CONTENTS

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CHAPTER
DETAILS PAGE.NO
NO

ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES

1.INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1.1 Introduction

1 1.2 Growth mechanism

1.3 Arc Discharge

2.TYPES OF CARBON NANOTUBES & RELATED

STRUCTURES
2.1 Single-walled nanotubes (SWNT)

CHAPTER 2.2 Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT)

2 2.3 Double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNT)

2.4 Torus

2.5 Nanobud

CHAPTER 3.STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF CNTS

3
4. SYNTHESIS OF SWNT and MWNT

4.1 SYNTHESIS OF SWNT

4.1.1 Inert gas

4.1.2 Optical plasma control

4.1.3 Catalyst

4.1.4 Improvement of oxidation resistance

CHAPTER 4.1.5 Open air synthesis with welding arc torch
4
4.2 SYNTHESIS OF MWNT

4.2.1 Synthesis in liquid nitrogen

4.2.2 Magnetic field synthesis

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4.2.3 Plasma rotating arc discharge

4.2.4 Laser ablation

 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a
nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter ratio greater than
1,000,000. These cylindrical carbon molecules have novel properties
that make them potentially useful in many applications in
nanotechnology. Their unique surface area, stiffness, strength and
resilience have led to much excitement in the field of pharmacy.
Nanotubes are categorized as single-walled nanotubes and multiple
walled nanotubes. Techniques have been developed to produce
nanotubes in sizeable quantities, including arc discharge, laser
ablation, chemical vapor deposition, silane solution method and flame
synthesis method. The properties and characteristics of CNTs are still
being researched heavily and scientists have barely begun to tap the
potential of these structures. They can pass through membranes,
carrying therapeutic drugs, vaccines and nucleic acids deep into the
cell to targets previously unreachable. Overall, recent studies
regarding CNTs have shown a very promising glimpse of what lies
ahead in the future of medicines. Different types of carbon nanotubes
can be produced in various ways. Economically feasible large-scale
production and purification techniques still have to be developed.

CHAPTER 1

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 INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction
The last few years have witnessed the discovery, development
and, in some cases, large-scale manufacturing and production of novel
materials that lie within the nanometer scale. Such novel
nanomaterials consist of inorganic or organic matter and in most cases
have never been studied in the context of pharmaceuticals. Carbon
nanotubes (CNTs) are one of them. CNTs are allotropes of carbon.
They are tubular in shape, made of graphite. CNTs possess various
novel properties that make them useful in the field of nanotechnology
and pharmaceuticals. They are nanometers in diameter and several
millimeters in length and have a very broad range of electronic,
thermal, and structural properties. These properties vary with kind of
nanotubes defined by its diameter, length, chirality or twist and wall
nature. Their unique surface area, stiffness, strength and resilience
have led to much excitement in the field of pharmacy.
In this work, different techniques for nanotube synthesis and
their current status are briefly explained. First, the growth mechanism
is explained, as it is almost general for all techniques. However, typical
conditions are stated at the sections of all the different techniques. The
largest interest is in the newest methods for each technique and the
possibilities of scaling up. Carbon nanotubes are generally produced by
three main techniques, arc discharge, laser ablation and chemical
vapour deposition. Though scientists are researching more economic
ways to produce these structures. In arc discharge, a vapour is
created by an arc discharge between two carbon electrodes with or
without catalyst. Nanotubes self-assemble from the resulting carbon
vapour. In the laser ablation technique, a high-power laser beam

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impinges on a volume of carbon -containing feedstock gas (methane
or carbon monoxide). At the moment, laser ablation produces a small
amount of clean nanotubes, whereas arc discharge methods generally
produce large quantities of impure material. In general, chemical
vapour deposition (CVD) results in MWNTs or poor quality SWNTs. The
SWNTs produced with CVD have a large diameter range, which can be
poorly controlled. But on the other hand, this method is very easy to
scale up, what favours commercial production.

1.2 Literature survey

Fullerenes are large, closed-cage, carbon clusters and have
several special properties that were not found in any other compound
before. Therefore, fullerenes in general form an interesting class of
compounds that surely will be used in future technologies and
applications. Before the first synthesis and detection of the smaller
fullerenes C60 and C70, it was generally accepted that these large
spherical molecules were unstable. However, some Russian scientists,
already had calculated that C60 in the gas phase was stable and had a
relatively large band gap. As is the case with numerous, important
scientific discoveries, fullerenes were accidentally discovered. In 1985,
Kroto and Smalley found strange results in mass spectra of evaporated
carbon samples. Herewith, fullerenes were discovered and their
stability in the gas phase was proven.

The search for other fullerenes had started. Since their discovery
in 1991 by Iijima and coworkers4, carbon nanotubes have been
investigated by many researchers all over the world. Their large length
(up to several microns) and small diameter (a few nanometres) result
in a large aspect ratio. They can be seen as the nearly one-

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dimensional form of fullerenes. Therefore, these materials are
expected to possess additional interesting electronic, mechanic and
molecular properties. Especially in the beginning, all theoretical studies
on carbon nanotubes focused on the influence of the nearly one-
dimensional structure on molecular and electronic properties.

1.2 Growth mechanism

The way in which nanotubes are formed is not exactly known.
The growth mechanism is still a subject of controversy, and more than
one mechanism might be operative during the formation of CNTs. One
of the mechanisms consists out of three steps. First a precursor to the
formation of nanotubes and fullerenes, C2, is formed on the surface of
the metal catalyst particle. From this metastable carbide particle, a
rodlike carbon is formed rapidly. Secondly there is a slow
graphitisation of its wall. This mechanism is based on in-situ TEM
observations.The exact atmospheric conditions depend on the
technique used, later on; these will be explained for each technique as
they are specific for a technique. The actual growth of the nanotube
seems to be the same for all techniques mentioned.

