MAKERERE

UNIVERSITY

THE POTENTIAL OF GRAIN AMARANTH TOWARDS IMPROVEMENT IN

NUTRITION AND FOOD SECURITY OF RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN UGANDA:
THE CASE STUDY OF APAC, KAMULI AND NAKASONGOLA DISTRICTS

BY

TIBAGONZEKA EVAS JULIET

B.Sc. FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY (KYU)

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DIRECTORATE OF RESEARCH AND

GRADUATE TRAINING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE AWARD OF A
MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN APPLIED HUMAN NUTRITION OF
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

FEBRUARY, 2013

Declaration
I, Tibagonzeka Evas Juliet, declare that this is my original work and has never been presented
for a degree in this or any other University or Institution of higher learning.

Signed.................................................................. Date: .....................................

TIBAGONZEKA EVAS JULIET
B.Sc. FPT (Hon.), KYU

This dissertation has been submitted with our approval as the University Supervisors
SUPERVISORS:
Signed: ......................................

Signed: .......................................

PROF. JOHN MUYONGA (PhD)

DR. DOROTHY NAKIMBUGWE (PhD)

Date: ........................................

Date..............................................

Copyright@ Tibagonzeka Evas Juliet

Dedication
This Dissertation is dedicated to my best friend and husband; Isaac Wamatsembe, my dear mum;
Joy Nairuba Kifuko, beloved children; Josiah, Jordana and Jude, my brothers; Hudson, Herbert
and Andrew & sisters; Esther & Phoebe and my late grandma who greatly encouraged me
throughout the course.

ii

Acknowledgement
Special thanks to the almighty God for He provided all that I needed.

My sincere thanks go to my University supervisors Prof. John Muyonga, and Dr. Dorothy
Nakimbugwe who tirelessly guided me to put this piece of work together. You were never
disheartened by my mistakes but rather you repeatedly corrected me to the final copy of the
thesis. You are forever appreciated.

To my field supervisor Mr. Wambete Julius who guided me in each step I took in the field.
Thanks for the unending effort you offered me.

Special thanks to McKnight Foundation who sponsored my entire studies. You funded the grain
amaranth project that I was attached to and provided the biggest part of financial support toward
this work. You gave me a reason to study.

I also appreciate my dear mother and friends: Juliet Mpora, Liz Khakasa, loyce, Denis Atuha,
Charles Masalu, Papa Steven, Evelyn, Wilberforce, Vivian, Asha, Aisha, Doreen, Beatrice, Eric,
Hassan, Feddy, Eunice, John and many others for their constant encouragement and support to
complete the work despite the hardships.

Finally heartfelt gratitude to my best friend and husband Isaac Wamatsembe and our children for
psycho-socio and emotional support they accorded me. You permitted me to work for longer
hours of the day depriving you of your time for care.

Thank you and God richly bless you.

iii

Table of Contents

Declaration ....................................................................................................................................... i
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of figures ................................................................................................................................ xii
Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................... xiii
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... xv
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background to the study ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 5
1.3.1 Overall Objective ................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................ 5
1.4 Hypotheses ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.5 Significance of the study........................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Justification ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Conceptual framework .............................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 8
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Grain Amaranth ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.1.1 History of Grain Amaranth .................................................................................................... 8

iv

2.1.2 Utilization of Grain Amaranth in Uganda ............................................................................. 9

2.1.3 Utilization of Grain Amaranth Elsewhere ............................................................................. 9
2.1.4 Nutrition and Health Benefits of Grain Amaranth Consumption ........................................ 10
2.1.5 Nutritional Value of Grain Amaranth .................................................................................. 11
2.1.6 Processing of Grain Amaranth ............................................................................................. 14
2.2 The Nutritional Situation in Uganda ....................................................................................... 16
2.2.1 Frequency of Feeding Complementary Foods ..................................................................... 16
2.2.2 Dietary Diversity and Nutrient Density ............................................................................... 17
2.2.3 Prevalence and Trends in Chronic Energy Deficiency (CED) Among Women .................. 17
2.2.4 Prevalence of Vitamin A Deficiency in Children and Women............................................ 18
2.2.5 Prevalence of Anemia and Iron Deficiency in Children and Women ................................. 18
2.2.6 Zinc Deficiency.................................................................................................................... 19
2.3 Food Security Situation in Uganda ......................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Definition of food security ................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Vulnerability to Food Insecurity in Uganda ........................................................................ 20
2.3.3 Household Food Security..................................................................................................... 21
2.3.4 Factors Affecting Household Food Security........................................................................ 21
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 22
3.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 22
3.1 The Study Area ....................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.1 Apac ..................................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.2 Kamuli.................................................................................................................................. 22
3.1.3 Nakasongola ......................................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Research Design and Sampling Strategy ................................................................................ 25
3.3 Sample Size............................................................................................................................. 26

3.4 Data Collection Instruments ................................................................................................... 26

3.4.1 Data Collection .................................................................................................................... 27
3.5 Food Security Assessment ...................................................................................................... 27
3.5.1 Determination of Diet Quantity ........................................................................................... 28
3.5.2 Dietary Diversity.................................................................................................................. 28
3.5.2.1 Household dietary diversity .............................................................................................. 28
3.5.2.2 Individual Dietary Diversity (For children 6-59 months): ................................................ 29
3.5.2.3 Minimum Dietary Diversity (For children 6-23 months): ................................................ 29
3.5.3 Food Consumption Scores ................................................................................................... 29
3.5.4 Asset Ownerships................................................................................................................. 31
3.6 Nutrient Intakes ....................................................................................................................... 31
3.6.1 Hansens Nutritional Quality Index (NQI) .......................................................................... 31
3.7 Nutritional Status .................................................................................................................... 32
3.8 Morbidity ................................................................................................................................ 33
3.9 Practices .................................................................................................................................. 33
3.9.1 Continued breastfeeding at 1 year........................................................................................ 34
3.9.2 Introduction of solid, semi-solid or soft foods ..................................................................... 34
3.10 Identification of Grain Amaranth Recipes Used By Communities ...................................... 34
3.11 Identifying Foods to Develop Recipes .................................................................................. 35
3.12 Pre-processing and preparation of Materials ........................................................................ 35
3.12.1 GA Winnowing and Cleaning ............................................................................................ 35
3.12.2 GA Popping and Milling.................................................................................................... 36
3.12.3 GA Roasting and Milling ................................................................................................... 36
3.12.4 Millet Roasting and Milling ............................................................................................... 36
3.12.5 Processing GA Leaf Powder .............................................................................................. 36

vi

3.12.6 Sesame Roasting ................................................................................................................ 36

3.12.7 Groundnut Roasting ........................................................................................................... 37
3.12.8 Cassava Flour Processing .................................................................................................. 37
3.12.9 Other Ingredients and Materials......................................................................................... 37
3.13 Sensory Analyses of the Developed Products ...................................................................... 43
3.14 Determination of Nutritional Value ...................................................................................... 43
3.15 Data Analysis and Reporting ................................................................................................ 44
3.16 Ethical Consideration ............................................................................................................ 44
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 45
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................................. 45
4.1 Characteristics of respondents ................................................................................................ 45
4.2 Dietary Quantity...................................................................................................................... 46
4.3 Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) .......................................................................... 46
4.4 The Weekly Consumption Patterns ........................................................................................ 47
4.5 Food Consumption Groups (fgcs) ........................................................................................... 48
4.5.1Consumption of Food Groups (the day preceding the survey) ............................................. 49
4.5.1.1Consumption of Grain Amaranth....................................................................................... 49
4.6 Food Restrictions .................................................................................................................... 50
4.7 Household Asset Ownerships ................................................................................................. 51
4.8 Crops grown by the target communities ................................................................................. 51
4.9 Nutrition Status for Children Using MUAC ........................................................................... 53
4.10 Dietary Adequacy ................................................................................................................. 54
4.11 Diversity of Diets Given To Children 6-59months............................................................... 54
4.12 Morbidity .............................................................................................................................. 55
4.13 Household Energy Intakes .................................................................................................... 56

vii

4.14 Nutrient Intakes ..................................................................................................................... 56

4.15 Dietary and Infant & Young Child Feeding Practices .......................................................... 58
4.15.1 Core Indicators of Infant & Young Child Feeding Practices (IYCF) ............................... 58
4.15.2 Practice of Giving Solids, Semisolids Or Soft Foods To Children Aged 6-59 Months In
Households ........................................................................................................................ 59
4.1.5.3 The Practice of Meal Preparation ..................................................................................... 60
4.15.4 The Practice Of Using Own Plate ..................................................................................... 60
4.15.5 Time for Serving the Last Meal for Children (6-59 Months) ............................................ 60
4.15.6 Consumption of Porridge .................................................................................................. 61
4.15.7 Number of Main Meals Given To Children ...................................................................... 61
4.16 Special Preparation of the Childrens Food (Kitobero) ........................................................ 62
4.17 Grain amaranth recipe/product development ........................................................................ 63
4.17.1 Baseline recipe collection .................................................................................................. 63
4.17.2 Sensory Evaluation of the Developed Products ................................................................. 65
4.17.3 Energy and Nutrient Density of Developed Products ........................................................ 68
4.17.4 Effect of GA Incorporation on the Energy and Nutrient Composition of the Developed
Products............................................................................................................................. 68
4.17.5 Contribution of the Developed Products to the RDA of Children Aged 4-8 Years .......... 69
4.17.6 Recipe and Product Acceptability...................................................................................... 70
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 73
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................. 73
5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 73
5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 74
References ..................................................................................................................................... 76
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................. 85

viii

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for determining the current nutrient intake and nutrition related
knowledge and practices among house holds of farmers.................................................. 85
Appendix 2:Questionnaire for the baseline recipe collection ..................................................... 102
Appendix 3:Questionnaires for sensory evaluation of the developed products .......................... 105
Appendix 4: Grain amaranth (g.a) recipes for trials and evaluation by farmer groups .............. 115
Appendix 5:Questionnaire for the farmer group interviews ....................................................... 131
Appendix 6: The 21 farmer groups that participated in the Recipe trials and evaluation .......... 133
Appendix 7: Main ingredients used in the theoretical recipe formulation................................. 133
Appendix 8: Age group Vs Nutrient requirement....................................................................... 134

ix

List of Tables
Table 1: Proximate composition of grain amaranth varieties commonly grown in Kamuli,
Uganda .............................................................................................................................. 11
Table 2: Amaranth content of selected vitamins and minerals ..................................................... 12
Table 3: Amino acid composition of grain amaranth varieties commonly grown in Uganda in
comparison to that of maize and beans Amino Acid Content (g/100 g protein) .............. 13
Table 4: Fatty acids profile for grain amaranth from Kamuli, Uganda ........................................ 14
Table 5: Food groups and their weights used to calculate FCS .................................................... 30
Table 6: Thresholds of food consumption profiles ....................................................................... 31
Table 7: Asset based wealth categories ........................................................................................ 31
Table 8: Thresholds of Nutrient Intakes ....................................................................................... 32
Table 9: Nutritional status cut-offs points for MUAC .................................................................. 33
Table 10: Foods identified to fill identified dietary gaps for Apac, Kamuli and Nakasongola
districts .............................................................................................................................. 35
Table 11 Formulation used for producing the seventeen grain amaranth containing food products
........................................................................................................................................... 37
Table 12: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents ...................................................... 45
Table 13: Number of meals consumed by the target households ................................................. 46
Table 14: Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) ............................................................... 47
Table 15: Weekly consumption of food groups in Nakasongola, Apac and Kamuli ................... 48
Table 16: Yields & Average crop output per household in the target communities..................... 52
Table 17: Individual Dietary Diversity Score (IDDS) for children aged 6-59 months ................ 54
Table 18: The prevalence of ailments affecting nutrition status of children in the target
communities ...................................................................................................................... 55
Table 19: Percentage of children 6-59months in the different IDDS groups ............................... 59
Table 20: Percentage of number of times Solids, semisolid or soft foods is given to children .... 59

Table 21: Percentages of childrens last meal times ..................................................................... 60

Table 22: Percentage of children that were given porridge .......................................................... 61
Table 23: Percentage of number of times main meals were given children the day prior to the
survey ................................................................................................................................ 61
Table 24: Percentage knowledge on special preparation of childrens food (kitobero) ............... 62
Table 25: Acceptability of sensory attributes of the products that ranked best ............................ 65
Table 26: Statistical significant differences of the products with and those without G.A............ 67
Table 27: effect of method of cooking GA on product preference ............................................... 67
Table 28: Energy, proximate and mineral composition per 100g of the developed products ...... 68
Table29: Nutrient changes due to GA incorporation .................................................................... 69
Table 30: Contribution of the developed products to the RDA of children aged 4-8 years ......... 70
Table 31: Farmer rating of grain amaranth containing recipes ..................................................... 71
Table 32: Farmer group acceptability scores for different grain amaranth products .................... 72

xi

List of figures

Figure 1: The study conceptual frame work .................................................................................. 7

Figure 2: Farmers in Nakasongola (left) and Kamuli (right) districts being interviewed on how
they utilized grain amaranth at their households during the baseline recipe collection
exercise ............................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 3: Food Consumption Groups for households in target districts ....................................... 49
Figure 4: Food groups consumed by farmer households in Nakasongola, Kamuli and Apac
districts based on 24 hour recall data ................................................................................ 50
Figure 5: Percentage of different household assets owned by the target population .................... 51
Figure 6: Percentage of food groups given to children (6-59 months) in Kamuli, Nakasongola
and Apac ........................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 7: Average Energy Intakes of the target districts the day preceding the assessment ........ 56
Figure 8: Nutritional quality index (NQI) of foods consumed by farmer households in
Nakasongola, Kamuli and Apac districts based on 24 hour recall data ............................ 57
Figure 9: Distribution of study population based on adequacy of the intake of the different
nutrients............................................................................................................................. 58
Figure 10: Percentage utilization of grain amaranth in Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola during the
baseline survey for recipe collection................................................................................. 64
Figure 11: Photos of some of the developed products that ranked best..66
Figure 12: Farmers tasting grain amaranth-millet bread during participatory recipe/products
trials and evaluation in Apac district..71
List of Maps
Map 1: The study area (Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola districts).24

xii

Acronyms
ACC/SCN

Administrative Committee on Coordination Sub-committee on Nutrition

AIDS

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

ANOVA

Analysis of Variance

CED

Chronic Energy Deficiency

CFSVA

Comprehensive Food Security Vulnerability Analysis

CRS

Catholic Relief Services

EPRC

Economic Policy Research Center

FANTA

Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

FCS

Food Consumption Scores

FEWSNET

Famine and Early Warning System Network

FGCs

Food Consumption Groups

GA

Grain Amaranth

Hb

Hemoglobin

HDDS

Household Dietary Diversity Score

HFISS

Household Food Insecurity Scale Score

HIV

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

HMIS

Health Management Information System

IDA

Iron Deficiency anemia

IDDS

Individual Dietary Diversity Score

IFPRI

International Food Policy Research Institute

IYCF

Infant and Young Child Feeding practices

MAAIF

Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries

MOFPED

Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic development

MOH

Ministry of Health

MUAC

Mid Upper Arm Circumference

NAS

National Academy of Sciences

NCD

Non communicable Diseases

NCHS

National Centre of Health Statistics

NECDP

Nutrition and Early Childhood Development of Health

xiii

NI

Nutrient Intake

NQI

Nutritional Quality Index

NWGFF

National Working Group on Food Fortification

RDA

Recommended Daily Allowances

SPSS

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

SRLP

Sustainable Rural Development Program

UBOS

Uganda Bureau of Statistics

UDHS

Uganda Demographic and Health Survey

UFNS

Uganda Food and Nutrition Strategy

UNCST

Uganda National Council of Science and Technology

UNDP

Uganda National Development Plan

UNHS

Uganda National Household survey

USFDA

United States Federal Drug Authority

VAD

Vitamin A deficiency

VAM

Vulnerability Assessment Mapping

VEDCO

Volunteer Efforts for Development Concerns

WFP

World Food Programme

WFS

World Food Summit

WHO

World Health Organization

xiv

Abstract
Malnutrition is widespread in Uganda and is partly attributed to the poor dietary quality. Grain
amaranth is a nutritious food which can be produced in many parts of Uganda. However,
currently, grain amaranth production and utilization in the country is dismal. The aim of this
study was to evaluate the potential of grain amaranth to alleviate malnutrition in Uganda. The
study was undertaken in Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola districts. The study entailed
determination of prevailing food and nutrition security status of rural households in the 3
districts. This involved interviews with 420 farmers (representing 21 farmer groups from 420
different households) to obtain information about food intake, nutrition related knowledge and
practices, food insecurity indicators, amaranth production and consumption. Mid upper arm
circumference (MUAC) measurements were taken for all children aged 6-59 months in the 420
households studied. Based on food intake data, dietary nutrient gaps were determined. Recipes
containing grain amaranth and other locally available foods were then developed and tested for
acceptability to sensory panelists as well as farmer groups. The recipes were also analyzed for
nutritional composition. Analysis of the demographics of the study respondents showed that of
the majority (89.5%) were females and the dominant age category was 18-49 years. This
category represented 79.58% of the respondents. A total 88.6% of the respondents had attained
some education. The majority (92.1%) of the respondents had subsistence farming as their main
occupation. Food insecurity was generally prevalent, with 36.5% of studied respondents stating
that they ate less than the recommended three meals a day. Apac district had the highest
percentage (48.92%) in this category, while Kamuli had the lowest (20.71%). More than half of
the households (52.2%) had low dietary diversity ( 6 food groups consumed in 7 days).
Nakasongola had the highest percentage of households with low dietary diversity (56.6%) while
Apac had the lowest percentage of households (46.1%). The majority (80.7%) of the households
surveyed in all the 3 districts generally did not consume an adequate diet, based on the Food
Consumption Score (FCS). Children from households with a low FCS (<35) were more likely to
be malnourished than those from households with an acceptable FCS. Only 6% of the H/Hs were
asset rich, while about one third (35%) were asset poor. Children from households categorized
as asset poor were more likely to be malnourished compared to those from asset rich families.
Households categorized as asset poor were also more likely to be food insecure compared to
those who were asset rich. With respect to nutrition status, no case of severe malnutrition was

xv

recorded among the 420 household studied, based on MUAC. Prevalence of moderate
malnutrition was at 22%. The proportion of children at risk of being malnourished was 7%.
Children whose mothers/caregivers had no formal education were more likely to be
malnourished compared to those whose mothers had attained formal education. Regarding child
feeding practices, only 36.9% of children had adequate diets. Child morbidity was found to be
high, with 62.67% of all children reporting cases of diarrhea, vomiting or fever over the 2 weeks
preceding the study. Dietary analysis showed inadequate intake of lipids, niacin, iron, calcium
and zinc. The grain amaranth recipes designed to address these nutrient gaps were found to be
highly acceptable by communities, with 15 out of 17 scoring 4 on a scale of 5. The products
developed using developed recipes were generally acceptable (with 16 out of 17 scoring 4 on a
scale of 5) and found to contain enhanced levels of zinc, iron, calcium and lipids, nutrients found
to be inadequate in the diets in the 3 study districts. The study results show that grain amaranth
has potential to contribute to improvement in nutrition and food security of communities in the
three study districts. The high acceptability of both recipes and products shows high potential for
increased consumption of grain amaranth once the recipes are widely disseminated. Since the
food habits and agro-ecological conditions in the study districts are similar to those in many
other parts of the country, it is recommended that grain amaranth production and utilization be
promoted in other parts of Uganda, as a strategy for improving nutrition and food security.

Key words: Grain amaranth, recipes, nutrition and food security

xvi

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study

Under-nutrition and food insecurity remain significant challenges in Uganda, though the country
has considerable potential to produce enough food. Nineteen (19%) of the countrys population
is undernourished, while the proportion of those unable to access adequate calories increased
from 59% in 1999 to 69% in 2006 (UBOS, 2006). Under-nutrition among children under 5 years
of age is particularly high, with rates of stunting reported at 33%, while those for underweight
and wasting reported at 14% and 5% respectively (UBOS, 2011). Micronutrient deficiencies
especially of vitamin A, iron and zinc are also reported to be widespread (UBOS, 2006; UNAP,
2011-2016).
Both the Uganda Nutrition Action Plan (UNAP) 2011-2016 and the Nutrition Situation Analysis
report (FANTA, 2010) identify inadequate dietary in-take and the high disease burden as largely
being responsible for much of the malnutrition in the country. In addition, they cite low dietary
diversity as one of the causes of the poor quality of household diets and hence under-nutrition in
many parts of the country. Other studies (Horton et al., 2008; Bahiigwa, 1999; FAO, 2008a)
indicate that a majority of rural household diets in the country are based on a narrow range of
staples, usually; maize, rice, millet, sweet potatoes, plantain (matooke) and cassava or
combinations thereof. In their evaluation, enunciated in the National Food and Nutrition
Strategy (UFNS) 2005, the Ministries of Agriculture and Health in the country, cite the fact that
many households with good access to sufficient food for their caloric needs; nevertheless
remain susceptible to suffering from poor nutrition for dietary reasons. One of the reasons cited
was the consumption of monotonous and unvaried diets lacking in most of the critical
micronutrients.

Most of the staple foods cited are much cheaper and more available than nutrient rich animal
foods such as meat, milk products and eggs. However, when consumed on their own or with only
very small amounts of the animal, legume or oil seed products, the result is a poor-quality and
undiversified diet that is inadequate in protein, fat and micronutrients. For example, cassava

root, a cheapest and common staple food in much of sub-Saharan Africa, is particularly low in
protein i.e. 0.8 g protein/100 edible grams (Wargiono, Richana & Hidajat, 2002)
Diet diversification has been identified elsewhere, as one of the food-based strategies with high
potential to improve the quality of individual dietary intakes as well as the nutritional and food
security situation in poor and resource-poor communities (Thompson et al., 2004; Gibson, 2005).
According to Thompson et al. (2004), dietary diversification and modification, combined with
nutrition education can improve availability, access to and utilization of foods with a high
content and bioavailability of micronutrients throughout the year. The same authors cite the fact
that dietary diversification and modification relying on product formulation and recipe
development can enhance the energy and nutrient density of cereal-based porridges.

