8
Aim of the Experiment:- To study types of printer
Daisy Wheel Printer:
Daisy wheel printing uses interchangeable pre-formed type elements, each with typically 96 glyphs, to generate
high-quality output.
The heart of the system is an interchangeable metal or plastic "daisy wheel" holding an entire character set as
raised characters molded on each "petal". A servo motor rotates the daisy wheel to position the required
character between the hammer and the ribbon. The solenoid-operated hammer then fires, driving the character
type onto the ribbon and paper to print the character on the paper. The daisy wheel and hammer are mounted on
a sliding carriage similar to that used by dot matrix printers.
Different typefaces and sizes can be used by replacing the daisy wheel. It is possible to
use multiple fonts
within a document: font changing is facilitated by printer device drivers which can position the carriage to the
center of the platen and prompt the user to change the wheel before continuing printing. However, printing a
document with frequent font changes and thus requiring frequent wheel changes was a tedious task.

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FIG 8.1 DAISY WHEEL PRINTER

Dot Matrix Printer:
Dot matrix printing or impact matrix printing is a type of computer printing which uses a print head that runs
back and forth, or in an up and down motion, on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth
ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a typewriter.
Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "wire" or "pin", which is driven forward by the power of
a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through small levers (pawls). Facing the ribbon and the paper
is a small guide plate pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins. This plate may be made of hard plastic
or an artificial jewel such as sapphire or ruby. The portion of the printer containing the pins is called the print
head.

FIG 8.2 DOT MATRIX PRINTER

Inkjet Printer:
Inkjet printing is a type of computer printing that creates a digital image by propelling droplets of ink onto
paper, plastic, or other substrates. There are two main technologies in use in contemporary inkjet printers:
continuous (CIJ) and Drop-on-demand (DOD).
In CIJ technology, a high-pressure pump directs liquid ink from a reservoir through a gun body and a
microscopic nozzle, creating a continuous stream of ink droplets via the Plateau-Rayleigh instability.
In the thermal inkjet process, the print cartridges contain a series of tiny chambers, each containing a heater, all
of which are constructed by photolithography. To eject a droplet from each chamber, a pulse of current is passed
through the heating element causing a rapid vaporization of the ink in the chamber to form a bubble, which
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causes a large pressure increase, propelling a droplet of ink onto the paper. The inks used are usually waterbased and use either pigments or dyes as the colorant. The inks used must have a volatile component to form the
vapor bubble, otherwise droplet ejection cannot occur.
.

FIG 8.3 INKJET PRINTER

LaserPrinter:
Laser printing is an electrostatic digital printing process that rapidly produces high quality text and graphics by
passing a laser beam over a charged drum to define a differentially charged image. The drum then selectively
collects charged toner and transfers the image to paper, which is then heated to permanently fix the image.
A laser beam, typically from an aluminum gallium arsenide semiconductor laser, projects an image of the page
to be printed onto an electrically charged rotating drum coated with selenium or, more common in modern
printers, organic photoconductors. Photoconductivity allows charge to leak away from the areas exposed to
light. Powdered ink (toner) particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum's charged areas, which
have not been exposed to the laser beam. The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat,
which fuses the ink to the paper.
There are typically seven steps involved in the process:

Raster image processing - The document to be printed is encoded in a page description language such as
PostScript, Printer Command Language (PCL), or Open XML Paper Specification (OpenXPS). The raster
image processor converts the page description into a bitmap in the raster memory.
Charging - In older printers, a corona wire positioned parallel to the drum, or in more recent printers, a primary
charge roller, projects an electrostatic charge onto the photoreceptor (otherwise named the photo conductor
unit), a revolving photosensitive drum or belt, which is capable of holding an electrostatic charge on its surface
while it is in the dark.
Exposing - The laser is aimed at a rotating polygonal mirror, which directs the laser beam through a system of
lenses and mirrors onto the photoreceptor. The cylinder continues to rotate during the sweep and the angle of
sweep compensates for this motion..
Fusing - The paper passes through rollers in the fuser assembly where heat of up to 200 C (392 F) and
pressure bond the plastic powder to the paper.One roller is usually a hollow tube (heat roller) and the other is a
rubber backing roller (pressure roller). A radiant heat lamp is suspended in the center of the hollow tube, and its
infrared energy uniformly heats the roller from the inside. For proper bonding of the toner, the fuser roller must
be uniformly hot.