Figure 1-1: Visualisation of a possible carbon nanotube growth mechanism.

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 There are several theories on the exact growth mechanism for
nanotubes. One theory postulates that metal catalyst particles are
floating or are supported on graphite or another substrate. It
presumes that the catalyst particles are spherical or pear-shaped, in
which case the deposition will take place on only one half of the
surface (this is the lower curvature side for the pear shaped particles).
The carbon diffuses along the concentration gradient and precipitates
on the opposite half, around and below the bisecting diameter.
However, it does not precipitate from the apex of the hemisphere,
which accounts for the hollow core that is characteristic of these
filaments. For supported metals, filaments can form either by
"extrusion (also known as base growth)" in which the nanotube grows
upwards from the metal particles that remain attached to the
substrate, or the particles detach and move at the head of the growing
nanotube, labelled "tip-growth". Depending on the size of the catalyst
particles, SWNT or MWNT are grown. In arc discharge, if no catalyst is
present in the graphite, MWNT will be grown on the C2-particles that
are formed in the plasma.

1.3 Arc discharge

The carbon arc discharge method, initially used for producing C60
fullerenes, is the most common and perhaps easiest way to produce
carbon nanotubes as it is rather simple to undertake. However, it is a
technique that produces a mixture of components and requires
separating nanotubes from the soot and the catalytic metals present in
the crude product. This method creates nanotubes through arc-
vaporisation of two carbon rods placed end to end, separated by
approximately 1mm, in an enclosure that is usually filled with inert gas
(helium, argon) at low pressure (between 50 and 700 mbar). Recent

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investigations have shown that it is also possible to create nanotubes
with the arc method in liquid nitrogen. A direct current of 50 to 100 A
driven by approximately 20 V creates a high temperature discharge
between the two electrodes. The discharge vaporises one of the carbon
rods and forms a small rod shaped deposit on the other rod. Producing
nanotubes in high yield depends on the uniformity of the plasma arc
and the temperature of the deposit form on the carbon electrode.
Insight in the growth mechanism is increasing and
measurements have shown that different diameter distributions have
been found depending on the mixture of helium and argon. These
mixtures have different diffusions coefficients and thermal
conductivities. These properties affect the speed with which the carbon
and catalyst molecules diffuse and cool. affecting nanotube diameter in
the arc process. This implies that single-layer tubules nucleate and
grow on metal particles in different sizes depending on the quenching
rate in the plasma and it suggests that temperature and carbon and
metal catalyst densities affect the diameter distribution of nanotubes.
Depending on the exact technique, it is possible to selectively grow
SWNTs or MWNTs, which is shown in Figure 1-2. Two distinct methods
of synthesis can be performed with the arc discharge apparatus.

Figure 1-2: Experimental setup of an arc discharge apparatus

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 CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF CARBON NANOTUBES AND RELATED
STRUCTURES

2.1 Single-walled nanotubes (SWNT)

Most single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) have a diameter of close
to 1 nanometer, with a tube length that can be many millions of times
longer. The structure of a SWNT can be conceptualized by wrapping a
one-atom-thick layer of graphite called graphene into a seamless
cylinder. The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a
pair of indices (n,m) called the chiral vector. The integers n and m
denote the number of unit vectors along two directions in the
honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene. If m=0, the nanotubes are
called "zigzag". If n=m, the nanotubes are called "armchair".
otherwise, they are called "chiral".

Fig-2. Schematic of a carbon nanotube (a); singlewalled CNT (b); multi-walled CNT (c).

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2.2 Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT)
Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT) consist of multiple rolled layers
(concentric tubes) of graphite. There are two models which can be
used to describe the structures of multi-walled nanotubes. In the
Russian Doll model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric
cylinders, e.g. a (0,8) single-walled nanotube (SWNT) within a larger
(0,10) single-walled nanotube.

In the Parchment model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in

around itself, resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled newspaper.
The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is close to the
distance between graphene layers in graphite, approximately 3.3
(330 pm).

2.3 Double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNT)

The special place of double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNT)
must be emphasized here because their morphology and properties
are similar to SWNT but their resistance to chemicals is significantly
improved. This is especially important when functionalization is
required (this means grafting of chemical functions at the surface of
the nanotubes) to add new properties to the CNT.

In the case of SWNT, covalent functionalization will break some

C=C double bonds, leaving "holes" in the structure on the nanotube
and thus modifying both its mechanical and electrical properties. In
the case of DWNT, only the outer wall is modified. DWNT synthesis on
the gram-scale was first proposed in 2003 by the CCVD technique,
from the selective reduction of oxide solutions in methane and
hydrogen.

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 Fig-3.Double Wall Carbon Nanotubes bundles.
2.4 Torus
A nanotorus is a theoretically described as carbon nanotube bent
into a torus (doughnut shape). Nanotori are predicted to have many
unique properties, such as magnetic moments 1000 times larger than
previously expected for certain specific radii. Properties such as
magnetic moment, thermal stability etc. vary widely depending on
radius of the torus and radius of the tube.

2.5 Nanobud
Carbon nanobuds are a newly created material combining two
previously discovered allotropes of carbon; carbon nanotubes and
fullerenes. In this new material fullerene-like "buds" are covalently
bonded to the outer sidewalls of the underlying carbon nanotube. This
hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon
nanotubes. In particular, they have been found to be exceptionally
good field emitters. In composite materials, the attached fullerene
molecules may function as molecular anchors preventing slipping of
the nanotubes, thus improving the composites mechanical properties.