As previous studies have indicated, under-nutrition in Uganda is not entirely due to an absolute
lack of food but also due to limited diversity in the household diet. Consequently, availability of
diverse and more nutrient-rich food crops in the country, education and support in product
formulation and recipe development offer viable opportunities for communities to improve their
nutrition through dietary diversification and modification. The recent introduction of Grain
Amaranth among resource-poor and marginalized communities in some parts of the country is
such an opportunity.
Grain amaranth is a relatively new plant source food in Uganda. Both the leaves and grain
produced by the plant can be used for food. The plant possesses unique nutritional and
agronomic attributes, making it a valuable food crop especially among resource-poor and
marginalized communities; with potential to contribute to the alleviation of under-nutrition and
nutritional deficiencies.
The crop has high levels of quality protein, whose amino acid composition compares favorably
with the protein standard for good health (FAO/WHO/UNU, 1985; FAO, 2003) and better than
most of the grains and root crops commonly consumed in the country. Grain amaranth is
particularly rich in lysine, one the most critical essential amino acids that must be present in the
diet for good health (Sseguya, 2007). It is also rich in fiber and other valuable nutrients including
calcium, twice the amount available in milk, iron, five times the level available in wheat and

higher amounts of potassium, phosphorous, vitamins, A, E and folic acid than available in most
cereal grains (Becker et al., 1981). The grain is known to contain 610% oil, consisting
predominantly of unsaturated fatty acids, especially the essential linoleic acid. In addition to the
nutritional quality, the crop has a host of beneficial agronomic features including shorter
maturity periods, high yields in marginal soils, resistance to stresses such as low moisture and
soil fertility.
Preliminary reports on the dietary utilization and consumption of grain amaranth in areas where
it has been recently introduced indicate improvements in the general wellbeing of individuals
(SRLP, 2005; Mwangi, 2003). Despite such reported improvements and the genuine potential of
crop highlighted above, grain amaranth production and utilization in Uganda remains rather low.
Annual production in all the areas where the crop appears to have made most advances hardly
exceeds 10 metric tons. It is apparent that, for the crop to release its full potential in mitigating
the countrys malnutrition and food security challenges, more concerted research and
developmental efforts need to be undertaken. The purpose of this study was to assess the
potential of Grain Amaranth towards enhancing nutrition and food security of rural farmer
households in the districts of Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola and to generate information that
would form the basis for its promotion.

1.2

Problem Statement

Current staple diets for most resource poor people in Uganda are mainly composed of starchy
foods such as maize, rice, millet, sweet potatoes, plantain (matooke) and cassava. Although
these staples dominate diets in both proportion and frequency, they are typically low in lipids,
protein, vitamins and minerals and therefore, do not provide the households with adequate
nutrients. Complementation with nutrient rich foods like grain amaranth can help to improve the
dietary quality.
A number of efforts towards dietary diversification have focused on promoting of identified
nutritious foods. However, there is evidence indicating that food insufficiency per se, may not
necessarily be the major cause of all the malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies witnessed in
some parts of the country. According to MAAIF (2010), the average caloric intake per person
per day declined from 2,193J in 2002 to 1,971J in 2005 despite general increase in food
production. This indicates that a general increase in food production may not necessarily be
associated with increased consumption. In addition, communities may adopt production of a crop
while targeting sale to obtain income. This is particularly likely if they are not familiar with the
consumption of such a crop and when market opportunities exist.
Grain amaranth production had been promoted in different parts of Uganda. However, the actual
contribution of the crop to nutrition of the communities among which it had been promoted had
not been determined. The purpose of this study was therefore to assess the potential of grain
amaranth to enhance nutrition and food security of rural farmer households in Kamuli, Apac and
Nakasongola Districts.

1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 Overall Objective

The main objective of the study was to assess the potential of grain amaranth towards enhancing
food and nutrition security of rural farmer households in Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola
Districts

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study were:

To establish the current nutrition and food security status of rural households in Kamuli,
Apac and Nakasongola.
To develop from grain amaranth and other locally available food materials, recipes that
fill the identified nutrient intake gaps.
To determine sensory acceptability and nutritional properties of the developed products.
To determine the acceptability of the developed recipes and products among farmers in
Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola.

1.4

Hypotheses

Diets of rural households in Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola are deficient in some
nutrients.
Acceptable nutritious food products can be made from grain amaranth and other locally
produced food materials.
Grain amaranth based recipes are acceptable by rural households in Kamuli, Apac and
Nakasongola.

1.5

Significance of the study

Grain amaranth has been adopted by some farmers in Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola districts.
The study therefore sought to develop recipes that could be used by farmers wishing to utilize
the new crop by incorporating it into already existing foods so as to cover some of the existing
nutrient intake gaps. Growing grain amaranth was likely to benefit resource poor crop producers
directly by contributing to their income, food and nutrition security. Increasing consumption of
grain amaranth could help to alleviate nutrition and health problems faced by people living with
HIV (PLHIV) and other vulnerable groups within the rural households. Children, pregnant and
breastfeeding mothers have special nutritional requirements and consumption of grain amaranth
was likely to contribute towards realization of their nutritional requirements. The problems of
food insecurity are on increase particularly in Uganda. The findings could be of use to policy
makers for formulating strategies which could help in addressing the problem in the process of
implementing food security programs.

1.6

Justification

The current nutritional related knowledge, practices, nutrient intake gaps in Kamuli,
Nakasongola and Apac could be improved through participatory development and dissemination
of recipes containing the nutrient rich grain amaranth. This could also create a wide interest in
the new crop, especially when such a crop is associated with improved food security, nutrition
and health benefits.

1.7

Conceptual framework

Participatory development of recipes/products using grain amaranth (G.A) enrich the local
staples available in the communities of Apac, Nakasongola and Kamuli districts will help in
increased nutrient intakes, dietary diversity and incomes. This will eventually enhance the
nutrition and food security of the households of participants. Figure 1 Gives details of the
framework.

Figure 1: The study conceptual frame work

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Grain Amaranth
Amaranth (Amaranthus spp) is an herbaceous annual with upright growth habit, cultivated for
both its seeds which are used as a grain and its leaves which are used as a vegetable or greens.
Both leaves and seeds contain protein of unusually high quality (Myers, 2010). Amaranth is
often called a pseudo cereal because it is used much like cereal grains although it is not in the
grass family. Grain amaranth belongs to the cosmopolitan Amaranthus genus of some 60 species
(NRC, 1972). The most important species include A. hypochondriacus, A. cruentus (grain type)
& A. tricolor, A. dubius, A. lividus, A. creuntus, A. palmeri and A. hybridus (vegetable type)
(Teutonico & Knorr, 1985). Grain amaranths and many other amaranth species show tremendous
potential for human consumption and other uses, and are particularly promising as a remedy for
hunger and malnutrition in developing countries (NRC, 1972).

In Uganda, wild amaranth species are weedy and often eaten as vegetable especially in rural
areas. In Kamuli and Nakasongola, the weed is called dodo or amaransa. Three amaranth
species are grown for grain including: Amaranthus candatus has the shortest season (45-75
days), Amaranthus cruentus (60-120 days), Amaranthus hypochondriacus (150 days). The
potential of grain and vegetable amaranth as a food resource has been reviewed extensively by
Haas & Kauffman (1984), Saunders & Becker (1984), NAS (1984), and Sanchez-Marroquin
(1980). Amaranth produces a large amount of biomass in a short period of time (Kauffman &
Weber, 1990) and therefore has the potential to contribute to a substantial increase in world food
production. Grain yield of up to 5,000 kg/ha has been reported (Stallknecht & Schulz-Schaeffer,
1993).

2.1.1 History of Grain Amaranth

The earliest archaeological record of pale-seeded grain amaranth is that of A. cruentus, found in
Tehuacan Puebla, Mexico, about 4000 BC (Pal & Khoshoo, 1974; Sauer, 1979), making it one of
the oldest known food crops. It probably originated in Central and South America (Grubben &
van Sloten, 1981). Amaranth was a major grain crop in the pre-conquest Aztec empire (Sauer,

1950b; Pal & Khoshoo, 1974; Early, 1977; Haughton, 1978). Ancient Mexicans made idols of
dough from seeds of the crop they called huahtli, which has been identified as grain amaranth
(Sauer, 1950b; Marx, 1977). Pale-seeded amaranths were also grown in Germany in the 16th
century, India and Ceylon in the 18th century, the Himalayas in the early 19th century, and
interior China and Eastern Siberia in the late 19th century (Sauer, 1977).

2.1.2 Utilization of Grain Amaranth in Uganda

Some of the products made out of amaranth seeds include soup, porridge, posho (stiff
bread/porridge), paste (usually mixed with groundnuts) and pops. Amaranth flour is also used as
a sauce thickener (Muyonga et al., 2008). The SRL program has promoted the use of grain
amaranth for feeding malnourished children. The amaranth is usually blended with other grains
(mainly maize and millet) and given to children in the form of porridge. Amaranth-based
porridge has also been adopted for the feeding of normal children as a complementary food, and
for feeding the sick, including PLWHA. Feedback from communities in Kamuli district shows a
strong association of amaranth consumption and fast recovery from childhood malnutrition and
these snacks are commonly consumed by children in Uganda. Snacks commonly consumed in
Uganda such as cookies, cakes and baggia are normally made from wheat flour while
kabalagala is usually made from cassava flour. By substituting the wheat or cassava flour with
amaranth, the protein content and quality as well as the iron, zinc, calcium and B vitamins
content of the snacks were improved (Muyonga et al., 2008).

2.1.3 Utilization of Grain Amaranth Elsewhere

Amaranth was a major food of the Aztecs and earlier American cultures, having been
domesticated thousands of years ago (Myers, 2010). According to Kelly & Price, (2008)
amaranth was a staple of the Aztecs and was incorporated into their religious ceremonies. In
Mexico, grain amaranth is used chiefly for making alegria candies; a confection made from
popped seeds and molasses (Early, 1977) and for preparing atolea, a drink from roasted and
powdered seeds mixed with syrup and water (Oke, 1983). In Peru, seeds are popped and ground
into flour or bound with syrup and made into belles (Sumar, 1983). In India, the seeds are most
commonly used in the form of candy known as laddoos (Vietmeyer, 1978), though the seeds are
sometimes boiled with rice (Oke, 1983). Amaranth seeds are parched, ground into flour, and

eaten as gruel (sattoo) in Nepal and as chapattis in the Himalayas (Vietmeyer, 1978). Amaranth
has been used as seeds or flour to make products such as cookies, cakes, pancakes, bread
muffins, crackers, pasta and other bakery products (Teutonico & Knorr, 1985).

2.1.4 Nutrition and Health Benefits of Grain Amaranth Consumption

Consumption of grain amaranth is reported to have nutritional and health benefits, ranging from
a general improvement in well-being to prevention and improvement of specific ailments and
symptoms including recovery of severely malnourished children and an increase in the body
mass index of people formerly wasted by HIV/AIDS (SRLP, 2005; Tagwira et al., 2006).
Tagwira et al., (2006) documented perceived benefits of consuming grain amaranth among
communities in Zimbabwe. The communities claimed that eating grain amaranth made them feel
healthier and they noticed improvements in the health of their children. Specific health
improvements noted included improvement in appetite, fast healing of mouth sores and herpes
zoster, and weight gain for PLWHAs. Amaranth consumption was also associated with higher
milk production among breast feeding mothers. The improvements in general well-being and
health reported by people who included grain amaranth in their diets are generally explainable by
its high nutritional value.

Some specific nutritional and health benefits of amaranth consumption have been elucidated.
Amaranth oil has been shown, in animal studies, to lower total serum triglycerides and levels of
low density lipoproteins (LDL) (Escudero et al., 2006). Similar effects have been reported in
humans (Martirosyan et al., 2007). High levels of serum LDL are associated with coronary heart
disease. The serum LDL lowering effect of amaranth has been attributed to the tocotrienols
(unsaturated forms of vitamin E) and squalene in amaranth oil. These compounds affect
cholesterol biosynthesis in humans (Martirosyan et al., 2007). They are also believed to have
anti-tumor and antioxidative activity (Kim et al., 2006a), pointing to potential anti-cancer effects.
Supplementation of patients with coronary heart disease with amaranth oil has been shown to
contribute to a decrease or disappearance of headaches, weakness, increased fatigability,
shortness of breath during a physical activity, edema of the legs towards the evening hours and
feeling of intermission of heart function in most patients (Martirosyan et al., 2007). In addition,
decrease in body weight has also been reported. Consumption of grain amaranth has also been

10

shown to have potential benefits to diabetics. Studies suggest that supplementation of diets with
amaranth grain and amaranth oil improves glucose and lipid metabolism in diabetic rats (Kim et
al., 2006b). The fasting serum glucose levels and the glucose tolerance of the diabetic rats were
both improved.

2.1.5 Nutritional Value of Grain Amaranth

According to Muyonga et al. (2008), analysis of grain amaranth obtained from farmers fields in
Uganda showed that the grains were rich in proteins, lipids, energy and fiber (Table1). Amaranth
grains are also known to contain substantial amounts of vitamins and minerals (Table 2).
Amaranth grains contain twice the level of calcium found in milk, five times the level of iron in
wheat, and higher sodium, potassium and vitamins A, E, C and folic acid than cereal grains.

Table 1: Proximate composition of grain amaranth varieties commonly grown in Kamuli,

Uganda
%
Nutrient

Cream amaranth

Golden amaranth

Protein

12.37

13.04

Carbohydrate
Lipid

63
6.89

63.4
7.29

Fiber
Ash

6.33
2.85

7.01
3.6

Source: Muyonga et al., 2008

11

Table 2: Amaranth content of selected vitamins and minerals

Nutrient
Iron

Content (mg/g)
17.4

Zinc
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium

3.7
31
290
175

Vitamin C
Niacin

4.5
1.45

Riboflavin
Thiamine

0.23
0.1

Source: (Muyonga et al., 2008)

According to Muyonga et al. (2008), the varieties grown in Uganda have been found to have
protein content of 12-13%, which is higher than that of most cereal grains and other common
staples. Grain amaranth proteins contain substantial amounts of the essential amino acids that
tend to be marginal in common cereals and pulses (Table 3). The level of lysine in both varieties
grown in Uganda was found to be above the FAO/WHO reference and more than double the
level reported for maize. Methionine levels in the amaranth grains, though slightly lower than
FAO/WHO recommended level, is about 3 times the levels in beans. However, amaranth has
lower levels of threonine and phenylalanine than the FAO/WHO reference protein and marginal
levels of leucine and valine. It should be noted however, that the essential amino acids that are
low in amaranth are quite abundant in most diets.

12

Table 3: Amino acid composition of grain amaranth varieties commonly grown in Uganda in
comparison to that of maize and beans Amino Acid Content (g/100 g protein)

Amino Acid
Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid
Serine
Glycine
Histidine
Arginine
Threonine*
Alanine
Proline
Tyrosine
Valine*
Methionine*
Cysteine
Isoleucine*
Leucine*
Phenylalanine*
Lysine*

White
amaranth
7.929
19.248
6.462
8.983
3.346
9.853
2.291
4.216
4.812
3.941
4.812
2.2
0.275
4.491
6.279
4.629
6.233

Golden
amaranth
7.492
19.72
6.09
8.7
2.997
10.295
2.03
4.447
4.833
4.108
4.785
2.513
0.193
4.35
6.187
4.592
6.67

Content (g/100 g protein)

Maize
Beans
FAO/WHO Reference
7.48
18.37
4.51
3.85
5.5
5.5
3.63
5.72
6.49
4.07
4.51
1.76
2.31
4.29
13.75
3.63
3.41

10.61
13.29
4.85
3.3
2.28
4.99
4.01
3.75
3.25
2.94
5.41
1.04
0.09
4.06
7.1
4.96
5.87

5
3.5
4
7
6
5.4

*Essential amino acids

Source: Muyonga et al., 2008

It is critical to know according to Muyonga et al., (2008) that the protein digestibility of the 2
varieties grown in Uganda is around 72% but roasting and popping, the two commonly-used
preparation methods, were found to reduce digestibility to 60.6% and 52.5%, respectively. They
further state that the level of tannins, an anti-nutrient known to reduce protein digestibility, in the
grain amaranth varieties grown in Uganda was found to range from 0.11% catechin equivalent to
0.42%, which is higher than the levels in other grains like millet and sorghum. The level varied
with the geographical area where the amaranth was grown. The levels of other nutrient inhibitors
such as hemagglutinin, trypsin inhibitor and saponins in amaranth have been reported to be
within the non-critical range (Escudero et al., 1999). The carbohydrates in amaranth grain consist
primarily of starch made up of both glutinous and non glutinous fractions. Amaranth starch

13

granules are much smaller (1-3 m) than those found in other cereal grains (Teutonico & Knorr,
1985). Due to the unique size and composition of amaranth starch, the starch may exhibit
distinctive characteristics which could be of benefit to the food industry (Lehman, 1988).
Amaranth starch seems to have potential for use in the preparation of custards, pastes and salad
dressing (Singhal & Kulkarni, 1990a, b). Amaranth grain obtained from farmers in Kamuli was
found to contain 6.9-7.4% oil (Table 1) and the oil was made up predominantly of unsaturated
fatty acids, with high levels of the essential fatty acid linoleic acid (Table 4). Based on its fatty
acid profile, it can be concluded that grain amaranth is reasonably safe for consumption by
individuals that are at high risk of chronic non-communicable diseases such as coronary heart
disease and diabetes. Children need essential fatty acids for proper growth and development.
Therefore, the high content of linoleic acid (an essential fatty acid) in grain amaranth makes it
suitable for consumption.

Table 4: Fatty acids profile for grain amaranth from Kamuli, Uganda
Fatty acid Content (mg/g)

White

Golden

Palmitic acid

1.92

2.31

Stearic acid

0.17

0.21

Oleic acid

2.19

1.92

Linoleic acid

2.8

2.41

Source: Muyonga et al., 2008

2.1.6 Processing of Grain Amaranth

The procedures used in the processing and preservation of amaranth seeds in Uganda are quite
similar to those documented elsewhere. When the mature amaranth seeds are harvested, they are
dried in the sun, winnowed and stored until ready for use. Grain amaranth should be dried to a
moisture content not exceeding 12% to limit mold growth. It is also important to clean the grains
since the presence of vegetative material in the grain encourages mold growth. Mold growth is
particularly undesirable because it leads to the accumulation of mycotoxins which are
carcinogenic. It is also important to store the grain on raised pallets in containers that allow for
heat and moisture exchange. Sisal bags, which are widely used for grain storage in Uganda, are
quite suitable for storage of grain amaranth. To maintain grain quality and to prevent loss, it is

14

also important to prevent attack by pests and rodents. Storage pests such as weevils and grain
borers do not commonly attack the amaranth grains, and therefore post-harvest losses are
minimal if storage is under the conditions described above (Muyonga et al., 2008).

Processing of amaranth seeds involves heat treatment (popping, toasting/roasting), sprouting and
milling. Heat treatment helps to overcome milling problems due to the small size of the amaranth
seeds; it also takes away the grittiness of the seeds (Oke, 1993). It may be done by popping and
toasting/roasting. Popping of amaranth seeds is normally done in a large, hot pan at a high
temperature (an air temperature of about 220C for 10 15 seconds). The seeds are stirred
constantly while popping to prevent them from burning and to allow most of them to pop
(Teutonico & Knorr, 1985). Popping of amaranth seeds results in an increase in volume of up to
1,050 % and gives the grains a gritty flavor (Saunders & Becker, 1984). The increased volume
makes milling easier. In Uganda, popping is done using an open fire. The seeds are put on a preheated pan and the seeds stirred until most of them are visibly popped.

Roasting/toasting can be done in an oven at around 200C for 5 - 10 minutes. In rural Uganda,
ovens are rare and toasted seeds are those that remain in the pan, un-popped, after open fire
popping of amaranth seeds. The toasted seeds are brownish and give a nutty flavor as well when
milled (Muyonga et al., 2008). To sprout grain amaranth, clean amaranth seeds are soaked in
water overnight at room temperature. The seeds are removed from the water and heaped on a
tray, then covered with a clean towel to keep the seeds warm. After 2 days the spouted seeds are
sun dried for 2 days. The dry seeds are rubbed together to get rid of the shoots (these give a bitter
taste to the product made out of sprouted seeds), winnowed and the seeds stored (as described
above under the preparation and storage section) until ready for milling into flour. Sprouting the
seeds increases digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients (Muyonga et al., 2008). The seeds
are milled into flour using a milling machine. In Uganda, some families pound the seeds in a
mortar and pestle or grind them using a grinding stone. Pounding and grinding are done on a
small scale and usually for a few meals to be consumed at home. This is because the flour
quickly develops rancidity if it is kept for more than a month at room temperature

15

2.2 The Nutritional Situation in Uganda

The current nutritional situation in Uganda is not adequate for good health and sustainable
human development as evidenced by the dismal scores on major nutritional indicators.
Approximately 19% of Ugandas population is undernourished (UBOS, 2006).The majority of
the undernourished are the vulnerable groups like infants, young children and the women of
child bearing age. The immediate factors associated with children malnutrition include;
inadequate dietary intake resulting from sub optimal infant & young childs feeding practices
which include; consumption of monotonous and unvaried diets lacking in most of the critical
micronutrients, low feeding frequency, less nutritious type of food given to the children,
insufficient knowledge on how to; utilize nutrient rich foods like grain amaranth to complement
staple foods, prepare nutritious/balanced meals for the children (6-59 months))and high disease
burden resulting from fever and diarrhea. Other factors include; Lack of household assets, low
household food consumption. The three most important micronutrient deficiencies are Vitamin
A, iron deficiency anemia and Zinc (UNAP, 2011-2016)

2.2.1 Frequency of Feeding Complementary Foods

Breastfed children 6-8 months need 200 kcal of complementary foods per day, those 9-11
months need about 300 kcal per day and those 12-23 months need about 550 kcal per day (WHO,
2003). A key indicator of adequate complementary feeding is the frequency of feeding. Because
their stomach capacities are small, infants and young children need to eat small frequent meals
that are energy and nutrient dense every day. According to national guidelines on infant feeding,
breastfed infants 6-8 months should be fed complementary foods two to three times a day, while
children 9-23 months should be given complementary food three to four times a day. Nonbreastfed children should be fed at least four times a day.

The feeding patterns in Uganda are detailed described in the UDHS (2006) report:
Overall, only about 40 percent of breastfed children 6-23 months were fed the minimum
recommended number of times a day. It is common in Uganda for young children to eat the same
foods at the same time as adults in a household: The frequency a child eats is the same as the
number of meals eaten in the household, which might vary by region and season. Households in

16

the north normally reported eating fewer meals in a day. Proportionally more children in the
north east (Karamoja), IDPs were fed at an adequate frequency. According to the National
Household Survey 2005/06, 18 percent of households in northern Uganda reported that they ate
only one meal a day, compared with 5 percent in eastern and 4 percent in western regions.