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FIG 8.4 LASER PRINTER

Experiment-9

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Aim of the Experiment :- To study types of keyboard

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Circuitry of a keyboard.
Computer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes (usually
scancodes) that the computer's electronics can understand. The key switches are connected via the
printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y
lines and, when a key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines.
.
When pressing a keyboard key, the key contacts may "bounce" against each other for several
milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When released, they bounce some more until
they revert to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see
many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in
a keyboard (or computer) "debounces" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to
produce one "confirmed" keystroke.
Membrane keyboard
There are two types of membrane-based keyboards, flat-panel membrane keyboards and fulltravel membrane keyboards:
Flat-panel membrane keyboards are most often found on appliances like microwave ovens or
photocopiers. A common design consists of three layers. The top layer (and the one the user
touches) has the labels printed on its front and conductive stripes printed on the back. Under this
it has a spacer layer, which holds the front and back layer apart so that they do not normally make
electrical contact. The back layer has conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to those of the
front layer. When placed together, the stripes form a grid. When the user pushes down at a
particular position, their finger pushes the front layer down through the spacer layer to close a
circuit at one of the intersections of the grid. This indicates to the computer or keyboard control
processor that a particular button has been pressed.
Generally, flat-panel membrane keyboards do not have much of a "feel", so many machines which
use them issue a beep or flash a light when the key is pressed. They are often used in harsh
environments where water- or leak-proofing is desirable. Although used in the early days of the
personal computer they have been supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch
keyboards

.
FIG 9.1 Flat-panel membrane keyboards
Full-travel membrane-based keyboards are the most common computer keyboards today. They
have one-piece plastic keytop/switch plungers which press down on a membrane to actuate a
contact in an electrical switch matrix.
Dome Switch keyboard
Dome-switch keyboards are a hybrid of flat-panel membrane and mechanical keyboards. They
bring two circuit board traces together under a rubber or silicone keypad using either metal
"dome" switches or polyurethane formed domes. The metal dome switches are formed pieces of
stainless steel that, when compressed, give the user a crisp, positive tactile feedback. While
polydomes are typically cheaper than metal domes, they lack the crisp snap of the metal domes,
and usually have a lower life specification. Polydomes are considered very quiet, but purists tend
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to
find them "mushy" because the collapsingPage
dome26
does not provide as much positive response as
metal domes. For either metal or polydomes, when a key is pressed, it collapses the dome, which
connects the two circuit traces and completes the connection to enter the character. The pattern on
the PC board is often gold-plated.

A
wireless
keyboard can
be
easily
moved
around, as it
is
not
connected via
a cable.

Experiment-1

Trackball mouse
A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing sensors to detect a
rotation
of Experiment
the ball about:-two
axeslike
an mouse
upside-down mouse with an exposed protruding ball.
Aim
of the
To study
types of
The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers, or the palm of the hand to move a pointer.
Compared with a mouse, a trackball has no limits on effective travel; at times, a mouse can reach an
edge of its working area while the operator still wishes to move the screen pointer farther. With a
trackball, the operator just continues rolling, whereas a mouse would have to be lifted and repositioned.
Benjamin's project used analog computers to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on
several initial input points provided by a user with a joystick. A more elegant input device named
ball tracker system also called the roller ball was invented for this purpose in 1946. The device was
patented in 1947, but only a prototype using a metal ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was
ever built and the device was kept as a military secret.
DATAR's trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. Several
rollers provided mechanical support. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on
their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, producing pulses of output with each movement of
the ball. By counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined.

FIG 10.2 TRACK BALL MOUSE

Optical mouse
An optical computer mouse uses a light source, typically a light-emitting diode, and a light detector,
such as an array of photodiodes or an image sensor, to detect movement relative to a surface. It is an
alternative to the mechanical mouse, which uses moving parts to perform the same function. Optical
mice capture one thousand successive images or more per second. Depending on how fast the mouse
is moving, each image will be offset from the previous one by a fraction of a pixel or as many as
several pixels. Optical mice mathematically process these images using cross correlation to calculate
how much each successive image is offset from the previous one.

FIG 10.3 OPTICAL MOUSE

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Infrared mouse
The laser mouse uses an infrared laser instead of an LED to illuminate the surface beneath their
sensor. As early as 1998, Sun Microsystems provided a laser mouse with their Sun SPARCstation