Fig-4. A stable nanobud structure

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2.6 Comparison between SWNT and MWNT

S.No. SWNT MWNT

1 Single layer of graphene. Multiple layer of graphene

Can be produced without

2 Catalyst is required for synthesis.
catalyst.

Bulk synthesis is difficult as it

3 requires proper control over Bulk synthesis is easy.
growth and atmospheric condition.

4 Purity is poor. Purity is high.

A chance of defect is less but

A chance of defect is more during
5 once occurred its difficult to
functionalization.
improve.

6 Less accumulation in body. More accumulation in body.

Characterization and evaluation is

7 It has very complex structure.
easy.

It can be easily twisted and are

8 It can not be easily twisted.
more pliable.

CHAPTER 3
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF CNTS

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3.1 Structural properties of CNTs
It is the chemical genius of carbon that it can bond in different
ways to create structures with entirely different properties. Graphite
and diamond, the two bulk solid phases of pure carbon, bear
testimony of this. The mystery lies in the different hybridization that
carbon atoms can assume. The four valence electrons in carbon, when
shared equally (sp3 hybridization), create isotropically strong
diamond. But when only three electrons are shared covalently between
neighbors in a plane and the fourth is allowed to be delocalized among
all atoms, the resulting material is graphite.

The latter (sp2) type of bonding builds a layered structure with

strong in-plane bounds and weak out-of-plane bonding of the van der
Waals type. The story of fullerenes and nanotubes belongs to the
architecture of sp2 bonded carbon. Due to a certain group of
topological defects that can create unique, closed shell structures out
of planar graphite sheets.

When the size of the graphite crystallites becomes small the high
density of dangling bond atoms can be formed. At such sizes, the
structure does well energetically by closing onto itself and removing all
the dangling bonds. Moreover, the structures formed correspond to
linear chains, rings, and closed shells.

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Fig-5. (a) SWNTs can be viewed as a strip cut from an infinite graphene sheet and rolled up to
form a tube. (b) Schematic of a 2D graphene sheet.

To form curved structures (such as fullerenes) from a planar

fragment of hexagonal graphite lattice, certain topological defects have
to be included in the structure. In the fullerene case that is done by
creating pentagons. One can imagine that a greatly elongated
fullerene can be formed with exactly 12 pentagons and thousands or
millions of hexagons. This would correspond to a carbon nanotube. It
is a long cylinder made of the hexagonal honeycomb lattice of carbon,
bound by two pieces of fullerenes at the ends (Fig. 2).

The diameter of the tube will depend on the size of the semi-
fullerenes that the end is made of Nanotubes form in two categories.
The first was discovered in 1991 by Iijima while studying the surface
of carbon electrodes used in an electric arc discharge apparatus which
had been used to make fullerenes.

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 It presents the multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) made
of a few to a few tens of concentric cylinders placed around a common
central hollow, with the interlayer spacing close to that of graphite
(0.34 nm) (Fig. 2c). Their inner diameter varies from 0.4 nm up to a
few nm and their outer diameter ranges typically from 2 nm up to
2030 nm depending on the number of layers. MWCNTs usually have
closed tips by insertion of pentagonal defects into the graphite network
(Fig. 2a).Their axial size covers a range from 1 m up to a few cm.

Fig-6. Computer-generated images of single-wall carbon nanotubes.

Armchair type (a), zig-zag type (b), helical type (c).

Single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNT), which are seamless

cylinders each made of a single graphene sheet (Fig. 2b), were first
reported in 1993. Their diameters range from 0.4 to 2-3 nm, and their
length is usually of the micrometer order. SWCNTs usually come
together to form bundles (ropes). In a bundle, they are hexagonally
arranged to form a crystal-like structure. SWCNTs can be viewed as a
strip cut from an infinite graphene sheet and rolled up form a tube
(Fig. 5a).In general, the spacing between cylinders increases with
decreasing diameter of graphene cylinders which is due to the
increasing curvature of the graphene sheets.

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3.2 Special properties of carbon nanotubes

Electronic, molecular and structural properties of carbon

nanotubes are determined to a large extent by their nearly one
dimensional structure. The most important properties of CNTs and
their molecular background are stated below.

3.2.1 Chemical reactivity

The chemical reactivity of a CNT is, compared with a graphene
sheet, enhanced as a direct result of the curvature of the CNT surface.
Carbon nanotube reactivity is directly related to the pi-orbital
mismatch caused by an increased curvature. Therefore, a distinction
must be made between the sidewall and the end caps of a nanotube.
For the same reason, a smaller nanotube diameter results in increased
reactivity. Covalent chemical modification of either sidewalls or end
caps has shown to be possible. For example, the solubility of CNTs in
different solvents can be controlled this way. Though, direct
investigation of chemical modifications on nanotube behaviour is
difficult as the crude nanotube samples are still not pure enough.

3.2.2 Electrical conductivity

Depending on their chiral vector, carbon nanotubes with a small
diameter are either semi-conducting or metallic. The differences in
conducting properties are caused by the molecular structure that
results in a different band structure and thus a different band gap. The
differences in conductivity can easily be derived from the graphene
sheet properties. It was shown that a (n,m) nanotube is metallic as
accounts that: n=m or (n-m) = 3i, where i is an integer and n and m
are defining the nanotube.