2.2.2 Dietary Diversity and Nutrient Density

The Uganda DHS 2006 report further indicates that there is significant regional variation in the
diet diversity of infants and young children. Only about 60 percent of children in Uganda
received adequate variety in their meals. The range was from 28 percent in Karamoja to 79
percent in Kampala, again indicating lowest variety for children in the North. In Uganda, most
times infants and young children eat with their mothers. The quality of the infants food is as
good as the family meal. The difference is that the infants food is softer, mashed and many
times made more watery. When there is no food in the household the child, especially infants,
might rely entirely on breast milk. Data from this UDHS shows that many children get a variety
of foods, but the most commonly consumed foods in this age group are those made from grains
such as millet, maize or sorghum that tend to be low in nutrient density. The food eaten in the
household is the common first food given to young children. Children are also given porridge,
soups and other milks. Porridge, where available, is the only food prepared specifically for an
infant. It is commonly made from plain cereals or cassava and water, and usually nothing is
added. Maize-based porridge is common across the country, while millet-based porridge is more
common in Northern, Western and Southwestern regions (Kikafunda et al., 2003).

2.2.3 Prevalence and Trends in Chronic Energy Deficiency (CED) Among Women
The national prevalence of CED, defined by body mass index (BMI) <18.5 kg/m, was 12 percent
among non-pregnant women of childbearing age (ages 15-49 years) in the UDHS 2006 (ORC
Macro, 2006). Overall the prevalence of CED has increased slightly over time, with CED highest
for women 35 and older. This increasing prevalence among older women of childbearing age
might be linked to the increasing prevalence of HIV (and its progression to AIDS with age)
among women and/or the high fertility rate in this age group. The UDHS data reveal that rural
women were more than twice as likely as urban women to be undernourished (14 percent of rural
women vs. 6 percent in urban areas). Similarly, women from households in the lowest wealth

17

quintile were at highest risk of CED (23 percent). Among women with no education, CED was
18 percent compared with 5 percent for women with secondary or higher education. Nationally,
the prevalence of CED among women has risen slightly in the past 10 years (by about 0.4
percentage points per year between 2001 and 2006)
2.2.4 Prevalence of Vitamin A Deficiency in Children and Women
Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) levels among children and women are similar within regions. VAD
negatively affects resistance to illnesses and is the leading cause of blindness in the world. In the
case of children, VAD increases fatality from common childhood illnesses such as measles and
respiratory infections. In Uganda, prevalence of VAD is estimated at 20.4% for children aged 659 months and 19.4% for women aged 15-49 years and VAD is linked to 11,000 cases of
blindness and approximately 8,000 deaths annually (UBOS, 2006). The main source of vitamin
A in the Ugandan diets is green leafy vegetables, usually boiled or steamed with hardly any fat
added. Foods of animal origin, known to supply retinol, a readily available form of vitamin A
are scarce and too expensive for the poor. WHO classifies Uganda as having a moderate public
health problem with VAD (FANTA, 2010)
2.2.5 Prevalence of Anemia and Iron Deficiency in Children and Women
Iron Deficiency Anemia (IDA) is characterized by weakness, low productivity, slow mental
development, poor concentration and poor health and in children, can lead to poor learning and
therefore affects school performance. Data from the ORC Macro 2006 UDHS report indicate
that almost three quarters (73 percent) of children 6-59 months were reported to be anemic (Hb <
11.0 g/dl), with 22 percent mildly anemic (Hb 10.0-10.9 g/dl), 43 percent moderately (Hb 7.0-9.9
g/dl) and 7 percent severely (Hb < 7.0 g/dl). The prevalence of anemia was higher among
children than adults and declined with age. Among women of childbearing age, 49 percent were
anemic (Hb < 12.0 g/dl if not pregnant, < 11.0 g/dl if pregnant), with 35 percent mildly anemic,
13 percent moderately and 0.8 percent severely. This was an increase from the 2001 UDHS
report data, mainly due to a slight increase in the proportion of women with mild anemia. The
majority of women and children affected by anemia fell in the mild or moderate categories. More
women had mild anemia, and more children had moderate anemia across the regions of Uganda.
Anemia is very high in preschool children, and the prevalence appears to be rising across much

18

of Uganda for both women and children. The prevalence of anemia among children under 5
years of age was higher than that for women of childbearing age. The highest prevalence of
anemia for women and children was in the Central 1 region and the lowest was in Kampala.
Anemia is so widespread in Uganda that it is difficult to determine region-specific underlying
causes. It is more likely that across Uganda some common factors are driving the high
prevalence of anemia, such as high disease burden and inadequate dietary sources and intake of
iron. Prevalence of anemia is highly associated with wealth ranking, being lowest in the upper
wealth quintiles. The UDHS 2006 supplemental study correcting for infection determined that
almost all children had iron deficiency (ORC Macro. UDHS, 2006). It also shows that 88 percent
of women had iron deficiency, with or without anemia. About 55 percent of women had iron
deficiency without anemia, while 32 percent had IDA. Only 5 percent of women had anemia
with no iron deficiency. Similarly, almost all children under 5 had iron deficiency, with or
without anemia. About 28 percent of children had iron deficiency without anemia and 70 percent
had IDA. Only 1 percent of children had anemia with no iron deficiency.
2.2.6 Zinc Deficiency
Although limited data exist, given the kind of food staples in most of Uganda, zinc deficiency
could be a potential public health problem. The prevalence of zinc deficiency has been estimated
to range between 20 to 69 percent in children and 21 to 29 percent in adults (Srinivansan, 2007).
The efficacy of zinc as adjunct therapy in the treatment of severe diarrhea. Low zinc levels
among children might have some bearing on the high rates of stunting among young children in
Uganda. WHO recommends that all children with severe diarrhea who are seen at a health
facility be provided with zinc supplementation (Dehbozorgi et al., 2007).

2.3 Food Security Situation in Uganda

2.3.1 Definition of food security
Food security exists when when all people at all times have both physical and economic access
to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preference
requirements for a productive and healthy life.(WFS, 2010).

Food security at a national or

regional level occurs when the nation/region is able to command enough food to meet the
aggregate requirements of its people. In this context attention is paid to fluctuations in aggregate

19

food supply. However, adequacy at the aggregate level does not necessarily ensure adequacy at
the household or individual level. This has redirected focus on food security from macro level
towards the household and still further towards the individual (FAO, 1996). Food security is
therefore a broad and complex concept. It is determined by the interaction of a range of agrophysical, socioeconomic, and biological factors. There is no single direct measure of food
security. It is generally accepted as entailing not only food availability (adequate supply of food)
but also food access through home production, purchase in the market or food transfer. It also
includes food utilization, which refers to the appropriate biophysical conditions (good health)
required to adequately utilize food to meet specific dietary needs (FAO, 2003). Effective food
utilization depends to a large extent on knowledge of food storage and processing techniques,
basic principles of nutrition and proper childcare, and illness management within the household
(FAO, 2003; Bonnard et al., 2002; USAID, 1999).

2.3.2 Vulnerability to Food Insecurity in Uganda

The World Food Programmes Vulnerability Assessment Mapping (VAM) survey provides some
insights into the regional variation, pattern and underlying causes of food insecurity in Uganda.
The results of the Uganda CFSVA 2009 indicate that 6% of households are food insecure, 21%
are moderately food insecure and at risk of becoming food insecure if conditions deteriorate. The
remaining 73% are classified as food secure. The reasons for food insecurity differ across the
country (CFSVA, 2009). The effects of the long conflict in the North continue to fuel poverty
and food insecurity there. Food production is not yet at capacity because of fear of insecurity and
land disputes. In addition, households are still highly dependent on food aid, incomes are low
and livelihoods are undiversified. In Eastern and East Central Uganda, lack of livelihood
diversification, reduced wages and dependence on agriculture alone are keeping incomes low
and have been identified as plausible explanation of the prevalence of food insecurity in these
regions. Chronic illness among adults also appears to be a factor in increasing the risk of food
insecurity. In the Central region, inadequate production of food stocks at the household level,
lack of income and increasing food prices appear most likely to explain the prevalence of food
security. The Western and Southwestern regions have the lowest food security, but because
agriculture is a mainstay among the poor, many of whom work as agricultural laborers, their
income is subject to seasonality, and wages can fluctuate significantly. In the WFP assessment,

20

reduced wages and rising food prices appear to be factors in the prevalence of food security.
Overall, low wages and incomes, dependence on agriculture and lack of diversification in
livelihood activities appear to be factors that reduce food security (CFSVA, 2009)

2.3.3 Household Food Security

ACC/SCN (1991) defines household food security as a state when the household has access to
the food needed for a healthy life for all its members (adequate in terms of quality, quantity and
culturally acceptable), and when it is not at undue risk of losing such access. When a household
is persistently unable to meet the food requirements of its members over a long period of time
marked by continuous, temporary blips of good and bad moments, then there is a long-term
problem known as chronic food insecurity. The short-term sudden reduction of a households
access to food to below the nutritionally adequate level is known as transitory food insecurity.
Chronic food insecurity involves an inability to meet food requirements over a long period, while
transitory food insecurity entails shocks that briefly push the level of food consumption below
the requirements. A household can be said to be food secure only if it has protection against
both kinds of insecurity. The average access to food over the long term should be nutritionally
adequate, and a household should be able to cope with short-term vicissitudes without sacrificing
the nutritional needs of any of its members.
2.3.4 Factors Affecting Household Food Security
Factors that negatively affect a households or individuals food availability or food access can
be divided into four categories: Individual-level constraints such as food habits, reduced capacity
to eat because of infection symptoms, level of knowledge of the benefits of proper feeding, and
psychosocial factors such as depression (Egal & Valstar, 1999). Household-level constraints
such as lack of production and purchasing power, inequitable intra-household distribution, lack
of knowledge about nutritional needs and dietary practices, food taboos, and changes in
prioritization among household members (Meyer, 1997). Constraints external to the household
such as seasonal variation in production, price fluctuations, social stigma, market availability,
legal issues, and social customs (Remancus, 2004) and shocks such as droughts, floods, or
conflict (Devereux et al., 2004; Remancus, 2004)

21

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1

The Study Area

The study was conducted in three districts of Uganda which included Nakasongola, Kamuli and
Apac. These districts represented 3 of Ugandas agro-ecological zones namely: the bananacoffee system, the banana-millet-cotton system and the northern system respectively. They
therefore represented agro-ecological diversity in the country.
3.1.1 Apac
Apac is located in Northern Uganda. It is bordered by Oyam District to the northwest, Lira
District to the northeast, Dokolo District to the southeast, Amolatar District to the south,
Nakasongola District to the southwest and Masindi District to the west. The main economic
activity in Apac district is subsistence agriculture. The major crops grown include tobacco,
cotton, simsim, maize, beans, sunflower, potatoes, cassava and ground nut. Fishing and livestock
husbandry are also important economic activities. The topography of Apac is characterized by
low plains and rolling hills. The vegetation is predominantly of the dry savannah type. The soils
consist of a reddish-brown layer of clay loam which covers almost all cultivable land (90 per
cent) and is very suitable for rain-fed agriculture. Apac has dry and wet seasons. The wet season
extends from April to November with a total annual rainfall of 1,330 mm. On average, the
maximum temperature is 29 and the minimum is 17. Apac population estimate is 490,688
people with population density of 106 persons per km2 (2007 estimates).
3.1.2 Kamuli
Kamuli district is located in southeastern Uganda. It lies at average altitude of 1083m above sea
level and extends from latitude 00- 56 N /330-05 E to longitude 01- 20 N /330- 20 E. Kamuli
covers an area of 4,348km2 of which 3332km2 is land and 1016km2 (23%) is water. The
predominant vegetation cover in the district is the forest/ savannah type of mosaic consisting of a
mixture of forest remnants and savannah trees with grass and shrubs. Much of it is secondary

22

vegetation that has succeeded the original forest cover as a result of farming, fuel harvesting and
other forms of land use. Kamulis population is estimated at 662,407 people and the population
density is approximately 236 persons per sq km (2007 estimates). The district experiences a
bimodal type of rainfall with peaks in March June as well as August November. The annual
average rainfall is 1350 mm; while the monthly mean is 75 mm to 100 mm. Kamuli is a warm
district with average annual temperature range in most areas of 19 C 25C. Livestock
husbandry, fishing and subsistence crop farming are the major economic activities in Kamuli.
Crops grown include potatoes, rice, beans, bananas, maize, millet, vanilla, coffee, cocoa, cotton,
groundnuts, citrus fruits, mangoes.
3.1.3 Nakasongola
Nakasongola district is located in Central Uganda. It boarders with the districts of Masindi in the
West and North West, Luwero and Nakaseke in the south, Kayunga in the east, Amolatar in the
north east and Apac in the North. The district covers an area of 3424 sq km representing about
1.42% of the countrys total surface area. Nakasongola is generally flat area topographically
adulating between 3800ft above sea level. Much of the low lying areas are drained by seasonal
streams into Lake Kyoga in the North, and has tributaries to rivers like Sezibwa in the east,
Lugogo on the west, south and Kafu on the north western. The District is mainly covered by
Bululi soil catena, and the Lwampanga catena in the low lying areas and valleys. Vegetation
type is mainly open deciduous savannah woodland with short grasses. Dominant tree species
include cumbersome ssp, Terminala and Acacia. Nakasongola receives rainfall ranging from
500-1000mm per annum. There are two rain seasons. The main seasons occur in march-AprilJune/July and October to Nov/Dec. It is estimated that the population of Nakasongola District is
approximately 156,200 (2009 estimates). Subsistence crop production and livestock husbandry
are the main economic activities in Nakasongola district. The main crops grown include cassava,
maize, sweet potatoes, sorghum, bananas, millet, coffee and cotton

23

Map 1: The study area (Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola districts)

24

3.2

Research Design and Sampling Strategy

The study followed a cross-sectional block design, covering 3 districts and a total of 9 subcounties purposefully chosen to represent area variation. Pretesting the questionnaire was done
to improve the reliability and accuracy of the tools. Pretested Structured questionnaires were
used to obtain data from 420 households. Out of each of the selected districts, the farmers that
belong to VEDCO (a leading NGO that supports farmers in the study area) were organized into 7
separate strata i.e. farmer groups. Each stratum/farmer group was then sampled as an
independent sub population, out of which individual farmers who had children aged 6-59 months
were randomly selected. From each of the selected Farmers, base line information regarding
nutrient intake, nutrition knowledge, food insecurity indicators, amaranth production and
consumption were collected. Cross tabulations between the nutrition related data and household
demographics were then made.The Snowball Sampling Method was used to select sites and
participants in the collection and evaluation of baseline data relating to Grain Amaranth
utilization through one on one interviews The results from the 2 surveys were used to design
recipes (using a participatory approach) to cover the nutrient intake gaps. Since maize, cassava,
rice, beans and wheat are major staples in all the study areas, these were chosen to act as bases
for complementation by combining them with identified nutrient rich foods. (Sesame, soybeans,
groundnuts and ginger). Particular foods were combined with grain amaranth in different ratios.
Mass balance was used to determine the ratio of ingredients required to achieve recommended
USFDA theoretical nutrient levels. Traditional preparation methods were then used to produce
different food products. The developed products (39) were subjected to a nine-point hedonic
scale sensory analysis using untrained panel of 54 to determine acceptability. The best ranking
products (17) were analyzed in the laboratory to confirm that they were fit to be used in bridging
the identified nutrient intake gaps. The tested best ranking recipes were further subjected to trials
and evaluation by 21farmer groups (within the study area) using group interviews entailing a
5point hedonic scale to determine their acceptability and assess applicability. The basis of this
design was therefore to have recipes/products that are nutritious, affordable, sustainable, well
balanced and worth because the intended /target consumers preferred them.

25

3.3 Sample Size

Four hundred and twenty households were studied during the baseline survey for situation
assessment. To obtain a representative sample, Fishers formula was employed (Fisher et al.,
1998). That is: nf = n/1+ (n/N)
where nf is the desired sample when the population is less than 10,000; n is the sample when the
total population is more than 10,000; and N is the estimated population of the households in the
target areas (From each of the 3 districts, 7 farmer groups (clusters) were considered and from
each farmer group 20 farmers were to be considered).
n was determined as follows: n = Z2pq divided by d2 where n = the desired sample size when the
population is more than 10,000; Z = the standard normal deviation at the required confidence
level; p = the proportion in the target population estimated to have characteristics being
measured; q = 1 p; and d = the level of statistical significance set. The calculation was:
n = (1:96)2 (0.50) (0.050) divided by (0:05)2 = 384:00.
n = (1.96)2 x [(0.5 x 0.5)/ (0.05)2] = 384. Forms a representative sample of crop farmers, taking
an assumption that about 2% grow grain Amaranth, and adjusting to the population using the
formula N1=N/(1+N/the target population), N1=384/(1+384/420)=419
However, for the purpose of this study, this figure was rounded down to the nearest hundred, that
is, to 420 households.

3.4

Data Collection Instruments

The instrument for data collection were interviewer-administered questionnaires which was
divided into four major groups according to the study objectives; the first questionnaire was to
collect information on nutrition and food security, the second was to collect the baseline grain
amaranth recipes, the third questionnaire entailing the 9 point hedonic scale was for sensory
evaluation and ranking of products by panelists and the last questionnaire was to evaluate both
the products and recipes by the target farmers in the field. Interviewer-administrated
questionnaires were preferred to other types of instruments because a higher completion rate was
expected. Open ended and closed ended questions were used, to obtain information about
specific aspects outlined by the researcher as well as unanticipated views from respondent

26

(Kabali &Mwesigye, 2003). A 5 point hedonic scale was used during the group interviews to
establish acceptability by ranking the products and recipes.
The questionnaires were tested for its reliability during the pre-testing exercise. Twenty farmers
were selected from Apac, Kamuli and Nakasongola who were interviewed twice by the
researcher using the same questionnaire. The interval between the interviews was two weeks.
Two weeks were appropriate because it is anticipated that the respondent would have forgotten
the previous response. This was meant to check for the consistency of the responses given by the
same respondents during the two interviews. When the results were correlated, reliability
coefficients ranging from0.57 to 0.68 were obtained. Hence the questionnaires were considered
reliable for data collection, as the reliability coefficients were reasonably high.
3.4.1 Data Collection
The average length of the questionnaire interview for objective one (first questionnaire) was 45
minutes. For each district, data were collected for a period of four days. The major problems
encountered during the fieldwork included: resistance of respondents to reveal exactly what they
ate and the assets they owned for fear that it could be a government plan to impose taxes. This
had a potential to impact on data quality but the well trained enumerators assured the
respondents that data collected was to be held in a confidential manner and that the survey was
done for the sole purpose of determining how best grain amaranth could contribute to the diets of
the households. High data quality was also maintained in the field by spot checking
questionnaires in order to determine their completeness and consistency.
3.5 Food Security Assessment
This entailed determination of diet quantity (i.e. number of meals consumed by the household),
dietary diversity and quality (recall period-24 hours), food consumption scores (recall period-7
days), weekly consumption patterns, asset ownership and average crop yield/output per
household.

27

3.5.1 Determination of Diet Quantity

Diet quantity was determined from the number of meals consumed per day in the households. A
meal was defined as consumption of food at a particular time in the 24 hours prior to the
assessment within the household. The meal timings were categorized as morning meal, any food
between morning and lunch, lunch, any food between lunch and supper, supper, or any food after
supper. The number of meals consumed per day in the households were recorded and used as an
indicator of food security. All households that had less than 3 meals a day were considered food
insecure while those having 3 or more meals a day were considered food secure (FANTA, 2006).

3.5.2 Dietary Diversity

3.5.2.1 Household dietary diversity
This was assessed by totaling the number of food groups consumed in the households for the past
24 hours (Gibson, 2005). The following set of 13 food groups was used in the questionnaire to
calculate the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) adapted from FANTA, 2006 guide on
household dietary diversity:
A. Cereals, B. Root and tubers, C. Vegetables, D. Fruits, E. Meat, poultry& offal, F. Eggs, G.
Fish and seafood, H. Pulses/legumes/nuts, I. Milk and milk products, J. Oil/fats K. Sugar/honey,
L. Miscellaneous, M. Grain Amaranth. Grain amaranth was considered as a separate group
because it was being promoted among the farmer groups for nutrition improvement.
Households were classified as follows: those consuming 13 groups were considered low
diversity; those consuming 46 groups were medium, those consuming 79 were considered the
high-diversity group while those consuming 9 and above groups were considered very high. In
terms of dietary quality, those who consumed 6groups were considered low while those
consuming >6 groups were considered high.

After collecting data on the HDDS for every H/H, the average HDDS for the Households under
the survey was calculated using the formula below;

28

3.5.2.2 Individual Dietary Diversity (For children 6-59 months):

Dietary diversity was assessed by interviewing the mother / caretaker to determine what the child
ate and thereafter totaling the number of food groups consumed by the child (6-59 months) in
question for the past 24 hours. The following set of 9 food groups was used in the questionnaire
to calculate the Individual Dietary Diversity Score (IDDS) adapted from FANTA, 2006 guide on
household dietary diversity:
A. Grains, roots or tubers, B. Vitamin A rich plant foods, C. Other fruits or vegetables, D. Meat,
poultry, fish, seafood, E. Eggs, F. Pulses/ legumes / nuts, G. Milk and milk products, H. Foods
cooked in oil/ fat, I. Grain Amaranth.
The assessed children were classified as follows: those consuming 4groups were considered
low diversity and quality group while those consuming >4 groups were considered the highdiversity group.

3.5.2.3 Minimum Dietary Diversity (For children 6-23 months):

This is one of the core infant feeding practices. It was determined according to WHO, 2010 Indicators for measuring Infant and Young Child feeding practices part 2.
Definition: Proportion of children 623 months of age who receive foods from 4 or more food
groups i.e.

3.5.3 Food Consumption Scores

Food consumption data was analyzed by calculating the Food Consumption Score (FCS) based
on the WFP VAM, Technical guidance Sheet. Briefly, the data collected with a standard WFP
seven day recall tool was reduced from the 80 food items in the questionnaire and grouped into
eight food groups. Table 5 indicates the food groups developed and their weights. Using the data
on the food within the above groups, all the consumption frequencies of food items of the same
group were summed up. Food groups that were consumed more than 7 times were recorded as 7
implying that the food group was consumed daily. The value for each group was multiplied by

29

the appropriate weight as indicated in Table 5. The weights were assigned based on the nutrient
density of the food groups. The highest weight was attached to foods with relatively high energy,
good quality protein and a wide range of micro-nutrients that can be easily absorbed. All the
scores were summed up to give a Food Consumption Score (FCS). The FCS were used to set the
thresholds for Food Consumption Groups (FGCs) based on the frequency of the scores.

Table 5: Food groups and their weights used to calculate FCS

Group

Food Items (as per questionnaire)

No.
1

Food

Weight

Groups
Maize , sorghum, , wheat, Rice, millet, cassava, potatoes, yams, Staples

Matooke, mandazi, chapatti, Biscuit, cookies, cakes, doughnuts,

macaroni, Grain Amaranth
2

Beans, Peas, Groundnuts, Sim-sim

Pulses

leafy greens, egg plants, Bitter tomatoes, Pumpkin, Tomatoes, onion, Vegetab
green pepper, cabbage, Mushrooms, carrots

3
1

les

Mango, passion fruits, Tangerines, Tamarinds, Pineapples, Pawpaw, Fruits

Apple, Pears, Guavas, Oranges, water melon, sweet bananas, Avocado

5

Beef, goat, mutton, pork, poultry, eggs, liver, offals, white ants, Meat

Grasshoppers, and fish(Nile perch, Tilapia, Mukene, Nkejje, Cat and fish
fish)
6

Fresh milk, Yoghurt, cheese, butter, Ghee, soy milk

Milk

Sugar, sugar products(Soda, Busheera), honey

Sugar

0.5

Vegetable oil, animal fats (ufuta, mukwano, kimbo, cowboy, blue band)

Oil

0.5

Source: Adapted from WFP Technical guidance sheet, 2008

The thresholds were used as proxy indicators for food security. Households in the poor category
were regarded as food insecure, those in the borderline as vulnerable while those in the
acceptable category as food secure. The thresholds used are indicated in Table 6.

30

Table 6: Thresholds of food consumption profiles

Food Consumption Score (FCS)

Profiles

Food security status

0-21

Poor

Food insecure

21.5-35

Borderline

Vulnerable

> 35

Acceptable

Food secure

Source: WFP and CSFVA, 2008 report

3.5.4 Asset Ownerships
Asset ownership was analyzed by calculating an asset index to act as a proxy indicator for asset
based wealth. In order to create the asset index, the households were categorized into three
groups as shown in table 7.
Table 7: Asset based wealth categories
Number of assets owned by households

Wealth Category

0-3

Asset poor

4-8

Asset medium rich

Above 9

Asset rich

Source: WFP and CSFVA, 2008 report

3.6 Dietary Nutrient Intakes

The nutrient intakes were computed from the summation of the amounts of the different foods
consumed and their respective nutrient composition based on the Tanzanian food composition
tables (Zohra Lukmanji & Ellen Hertzmark, 2008). The nutrient intake levels were compared to
recommended intakes and the proportion of subjects whose intake was lower that recommended
levels for the different nutrients were determined.
3.6.1 Hansens Nutritional Quality Index (NQI)
The Hansens nutritional quality indices (NQI) were also derived (Hansen, 1973) and used to
identify nutritional deficiencies. The NQI measures the amount of nutrient in a diet or food
relative to the total energy value of the food or diet. The US RDA (Fda.gov,2008;
Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov,2011) values were used as reference values in the NQI calculations.

31

The NQI was the ratio of its percentage standard relative to the standard of calories. In other
words, if a given food contained X mg of a nutrient in C kcal and the US RDA for that nutrient
was mg of a nutrient in C kcal and the US RDA for that nutrient was Y mg in 2000 kcal, then
NQI values 1.0 were desirable

Table 8: Thresholds of Nutrient Intakes

NUTRIENTS

US THRESHOLDS

Macro Nutrients
Proteins

50g

Fiber

25g

Fat

65g

Vitamins
Thiamine

1.5mg

Riboflavin

1.7mg

Niacin

20mg

Vitamin C

60mg

Minerals
Calcium

1000mg

Zinc

15mg

Iron

18mg

Energy

2000Kcals

Source: 1999 - 2002 Dietary Reference Intakes, Institutes of Medicine 2005 Dietary Guidelines
Children's Nutrition Research Center at Baylor College of Medicine

3.7 Nutritional Status

The nutrition status for children aged 6-59 months was determined using the Mid Upper Arm
Circumference (MUAC) (Gibson, 2005). The children were then categorized into the different
nutrition status groups (Table 9).

32

Only children above six months were assessed for MUAC. The measurement was taken on the
left arm, halfway between the shoulder and the elbow. MUAC was recorded to the nearest 0.1
cm.
Table 9: Nutritional status cut-offs points for MUAC
MUAC

Diagnosis

< 11cm

Severe malnutrition

11 and < 12.5 cm

Moderate malnutrition

12.5 and < 13.5 cm

Mild malnutrition ( at risk)

13.5 cm

Good nutrition status

Source: MOH

3.8 Morbidity
Any episodes of diarrhea, fever/malaria and vomiting occurring in the two weeks preceding the
assessment among children aged 6-59 months were recorded. This allowed for morbidity
patterns to be assessed within a short time frame to account for appropriate recall periods. The
prevalence of diarrhea, fever and vomiting were estimated from the number that reported cases
of illnesses over the last 2 weeks prior to the assessment.

Nutrition related knowledge and practices of mothers and caretakers with regard to feeding of
children (6-59 months) was determined through one on one interview using the questionnaire
(appendix 1)

3.9 Practices
Two of the core feeding practices that affect the nutrient intakes of infants and young children
(6-23 months old) were determined according to WHO, 2010 - Indicators for measuring Infant
and Young Child feeding practices part 2.

33

3.9.1 Continued breastfeeding at 1 year

Definition: Proportion of children 1215 months of age who are fed breast milk.

3.9.2 Introduction of solid, semi-solid or soft foods

Definition: Proportion of infants 68 months of age who receive solid, semi-solid or soft foods.

Formulation of grain amaranth recipes to target identified nutritional gaps was done by:
3.10 Identification of Grain Amaranth Recipes Used By Communities
The Snowball Sampling Method, targeting persons already utilising grain amaranth within the
study areas, was used to select participants in the collection and evaluation of data relating to
grain amaranth utilization, recipe and product development. The participants were interviewed
using a one on one approach to identify the grain amaranth recipes they use.

Figure 2: Farmers in Nakasongola (left) and Kamuli (right) districts being interviewed on how
they utilized grain amaranth at their households during the baseline recipe collection exercise

34

3.11

Identifying Foods to Develop Recipes

Based on the baseline survey which sought to determine the current nutrient intakes, the
identified nutrient intake gaps included calcium, zinc, iron, fats and niacin. Table 10, show
locally produced foods identified to enrich products with the nutrients identified to be
deficient in the diets in the study districts.
Table 10: Foods identified to fill identified dietary gaps for Apac, Kamuli and Nakasongola
districts
Nutrients
Zinc
Iron
Calcium
Niacin
Lipids

Foods
Sesame, soybeans, groundnuts, ginger
Sesame
Sesame, soybeans
Peanut, millet
Sesame, soybean

Since maize, cassava, rice, beans and wheat are major staples in all the study areas, these were
chosen to act as bases for complementation by combining them with identified nutrient rich
foods. All these foods were combined with grain amaranth in different ratios.
Mass balance was used to determine the ratio of ingredients required to achieve recommended
USFDA nutrient levels. Traditional preparation methods were then used to produce different
food products. The developed products were subjected to a nine-point hedonic scale sensory
analysis using panels of 54.The best ranking recipes were further subjected to trials and
evaluation by farmers using group interviews entailing a 5point hedonic scale determine their
acceptability and assess applicability. The final formulations used for the different food products
are provided in Table 11. Figures from the USDA Nutrient Database in appendix 7 were used in
the recipe formulations.
3.12 Pre-processing and preparation of Materials
3.12.1 GA Winnowing and Cleaning
Before further processing and use in recipe formulation, GA was cleaned to remove sand and
debris using winnowing methods traditionally used for finger millet grain.

35

3.12.2 GA Popping and Milling

Popping of amaranth seeds was done in a large, hot aluminum saucepan at high charcoal fire
temperature. A spoonful of cleaned and sorted grains were introduced into the pan. The grains
popped instantly however stirring was constantly done to prevent them from burning and to
allow most of them to pop. Popping of amaranth seeds resulted in an increase in volume and
gave the grains a gritty flavor. Some of the popped grain was milled into flour using a
commercial mill or used directly in recipe formulations.
3.12.3 GA Roasting and Milling
Cleaned and sorted GA was roasted using a low charcoal fire-heated aluminum saucepan. The
grains were introduced into the pan and continuously stirred, using a wooden ladle until they
acquired a golden-brown color and nutty flavor. The roasted grains were used directly in recipe
formulations or ground into flour using a domestic mortar and pestle.
3.12.4 Millet Roasting and Milling
Cleaned and sorted millet grains were roasted using a low charcoal fire-heated aluminum
saucepan. The grains were introduced into the pan and continuously stirred, using a wooden ladle
until they acquired nutty flavor. The roasted grains were ground into flour at a commercial mill.
3.12.5 Processing GA Leaf Powder
Mature green GA leaves were picked from the garden in the morning, cleaned and thoroughly
washed to remove debris, soil and other foreign matter. They were then placed in a sauce pan
with a little water and steamed for 15 minutes. Once cooked, the contents were cooled and dried
under direct sun on a clean drying stand. The dry leaves were pulverized using a mortar and
pestle. The powder was sieved and subsequently used for sauce making at household level.

3.12.6 Sesame Roasting

The sesame grains were soaked twice in fresh clean water and allowed to float in order to
remove sand. The grains were removed from the water, drained and then roasted in a clean dry

36

saucepan on very low charcoal fire. The roasting stopped when grain started popping, giving off
sweet aroma and becoming firm when pressed. The roasted grains were cooled and kept in a dry
plastic container. The roasted grains were used directly in recipe formulations or ground into
flour using a domestic mortar and pestle.
3.12.7 Groundnut Roasting
The groundnuts were roasted over very low charcoal fire. The roasting stopped when they
became crunchy. The roasted nuts were cooled and kept in a dry plastic container.
3.12.8 Cassava Flour Processing
Fresh cassava roots were washed, peeled and chopped into chips. The chips were sundried for
five days and then ground into flour using a mortar and pestle. The resultant flour was sieved.
3.12.9 Other Ingredients and Materials
Materials such as maize flour and other materials were obtained in shops and markets.
Table 11 Formulation used for producing the seventeen grain amaranth containing food
products

Food products

Ingredients and their mixing

Preparation method

proportions
Chapatti

Wheat flour (1400g), popped

Ingredients mixed, kneaded into dough.

powdered grain amaranth

Portions (95g) of dough rolled into flat round

(600g), water (1000ml), grated

shapes (about 12cm diameter and <1cm

carrots (156g), grated onions

thickness), shallow fried with hot charcoal

(86g), cooking oil (35ml) &

stove flame while turning to have both sides

salt (15g)
Baggia

heated to golden brown.

Cassava flour (500g), water

Solid ingredients mixed using a wooden

(1000ml), roasted powdered

stirrer, water added gradually while stirring.

soybean (300g), popped

Resulting paste cold extruded using Baggia

powdered grain amaranth

machine and deep fried over a medium

37

(200g), ground fresh onions

(43g), ground fresh ginger

charcoal stove fire until golden brown and

crunchy.

(17g) & salt (15g)

Pancakes

cassava flour (500g), popped

Two flours were sifted and thoroughly mixed

grain amaranth flour (250g),

then blended with freshly peeled sweet

freshly peeled sweet bananas

bananas and ground ginger in a large mixing

(560g), ginger (17g) and

bowl to form dough which was rolled on a

cooking oil (1litre)

board to about1 cm thickness, cut into small

round shapes of about 5cm-diameter using a
plastic drinking container and deep fried in
hot cooking oil until light brown.

Sesame balls

Roasted sesame seeds (250g),

Sugar was melted in a heated saucepan over

popped grain amaranth

hot fire of charcoal stove while stirring

grains(250g) and granular

constantly using a metallic spoon until

sugar (250g)

golden brown. Roasted sesame and popped

grain amaranth mixture were added to the
melted sugar and stirred vigorously. Ladleful
scoops of the grain-molten sugar mixture
were hand-shaped into round balls and left to
set.

Creamy soup

Roasted grain amaranth grains

Roasted G.A was soaked in four times its

(350g), water (1400 ml), salt

weight of cold water for one hour. Salt,

(7g), ginger (3g), tomato puree tomatoes and spices were added and mixed
(184g), onion (40g) and

thoroughly to achieve uniform distribution.

margarine (36g)

The mixture was prepared by boiling for 5

minutes on high charcoal fire and gently
simmering for 20 minutes until most of the
water was absorbed and the amaranth grains
were puffed up. The cover was removed and
the mixture was gently stirred to allow some
of the remaining water to

38

evaporate.

Margarine was added melted into the now

thick mixture. The mixture was then strained
through a sieve to get a thick creamy soup as
the final product
sesame instant

To make the porridge flour:

Ingredients were hand mixed in a clean dry

porridge

Roasted sesame seeds (2kg),

saucepan & placed over medium open fire of

Popped grain amaranth

the charcoal stove to allow the sugar to melt

(4kg),Granular sugar (1kg)

(not to caramelize/turn brown) while stirring

the contents. The Cooled loosely bound
sugar-sesame-

grain

amaranths

molten

mixture was transferred into a motor and

pounded with a pestle until a powder was
formed. The so formed powder was sieved to
get a finer powder.
To make porridge: Fresh
water (100ml),Fresh

Flour and sugar was placed in a 500ml cup

milk(200mls),porridge

(Tumpeco).Water and milk were mixed in a

flour(60g),sugar (34g)

sauce pan and boiled over medium open fire

of a charcoal stove for 5 minutes and poured
into the cup while stirring fast with a spoon
to form a uniform consistence with no lumps.

Rice porridge

To make the mixed flour:

Freshly milled rice

Ingredients hand mixed in a clean dry

saucepan

flour(3kgs),Popped grain
amaranth flour (3kgs)
To make porridge: Porridge
flour(100g),fresh

The porridge was made from the flour

mixture using conventional boiling method

milk(500ml,Fresh

for 15 minutes. Sugar was added with

water(1000ml),sugar(125g)

39

stirring.

To make the mixed flour:

Freshly milled maize
Maize
porridge

Ingredients hand mixed in a clean dry

saucepan

flour(3kgs),Roasted grain
amaranth flour (3kgs)
To make porridge: Porridge
flour(100g),fresh

The porridge was made from the flour

mixture using conventional boiling method

milk(500ml,Fresh

for 20 minutes. Sugar was added with

water(1000ml),sugar(125g)
Millet

To make the mixed flour:

porridge

Roasted milled millet

stirring.
Ingredients hand mixed in a clean dry
saucepan

flour(3kgs),Roasted grain
amaranth flour (3kgs)
To make porridge: Porridge

mixture using conventional boiling method

flour(100g),fresh

for 10 minutes. Sugar was added with

milk(500ml,Fresh
water(1000ml),sugar(125g)
Peanut sauce

The porridge was made from the flour

stirring.

To make the sauce flour mix: Ingredients mixed in a clean dry plastic
Grain amaranth leaf

container.

powder(2400g),Peanut
flour(12kg)
The sauce flour mixture was added to fresh
To make the sauce: Fresh
water(250ml),sauce flour
mix(120g),salt (2g)
Bean Sauce

water, stirred using a wooden spoon and

boiled at medium heat for 30 minutes with
continuous stirring. Salt was then added.

Freshly soaked beans(800g),

Beans soaked in clean cold water overnight.

water(3liters),popped grain

Decorticated beans cooked together with salt

amaranth flour(100g),

and spices with minimum stirring to avoid

salt(30g),curry

mashing. The excess water was removed,

powder(3.5g),grounded pilau

cooled and some of it poured into the G.A

40

Masala (2g),grounded

flour and kneaded to make dough that was

ginger(17g),grounded

shaped into attractive tiny fragments to easily

onion(43g),margarine(36g)

dry. The beans and G.A were then sun dried

for 5days on a tray and sealed in polythene.

Preparation of product

was

done by

boiling/frying and addition of spices and salt

Rice meal

500g Rice ,1500mls of salted

Rice and G.A were boiled separately and

water(3g salt),17g freshly

later (when ready) mixed and spread over a

pounded ginger

tray and sun dried for five days (while

covered

500g G.A grains previously

soaked for 2 hours,2000mls

with

transparent

polythene

to

prevent contamination) and later sealed in

polythene.

salted water(4g salt)

Preparation

of

product

was

done

by

boiling/frying and addition of spices and salt

Cassava meal

7000g cassava flour

The flours were mixed in a flour blender and
7000g toasted G.A flour

the mixture used in preparation of stiff

porridge using the conventional method.

Water: flour =2:1

Cassava-millet Millet flour, cassava flour and
meal

Popped G.A flour were mixed The flours were mixed in a flour blender and
in a ratio of 2:1:1 respectively the mixture used in preparation of stiff
(i.e. 12000g: 6000g: 6000g) porridge using the conventional method.
Water: flour =2:1

Ginger Masala

Fresh ginger was peeled, washed to remove

To make the Masala:

the dirt and pounded in a motor to fineness,

300g freshly ground

ginger,20g pilau Masala,100g

mixed with 20g of pilau masala and 100g of

popped G.A flour. The juice in the ginger

popped G.A flour

formed dough with the G.A flour which was

then molded into tiny fragments that could

41

easily dry. The pieces dried for two days

under very hot sun and later pounded to
To make the tea:

powder which was sieved to get a finer

6g G.A ginger Masala1g tea

powder

leaves,34g sugar,500mls hot

The tea was made though the conventional

water

methods
Sesame-

Roasted sesame(1000g)

Roasted sesame and roasted groundnut were

mixed and milled into a thin paste to which

peanut paste

popped G.A flour was added to form a

thicker paste for use as a spread.
Roasted ground nuts(500g)
Popped G.A flour(250g)
Peanut-bean
Decorticated

snack
Decorticated beans(300g),
water, popped grain amaranth
flour(300g), salt(30g),curry
powder(3.5g),grounded pilau
Masala(2g),grounded

beans

(soaked

overnight)

cooked together with salt and spices with

minimum stirring to avoid mashing. The
excess water was removed, cooled and some
of it poured into the G.A flour and kneaded
to make dough that was shaped into

ginger(17g),grounded

attractive tiny fragments to easily dry. The

onion(43g),margarine(36g)

beans and G.A were then sun dried for 5days

on a tray and then deep fried until crispy.
The three ingredients: beans, peanut and G.A
Pieces in a ratio of 1:3:1 respectively were
mixed uniformly then packed in polythene.

42

3.13 Sensory Analyses of the Developed Products

Sensory evaluation was conducted using a panel of 54 (35 females and 19 males) untrained
panelists. Before the study, all panelists were briefed about the procedure and each had to
verbally consent to participation. All Participants were none smokers, English speakers, self
reported to be have normal taste or smell sensitivity. Panelists were requested to refrain from
eating or drinking for at least 1 hour prior to their scheduled session when tasting was involved.
The panelists assessed the acceptance of 39 products using a 9 point hedonic scale. The 17
products that had the highest score of 1 were selected out. Each of the 17 products were also
analyzed by 21 farmer groups (7 from each of the 3 participating districts) who scored
both the products and the production recipes using a 5 point hedonic scale, with 1 as least
desirable and 5 as most desirable. The groups were required to derive the score through
consensus, after trying out the recipes and testing the resulting products.

3.14 Determination of Nutritional Value

The crude protein, fat, total ash and moisture contents of the food products were determined
using AOAC (2000) methods. Moisture content, total

ash, crude

fat

and

crude

protein

were determined by oven method, hot furnace, Soxhlet and Kjeldahl (N x 6.25) methods
respectively. Carbohydrates were estimated based on the nitrogen free extract and energy was
derived based on the energy values of the macro-components.
The dietary fiber content of the foods was determined by the method described by Kirk
and sawyer (1991). About 0.5g of the sample was weighed into a 600ml flask, 50 ml of acid
detergent fiber were added and the mixture boiled for 1 hour. The mixture was then filtered over
a Buchner funnel connected to a vacuum pump using a sinter glass. The sinter-glass
crucibles were taken to the oven maintained at 100 C for 45 minutes to drive off the
moisture. Dietary fiber was obtained as the difference between the weight of the empty sinterglass and that after removal from the oven. The food content of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) were
determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, Perkin-Elmer 2380 (A.O.A.C., 2000).
The flame photometer was applied for calcium (Ca) determination according to the method
described by Pearson (1976). All values were expressed in mg/100g of sample.

43

3.15: Data Analysis and Reporting

Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists Version 16, and Microsoft
Excel package; 2007. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were derived for
the different products for all attributes measured. Data on food adequacy, consumption
patterns and scores, asset and dietary diversity were used to categorize farmer households in
different food security groups. Chi-square analysis was used to determine the factors associated
with food insecurity and malnutrition.

3.16: Ethical Consideration

The study was approved by the Makerere University School of Food Technology, Nutrition &
Bioengineering research committee. Before actual data collection, consent was sought from local
authorities in the study areas and from individual respondents. The purpose of the assessment
was clearly explained as well as the assurance of confidentiality.