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 The resistance to conduction is determined by quantum
mechanical aspects and was proved to be independent of the nanotube
length.

3.2.3 Optical activity

Theoretical studies have revealed that the optical activity of
chiral nanotubes disappears if the nanotubes become larger.Therefore,
it is expected that other physical properties are influenced by these
parameters too. Use of the optical activity might result in optical
devices in which CNTs play an important role.

3.2.4 Mechanical strength

Carbon nanotubes have a very large Young modulus in their
axial direction. The nanotube as a whole is very flexible because of the
great length. Therefore, these compounds are potentially suitable for
applications in composite materials that need anisotropic properties.

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 CHAPTER 4
Synthesis of SWNT and MWNT

4.1 Synthesis of SWNT

If SWNTs are preferable, the anode has to be doped with metal
catalyst, such as Fe, Co, Ni, Y or Mo. A lot of elements and mixtures of
elements have been tested by various authors and it is noted that the
results vary a lot, even though they use the same elements. This is
not surprising as experimental conditions differ.
The quantity and quality of the nanotubes obtained depend on
various parameters such as the metal concentration, inert gas
pressure, kind of gas, the current and system geometry. Usually the
diameter is in the range of 1.2 to 1.4 nm. A couple of ways to improve
the process of arc discharge are stated below.

4.1.1 Inert gas

The most common problems with SWNT synthesis are that the
product contains a lot of metal catalyst, SWNTs have defects and
purification is hard to perform. On the other hand, an advantage is
that the diameter can slightly be controlled by changing thermal
transfer and diffusion, and hence condensation of atomic carbon and
metals between the plasma and the vicinity of the cathode can control
nanotube diameter in the arc process. This was shown in an
experiment in which different mixtures of inert gases were used. It
appeared that argon, with a lower thermal conductivity and diffusion
coefficient, gave SWNTs with a smaller diameter of approximately 1.2
nm. A linear fit of the average nanotube diameter showed a 0.2 nm
diameter decrease per 10 % increase in argon helium ratio, when
nickel/yttrium was used (C/Ni/Y was 94.8:4.2:1) as catalyst.

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4.1.2 Optical plasma control
A second way of control is plasma control by changing the anode
to cathode distance (ACD). The ACD is adjusted in order to obtain
strong visible vortices around the cathode.
This enhances anode vaporisation, which improves nanotubes
formation. Combined with controlling the argon-helium mixture, one
can simultaneously control the macroscopic and microscopic
parameters of the nanotubes formed. With a nickel and yttrium
catalyst (C/Ni/Y is 94.8:4.2:1) the optimum nanotube yield was found
at a pressure of 660 mbar for pure helium and 100 mbar for pure
argon. The nanotube diameter ranges from 1.27 to 1.37 nanometer.

4.1.3 Catalyst
Knowing that chemical vapour deposition (CVD) could give
SWNTs with a diameter of 0.6-1.2 nm; researchers tried the same
catalyst as used in CVD on arc discharge. Not all of the catalysts used
appeared to result in nanotubes for both methods. But there seemed
to be a correlation of diameter of SWNTs synthesized by CVD and arc
discharge. As a result, the diameter can be controllably lowered to a
range of 0.6-1.2 nm with arc-discharge. Using a mixture of Co and Mo
in high concentrations as catalyst resulted in this result. These
diameters are considerably smaller than 1.2-1.4 nm, which is the
usual size gained from arc-discharge.

4.1.4 Improvement of oxidation resistance

There is also progress in developing methods to improve the
oxidation resistance of the SWNTs, which is a consequence of the
defects present in nanotubes. A strong oxidation resistance is needed

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for the nanotubes if they have to be used for applications such as field
emission displays. Recent research has indicated that a modified arc-
discharge method using a bowl-like cathode (see Figure 2-3),
decreases the defects and gives cleaner nanotubes, and thus improves
the oxidation resistance

Figure 2-3: Schematic drawings of the electrode set-ups for (a) the
conventional and (b) the new arc discharge electrodes.

The Raman spectrum of the newly synthesized nanotubes shows

that the nanotubes formed are cleaner and less defective compared
with those synthesized by conventional methods. The anode rod
contained Ni and Y catalyst (C /Ni/Y is 94.8:4.2:1). No information is
given about the diameter size.

4.1.5 Open air synthesis with welding arc torch

Only a couple of years ago, researchers discovered that it was
possible to form MWNTs in open air. A welding arc torch was operated
in open air and the process was shielded with an argon gas flow. The
anode and cathode were made of graphite containing Ni and Y (Ni/Y is
4.2:1 at. %).

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 Figure 2-4: Experimental set-up of the torch arc method in open air.

This method was modified for preparing SWNTs. A plate target

made of graphite containing metal catalyst Ni and Y (Ni/Y is 3.6:0.8 at.
per cent), was fixed at the sidewall of a water-cooled, steel based
electrode. The torch arc aimed at the edge of the target and the soot
was deposited on the substrate behind the target (see Figure 2-4). The
arc was operated at a direct current of 100 A. and shielding argon gas
flowed through the torch, enhancing the arc jet formation beyond the
target.

In the soot, carbon nanohorns (CNHs) and bundles of SWNT with

an average diameter of 1.32 nm were found. However, the yield was
much lower than for the conventional low-pressure arc discharge
method. There are two reasons for this fact. At first, because of the
open air, the lighter soot will escape into the atmosphere. Secondly,
the carbon vapour might be oxidized and emitted as carbon dioxide
gas. In order to improve the yield in this method, contrivances for
collecting soot and development of an appropriate target are required.
This method promises to be convenient and inexpensive once the
conditions for higher yield are optimized. With a Ni/Y catalyst (Ni/Y is
3.6:0.8), SWNT bundles and CNHs are formed. In this case the SWNTs
have a diameter of approximately 1.32 nm.