44

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Characteristics of respondents
Most (89.5%) of the respondents were females (Table 12). This is consistent with the fact that
most child caregivers are normally female. Most of the respondents (80%) were married. The
majority of the respondents (79.58%) assessed were aged 18-49 years. A total of 88.6% of the
respondents had attained some education. Subsistence farming was named as the main
occupation for 92.1% of the respondents.
Table 12: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Percentage
Socio-demographic
characteristic

Option

Nakasongola Kamuli

Apac

Mean

Male

7.1

7.86

16.55

10.5

Female

92.9

92.14

83.45

89.5

<18

2.1

1.43

1.18

18-49

68.1

81.43

89.2

79.58

>49

29.8

17.14

10.8

19.24

Expectant/pregnant mother

2.13

15.71

6.47

8.1

Lactating/Breastfeeding mother

29.8

31.43

25.9

29.05

Expectant and Lactating mother

5.67

1.43

15.83

7.64

None of the above

62.4

51.43

51.8

55.21

None

9.93

15.7

8.63

11.42

Primary

73.05

62.9

59

65

Secondary

15.6

20.7

26.62

20.97

Tertiary

1.42

0.7

5.75

2.62

Trader

1.4

8.63

3.34

Salaries worker

3.6

5.04

4.55

Main occupation

Subsistence farmer

95

95

86.3

92.1

Marital status

Single

2.8

10.1

5.97

Married

75.2

79.1

53.1

Sex
Age(years)

Physiological state

Education level
attained

45

Household size

Divorced/separated

7.1

86.4

6.5

33.33

Widowed

14.9

3.6

4.3

7.6

4,small

22.7

20.7

20.9

21.43

2-5, moderate

35.5

43.6

38.8

39.3

8-10, big

32.6

26.4

32.4

30.47

>10, extremely big

9.2

9.3

7.9

8.8

4.2 Dietary Quantity

The data shows that a big percentage of households (36.5%) ate less than the recommended three
meals a day (Table 13). Apac district had the highest percentage (48.92%) of such households
that ate less than 3 meals a day, while Kamuli had the lowest (20.71%)
Table 13: Number of meals consumed by the target households
Number of meals

Nakasongola

Kamuli

Apac

Mean

2.84%

2.14%

0.72%

36.17%

18.57%

48.92%

% of Households that ate <3 meals

39.01%

20.71%

49.64%

56.03%

72.14%

50.36%

4.25%

7.14%

0%

3.80%

0.71%

0%

0%

0.24%

% of Households that ate 3 or more meals

60.99%

79.28%

50.36%

63.54%

Total

100%

100%

100%

100%

2%
34.50%
36.50%
59.50%

4.3 Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS)

The data showed that more than half of the households (52.2%) had low dietary diversity (i.e. 6
food groups) (Table 14). Nakasongola had the highest percentage of households with low dietary
diversity (56.6%) while Apac had the lowest percentage of households (46.1%) with low diet
quality based on HDDS. Apac district households had a more diverse diet much as many of them

46

had less than three meals a day. Kamuli and Apac districts had households having HDDS from
as low as 1 to12. Each of these extreme cases contributed 0.7%.
Table 14: Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS)
HDDS

Percentage of households
Nakasongola

Kamuli

Apac

Mean

1.43

0.72

0.7

2.1

2.14

5.04

3.1

5.5

6.43

3.6

5.2

12.1

7.14

6.5

8.6

15.6

12.14

11.5

13.1

21.3

24.3

18.7

21.4

6 low dietary diversity total

56.6

53.8

46.1

52.2

23.4

21.4

19.4

21.4

11.3

15.7

11.5

13

2.8

6.4

9.35

6.2

10

4.96

1.4

10.79

5.7

11

0.71

0.71

1.44

0.9

12

0.71

1.44

0.7

6 High dietary diversity total

43.4

46.2

53.9

47.8

4.4

The Weekly Food Consumption Patterns

The food groups least eaten by the respondents households were pulses (1.2 days a week), meat
(0.7 days a week) and milk (0.2 days a week) while those most frequently consumed included the
staples (5.4 days a week), vegetables (4.6 days a week) and fruits (3.9 days a week) (Table 15).
The results reveal that most of the households had a limited dietary diversity. Starchy foods,
fruits and vegetables formed the bulk of the diet for most households. Such diets may not
provide the adequate amounts of all the required nutrients and this would contribute to
malnutrition. Furthermore, results indicate that there was limited consumption of protein
containing foods. The protein foods consumed were mainly of plant sources which provide low
quality proteins compared to animal sources.

47

Table 15: Weekly consumption of food groups in Nakasongola, Apac and Kamuli
FOOD GROUPS (FREQUENCY OF WEEKLY CONSUMPTION)
DISTRICT

Staples

Pulses

Vegetables

Fruits

Meat

Milk

Sugar

Oil

Mean

Nakasongola

5.4

1.4

4.8

0.6

0.02

2.7

1.8

28.33

Kamuli

5.3

0.8

5.2

3.4

0.7

0.1

4.3

28.56

Apac

5.5

1.3

4.6

3.6

0.7

0.04

3.6

3.2

29.42

5.4

1.2

4.6

3.9

0.7

0.2

3.5

2.7

28.77

ALL
DISTRICTS

Standard error = 0.332

4.5

Food Consumption Groups (FGCs)

The results indicate that the majority (80.7%) of the households surveyed in all the 3 districts
generally did not consume an acceptable diet, based on the FCS (Figure 3). The diets for 19% of
the households were in the poor category while 61.7% were at the borderline with FCS mean of
28.4. Only 19.3% of the total households surveyed were in the acceptable group of food secure
households with a mean FCS of 41.5. Nakasongola district had the highest percentage of
households (19.8%) in the acceptable food consumption group while Kamuli had the lowest
percentage (18.7%) of households in the same group. The mean Food Consumption Score for all
the three districts was (28.77%). This falls under the borderline profile of food security.

48

Figure 3: Food Consumption Groups for households in target districts

A chi square test (p = 0.039, odds ratio=4) indicated that children from households with a low
food consumption score (<35) were more likely to be malnourished than those from households
with an acceptable food consumption. The significant association between child malnutrition and
food consumption score of the households seems to suggest that there may be no preferential
treatment for children over adults.
4.5.1Consumption of Food Groups (the day preceding the survey)
The food groups that were widely consumed included: Roots and tubers and bananas (92.1%),
while the groups least eaten included eggs (5.2%) and milk (1.9%). The animal protein foods
were generally not widely consumed by households (Figure 4).
4.5.1.1Consumption of Grain Amaranth
A mean of only 10% of the household surveyed consumed grain amaranth in the 24 hours
preceding the study. This shows that promotion of grain amaranth within the communities is
required for significant nutritional benefits to be recorded. Apac district consumed grain

49

amaranth most (16.5%) of H/Hs, Kamuli district (10%) while Nakasongola consumed least
(3.5%) of H/Hs.

Figure 4: Food groups consumed by farmer households in Nakasongola, Kamuli and Apac
districts based on 24 hour recall data

4.6 Food Restrictions

The food intake of 24% of the H/Hs in general was affected by restrictions. Restriction from
pork consumption was the most widespread and was reported by 14% of the respondents. This
restriction was mainly practiced by Muslims in the various communities. Restriction of women
from consumption of chicken (2.62%), eggs (0.95%), fish (2.62%), goat meat (0.48%), beef
mutton (1.9%) and white ants (0.24%) was also reported. A limited proportion reported
restriction against mushroom (0.71%) and white ant (0.24) consumption.

50

4.7 Household Asset Ownerships

The H/H assets owned by most of the H/Hs were hoes with (95%), radios with (82.4%) and
bicycles (70.4%). The H/H asset least owned by H/Hs was car/truck (1.43%). The data showed
that only 6% of the H/Hs were asset rich, while about one third (35%) were asset poor. The other
households (59%) fell in medium category. The implication is that the target community is
resource constrained and is vulnerable to be food insecure. The analysis also indicated a link
between malnutrition of the children and household assets. A chi square-test (p<0.05, odds
ratio=3) revealed that children from households categorized as asset poor were more likely to be
malnourished compared to those from asset rich families. The results point to the fact that asset
poor families lack the resources to provide adequate food and other basic necessities to the
children.
A chi square-test (p<0.006, odds ratio=4) revealed that households which were categorized as
asset poor were more likely to be food insecure compared to those who were asset rich. Having
assets provides the households with a number of opportunities to food access thus ensuring food
security.

Figure 5: Percentage of different household assets owned by the target population

Crops grown by the target communities

51

4.8 Crops Grown By the Target Communities

Maize (60%), sweet potatoes (56%) cassava (52.38%) and beans (42.14%) were the most
common crops grown by the households (Table 16). This information was useful in designing
grain amaranth recipes. Those least grown included; onions (0.24%), cotton (0.24%), coffee
(0.48%) The accessibility to agricultural land implies that with adequate farming inputs, most of
the households may be able to achieve food security. The average harvest of grain amaranth per
household (based on the households which reported grain amaranth production) was found to be
only 0.6 bags). This also implies that promotion of grain amaranth within the communities is
required for significant nutritional benefits to be recorded.
Table 16: Yields & Average crop output per household in the target communities
Total land(acreage)

Total yield(bags)

CROP

Average output per

Household (bags)

Households (%)

Amaranth

2.25

25.2

0.6

Matooke

2.5

30

0.071

0.95

Beans

172.01

342.805

0.816

42.14

Cassava

196.6

2495.76

5.942

52.38

Yams

1.125

21.5

0.051

0.95

Coffee

0.75

0.019

0.48

Cotton

0.5

0.007

0.24

G. nuts

18

67

0.160

6.43

Maize

310.85

1163.45

2.770

60.00

Millet

34.75

97.75

0.233

10.50

Onions

0.016

0.24

Peas

10.25

19

0.045

2.14

S. potatoes

194.65

2471.695

5.885

56.00

Rice

4.5

33.5

0.080

1.43

Simsim

45.0625

125.5

0.299

11.00

Soya beans

3.06

7.5

0.018

1.20

Sun flower

0.005

0.24

52

Tomatoes

1.5

11.75

0.028

0.71

Sorghum

1.5

0.004

0.24

The average land per household was 3.9981 acre. This land can be put to great use if Grain
amaranth is to be considered, because its high yielding and does not take a lot of space.
Grain Amaranth is not grown as a major crop in the three districts of study. The average acreage
used for grain amaranth production was found to be 0.28 acres. A small proportion of
respondents in Kamuli (2.0%) and Nakasongola (1.6%) districts considered grain amaranth one
of the major crops they grew. The average crop output per household is low for all crops. In
particular G.A output of 0.6 bags is still very low.
4.9 Nutrition Status for Children Using MUAC
The households which had children (6-59 months) were 317, within these households, a total of
434 children in the same age bracket were assessed. No case of severe malnutrition was
recorded, based on MUAC, while moderate malnutrition was 22%. The proportion of children at
risk of being malnourished was 7%.
Chi-square test (p = 0.048, odds ratio=2.5) revealed that the children whose mothers/caregivers
had no formal education were more likely to be malnourished compared to those whose mothers
had attained formal education. This is consistent with other studies (Smith et al., 2002;
Quisumbing et al., 2001; Quisumbing, 2003) which have identified mothers/caregivers education
level as a major determinant of children nutrition status. Therefore it is possible that the
relatively low level of mothers/caregivers education among the study respondents was a
contributing factor to the relatively poor nutritional status of their children.
Children from households with poor diet were more likely to be malnourished compared to those
from households with an acceptable diet according to a chi square test (P=0.036, odds ratio=4).
The poor dietary diversity coupled with limited consumption of proteins could explain the high
levels malnutrition among children 6-59 months.

53

4.10 Dietary Adequacy

The results from the survey show that 36.9% of children had adequate diets (Table 17). The diets
for the bigger percentage of the children (63.1%) were not adequate, when gauged against IYCF
recommendation of at least 4 food groups i.e. IDDS>4 (WHO, 2010). The low dietary diversity
also indicated that households where the children belonged had low access to food, an important
attribute of household food security.
Table 17: Individual Dietary Diversity Score (IDDS) for children aged 6-59 months
IDDS

Percentage of children 6-59 months

Nakasongola (%)

Kamuli (%)

Apac (%)

Mean (%)

2.3

9.6

0.9

4.4

20.2

22

17.4

19.3

14

20.8

18

30.7

18.4

22.6

23.3

4 groups

60.3

62.2

66.3

63.1

26.1

23.7

13

20.5

6
7

10.2
3.4

7
3.5

6.9
5.2

7.9
4.1

2.6

5.2

2.8

3.4

1.6

>4 groups

39.7

37.8

33.7

36.9

Total

100

100

100

100

4.11 Diversity of Diets Given To Children 6-59months

The food groups that are widely consumed included grains, roots and tubers (62.3%) while the
groups least eaten included eggs (18%) and grain amaranth (3.8%) (Figure 6).Most of the staple
foods (grains, roots and tubers) dominating in the diets of these children are deficient in proteins,
fats and most of the critical micronutrients. Generally consumption of animal protein foods was
low probably because they are more expensive. Grain amaranth (plant source) incorporation in
such meals could be such an opportunity to boost the quality .This result shows a need for more
rigorous promotion of nutritious crops like grain amaranth. Its Consumption is reported to have
nutritional and health benefits, ranging from a general improvement in well-being to prevention
54

and improvement of specific ailments and symptoms including recovery of severely

malnourished children (Tagwira, 2006).

Figure 6: Percentage of food groups given to children (6-59 months) in Kamuli, Nakasongola
and Apac

4.12

Morbidity

Out of the 434 children within the study respondents households, 62.67% had experienced
diarrhea, vomiting or fever in the 2 weeks preceding the study (Table 18). Fever was the most
prevalent ailment reported for 33.64% of the children. These ailments can negatively affect the
nutritional status of the children by either lowering appetite thereby causing low dietary intake or
causing mal absorption leading to low utilization and nutrient intake
Table 18: The prevalence of ailments affecting nutrition status of children in the target
communities
Disease

No. of Children

Percentage

Diarrhea

86

19.8

Vomiting

40

9.22

Fever

146

33.64

55

Total number of children with at least one ailments

272

62.67

No ailment

162

37.33

Total no. of children

434

100

4.13

Household Energy Intakes

Nakasongola had the highest average energy intakes (2125.1Kcals) while Kamuli had the lowest
energy intakes (1861.1Kcals). Overall the mean intake for the 3 districts was 2001.4Kcals which
meets the US set standard of 2000Kcals (Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate.
Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (2002/2005)). Only Kamuli
district had mean energy intake lower than the standard USRDA of 2000 Kcal. The Food and
Agriculture Organizations Food Balance Sheets estimate Ugandas average per capita dietary
energy availability at 2,380 kcal per day, well above Ugandas computed minimum per capita
daily energy requirement of 1,700 kcal per day (FAOSTAT, 2010).This implies the three are
above the Ugandas computed minimum energy requirement but rather lower than the FAO
estimates.

Figure 7: Average Energy Intakes of the target districts the day preceding the assessment

4.14

Nutrient Intakes

Based on the NQI values, the nutrients that were deficient in the diets of the respondents were
fats, thiamine, niacin, calcium and zinc (Figure 8). Fat intake was low probably because in the

56

rural setting vegetables which are widely used as sauce are simply boiled in water without any
fat added. While the NQI for iron was above 1(1.08), the intake for a large proportion (74.1%) of
the respondents was below the recommended level (Figure 9), showing a need for dietary iron
enrichment. The NQI for proteins was 1.23 indicating that the respondents were not deficient in
proteins. However, it should be noted that most of the proteins consumed were of plant origin an
indication that they were low quality proteins. The protein quality could be boosted by
incorporation of grain amaranth which is more balanced than most other plant source proteins.
Fiber and vitamin C intake were exceptionally high. This may be attributed to seasonal fruit
harvest peaks.

Figure 8: Nutritional quality index (NQI) of foods consumed by farmer households in

Nakasongola, Kamuli and Apac districts based on 24 hour recall data

57

Figure 9: Distribution of study population based on adequacy of the intake of the different
nutrients

4.15 Dietary and Infant & Young Child Feeding Practices

Out of the 317 children whose mothers/caretakers were interviewed, 161 (50.8%) were 6-23
months and 156 (49.2%) were 24-59 months. The children below 2 years who were breastfed the
previous 24 hours before the assessment were 126 (78.3%).
4.15.1 Core Indicators of Infant & Young Child Feeding Practices (IYCF)
All (100%) children aged 6-8 months assessed had been introduced to solid, semi-solid or soft
foods, 68.3% of children 1215 months of age received breast milk during the previous day
while 58.4% of children aged 6-23 months had the minimum dietary diversity (i.e. >4 food
groups).
Generally, a bigger percentage (62.8%) of the older children aged 24-59 months were given less
diverse diets as compared to the younger ones aged 6-23 months (41.6%) as shown in table 19.
This could imply that as the children grow older less attention is paid to their diets. If this is not
addressed, it could play a role in contributing to undernourishment among the older children.

58

Table 19: Percentage of children 6-59months in the different IDDS groups

AGE(MONTHS)

IDDS GROUP

FREQUENCY

PERCENTAGE

6 to 23

67

41.6

>4

94

58.4

161

100

98

62.8

>4

58

37.2

Total
24-59

Total
6 to 59

156
4

200

63.1

>4

117

36.9

317

100

Total

4.15.2 Practice of Giving Solids, Semisolids Or Soft Foods To Children Aged 6-59 Months
In Households
Most of the children were given solids, semi solids/soft foods two (39.4%) to three (39.1%)
times a day. Only 3.7% of children were given the food five or more times the previous day as
recommended by the IYC Feeding guidelines (WHO, 2010). Children have small stomachs and
therefore have to feed on thick (dense) solid food in order for them to benefit from the little
intake. The denser the feed could also imply more nutrient intake for the child.
Table 20: Percentage of number of times that children were given Solids, semisolid or soft foods
No. of times

Frequency

Percentage

22

6.9

125

39.4

124

39.1

34

10.7

2.8

0.9

Total no. of children

317

100

59

4.1.5.3 The Practice of Meal Preparation

A big proportion (87.7%) of the children involved in the survey had meals taken from the family
meal. It is common in Uganda for young children to eat with their mothers. In such cases, the
quality of the infants food is the same as the family meal. The difference is that the infants food
is softer, mashed and many times made more watery. Only 39% of the children had meals
prepared separately. This implies that meals for the general household have to be enriched, to
avoid malnutrition among children. Current staple diets for most of the resource poor people in
Uganda are dominated by starchy staples like millet, sorghum, banana, maize and cassava, which
contain inadequate protein, essential amino acids (lysine and the sulphur amino acids) and most
micronutrients. Production and consumption of grain amaranth presents an opportunity for
improvements of local diets, food and nutrition security of the communities.
4.15.4 The Practice Of Using Own Plate
Most of the children in the survey (89.9%) ate using their own plates while 10.1% used shared
plates. The use of separate plates for feeding children is a very good practice because the
quantity of the food the child eats can be known.
4.15.5 Time for Serving the Last Meal for Children (6-59 Months)
Many of the children in the survey (86.1%) had their last meal in the evening (6-8pm) and were
left to eat alone. This practice can help children eat a reasonable portion of food given because at
such a time they are not so sleepy, however, the principle of active feeding is clearly left out.
Without supervision from adults, the children may waste food by pouring down or they may
have low appetite due to lack of encouragement from caretakers
Table 21: Percentages of childrens last meal times
Last meal time for the child

Frequency

Percentage

Early evening (6 to 8) pm alone

273

86.1

late evening after 8 pm

44

13.9

Total

317

100

60

4.15.6 Consumption of Porridge

Most of the children (72%) were fed on porridge (Table 22). This could be one of the target
dishes where G.A could be incorporated since its widely considered a dish for the vulnerable
groups like under fives, the sick, pregnant and lactating mothers.
Table 22: Percentage of children that were given porridge
consumed porridge

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

228

72

No

89

28

Total

317

100

4.15.7 Number of Main Meals Given To Children

Most of the children were given main meals, two (36.28%) to three (42.59%) times a day (Table
23). Only1.9% of children was given food five or more times the previous day as recommended
by the IYC Feeding guidelines (WHO, 2010). Chi-square test revealed a significant relationship
(p = 0.001) between low MUAC measurements (malnutrition) and frequency of feeding on
complementary foods. Children who were not fed complementary foods in accordance with the
guidelines were more likely to be malnourished compared to their counterparts (odds ratio=4).
The highest percentage (65.9%) of children ate snacks once a day while 0.3% of the children did
not have any snacks.
Table 23: Percentage of number of times main meals were given children the day prior to the
survey
No. of times

Frequency

Percentage

35

11.04

115

36.28

135

42.59

26

8.2

1.58

0.32

Total no. of children

317

100

61

4.16 Special Preparation of the Childrens Food (Kitobero)

Out of the 317 mothers/caretakers interviewed, only 40.4% had heard about kitobero and only 39
(12.3%) had practiced cooking kitobero (Table 24). The highest percentage (8.83%) of those
who had practiced cooked it only once a week. A big percentage (28.1%) had heard about
kitobero but did not practice cooking it. The most widely reported reason (reported by 20.8%of
the respondents) for not cooking kitobero was not knowing how to prepare it. Among the 12.3%
that had practiced cooking kitobero, 9.15% did not have the right knowledge about kitobero.
Table 24: Percentage knowledge on special preparation of childrens food (kitobero)

Attribute
Respondents who had about
kitobero

Option

Frequency

Yes

128

40.4

No

189

59.6

317

100

Yes

39

12.3

No

89

28.1

128

40.4

Right

10

3.15

Wrong

29

9.15

39

12.3

28

8.83

2 to 3 times

2.84

more than 4 times

0.63

Total

39

12.3

1.Do not know how to prepare it

66

20.8

2.Can't get the ingredients

21

6.62

3.It takes too much time to prepare

4.What I give the child is enough

0.32

5.No particular reason

0.32

89

28.1

Total
Practiced cooking kitobero

Total
Respondent's Knowledge
about Kitobero

Total
Frequency of preparation of
kitobero (in 7 days)

Reasons for not preparing

kitobero

Percentage

Once

Total

62

4.17 Grain amaranth recipe/product development

4.17.1 Baseline recipe collection
In the first stage of the recipe development which entailed gathering information from
communities about food preparation methods and how grain amaranth was utilized, information
was obtained from seventy (70) farmers already utilising grain amaranth within the study areas.
A total of one hundred (100) recipes were collected. Thirty four (34) interviews were conducted
in sub counties of Namasagali, Butansi and Bugulumbya of Kamuli district and generated a total
of fifty one (51) recipes. In Nakasongola, twenty nine (29) G.A recipes were generated from 16
interviews carried out in sub counties of Kyabutaika, Kyambogo and Kakooge while in Apac
district 20 recipes were generated from 20 individual interviews carried out in the sub counties of
Chegere and Apac. The results generally indicate that grain amaranth was utilized in making
porridges, meals, sauces, snacks, medicine and paste (Figure 10). Kamuli district respondents
utilized amaranth mainly (reported by 37.25% of respondents) in form of sauce. Respondents in
Nakasongola district mainly utilized it as porridge (31%), sauce (65.5%) and a very small
percentage (3.5%) for snacks. All respondents (100%) in Apac reported utilization of grain
amaranth leaves in form of sauce. Generally, the most widespread form for grain amaranth use in
all the three districts was sauce (67.6% of the respondents) made from the fresh leaves. This was
an indicator that there was a knowledge gap on how to utilize grain amaranth (especially the
grains) which needed to be bridged by helping farmers to fully participate in developing grain
amaranth recipes/products that would eventually help to boost their nutrient intakes and dietary
diversity. Figure 10 gives details of grain amaranth processing in Nakasongola, Kamuli and
Apac districts at the baseline. Most households processed the grains into flour by milling at
nearby mills, pounding in mortars or grinding on stones. Thirty nine (39) recipes were later
developed based on the information on recipes and diets collected from the communities. The
recipe development was guided by the need to develop products containing grain amaranth and
other locally available foods that would address the nutrient gaps identified.