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4.2 Synthesis of MWNT
If both electrodes are graphite, the main product will be MWNTs.
But next to MWNTs a lot of side products are formed such as
fullerenes, amorphous carbon, and some graphite sheets. Purifying the
MWNTs, means loss of structure and disorders the walls. However
scientist are developing ways to gain pure MWNTs in a large-scale
process without purification. Typical sizes for MWNTs are an inner
diameter of 1-3 nm and an outer diameter of approximately 10 nm.
Because no catalyst is involved in this process, there is no need for a
heavy acidic purification step. This means, the MWNT, can be
synthesized with a low amount of defects.

4.2.1 Synthesis in liquid nitrogen

A first, possibly economical route to highly crystalline MWNTs is
the arc-discharge method in liquid nitrogen14, with this route mass
production is also possible. For this option low pressures and
expensive inert gasses are not needed.

Figure 2-5: Schematic drawings of the arc discharge apparatus in liquid nitrogen.

The content of the MWNTs can be as high as 70 % of the

reaction product. Analysis with Auger-spectroscopy revealed that no
nitrogen was incorporated in the MWNTs. There is a strong possibility

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that SWNTs can be produced with the same apparatus under different
conditions.

4.2.2 Magnetic field synthesis

Synthesis of MWNTs in a magnetic field23 gives defect-free and
high purity MWNTs that can be applied as nanosized electric wires for
device fabrication. In this case, the arc discharge synthesis was
controlled by a magnetic field around the arc plasma.

Figure 2-6: Schematic diagram of the synthesis system for MWNTs in a magnetic field.

Extremely pure graphite rods (purity > 99.999 %) were used as

electrodes. Highly pure MWNTs (purity > 95 %) were obtained without
further purification, which disorders walls of MWNTs.

Figure 2-7: SEM images of MWNTs synthesized with (a) and without (b) the magnetic field.

4.2.3 Plasma rotating arc discharge

A second possibly economical route to mass production of
MWNTs is synthesis by plasma rotating arc discharge technique. The

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centrifugal force caused by the rotation generates turbulence and
accelerates the carbon vapour perpendicular to the anode. In addition,
the rotation distributes the micro discharges uniformly and generates a
stable plasma. Consequently, it increases the plasma volume and
raises the plasma temperature.

Figure 2-8: Schematic diagram of plasma rotating electrode system.

At a rotation speed of 5000 rpm a yield of 60 % was found at a

formation temperature of 1025 C without the use of a catalyst. The
yield increases up to 90% after purification if the rotation speed is
increased and the temperature is enlarged to 1150 C. The diameter
size was not mentioned in this publication.

4.2.4 Laser ablation

In 1995, Smalley's group at Rice University reported the
synthesis of carbon nanotubes by laser vaporisation. The laser
vaporisation apparatus used by Smalley's group is shown in Figure-
2.9. A pulsed or continuous laser is used to vaporise a graphite target
in an oven at 1200 C. The main difference between continuous and
pulsed laser, is that the pulsed laser demands a much higher light
intensity (100 kW/cm2 compared with 12 kW/cm2). The oven is filled
with helium or argon gas in order to keep the pressure at 500 Torr. A
very hot vapour plume forms, then expands and cools rapidly. As the

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vaporised species cool, small carbon molecules and atoms quickly
condense to form larger clusters, possibly including fullerenes. The
catalysts also begin to condense, but more slowly at first, and attach
to carbon clusters and prevent their closing into cage structures.
Catalysts may even open cage structures when they attach to
them. From these initial clusters, tubular molecules grow into single-
wall carbon nanotubes until the catalyst particles become too large, or
until conditions have cooled sufficiently that carbon no longer can
diffuse through or over the surface of the catalyst particles. It is also
possible that the particles become that much coated with a carbon
layer that they cannot absorb more and the nanotube stops growing.
The SWNTs formed in this case are bundled together by van der Waals
forces.

Figure 2-9: Schematic drawing of a laser ablation apparatus.

There are some striking, but not exact similarities, in the

comparison of the spectral emission of excited species in laser ablation
of a composite graphite target with that of laser-irradiated C60 vapour.
This suggests that fullerenes are also produced by laser ablation of
catalyst-filled graphite, as is the case when no catalysts are included in
the target. However, subsequent laser pulses excite fullerenes to emit

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C2 that adsorbs on catalyst particles and feeds SWNT growth.
However, there is insufficient evidence to conclude this with certainty
Laser ablation is almost similar to arc discharge, since the optimum
background gas and catalyst mix is the same as in the arc discharge
process. This might be due to very similar reaction conditions needed,
and the reactions probably occur with the same mechanism.

4.3 SWNT versus MWNT

The condensates obtained by laser ablation are contaminated
with carbon nanotubes and carbon nanoparticles. In the case of pure
graphite electrodes, MWNTs would be synthesised, but uniform SWNTs
could be synthesised if a mixture of graphite with Co, Ni, Fe or Y was
used instead of pure graphite. SWNTs synthesised this way exist as
'ropes', (Figure 2-10). Laser vaporisation results in a higher yield for
SWNT synthesis and the nanotubes have better properties and a
narrower size distribution than SWNTs produced by arc-
discharge.Nanotubes produced by laser ablation are purer (up to about
90 % purity) than those produced in the arc discharge process. The
Ni/Y mixture catalyst (Ni/Y is 4.2/1) gave the best yield.

Figure 2-10: TEM images of a bundle of SWNTs catalyzed by Ni/Y (2:0.5 at. %) mixture,
produced with a continuous laser.

The size of the SWNTs ranges from 1-2 nm, for example the
Ni/Co catalyst with a pulsed laser at 1470 C gives SWNTs with a

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diameter of 1.3-1.4 nm. In case of a continuous laser at 1200 C and
Ni/Y catalyst (Ni/Y is 2:0.5 at. %), SWNTs with an average diameter of
1.4 nm were formed with 20-30 % yield, see Figure 2-10.

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 CHAPTER 5
LARGE SCALE SYNTHESIS OF SWNT

5. Large scale synthesis of SWNT

Because of the good quality of nanotubes produced by this
method, scientists are trying to scale up laser ablation. However the
results are not yet as good as for the arc-discharge method, but they
are still promising. In the next two sections, two of the newest
developments on large-scale synthesis of SWNTs will be discussed.
The first is the "ultra fast Pulses from a free electron laser27" method,
the second is "continuous wave laser-powder" method. Scaling up is
possible, but the technique is rather expensive due to the laser and
the large amount of power required.

5.1 Ultra fast Pulses from a free electron laser (FEL) method
Usually the pulses in an Nd:YAG system have width of
approximately 10 ns, in this FEL system the pulse width is ~ 400 fs.
The repetition rate of the pulse is enormously increased from 10 Hz to
75 MHz. To give the beam the same amount of energy as the pulse in
an Nd:YAG system, the pulse has to be focused. The intensity of the
laser bundle behind the lens reaches ~5 x 1011 W/cm2, which is about
1000 times greater than in Nd:YAG systems.

A jet of preheated (1000 C) argon through a nozzle tip is

situated close to the rotating graphite target, which contains the
catalyst. The argon gas deflects the ablation plume approximately 90
away from the incident FEL beam direction, clearing away the carbon
vapour from the region in front of the target. The produced SWNT
soot, is collected in a cold finger. This process can be seen in the

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Figure 2-11. The yield at this moment is 1,5 g/h, which is at 20 % of
the maximum power of the not yet upgraded FEL. If the FEL is
upgraded to full power and is working at 100 % power, a yield of 45
g/h could be reached since the yield was not limited by the laser
power.

Figure 2-11: Schematic drawings of the ultra fast-pulsed laser ablation apparatus.

With this method the maximum achievable yield with the current
lasers is 45 g/h, with a NiCo or NiY catalyst, in argon atmosphere at
1000 C and a wavelength of ~3000 nm. The SWNTs produced in
bundles of 8-200 nm and a length of 5-20 microns has a diameter
range 1-1.4 nm.

5.2 Continuous wave laser-powder method

This method is a novel continuous, highly productive laser-
powder method of SWNT synthesis based on the laser ablation of
mixed graphite and metallic catalyst powders by a 2-kW continuous
wave CO2 laser in an argon or nitrogen stream. Because of the
introduction of micron-size particle powders, thermal conductivity
losses are significantly decreased compared with laser heating of the
bulk solid targets in known laser techniques. As a result, more
effective utilization of the absorbed laser power for material

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evaporation was achieved. The set-up of the laser apparatus is shown
in Figure 2-12.

Figure 2-12: (Left) The principle scheme of the set-up for carbon SWNT production
By continuou s wave laser-powder method (Right) HRTEM of a SWNT-bundle
cross-section.

The established yield of this technique was 5 g/h. A Ni/Co

mixture (Ni/Co is 1:1) was used as catalyst, the temperature was
1100 C. In the soot a SWNT abundance of 20-40% was found with a
mean diameter of 1.2-1.3 nm. An HRTEM-picture of this sample is
shown in Figure 2-12.

5.3 Chemical vapour deposition

Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) synthesis is achieved by
putting a carbon source in the gas phase and using an energy source,
such as a plasma or a resistively heated coil, to transfer energy to a
gaseous carbon molecule. Commonly used gaseous carbon sources
include methane, carbon monoxide and acetylene. The energy source
is used to "crack" the molecule into reactive atomic carbon. Then, the
carbon diffuses towards the substrate, which is heated and coated with
a catalyst (usually a first row transition metal such as Ni, Fe or Co)
where it will bind. Carbon nanotubes will be formed if the proper
parameters are maintained. Excellent alignment, as well as positional
control on nanometre scale, can be achieved by using CVD. Control
over the diameter, as well as the growth rate of the nanotubes can

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also be maintained. The appropriate metal catalyst can preferentially
grow single rather than multi-walled nanotubes.

CVD carbon nanotube synthesis is essentially a two-step process

consisting of a catalyst preparation step followed by the actual
synthesis of the nanotube. The catalyst is generally prepared by
sputtering a transition metal onto a substrate and then using either
chemical etching or thermal annealing to induce catalyst particle
nucleation. Thermal annealing results in cluster formation on the
substrate, from which the nanotubes will grow. Ammonia may be used
as the etchant.

The temperatures for the synthesis of nanotubes by CVD are

o
generally within the 650-900 C range. Typical yields for CVD are
approximately 30%.These are the basic principles of the CVD process.
In the last decennia, different techniques for the carbon nanotubes
synthesis with CVD have been developed, such as plasma enhanced
CVD, thermal chemical CVD, alcohol catalytic CVD, vapour phase
growth, aero gel-supported CVD and laser-assisted CVD. These
different techniques will be explained more detailed in this chapter.