63

Figure 10: Percentage utilization of grain amaranth in Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola during
the baseline survey for recipe collection

64

4.17.2 Sensory Evaluation of the Developed Products

The thirty nine (39) recipes/products were subjected to sensory evaluation and 17 ranked best as
shown in table 25 and figure 11. The 17 products developed were found to be highly acceptable
(Table 25), all scoring 7.5 on a scale of 9.
Table 25: Acceptability of sensory attributes of the products that ranked best
PRODUCT

SENSORY ATTRIBUTES (n= 54)

Chapatti
Baggia
Pancakes
Balls
Sauce
Sesame Instant porridge
Millet porridge
G.A Maize porridge
G.A Rice porridge
G.A Cassava meal
G.A Millet-Cassava meal
G.A Rice meal
G.A Tea Masala
G.A Soups
G.A Paste
G.A Snack

Texture
8
8.3
7
8.8
7.3
8.8
7.3
7
7.5
8.5
8
7.5
9
7.5
7
7.8

Flavor
8.3
7.3
8.8
9
7.3
8
8.3
7.3
7.5
8.8
8.8
8.3
8.5
8.3
8.8
8

Appearance
9
8.8
8.3
7.8
9
7.3
8.8
7.3
7.3
7
7.8
8.8
8.3
9
8.3
8.5

Odor
7.5
8
7.8
8
8.5
8.8
7.8
8.5
8.8
8
8.3
7.8
9
7
8.9
8.3

Overall
acceptability
8.2
8.1
7.9
8.4
8
8.2
8
7.5
7.8
8.1
8.2
8.1
8.7
7.9
8.2
8.1

G.A Leaf powder- peanut sauce

7.3

7.5

7.7

65

G.A Chapatti

G.A Sesame balls

GA-Peanut-sesame paste

G.A Baggia

G.A Beans

G.A Rice flour

G.A Pancakes

G.A Millet flour

G.A-Cassava flour

G.A Ginger masala

G.A Leaf powder

G.A Sesame instant flour

Figure 11: Photos of some of the developed products that ranked best

66

G.A Rice meal

According to the panelists, the chapatti, sesame balls, paste, peanut sauce, bean-peanut snack,
and sesame instant porridge products with grain amaranth were preferred to the ones without
grain amaranth (Table 26). Grain amaranth contributed to improvement in flavor, odor and
overall acceptability of all the products.
Table 26: Statistical significant differences of the products with and those without Grain
amaranth
Products
Chapatti
Baggia
Pancakes
Sesame balls
Bean sauce
Sesame Instant porridge
Millet porridge
Maize porridge
Rice porridge
Cassava meal
Millet-Cassava meal
Rice meal
Ginger Masala
Sesame-peanut Paste
Bean-peanut Snack
Peanut sauce

P-value at alpha=0.05
0.037
0.541
0.171
0.038
0.444
0.036
0.146
0.934
0.928
0.983
0.992
0.940
0.997
0.038
0.028
0.013

Statistical differences
significant

significant
significant

significant
significant
significant

The method of preparation of grain amaranth did not significantly affect the sensory properties of
the products (Table 27).
Table 27: Effect of method of cooking grain amaranth on product preference
Product
Bean sauce
Millet porridge
Maize porridge
Rice porridge
Cassava meal
Millet-Cassava meal
Soup

Method of preparation of grain amaranth

Popped, roasted
Popped ,roasted
Popped ,roasted
Popped, roasted
Popped, roasted
Popped, roasted
Popped, roasted, boiled

67

Preference
popped
popped
popped
popped
popped
roasted
roasted

P-value at 0.05
0.443
0.998
0.669
0.863
0.802
0.997
0.984

4.17.3 Energy and Nutrient Density of Developed Products

Incorporation of the different foods identified as good sources of nutrients which were deficient
in diets of people in the 3 districts, generally led to products with enhanced levels of these
target nutrient (Table 28). Sesame, soybeans and peanuts in addition to contributing to
nutrient enrichment also enhanced the energy content of the foods to which they were added.
Table 28: Energy, proximate and mineral composition per 100g of the developed products
Grain amaranth
product
Chapatti
Baggia
Pancakes
Sesame balls
Bean sauce
Sesame Instant
porridge
Millet porridge
Maize porridge
Rice porridge
Cassava meal
Millet-Cassava
meal
Rice meal
Ginger Masala
Soup
Sesame-peanut
Paste
Bean-peanut
Snack
Peanut sauce

Energy
(Kcals)
460.91
499.81
453.36
441
453.59

Protein
(g)
9.1
8
3.38
11.29
17.05

Fat
(g)
16.41
34.63
38.8
24
4.13

Carbohydrates

(g)
69.2
39
22.65
44.96
87.1

Fiber
(g)
3.8
3.82
2.94
8.11
4.72

Ash
(g)
1.48
2.25
1.8
3.1
6.06

Moisture
(g)
31.2
6.48
24.38
5.43
3.72

Zn
(mg)
1.1
1.25
0.7
3.35
1.26

Fe
(mg)
2.5
1.94
1.8
7.47
3.05

Ca
(mg)
46.6
55
34.8
383
68.1

428.7
394.26
366
400.5
377.55

12.6
12.2
10.25
9.76
9.1

22.49
5.64
5.44
4.22
3.95

43.97
73.7
69
80.9
76.4

12.6
9.07
1.37
1.7
3.18

2.2
2.9
2.7
1.1
2.82

86
85.2
88
89.4
42

3.7
2.87
2.3
1.84
2.1

8.57
7.61
5
3.98
3.94

373.6
86.5
83
84.5
50.75

399.22
388.12
363.24
395.42

9.11
9.76
9.985
0.45

3.95
4.22
7.29
0.54

81.81
77.8
64.4
97.2

8.07
1.19
7.83
0.58

2.7
2.6
4.4
1.25

40.3
45
7.58
90.26

2.12
1.84
3.6
2.6

3.94
3.98
168
8

50.75
84.5
125
17

543

18.39

42.6

21.5

2.76

3.4

2.49

5.45

10.2

603.3

463.7
534

20.15
21.72

29.8
45.2

28.73
10.1

17.5
8.2

3.83 3.23
6
6.9

2.64
3.31

3.65
2.26

82.3
68.1

4.17.4 Effect of GA Incorporation on the Energy and Nutrient Composition of the

Developed Products
The presence of grain amaranth in the products led to a positive change in the nutrient content of
most foods, when compared to the traditional recipes without grain amaranth (Table 29). The
most marked positive changes attributable to presence of grain amaranth in the food formulations

68

were recorded in the levels of the minerals (Zn, Fe and Ca). Grain amaranth markedly enhanced
the nutrient content for cassava meal. It also generally enhanced nutrient content for maize,
millet and rice albeit to a lower extent. This shows the value of incorporating grain amaranth
in diets dominated by starchy staples. On the other hand, in sesame balls, grain amaranth
incorporation was found to cause a reduction in the levels of all nutrients except protein.
Generally the benefit of incorporating grain amaranth into oil seeds and pulses was lower that
observed for starchy staples.
Table29: Nutrient changes due to grain amaranth incorporation
Grain amaranth product
Chapatti
Baggia
Pancakes
Sesame balls
Bean sauce
Sesame Instant porridge
Millet porridge
Maize porridge
Rice porridge
Cassava meal
Millet-Cassava meal
Rice meal
Ginger Masala
Sesame-peanut Paste
Bean-peanut Snack
Peanut sauce

Percentage change in Energy/Nutrients due to G.A incorporation

Energy
Protein
Fat
Zinc
Iron
Calcium
11.9
9.64
10.8
96.4
166
288.3
45.8
6.7
24.6
25.3
55.2
28.2
19.5
293
32.4
250
445.4
284.5
-7.35
32.8
-4
-6.9
0.95
-22.6
215
86.14
282.4
18.9
23
9.84
-9.9
48.6
-6.25
3.1
15.7
-24.4
5.7
13.1
32.7
9.1
93.1
517.9
1.38
47.8
40.9
32.95
110.1
1085.7
9.4
64
197.2
129.4
1037.14
745
136
569.1
1310.7
517.6
1359
217.5
32.2
19.5
34.8
13.4
44.9
245.9
6
64
197.2
130
1037
745
8.42
11.2
71.9
-1.09
-15.2
9.65
-5
-4.2
-12.3
-7.3
-3.8
-10.9
0.8
6.9
-10.95
3
56.6
45.1
-8.72
-8.28
-8.98
3.4
7.62
26.1

4.17.5 Contribution of the Developed Products to the RDA of Children Aged 4-8 Years
Sesame-peanut Paste, Bean-peanut Snack, Sesame balls are exceptional products to such a child
because they contribute to at least 20% of RDA for all the nutrients in just one serving. Sesame
balls among the snacks have the highest nutrient contribution for all the nutrients.
Peanut sauce gives the highest contribution towards energy, protein and fat while sesame balls
have the highest contribution towards zinc, iron and calcium (table 30). This is an indicator to

69

show that when such recipes are adopted and practiced in favor of these children, deficiencies of
the nutrients will significantly reduce.
Table 30: Contribution of the developed products to the RDA of children aged 4-8 years
Grain amaranth
products

Typical
Amount
(g)
serving

Energy

% Contribution per serving

Protein Fats
Zn
Fe

Ca

Chapatti

100

1 piece

25.8

47.9

25.2

13.8

25

5.8

Baggia

200

1 packet

55.9

84.2

106.6

31.3

38.8

13.8

Pancakes

100

4 pieces

25.3

17.8

59.7

8.8

18

4.4

Sesame balls

200

4pieces

49.3

118.8

73.8

83.8

149.4

95.8

Bean sauce
Sesame Instant
porridge(flour)

200

1 ladle

50.7

179.5

12.7

31.5

61

17

60

In 1 tumpeco

14.4

39.8

20.8

27.8

51.4

28

Millet porridge(flour)

34

In 1 tumpeco

7.5

21.8

12.2

25.9

3.7

Maize porridge(flour)

34

In 1 tumpeco

18.3

2.8

9.8

17

3.5

Rice porridge(flour)

34

In 1 tumpeco

7.6

17.5

2.2

7.8

13.5

3.6

Cassava meal(flour)
Millet-Cassava
meal(flour)

100

for 1 plate

21.1

47.9

6.1

26.3

39.4

6.3

100

for 1 plate

22.3

47.9

6.1

26.5

39.4

6.3

Rice meal(dried grains)

100

for 1 plate

21.7

51.4

6.5

23

39.8

10.6

Ginger Masala

1tea spoon

1.4

3.7

0.8

3.2

117.6

1.1

Soup

100

1 ladle

22.1

2.4

0.8

32.5

80

2.1

Sesame-peanut Paste

72

2 table spoons

21.9

69.7

47.2

49.1

73.4

54.3

Bean-peanut Snack

200

1 packet

51.8

212.1

91.7

66

73

20.6

Peanut sauce

200

1 ladle

59.7

228.6

139.1

82.8

45.2

17

4.17.6 Recipe and Product Acceptability

The recipes (17) of the most acceptable products were taken back to the farmers in Kamuli,
Nakasongola and Apac to participate in their trials and evaluation.
A total of 15 of the 17 developed recipes were rated at 4 on a scale of 5 (Table 31). The rice
meal and bean sauce recipes were the only 2 to score below 4. This shows that the recipes
were generally acceptable to the communities in the three districts. There were no marked
differences in the scores given to the different recipes by farmer groups in the 3 districts. The

70

products made using the developed recipes were also found to be highly acceptable by the farmer
groups, with 16 out of 17 scoring 4 on a scale of 5 (Table 32,figure 12). The high acceptability
of both recipe and products shows high potential for increased consumption of grain amaranth
once the recipes are widely disseminated.
Table 31: Farmer rating of grain amaranth containing recipes
Product
Chapatti
Baggia
Pancake
Sesame balls
Soup
Sesame instant porridge
Rice Porridge
Maize Porridge
Millet porridge
Peanut sauce
Bean sauce
Rice meal
Cassava meal
Millet-Cassava meal
Ginger Masala
Paste
Bean peanut snack

Kamuli
4.7
4.5
5
5
3.5
5
4.5
5
5
3.5
4
3.5
5
5
5
4
4.5

Apac
5
4.3
4.5
5
4.5
5
4.5
5
5
4
4
3
5
5
4
4.5
4

Score on 5 point Scale

Nakasongola
Overall mean
5
4.9
4.5
4.4
4.7
4.7
5
5
4
4
4.5
4.8
4.5
4.5
5
5
5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3.8
3.5
3.3
5
5
5
5
4.5
4.5
4
4.2
5
4.5

Figure 12: Farmers tasting grain amaranth-millet bread during participatory recipe/products
trials and evaluation in Apac district

71

Table 32: Farmer group acceptability scores for different grain amaranth products
Product
Score on 5 point Scale
Kamuli
Apac
Nakasongola
Overall mean
Chapatti
5
5
5
5
Baggia
4.5
4.7
4.5
4.6
Pancake
4.5
4.5
5
4.7
Sesame balls
5
5
5
5
Soup
3.5
4
4
3.8
Sesame instant porridge
5
5
4.5
4.8
Rice Porridge
5
4.5
4.5
4.7
Maize Porridge
4.5
4.5
4
4.3
Millet porridge
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
Peanut sauce
4
4
4.5
4.2
Bean sauce
4
4
4
4
Rice meal
3.5
4.5
4
4
Cassava meal
5
5
5
5
Millet-Cassava meal
5
5
5
5
Ginger Masala
5
4.5
5
4.8
Paste
4
4.5
4.5
4.3
Bean peanut snack
4
4.5
5
4.5

72

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions
The current nutrition and food security status of rural households in Kamuli, Apac and
Nakasongola is rather poor and require attention. The factors associated with malnutrition in
these districts included; consumption of monotonous and unvaried diets lacking in most of the
critical micronutrients, insufficient knowledge on how to prepare nutritious/balanced meals more
especially children(6-59 months), Inadequate dietary intakes and high disease burden.
The study showed that amaranth could be combined with a variety of locally available foods to
make highly acceptable products containing enhanced levels of Ca, Zn, Fe, etc, nutrients
identified to be low in diets for people in Kamuli, Nakasongola and Apac districts.
In addition to this, the study demonstrated that grain amaranth has potential to contribute to the
alleviation of malnutrition because the recipes developed through this study were found to
contain enhanced levels of the nutrients previously reported to be inadequate in the diets of the 3
study districts. These recipes have not only been able to fill the nutritional gaps but were found
to be highly acceptable to the farmers in the rural households of Kamuli, Apac and Nakasongola.
Once widely disseminated and adopted, these recipes are likely to markedly contribute to
improved nutrition in the three districts.
This is a clear testimony to Ugandas understanding that tackling nutrition problems will contribute
to the attainment of its broader development goals. The prevalence of malnutrition across a

predominantly agrarian country like Uganda and its potential economic implications indicate the
importance of understanding the link between agricultural productivity and nutrient intake. Such
an understanding will highlight the importance of different nutrients (and nutrient rich foods like
grain amaranth) available across Uganda, thus guiding policymakers in prioritizing and
developing appropriate programs to tackle malnutrition and improve agricultural productivity.
Generally, the study showed that there is a positive potential benefit of incorporating grain
amaranth in the diets of rural households in Kamuli, Apac, Nakasongola Districts and Uganda as
a whole because it significantly contributed to improvement in nutrition and food security
73

5.2 Recommendations

Production of grain amaranth should be encouraged by MAAIF, MOH, and NAADS among
others because of its nutritional values and income generation potential. It requires small plots of
land, implying that the landless can afford to grow it. There is need to promote farmers access
to grain amaranth markets in order to increase the returns on investment, which in turn will
motivate farmers to expand on production and promote local food-grain amaranth recipes.
The dietary diversity of indigenous African leafy vegetables(including grain amaranth), in
addition to providing essential nutrients and micronutrients, may also offer broad health benefits
due to inherent benefits of dietary diversity, reinforcing food cultures, and functional properties
of leafy greens.

The documentation and dissemination of more recipes will not only help diversify diets but will
also give others a chance to enjoy other peoples foods. A number of recipes are on the verge of
being lost as cultural erosion continues.

Many local foods in Uganda have the potential for commercialization but this potential is only
realized (unlocked) after promotion. Promotion of grain amaranth consumption within the
communities by local leaders and village health teams, Community nutrition and health workers
is required for significant nutritional benefits to be recorded.
Programmers that aim to reduce malnutrition in the rural communities should focus on
improving IYCF practices, hygiene & sanitation practices, and reducing disease burden. These
factors can negatively affect food intake which eventually affects nutrition even when nutrient
rich foods like G.A have been promoted. They should also advocate for increased resources for
scaling up nutrition interventions to address the needs of young children and mothers and to create
awareness among the general population of the human, social, and economic costs of malnutrition.

There should be more practical ways of improving diet diversity and increasing the energy and
nutrient density of local diets. Both food-based approaches and micronutrient-specific
interventions will be needed. The scope of such programming must seek to integrate nutrition,

74

gender and livelihood activities, targeting households in rural settings where undernutrition is
higher. Increasing the target populations consumption of diverse nutritious foods should be done by
increasing the production of and access to micronutrient-rich foods like grain amaranth at the
household and community levels

The WFP has been identified as support for food supplementation to IDPS in northern Uganda,
refugees in northern and western Uganda and to the food-insecure Karamoja. The study therefore
recommends that it (WFP) designs a new strategy to include a preventive community nutrition
component like supplementing their diets with nutrient rich foods such as grain amaranth

75

References
A.O.A.C. (2000). Official Methods of Analysis (16th ed). Association of Official Analytical
Chemists. Washington, D. C.

Bahiigwa, A.G.B (1999). Household food security in Uganda: An empirical analysis. Economic
Policy Research Center.

Becker, R., Wheeler, E.L., Lorenz, K., Stafford, A.E., Grosjean, O.K., Betschart, A.A. &
Saunders, R.M. (1981). A compositional study of amaranth grain. Journal of Food Science. 46:
1175 - 1180.Chiles to chocolates: Foods the Americas gave the world. University of Arizona

Dehbozorgi, P., Mohseni,P., & Mazloom,Z.( 2007). The Influence of Zinc Sulfate on the Growth
of School Age Children in Villages around Shiraz 2002, 2003. Journal of Medical Sciences 7(4):
690-3.

Devereux, S., Baulch, B., Hussein, K., Shoham, J., Sida, H. & Wilcock, D. (2004). Improving
the analysis of food insecurity. Food insecurity measurement, livelihoods approaches and policy:
Applications in FIVIMS

Early, D. (1992). The renaissance of amaranth. p. 15-33. In N. Foster and L. S. Cordell (eds.).
Economic Policy Research Centre/Monitoring and Evaluation management Services
(EPRC/MEMS) (2006). Understanding food insecurity in Uganda. USAID Report.

Ellis, A., Manuel, C.& Blackden, C.M. (2006). Gender and Economic Growth in Uganda:
unleashing the power of women. Directions in Development Series. The World Bank.

Ellis, F. (2003). Human Vulnerability and Food Insecurity: Policy Implications. Forum for Food
Security in Southern Africa.

76

Escudero, N. L., Zirulnik, F., Gomez, N. N., Mucciarelli, S. I. & Ginnez, M. S. (2006).
Influence of a protein concentrate from Amaranthus cruentus seeds on lipid metabolism.
Experimental Biological and Medicine. 231: 5059.

Escudero, N.L., Albarracin, G., Fernndez S, De Arellano, L.M. & Mucciarelli, S. (1999).
Nutrient and antinutrient composition of Amaranthus muricatus. Plant Foods for Human
Nutrition 54: 327-336.

FANTA (2000). Potential uses of food aid to support HIV/AIDS mitigation activities in subSaharan Africa. FANTA Project, Academy for Educational Development. Washington, D.C.

FANTA (2002). Dietary Diversity as Household Security Indicator. Technical Note No.4
Academy for Educational Development. Washington, D.C.

FANTA

(2006).

Household

Dietary

Diversity

Score

(HDDS) for Measurement of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide. Version 2. Food and
Nutrition Technical Assistance. www.fantaproject.org (Accessed September 2009)

FANTA (2010). The Analysis of the Nutrition Situation in Uganda. Food and Nutrition
Technical Assistance II Project (FANTA-2), Washington, DC: AED, 2010.

FAO

&

WFP

(1997).

Crop

and

food

supply

assessment

mission

to

Uganda.

http://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/003/w9872e/w9872e00.pdf [15 February, 2010].

FAO (1996).World Food Summit: Rome Declaration on World Food Security, and World Food
Summit Plan of Action. FAO, Rome.

FAO (2003). A Conceptual Framework for National Agricultural, Rural Development, and Food
Security Strategies and Policies. ESA Working Paper No. 03-17.

77

FAO (2003). Sustainable rice production for food security, Proceedings of the 20th Session of
the International Rice Commission, Bangkok, Thailand, 23-26 July 2002, Rome.
FAO (2010). Uganda Nutrition Profile Nutrition and Consumer Protection Division

FEWSNET. 2008. Uganda Food security update. November (2008).www.fews.net/Uganda.

Accessed 28 th January 2011.
Frongillo, E.A., Simeon, N. & Wendy, S.W. (2004). Technical guide to developing a direct,
experience-based measurement tool for household food insecurity. Food and Nutrition
Technical Assistance Project, Academy for Educational Development. Washington, D.C.

Gibson, R.S. (2005). Principles of Nutritional Assessment. Second Edition. Oxford University
Press, New York, NY.

Grubben, G.J.H., van Sloten, D.H. (1981). Genetic Resources of Amaranths, Intl. Board for Plant
Genetic Resources, Food and Agric. Org., Rome.