5.4 Plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition

The plasma enhanced CVD method generates a glow discharge
in a chamber or a reaction furnace by a high frequency voltage applied
to both electrodes. Figure 2-13 shows a schematic diagram of a typical
plasma CVD apparatus with a parallel plate electrode structure.

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 Figure 2-13: Schematic diagram of plasma CVD apparatus.

A substrate is placed on the grounded electrode. In order to

form a uniform film, the reaction gas is supplied from the opposite
plate. Catalytic metal, such as Fe, Ni and Co are used on for example a
Si, SiO2, or glass substrate using thermal CVD or sputtering. After
nanoscopic fine metal particles are formed, carbon nanotubes will be
grown on the metal particles on the substrate by glow discharge
generated from high frequency power. A carbon containing reaction
gas, such as C2H2, CH4, C2H4, C2H6, CO is supplied to the chamber
during the discharge.
The catalyst has a strong effect on the nanotube diameter,
growth rate, wall thickness, morphology and microstructure. Ni seems
to be the most suitable pure-metal catalyst for the growth of aligned
multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs). The diameter of the MWNTs
is approximately 15 nm. The highest yield of carbon nanotubes
achieved was about 50% and was obtained at relatively low
temperatures (below 330o C).

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5.5 Thermal chemical vapour deposition
In this method Fe, Ni, Co or an alloy of the three catalytic metals
is initially deposited on a substrate. After the substrate is etched in a
diluted HF solution with distilled water, the specimen is placed in a
quartz boat. The boat is positioned in a CVD reaction furnace, and
nanometre-sized catalytic metal particles are formed after an
additional etching of the catalytic metal film using NH3 gas at a
temperature of 750 to 1050o C. As carbon nanotubes are grown on
these fine catalytic metal particles in CVD synthesis, forming these fine
catalytic metal particles is the most important process. Figure 2-14
shows a schematic diagram of thermal CVD apparatus in the synthesis
of carbon nanotubes.

Figure 2-14: Schematic diagram of thermal CVD apparatus.

When growing carbon nanotubes on a Fe catalytic film by

thermal CVD, the diameter range of the carbon nanotubes depends on
the thickness of the catalytic film. By using a thickness of 13 nm, the
diameter distribution lies between 30 and 40 nm. When a thickness of
27 nm is used, the diameter range is between 100 and 200 nm. The
carbon nanotubes formed are multi walled.

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5.6 Alcohol catalytic chemical vapour deposition
Alcohol catalytic CVD (ACCVD) is a technique that is being
intensively developed for the possibility of large-scale production of
high quality single wall nanotubes SWNTs at low cost. In this
technique, evaporated alcohols, methanol and ethanol, are being
utilised over iron and cobalt catalytic metal particles supported with
zeolite. Generation is possible is possible at a relatively low minimum
temperature of about 550oC.

It seems that hydroxyl radicals, who come from reacting alcohol

on catalytic metal particles, remove carbon atoms with dangling
bonds, which are obstacles in creating high-purity SWNTs. The
diameter of the SWNTs is about 1 nm. Figure 2-15 shows the ACCVD
experimental apparatus.

Figure 2-15: ACCVD experimental apparatus38.

The lower reaction temperature and the high-purity features of

this ACCVD technique guarantee an easy possibility to scale production
up at low cost. Furthermore, the reaction temperature, which is lower
than 600 oC, ensures that this technique is easily applicable for the
direct growth of SWNTs on semiconductor devices already patterned
with aluminium.

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5.7 Vapour phase growth
Vapour phase growth is a synthesis method of carbon nanotubes,
directly supplying reaction gas and catalytic metal in the chamber
without a substrate. Figure 2-16 shows a schematic diagram of a
vapour phase growth apparatus. Two furnaces are placed in the
reaction chamber. Ferrocene is used as catalyst. In the first furnace,
vaporisation of catalytic carbon is maintained at a relatively low
temperature. Fine catalytic particles are formed and when they reach
the second furnace, decomposed carbons are absorbed and diffused to
the catalytic metal particles. Here, they are synthesised as carbon
nanotubes. The diameter of the carbon nanotubes by using vapour
phase growth are in the range of 2 - 4 nm for SWNTs and between 70
and 100 nm for MWNTs.

Figure 2-16: Schematic diagram of a vapour phase growth apparatus.

5.8 Aero gel-supported chemical vapour deposition

In this method SWNTs are synthesized by disintegration of
carbon monoxide on an aero gel-supported Fe/Mo catalyst. There are
many important factors that affect the yield and quality of SWNTs,
including the surface area of the supporting material, reaction
temperature and feeding gas. Because of the high surface area, the
porosity and ultra-light density of the aero gels, the productivity of the
catalyst is much higher than in other methods.

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 After a simple acidic treatment and a oxidation process high
purity (>99%) SWNTs can be obtained. When using CO as feeding gas
the yield of the nanotubes is lower but the overall purity of the
materials is very good. The diameter distribution of de nanotubes is
between 1,0 nm and 1,5 nm. The optimal reaction temperature is
approximately 860 oC.

5.9 Laser-assisted thermal chemical vapour deposition

In laser-assisted thermal CVD (LCVD) a medium power,
continuous wave CO2 laser, which was perpendicularly directed onto a
substrate, pyrolyses sensitized mixtures of Fe(CO)5 vapour and
acetylene in a flow reactor. The carbon nanotubes are formed by the
catalyzing action of the very small iron particles. Figure 2-17 shows
the experimental set-up for laser-assisted CVD.