Haas, P.W., Kauffman, C. S. (1984). Grain amaranth: an overview of research and production
methods. Regenerative Agric. Assoc., Emmaus, PA.
Hansen, R. G. (1973). An Index of Food Quality. Nutrition Reviews. 31: 17.
http://www.iufost.org/publications/books/documents/IUFoST_Handbook.pdf.
Haughton, C.S. (1978). Green Immigrants: Plants that Transformed America. Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, New York.
Horton, S., Alderman, H. & Rivera, A.L. (2008). Copenhagen Consensus 2008 Challenge
Paper:

Malnutrition and Hunger. Washington, DC: World Bank

Kauffman, C. S., Haas, P.W. (1983). Grain amaranth: A crop with low water requirements and
high nutritional value. Environmentally Sound Agric. W. Lo~Keretz: 299.

78

Kauffman, C.S.,Weber, L.E. (1990) Grain amaranth. In: Advances in New Crops, J. Janick & J.E.
Simon (Eds). Timber Press, Portland, Oregon: pp. 127-139.
Kikafunda, JK, AF Walker, and JK Tumwine. (2003). Weaning Foods and Practices in Central
Uganda: A Cross-Sectional Study. African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and
Development 3 (2):1-13.
Kim, H. K., Kim, M.J., D.H. Shin (2006b). Improvement of lipid profile by Amaranth
(Amaranthus esculantus) supplementation in Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Annals of
Nutrition and Metabolism. 50: 277-281.
Kim, H.K., Kim, M.J., Cho, H.Y., Kim, E.U., D.H. Shin (2006a). Antioxidative and anti-diabetic
effects of amaranth (Amaranthus esculantus) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Cell
Biochemistry and Function 24: 195 199.
Kirk R. and R. Sawyer (1991). Pearsons Chemical Analysis of Foods. Essex: Longman Group
Limited.
Lehman, J. (1988). Carbohydrates of amaranth. Legacy 1: 4-8 Amer. Amaranth Inst. Bricelyn,
M.N.
Martirosyan, D.M., Miroshnichenko, L.A., Kulakova, S. N., Pogojeva, A. V.& Zoloedov, V.I.
(2007). Amaranth oil application for coronary heart disease and hypertension. Lipids in Health
and Disease. 6: 1-12.
Marx, J.L. (1977). Amaranth: A comeback for the food of the Aztecs? Science 198: 40.
McKinney, P. (2009). Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Assessment: Uganda.
VAM Food Security Analysis. Rome: WFP.
Melgar-Quinonez, H. (2004). Testing Food Security Scales for Low-cost Poverty Assessment.
Draft report to Freedom from Hunger.

79

Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF). (2009). Uganda National Rice
Development Strategy 2nd Draft (UNRDS). Government of the Republic of Uganda.
http://www.jica.go.jp/english/operations/thematic_issues/agricultural/pdf/uganda_en.pdf
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MFEP) Uganda (2004). Poverty eradication Plan
(PEAP) p52. Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning Kampala, Uganda.
Muyonga, J., Nabakabya, D., Nakimbugwe, D. N., D. Masinde. (2008) Efforts to promote
amaranth production and consumption in Uganda to fight malnutrition. Chapter 8. In Using Food
Science and Technology to Improve Nutrition and Promote National Development, ed. G.L.
Robertson and J.R Lupien. IUFoST:
Mwangi, D. (2003). Amaranth as a Promising Crop for Food, Nutrition. Healing and Poverty
Eradication

in

Africa

published

by

the

Jefferson

Institute,

Columbia,

MO,

www.jeffersoninstitute.org
Myers, L. (2010). GRAIN AMARANTH, A Lost Crop of the Americans published by the
Jefferson Institute, Columbia, MO, www.jeffersoninstitute.org
National Academy of Sciences (NAS). (2006) Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables
http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11763.html
NRC (1984). Amaranth Modern Prospects for Ancient Crop. Washington DC: National
Academy Press.
OBrien, G., Kelly & Price, L. (2008). AMARANTH Grain & Vegetable Types, Published by
ECHO. Available at http://www.echonet.org/oil application for coronary heart disease and
hypertension.
Oke, O.L. (1983). Amaranth. oil application for coronary heart disease and hypertension. Lipids
in Health and Disease 6:1. In: Handbook of Tropical Foods, H.T. Chan (Ed). Marcel Dekker,
Inc., New York: p. 1.

80

Okidi JA, McKay A. Poverty dynamics in Uganda: (1992-2000). CPRC Working Paper No. 27.
May 2003.

Opinion Research Corporation Macro International, Inc (ORC Macro). (2006). Uganda
Demographic Health Survey 2006. Supplemental Test Report. Calverton, MD: ORC
Macro.Calverton, MD: ORC Macro.

Perez-Escamilla R, Segall-Correa AM , Kurdian LM, Maria de Fatima, Sampaio A, Marin-Leon

L, and Panigassi G (2004). An adapted version of the U.S. Department of agriculture food
insecurity module is a valid tool for assessing household food insecurity in Campinas, Brazil.
Journal of Nutrition 134:8 1923-1928.Press, Tucson, AZ.

Quisumbing, A. R. (2003). Household structure and child well-being: Evidence from KwazuluNatal. In Household decisions, gender, and development. A synthesis of recent research, ed. A.
R. Quisumbing. Washington, DC: IFPRI

Quisumbing, A. R., Meinzen-Dick, R. S. eds. (2001) Empowering women to achieve food

security. 2020 Focus 6. Washington, DC: IFPRI

Radimer, K.L., Olson, C.M. & Campbell, C.C. (1990). Development of indicators to assess
hunger. Journal of Nutrition 120: 15441548.

Railey,

R.

(2008).

Amaranth:

Healthy

Grain

for

Vegetarian

Recipes.

http://chetday.com/amaranth.html.

Saunders, R.M., Becker, R. (1984). Amaranthus: a potential food and feed resource. Adv. Cereal
Sci. Tech. 6: 357-396.

Seinfeld, J. & Beltran, A. (2009) Identifying successful strategies for fighting child malnutrition
in Peru, Research for Public Policy, Human Development, Sheridan Waldron, Nutrition and

81

diabetes: global challenges for children and parents May 2007, Diabetes Voice | Volume 52 |
Special Issue

Singhal, R.S., Kulkarni, P.R. (1990a.) Utilization of Amaranthus paniculatas (Rajgeera) starch in
salad dressing. Starch/Starke 42: 52-53.

Singhal, R.S., Kulkarni, P.R. (1990b). Studies on applicability of Amaranthus paniculatas

(Rajgeeraa) starch for custard preparation. Starch/Starke 42: 102-103.

Smith, L. C., & Haddad, L. (2000) Overcoming malnutrition in developing countries: Past
achievements and future choices. 2020 Discussion Paper 30. Washington, DC: IFPRI

Smith, L.C & Haddad, L. (2000) Explaining Child Malnutrition in Developing Countries: A
cross-country Analysis International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C.

Srinivansan, M. (2007). The efficacy of zinc as adjunct therapy in the treatment of severe
pneumonia in children admitted to Mulago Hospital. Masters thesis, Makerere University.

Sseguya, H. (2007). Annual evaluation program report for the Livelihoods Program in Uganda.
Center for Sustainable Rural Livelihoods, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.

Stallknecht, G.F., Schulz-Schaeffer, J.R. (1993). Amaranth rediscovered. p. 211-218. In: J.

Janick and J.E. Simon (Eds.). New Crops.Wiley, New York

Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Program (SRLP) (2005). Annual Report 2004-2005.

Swindale, A. & Ohri-Vachaspati, P. (1999). Measuring Household Food Consumption. A

Technical Guide. Food and Technical Assistance (FANTA) Project, Academy for Educational
Development, Washington, DC.

82

Tagwira, M., Tagwira, F. Dugger, R., Okum, B. (2006). Using grain amaranth to fight
malnutrition. RUFORUM working document No. 1, pp. 201-206.

Teutonico, R.A., Knorr, D. (1985). Amaranth: composition, properties and applications of a

rediscovered food crop. Food Tech. 39(4): 49-61.

Thompson, F. E., Midthune, D., Subar, A. F., Kahle, L. L.,Schatzkin, A., and Kipnis, V. (2004).
Performance of a shorttool to assess dietary intakes of fruits and vegetables, percentage energy
from fat and fibre. Public Health Nutr. 7,10971105.

Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), Uganda Demographic and Health Survey, (2006).
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), Uganda Demographic and Health Survey,( 2011).
Uganda Food and Nutrition Strategy (UFNS) (2005).

Uganda MOH.( 2009). Policy Guidelines on Infant and Young Child Feeding. January 2009.
Page 8.
Uganda Nutrition Action Plan (UNAP) (2011-2016).
UNDP & UNDP/Uganda. (2007). Millennium Development Goals: Ugandas Progress Report
2007. Geneva: UNDP. http://www.undp.or.ug/mdgs/25 (Accessed ). 23rd october, 2012.

United Nations Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition

(ACC/SCN (1991). Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper No. 8. Managing Successful Nutrition
Programmes. (eds) Jennings. J., Stuart, G., Mason, J., Lotfi, M., & Scialfa T. ACC/SCN of the
United Nations.

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (1995). Food Aid and Food
security policy paper. Washington, D.C.

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (1999). International

Assistance Report 1999. Washington, D.C.

83

Food

Von Braun, J, Howarth B, Shubh K, and Rajul PL (1996). Improving Food Security of the Poor:
Concept, Policy and Programs. International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington, D.C.

WHO

(2003).

Guiding

principles

for

complementary

feeding

of

breastfed

child.

http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guiding_principles_compfeeding_breastfed.pd.
Accessed 30th April, 2010.

World Bank. (2005). Uganda: From Periphery to Centre A Strategic Country Gender
Assessment. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Food Programme (WFP) (1999). Recurring Challenges in the Provision of Food
Assistance in Complex Emergencies the problems and dilemmas faced by WFP and its
partners, Ron Ockwell, Office of Evaluation, Rome, Italy.

World Food Programme (WFP) (2002). Food Aid in Conflict. Workshop Report, Division of
Strategy and Policy, Rome, Italy.

World Food Programme, Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Mapping (CSFVA),
(2008)
World Food Programme, Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis, April 2009
World Food Summit definition: http://www.fao.org/wfs/index_en.htm, March 2010.
Zohra Lukmanji & Ellen Hertzmark (2008). Tanzanian food composition tables. Muhimbili
University of Health and Allied Sciences(MUHAS), Dar es Salaam Tanzania andTanzania
Food and Nutrition Centre (TFNC),Dar es Salaam Tanzania andHarvard School of Public
Health (HSPH), Boston, USA

84

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DETERMINING THE CURRENT NUTRIENT
INTAKE AND NUTRITION RELATED KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES AMONG
HOUSE HOLDS OF FARMERS

Date

Consent form
This baseline survey is aimed at determining the current nutrient intake and nutrition
related knowledge and practices. This is an initiative which will be aimed at alleviating
malnutrition, food insecurity and poverty of resource poor farmers in the districts of Apac,
Kamuli and Nakasongola. Makerere University in collaboration with Volunteer Efforts for
Development Concerns (VEDCO), National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), and
district authorities is implementing this project.
This questionnaire is meant for farmers in various farmer groups in the districts of Kamuli,
Apac and Nakasongola where the grain amaranth project (09-517) is in operation to promote
production and utilization of grain amaranth for improved nutrition and health in Uganda.
You have been randomly selected among farmers to give us information about the current
nutrient intake and nutrition knowledge and practices at your household where the project will be
implemented. Information collected will help us to better design the Project activities for
households in this area. Your answers will be kept confidential and your participation is
voluntary.
At this point, do you have any questions about the study? Also, in case you have additional
questions after we leave this area, you can contact any of the following numbers: +256-414533865, +256-753481481, +256-701684241

May I begin the interview now? Signature of respondent..

Name of farmer group.Interviewers Name: ..
Interviewers Contact:

85

SECTION ONE: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

Characteristic

Options(please circle the correct option)

Operational area:

1.0: District

1.1:Sub-county

1.2:Parish

1.3:Village

1.4: Name of respondent

1.5Sex of the respondent:

1. Male
2. Female

1.6:

Age

of

Respondents

(years)

1.7:Physiological state of the 1. Expectant/pregnant mother

respondent

2. Lactating/breast feeding mother

3. Expectant and lactating mother.
4. None of the above.

1.8: Maximum Education level 1. None

attained

2. Primary
3. Secondary
4. Tertiary

86

1. Trader

1.9: Main Occupation

2. Salaries worker
3. Subsistence farmer
4. Others (specify).

1.10: Marital status

1. Single
2. Married
3. Divorced/separated
4. Widowed

(people)

1.11: Household size

1.12: Respondents position in 1. Mother

the house hold

2. Grand mother
3. Daughter/son
4. House help
5 .Other (specify).

1.13:

Relationship

of

the 1. Mother

respondent to the child (under 2. Grand mother

five years)

3. Sister
4. House help
5.Other (specify)

87

SECTION TWO
2.0 FOOD INTAKE (FOOD FREQUENCY & HOUSEHOLD DIETARY DIVERSITY)FOR WOMEN TO BE GIVEN FIRST PRIORITY.

Please narrate everything that your house hold members ate yesterday during the day or night,
at home.
a) Think about when you first woke up yesterday. Did you eat anything at that time? If yes:
Please tell me everything you ate at that time. Probe: Anything else? Until respondent says
nothing else. If no, continue to Question b).
b) What did you do after that? Did you eat anything at that time?
If yes: Please tell me everything you ate at that time. Probe: Anything else? Until respondent
says nothing else. Repeat question b) above until respondent says the whole household went to
sleep until the next day. If respondent mentions mixed dishes like a porridge, sauce or stew,
probe:
c) What ingredients were in that (Mixed Dish)? Probe: Anything else? Until respondent says
nothing else. As the respondent recalls foods, underline the corresponding food and circle 1 in
the column of YES under Last 24 hours.
If the food is not listed in any of the food groups below, write the food in the box labeled other
foods. If foods are used in small amounts for seasoning or as a condiment, include them under
the MISCELLANEOUS food group.
Once the respondent finishes recalling foods eaten, read each food group where 1 was not
circled, ask the following question Yesterday during the day or night, did you drink/eat any
(FOOD GROUP ITEMS)?
and Circle 1 if respondent says YES fill in the columns for food measure and 2 if NO. For the
columns of food frequency; D=Daily, W=Weekly, M=Monthly, O=Occasionally. Assign 4, 3, 2,
1respectively. Score 0 if no item from the food group is mentioned, Score 1 if any item from the
food group is mentioned Could you please tell me how many days in the past one week (seven
days) your household has eaten the following foods-read out the whole list of foods provided on
the questionnaire (write 0 for items not eaten over the last 7 days)

you=whole household

2(a)Number of meals eaten in your house hold (yesterday) times

88

2(b)
FOOD
FOOD MEASURE

Last 24 hrs

FREQUENCY

Last7
days

FOOD

NO.

GROUP

FOOD GROUP

SCORE

YES

NO

ITEMS

QTY

UNIT

D W M O No. Of
days

EATEN

Eaten
last 7
days

ENERGY GIVING
FOODS
A

CEREALS
1

Maize meal(ugali)

Wheat products:

2.1

A.

Kg

4 3

Chapatti

Pieces

4 3

2.2

biscuit

Pieces

4 3

2.3

cookies

Pieces

4 3

2.4

cakes

Pieces

4 3

2.5

Doughnut,

Pieces

4 3

2.6

Spaghetti/macaroni

Packets

4 3

Rice, boiled

Kg

4 3

Millet ugali

Kg

4 3

Kg

4 3

(Kaalo)
5
B

Sorghum ugali

ROOTS

,TUBERS

&

BANANAS
6

Irish Potatoes

Stem tubers 4 3

Orange-fleshed

Root tubers

4 3

sweet potato (owa B.

kipapali)
8

Cassava

Root tubers

4 3

Yams(Amayuni)

Root tubers

4 3

10

White fleshed

Root tubers

4 3

Sweet Potatoes

89

11

Matooke

Clusters

4 3

Bundles

4 3

Whole

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

PROTECTIVE FOODS
(VITAMINS AND
MINERALS)
C

VEGETABLES
12

Dark Green leafy

vegetables (of any
kind) (enva
endiirwa)

13

Egg plants
(Biringanya)

14

Bitter tomato

C.

vegetables
1

(Entula )
15

Pumpkin

vegetables
1

(ensujju)
16

Tomatoes

Whole

Whole
pumpkin

Whole
tomatoes

17

Onion

Whole
onions

18

Green pepper

Whole
pepper

19

Cabbage

Whole
cabbage

20

Mushrooms

cups

4 3

21

Carrots

Whole

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

carrots
D

FRUITS
22

Mango

Whole
fruits

23

Passion fruits

Whole
fruits

24

Tangerines

(Mangadda)

Whole
fruits

90

25

Jackfruit (ffene)

D.
26

Pineapples

Whole

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

4 3

fruits
1

Whole
fruits

27

Pawpaw

Whole
fruits

28

Apples

Whole
fruits

29

Pears

Whole
fruits

30

Guavas

Whole
fruits

31

Oranges

Whole
fruits

32

Water melon

Whole
fruits

33

Banana (Ndiizi,

clusters

4 3

Whole

4 3

Bogoya).
34

Avocado

fruits
BODY BUILDING FOODS
(PROTEINS)
E

MEAT,

POULTRY,

OFFALS & INSECTS

35

Beef

Kg

4 3

36

Goat

Kg

4 3

37

Mutton

Kg

4 3

38

Pork

Kg

4 3

39

Chicken

pieces

4 3

40

Turkey

pieces

4 3

41

Any kind of liver

Kg

4 3

Kg

4 3

E.

(ekibumba)
42

Offals

91

43

Blood (cow, goat,

Liters

4 3

sheep)
44

White ants

tablespoons 4 3

45

Grass hoppers

tablespoons 4 3

Whole eggs 4 3

EGGS
46

Eggs (hens, ducks)

F.

FISH & SEA FOODS

47

Nile perch

Kg

4 3

48

Tilapia

Kg

4 3

49

Mukene

Kg

4 3

50

Nkejje

Kg

4 3

51

Cat fish

Kg

4 3

Kg

4 3

Kg

4 3

G.

PULSES,LEGUMES AND
NUTS
52

Beans (all kinds)

53

Peas(all kinds)

54

Groundnut

Kg

4 3

55

Simsim

tablespoons 4 3

tumpeco

4 3

tumpeco

4 3

H.

I
MILK & MILK
PRODUCTS
56

Cow-milk/goat
milk(powdered/cond
ensed, liquid)

57

Yoghurt(bongo,
ekiviguto)

I.

58

Cheese

tablespoons 4 3

59

Butter

tablespoons 4 3

60

Ghee

tablespoons 4 3

61

Soy milk

tumpeco

LIPIDS
J
FATS AND OILS

92

4 3

62

Oils(Liquid) - any
kind (e.g. Ufuta,

tablespoons 4 3

tablespoons 4 3

Kg

4 3

tablespoons 4 3

J.

Mukwano)
63

Fats(Solids) any
kind( Kimbo,
Cowboy, Blue band)

SUGAR & HONEY

64

Sugar

65

Honey

K.

OTHERS
L

MISCELLENIOUS
66

Tea

tumpeco

4 3

67

Coffee

tumpeco

4 3

68

Cocoa

tumpeco

4 3

69

Soda

bottles

4 3

70

Busheera

tumpeco

4 3

L.

GRAINAMARANT
H (G.A)
71

G.A Porridge

tumpeco

4 3

72

G.A meals

tumpeco

4 3

73

G.A paste

tablespoon

4 3

74

G.A snack

handfuls

4 3

75

G.A sauce

ladles

4 3

M.

OTHER FOODS: PLEASE WRITE DOWN OTHER FOODS IN THESE SPACES THAT RESPONDENT
MENTIONED BUT ARE NOT IN THE LIST ABOVE:.

.. .
HDDS for the house hold is/ 13
2(c) which food taboos do you follow most in your area? .........................

93

SECTION THREE
3.0 ASSESSMENT OF INFANT AND YOUNG CHILD (6-59MONTHS) FEEDING
PRACTICES & ANTHROPOMETRY IN THE HOUSE HOLD- This section is meant for
the youngest child in the household who is below 5years but is above 6 months.

I would like to ask you some questions about

(NAME).In what month and year was (NAME)
born?

DAY.............................|___|___|

What is his/her birthday?

If day is not known, enter 98

If the respondent does not know the exact birth MONTH....................................|___|___|

date ask: Does (NAME) have a
YEAR.................... |___|___||___|___|
health/vaccination card
with the birth date recorded?

(NAME)

is.months/years

If the health/vaccination card is shown and the Old

respondent confirms the information is
correct, record the date of birth as
documented on the card

Was (NAME) breastfed yesterday during the YES........................................ 1

day or at night on addition to other NO.......................................... 2
complementary food?

DONT KNOW ......................8

94

NO

INTERACTIVE

24 HOUR FOOD RECALL FOR CHILDREN 6-59

MONTHS
3

Please describe everything that (NAME) ate yesterday during the day or night, whether at home or
outside the home.
a) Think about when (NAME) first woke up yesterday. Did (NAME) eat anything at that time? If
yes: Please tell me everything (NAME) ate at that time. Probe: Anything else? Until respondent
says nothing else. If no, continue to Question b).
b) What did (NAME) do after that? Did (NAME) eat anything at that time?
If yes: Please tell me everything (NAME) ate at that time. Probe: Anything else? Until respondent
says nothing else.
Repeat question b) above until respondent says the child went to sleep until the next day.
if respondent mentions mixed dishes like a porridge, sauce or stew, probe:
c) What ingredients were in that (MIXED DISH)? Probe: Anything else? Until respondent says
nothing else.
As the respondent recalls foods, underline the corresponding food and circle 1 in the column next
to the food group. If the food is not listed in any of the food groups below, write the food in the box
labeled other foods. If foods are used in small amounts for seasoning or as a condiment, include
them under the condiments food group.
Once the respondent finishes recalling foods eaten, read each food group where 1 was not
circled, ask the following question and Circle 1 if respondent says yes, 2 if no and 8 if dont
know:
Yesterday during the day or night, did (NAME) drink/eat any (FOOD GROUP ITEMS)?