Figure 2-17: Experimental set-up for laser-assisted CVD .

43

By using a reactant gas mixture of iron pentacarbonyl vapour,

ethylene and acetylene both single- and multi-walled carbon
nanotubes are produced. Silica is used as substrate. The diameters of
the SWNTs range from 0.7 to 2.5 nm. The diameter range of the
MWNTs is 30 to 80 nm.

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5.10 CoMoCat process
In this method, SWNTs are grown by CO disproportionation at
700 - 950oC. The technique is based on a unique Co-Mo catalyst
formulation that inhibits the sintering of Co particles and therefore
inhibits the formation of undesired forms of carbon that lower the
selectivity. During the SWNT reaction, cobalt is progressively reduced
from the oxidic state to the metallic form. Simultaneously Molybdenum
is converted to the carbidic form (Mo2C). Co acts as the active species
in the activation of CO, while the role of the Mo is possibly dual. It
would stabilize Co as a well-dispersed Co2+, avoiding its reduction and
would act as a carbon sink to moderate the growth of carbon inhibiting
the formation of undesirable forms of carbon.

It is found that one of the critical conditions for an effective

reactor operation is that the space velocity has to be high enough to
keep the CO conversion as low as possible. Figure 2-18 shows a
fluidised bed reactor for a CoMoCat process. The most important
advantage of fluidised bed reactors is that they permit continuous
addition and removal of solid particles from the reactor, without
stopping the operation.

Figure 2-18: Schematic diagram of a CoMoCat apparatus

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 This is a method that can be scaled-up without losses in SWNT
quality. By varying the operation conditions, SWNTs can be produced
with different diameter ranges.In Table 2-1 several diameter ranges at
different temperatures are given. The CoMoCat catalyst has a high
selectivity towards SWNTs, namely 80 - 90 %.
Temperature( oC) Diameter range(nm)

750 0.9 0.05

850 0.9 1.25
950 1,00 1.40

5.11 High pressure CO disproportionation process

The High pressure CO disproportionation process (HiPco) is a
technique for catalytic production of SWNTs in a continuous-flow gas
phase using CO as the carbon feedstock and Fe(CO)5 as the iron-
containing catalyst precursor. SWNTs are produced by flowing CO,
mixed with a small amount of Fe(CO)5 through a heated reactor.
Figure 2-19 shows the layout of CO flow-tube reactor. Size and
diameter distribution of the nanotubes can be roughly selected by
controlling the pressure of CO. This process is promising for bulk
production of carbon nanotubes.

Figure 2-19: Layout of CO flow-tube reactor .

47

Nanotubes as small as 0.7 nm in diameter, which are expected

to be the smallest achievable chemically stable SWNTs , have been
produced by this method. The average diameter of HiPco SWNTs is

Page | 38
approximately 1.1 nm. The yield that could be achieved is
approximately 70%. The highest yields and narrowest tubes can be
produced at the highest accessible temperature and pressure . SWNT
material with 97% purity can be produced at rates of up to 450 mg/h.

5.12 Flame synthesis

This method is based on the synthesis of SWNTs in a controlled
flame environment, that produces the temperature, forms the carbon
atoms from the inexpensive hydrocarbon fuels and forms small aerosol
metal catalyst islands. On these metal islands the SWNTs are grown in
the same manner as in laser ablation and arc discharge.

These metal catalyst islands can be made in three ways. The

metal catalyst (cobalt) can either be coated on a mesh, on which metal
islands resembling droplets were formed by physical vapour
deposition. These small islands become aerosol after being exposed to
a flame. The second way, is to create aerosol small metal particles by
burning a filter paper that is rinsed with a metal-ion (e.g. iron nitrate)
solution. The third way, is the thermal evaporating technique in which
metal powder (e.g. Fe or Ni) is inserted in a trough and heated.

Figure 2-19 Meshes on which the metal catalyst is coated, used in flame synthesis

In a controlled way a fuel gas is partially burned to gain the right

temperature of ~800 C and the carbon atoms for SWNT production.
On the small metal particles the SWNTs are than formed. As

Page | 39
optimisation parameters the fuel gas composition, catalyst, catalyst
carrier surface and temperature can be controlled. In the references
used the yield, typical length and diameters are not stated.

CHAPTER 7

Page | 40
 CONCLUSION
Single-wall and multiwall carbon nanotubes are currently the
subject of an intense research owing to the outstanding properties
they may possess. Many synthesis methods have been proposed, most
of which involvenanometric metal particles. CNTs have provided
possibilities in nanotechnology that were not conceived in the past.
Nanotechnologies of the future in many areas will build on the
advances that have been made for carbon nanotubes.

Carbon nanotubes have unique properties.Unique properties lead

to fabrication of different devices.Improvements of current synthesis of
carbon nanotubes needed to make available commercial products. The
totally new nanoelectronic architecture may be constructed on CNTs.
There is a little knowledge about growth mechanism, structural defects
and their influence on practical properties of CNTs. There are many
attractive phenomena hidden within the tiny, mysterious world that
exists inside the carbon nanotube. The work indicates that the long-
desired low-cost synthesis of carbon nanotubes with controllable
structures is becoming a reality Current methods for synthesizing and
studying carbon nanotubes are reviewed. The correlation between the
structural features and electronic, electrical, chemical and mechanical
characteristics of carbon nanotubes is discussed. Recently developed
methods for growing uniform arrays of aligned nanotubes tailored for
specific properties are discussed, which hold promise for the mass
production and world-wide application of nanotube devices. Current
and potential applications of nanotubes are discussed

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