OTHER FOODS:
PLEASE WRITE DOWN OTHER FOODS IN THIS BOX THAT RESPONDENT MENTIONED
BUT ARE NOT IN THE LIST BELOW:
.. .
.. .
. ..
QUESTIONS& FILTERS

CODING CATEGORIES

Food group(underline the mentioned food

item)
A

GRAINS, ROOTS OR TUBERS

YES

Porridge, bread, rice, noodles, or other foods A.

made from grains White potatoes, white

95

NO
2

DK
8

yams, manioc, cassava, or any other foods

made from roots
B

VITAMIN A RICH PLANT FOODS

Pumpkin, carrots, squash, or sweet potatoes B.

C.

Liver, kidney, heart, or other organ meats D.

E.

Any foods made from beans, peas, lentils, F.

G.

Any oil, fats, or butter, or foods made with H

that are yellow or orange inside Any dark

green leafy vegetables Ripe mangoes, ripe
papayas, or (insert other local vitamin Arich fruits)
C

OTHER FRUITS OR VEGETABLES

Bananas, passion fruits, goose berries etc

MEAT,POULTRY,FISH,SEAFOOD

Any meat, such as beef, pork, lamb, goat,

chicken, or duck Fresh or dried fish,
shellfish, or seafood
E

EGGS
Eggs (Ducks, hens)

PULSES/LEGUMES/NUTS

nuts, or seeds
G

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Cheese, yogurt, or other milk products

FOODS COOKED IN OIL/FAT

any of these
I

GRAIN AMARANTH (ANY PRODUCT)

I.

IDDS for the child is . /9

How many times did (NAME) eat solid, semi- NUMBER OF TIMES............... |___|___|
4

solid, or soft foods other than liquids DONT KNOW......................... 98

yesterday during the day or at night?

96

5. Is the childs food prepared separately from 1. Prepared separately

the family meal?

2. Taken from family meal

If food is prepared separately:

6. Which foods and drinks do you serve the child Food
separately?

Qty

drinks

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

4.

4.

Qty

If food comes from the family meal:

7. Does the child eat from his/her own
plate?

1. Yes

8.How many main meals (solid or semi- (

2. No

solid food or porridge) did the child eat

yesterday (day and night)

9. How many times did the child eat

snack food of any type in between the (

main meals yesterday?

1. Early evening (6-8pm) alone or with other children but

10. What time does the child normally separately from adults
eat his/her last meal?

2. Late evening (after 8pm) with the rest of the family

11. Do you feed your child on porridge?

1. Yes

2. No

12. If yes, which ingredients do

you use?

97

Ingredient

Quantity

5
13. Have you heard of kitobero as 1. Yes
applied

to

special

preparation

2. No

of

childrens food?

14. If yes have you prepared kitobero 1. Yes

2. No

for your child?

15. If yes, How many times in the last 1. Once

seven days did you prepare kitobero for 2. 2-3 times
your child?

3. More than four times

16. If you did not prepare kitobero for the

child in the last seven days, please give 1. I do not know how to prepare it
reasons why.

2. I cant get the ingredients

3. It takes too much time to prepare
4. What I give is enough for the child
5. No particular reason

6. Other (specify)

17. If you have prepared kitobero in the last

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

seven days can you list ingredients for three

ingredient

ingredient

ingredient

ingredient

different types of kitobero

1
2

98

ANTHROPOMETRY (FOR CHILDREN 6-59 MONTHS)-All children under five years

but above six months in the house
Qn 17.
CHILDREN MUAC

Qn18. MUAC Tape Color (tick right color)

Red

Yellow

Green

Measurement(cm)

Child1
Child2
Child3
Child4
Child5
Child6
Child7
Child8
Child9

Qn19. For children with MUAC Measurement is <11.5cm take:

Weight (kg)Height (cm) W/H Z score
Qn 20.
Does child have

YES

Diarrhea
Vomiting

Fever

99

NO

4.0: FOOD SECURITY

Use this table to give information about any 3 of the foods you consider major to you.
4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

Last food harvest & storage

4.9

4.10

4.11

4.12

4.13

Food purchase made

H/h Food

last month

Consumption
Patterns

Food

Acr

Total

Bags

Bags

Bags

Bags

Food

Purchase

Kilos

How

In the

Weeks

eage

No.

curre

sold

used

used

suppl

d food

purc

many

month

last year

(tent

of

ntly

for

for

last

hase

days

after the

in

hs)

bags

in

brewi eatin

17(w

month?

did

harvest,

which

ng

eeks)

1.yes

you

how

you had

(>>4.10)

depe

many

only

2.No

nd on

major

one

(>>4.12)

purch

meals

major

ased

does

meal

food

your

per day

in the

family

last

usually

30

eat per

days

day

16har stora
veste

ge

16. Probe to establish the average amount of food stuff that makes a bag where necessary
17. Food supply means the time a particular type of food stuff takes to get exhausted from the time of
harvest

100

5. HOUSEHOLD ASSETS
5.1

5.2

5.3

Asset Ownership

5.4

5.5

5.6

Animal &Poultry

5.7

5.8

5.9

6.0

Land Ownership

6.1

Land Usage

Ownership
Asset

Owned?

Animal &

Owned?

Poultry

1.Yes

of acres Ownership

(>>5.3)

(>>5.6)

(Tenths13)1.Communal

family Use

2No

2No

2.Customary

(Tenths)

(>>5.4)

(>>5.7)

3.Free Hold

1Yes

Qty

Qty

Total No. Type of

Acres

Use

rented for

s
(Ten
ths)

4.Lease
5.Kibanja
6.Other-Specify
Radio

Milk

Grain

TV

Cows

Amaranth

Bicycle

Other

Motorcycle

Cows

Perennial

Car/truck

Bulls

14

Oxen

Seasonal

crops

Hoes
Ploughs

15

crops

Wheelbarrow
Pumps/sprays

Sheep/
Goats

Storage shade

Other(spe
cify)

Animal

Pigs

buildings
Building for

Chicken

h/h business
Other(specify)

Turkeys
Others
(Specify)

13Tenths, i.e., to one decimal place (e.g., 1.5)

14The distinction between perennial and

seasonal crops is useful because the asset value for land with trees is likely to be higher than the
value for the other land. Perennial crops (e.g. tea, coffee, fruits, etc.)
maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, cotton etc)

101

Acre

15seasonal crops (e.g.,

APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE BASELINE RECIPE COLLECTION

INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS ON PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND
DOCUMENTATION OF GRAIN AMARANTH BASED RECIPES WITH
EXPERIENCED WOMEN FARMERS
District
Sub-county

Information:
You have been purposefully selected as an experienced woman farmer (in the area of grain
amaranth preparation/ cooking) to participate voluntarily in the development of G.A based
recipes. Information collected will help us to design and document the recipes and protocols.
We all know that grain amaranth has the potential to contribute to the improvement of the
nutritional status of vulnerable populations such as children and the sick. By developing recipes
of a variety of amaranth-based products, consumption of grain amaranth can be increased beyond
non-producing communities. Later on Promotion of the value-added products can also contribute
to expanding the market for amaranth. Your co-operation is highly needed.
Feel free to air out your views on how you actually prepare the grain amaranth (popping,
roasting, sprouting, and milling) and eventually how you make your soups, porridge, paste, pops,
stiff porridge among others. Clearly stating the names and amounts of ingredients you use, the
type of fuel used, how many minutes it takes you to prepare and cook the dishes mentioned. You
are also requested to tell us how many people can be served from your dish and how much of
that dish can be served to an individual at your house hold.

In case of any questions contact any of the following numbers: +256-414-533865, +256753481481 or +256-701684241

102

Table: G.A product codes:

G.A PRODUCT

CODE

1. Gruels (porridge)

2.Meal/Bread/stiff porridge

3.Amaranth Sauce

4.Amaranth snack

5.Medicinal Amaranth

6.Amaranth paste

RECIPE NAME:
RECIPE CODE:
INGREDIENTS USED

UNIT

QUANTITY

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Makes:
Preparation time: ..
Cooking time:
Fuel:
Number of H/H Members served:

Preparation/cooking method:

Thanks for your information

103

APPENDIX 2.1
Table: PARTICULARS OF RESPONDENTS (BASELINE RECIPE COLLECTION):
Farmers Name

Farmers Name

Farmers Name

Kamuli

Nakasongola

Apac

Saabi Jane

Nalweyiso Janet

Easter Ogwal

Ngonzi Tappy

Namwenje Harriet

Anna kongor

Mugoberezi Betty

Namiramu Edissa

Michael Wontwoni

Nabirye Robinah Kinabeya

Nattimba Margaret

Lillian Ogwang

Nabiryo Suzan

Nakalema Jane

Adoch Bito

Sodo Irene

Nansubuga Mary

Sophia Omara Aporo

Mugalagala Josephine

Nabukenya Cate

Margaret Akello

Namugaya Hanifah

Namirimo Editha

David Eyee

Waideno Mebra

Nambuusi Alice

Lucy Oceng

10

Ntogona Margaret

Nalweyiso Stephania

Mango Ayoo

11

Twiino Miriam

Nakiligya Beatrice

Erimalina Opodo

12

Mutalaga Irene

Kyamujoli Carol

Shelli Oruru

13

Isabirye Florence

Nanyombi Josephine

Acen Evaline

14

kyatte Sarah

Namaganda Betty Nalongo

Omach Geoffrey

15

Nampala Zeulensi

Nakivumbi Sarah

Semmy Adoko

16

Tinka Rose

Namuwonge Damalie

Ketty Oceng

17

Nangobi Christina

Okello Cosmas

18

Bujuni Rose

Rose Ococh

19

Wambi Beatrice

Rose Oruru

20

0uma Monica

Lilian Tapi

21

Nakiwala Margaret

22

Kasubo Naima

23

Timugibwa

24

Namabiro Suzan

25

Musowanire Jessica

26

Namugaya Mangarita

27

Nakawoma Florence

28

Namia Rose

29

Kauma Tappy

No.

104

30

Sipiyoza Tibiwa

31

Kateme Samalie

32

Isabirye Mary

33

Nankwanga Monica

34

Nakayiima Ruth

APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRES FOR SENSORY EVALUATION OF THE

DEVELOPED PRODUCTS
3.1 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation of Chapatti.
Name of Panelist: Age.sex.Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with 2 coded samples (804,840) of Chapatti. Assess for texture, flavor,
appearance and odor basing on the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your
response in the box below the attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with
water provided before testing the next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any
of the samples.
1
2
3
4
Dislike
Dislike
Dislike
Dislike Neither
extremely very much moderately slightly Like nor
dislike
Sample Code attribute
804
840

Texture

Flavor

6
7
8
9
like
like
like
like
slightly moderately very
extremely
much

Appearance

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

105

3.2 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation of Sesame Balls.

Name of Panelist: Agesex..Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with four coded samples (801,180) of Sesame Balls. Assess for texture, flavor,
appearance and odor basing on the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your
response in the box below the attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with
water provided before testing the next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any
of the samples.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

801
180

4
Dislike
slightly

Texture

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.3 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation of Baggia.

Name of Panelist: Age.sex.Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with two coded samples (802,820) of Baggia. Assess for texture, flavor,
appearance and odor basing on the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your
response in the box below the attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with
water provided before testing the next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any
of the samples.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

4
Dislike
Dislike Neither
moderately slightly Like nor
dislike

Sample Code attribute

802

Texture

Flavor

106

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
like
moderately very
much
Odor

9
like
extremely

820

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.4 Sensory Evaluation questionnaire for Pancakes.

Name of Panelist: Agesex..Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with two coded samples (380,830) of Pancakes. Assess for texture, flavor,
appearance and odor basing on the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your
response in the box below the attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with
water provided before testing the next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any
of the samples.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

380
830

Texture

4
Dislike
slightly

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.5 Sensory Evaluation questionnaire for Peanut Sauce

House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with two coded samples (901,910) of Peanut powder. You are request to
prepare the samples and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing on the scale given
below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the attribute under
test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided before testing the next sample.
Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
107

Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this sauce.

1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

Sample Code Attribute

901
910

3
Dislike
moderately

Texture

4
Dislike
slightly

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.6 Sensory Evaluation questionnaire for Bean Sauce

House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with two coded samples (902,920) of bean Sauce. You are request to prepare
the samples and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing on the scale given below.
Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the attribute under test.
Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided before testing the next sample. Please
feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this sauce.

1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

Sample Code Attribute

902
920

3
Dislike
moderately

Texture

4
Dislike
slightly

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

108

3.7 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation of Sesame Instant Porridge.

House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with two coded samples (604,640) of Sesame Instant Porridge. You are
request to prepare the samples and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing on the
scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the
attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided before testing the
next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this porridge.
1
2
3
4
Dislike
Dislike
Dislike
Dislike Neither
extremely very much moderately slightly Like nor
dislike
Sample Code Attribute
604
640

Texture

Flavor

6
7
8
9
like
like
like
like
slightly moderately very
extremely
much

Appearance

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.8 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation ofMillet Porridge.

House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with three coded samples (106,160,610) of Millet Porridge Flour. You are
request to prepare the samples and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing on the
scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the
attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided before testing the
next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this porridge.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

4
Dislike
slightly

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

109

6
like
slightly

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Sample Code Attribute

106
160
610

Texture

Flavor

Appearance

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.9 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation of Maize Porridge
House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with three coded samples (603,360,630) of Maize Porridge Flour. You are
request to prepare the samples and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing on the
scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the
attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided before testing the
next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this Porridge.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

603
360
630

4
Dislike
slightly

Texture

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.10 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation of Rice Porridge

House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with three coded samples (602,260,620) of Rice Porridge Flour. You are
request to prepare the samples and assess texture, flavor, appearance and odor for basing on the
scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the
attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided before testing the
next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.

110

Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this Porridge.

1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

602
260
620

4
Dislike
slightly

Texture

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.11 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation of Cassava Meal.

House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with three coded samples (703,370,730) of Cassava flour. You are request to
prepare the samples (follow instructions attached) and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and
odor basing on the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the
box below the attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided
before testing the next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.

Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this Meal.

1
2
3
4
Dislike
Dislike
Dislike
Dislike Neither
extremely very much moderately slightly Like nor
dislike
Sample Code attribute
703
370
730

Texture

Flavor

111

6
7
8
9
like
like
like
like
slightly moderately very
extremely
much

Appearance

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.12 Questionnaire for Sensory Evaluation of Millet cassava meal

House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with three coded samples (701, 170,710) of Millet-cassava meal flour. You
are request to prepare the samples and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing on
the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the
attribute under test. Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided before testing the
next sample. Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this Meal.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

701
170
710

4
Dislike
slightly

Texture

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.13 Questionnaire for Sensory evaluation of Rice Meal.

House Hold Number Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with two coded samples (702,720) of Rice Meal. You are request to prepare
the samples and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing on the scale given below.
Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the attribute under test.

112

Please remember to rinse your mouth with water provided before testing the next sample. Please
feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare this Meal.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

702
720

4
Dislike
slightly

Texture

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.14 Sensory Evaluation questionnaire for Ginger tea Masala.

Name of Panelist: Age.sex.Date:
Instructions:
You are provided 2 coded samples (301,310) of Ginger tea Masala. Follow the preparation
instructions and assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing on the scale given below.
Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the attribute under test.
Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
Note: Attached are instructions on how to prepare the Tea.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

Sample Code Attribute

301
310

3
Dislike
moderately

Texture

4
Dislike
slightly

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

113

3.15 Sensory Evaluation questionnaire for Paste

Name of Panelist: Age.sex.Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with two samples of Paste. Assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor
basing on the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box
below the attribute under test. Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

501
510

Texture

4
Dislike
slightly

5
6
Neither
like
Like nor
slightly
dislike
Flavor
Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

3.16 Sensory Evaluation questionnaire for bean snack

Name of Panelist: Age.sex..Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with 2 samples of the bean-peanut Snack. Assess for texture, flavor,
appearance and odor basing on the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your
response in the box below the attribute under test. Please feel free to give any comments about
the sample.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

401
104

Texture

4
Dislike
slightly

5
Neither
Like nor
dislike

Flavor

6
like
slightly

Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments

Thank you for your participation

114

3.17 Sensory Evaluation questionnaire for grain amaranth soup

Name of Panelist: Age.sex.Date:
Instructions:
You are provided with 3 samples of soup. Assess for texture, flavor, appearance and odor basing
on the scale given below. Write the figure that corresponds to your response in the box below the
attribute under test. Please feel free to give any comments about any of the samples.
1
Dislike
extremely

2
Dislike
very much

3
Dislike
moderately

Sample Code Attribute

678
768
876

Texture

4
Dislike
slightly

5
6
Neither
like
Like nor
slightly
dislike
Flavor
Appearance

7
like
moderately

8
like
very
much

9
like
extremely

Odor

For any other comments, please note the sample codes.

Thank you for your participation

APPENDIX 4: GRAIN AMARANTH (G.A) RECIPES FOR TRIALS AND

EVALUATION BY FARMER GROUPS
PRODUCTS
Chapatti

Baggia

INGREDIENTS/ group
3 leveled Tumpeco cups (1400g) of wheat Flour (Preferably Azam)
600g (5 heaped table spoons + half kilo)of Popped Grain Amaranth flour
Liter (1 Tumpeco cup) Oil
2 finely grated medium size carrots(156g)

2 finely grated medium size onions(86g)

2 Tumpeco cups of hot water (1000mls)

15g (1 tablespoon) of salt
Optional: spices ( 1teaspoon /7g pilau Masala)

Half a kilo (500g) cassava flour

Quarter a kilo+21/2 tablespoons (300g ) roasted soy bean flour

Ten heaped tablespoons (200g) popped Grain amaranth flour
1 Liter of Cooking oil (2 Tumpeco cups)
1 finely ground medium size onion(43g)
11/2 Tumpeco cups of cold water(1500mls)
15g (1 tablespoon) of salt
Optional: spices (1 teaspoon /7g ground ginger)

115

Pancakes

Half a kilo (500g) cassava flour

Quarter a kilo (250g) popped Grain amaranth flour
7 Big sweet bananas (560g)
2Tumpecos of Cooking oil (1 liter)
1 leveled tablespoon of fresh finely ground ginger (17g)

Balls

Quarter kilo (250g) of sesame seeds

Quarter kilo (250g) of popped amaranth grains
Quarter kilo (250g) of sugar

Soup

1 Nice cup (345g) of roasted/ toasted amaranth grains

7 Nice cups (3248ml) of water,
2 heaped teaspoon(14g) of salt,
2 tablespoon (72g) of margarine
1 teaspoon (6g) freshly ground ginger
Tomato puree from 2 big tomatoes(184g)
1 finely grated/chopped onion (40g).

sesame Instant
porridge

Rice-GA Porridge

Half Tumpeco cup boiling water(250ml)

Half Tumpeco cup of fresh whole milk(250ml)

3 tablespoons of the instant flour- made from:

roasted sesame kernels (1/2kg or 500g)
popped G.A Grains(1kg or 1000g)
sugar(1/4kg or 250g)

Optional: Sugar

5 heaped table spoons mixed flour- made from:

Rice Flour [250g (1/4kg)]

Maize-GA Porridge

Popped G.A flour [250g (1/4kg) of G.A]

1 liters (2 Tumpeco) Fresh water

500 mls (1 Tumpeco) Milk (optional)

125 g(half of 1/4kg) sugar

5 heaped table spoons mixed flour - made from:

Maize Flour [250g (1/4kg)]
Roasted G.A flour [250g (1/4kg) of G.A]

1 liters (2 Tumpeco) Fresh water

500 mls (1 Tumpeco) Milk (optional)

125 g(half of 1/4kg) sugar

116

Millet-GA Porridge

5 heaped table spoons mixed flour - made from:

Millet Flour [250g (1/4kg)]
Roasted G.A flour [250g (1/4kg) of G.A]

1 liters (2 Tumpeco) Fresh water

500 mls (1 Tumpeco) Milk (optional)

125 g (half of 1/4kg) sugar

G.A-Peanut sauce

20 g (1 table spoon) G.A leaf powder

100g (5 table spoons) pounded peanut
teaspoon salt (2g)
nice cup clean water

800g of soaked fresh beans

Five tablespoons (100g) of Popped G.A powder
Two table spoons table Salt(30g)
2 Liters Water(4 Tumpeco cups)
1 finely grated onion(44g)
2 Teaspoons of curry powder
teaspoon of pilau Masala (2g) (optional spice)
1tablespoon of ground ginger (17g)

Convenient Bean
sauce

Instant rice-G.A
Meal

Cassava meal

Millet-cassava-G.A
Meal

Ginger-G.A Masala

Half a kilo of raw grain amaranth (500g)

1tablespoon of ground ginger (17g)
teaspoonful salt (4g)
Half a kilo of rice kernels (500g)
Water (2Liters/4 Tumpeco cups)

250g(1/4kg) Cassava flour

250g (1/4kg) roasted Grain Amaranth flour
1 liter of water (2 Tumpeco cups)

500g(1/2kg) Millet flour

250g (1/4kg)Cassava flour
250g(1/4kg) Roasted G.A flour
2litersWater(4 Tumpeco cups)

300g(slightly more than 1/4kg) of Ginger (fresh, peeled, ungrounded)

117

Paste

Bean-peanut-G.A
Snack

100g(5 table spoons) Popped Grain Amaranth flour

20 g /3 teaspoons Pilau Masala (optional)

1kg sesame seeds(1000g)

1/2kg Peanut seeds(500g)
1/4kg popped Grain amaranth flour(250g)

100g popped Grain Amaranth flour

300g Peanuts/groundnuts seeds
100g beans
Cooking oil (1 liter)
2 tablespoons of salt (30g)
Water (3 liters)
1 finely grated onion (43g)
2 Teaspoons of curry powder (3.5g)
teaspoon of pilau Masala (2g)
1tablespoon of ginger (17g)

INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Chapatti
Make Popped G.A Flour locally (As follows :)
Pre-heat a large pan using an open fire
Put clean seeds on a pre-heated pan
Stir the seeds constantly while popping to prevent them from burning and to allow most
of them to pop until the majority are
Pound in a motor
Sieve the flour to get the finest powder- now you have your popped GA flour
Sift wheat and popped grain amaranth flour; this is done to incorporate air into the flour.
Mix the two flours and salt very well
In a large bowl, add together flour, carrots, onions and 3 tablespoons of oil. Adding a
little bit of hot water at a time, mix the ingredients together to form dough.

118

Knead the dough for 10 minutes or until it does not stick to your hands. The secret to
really soft Chapattis lies in the kneading and use of hot water. The dough must be smooth
and just the right softness - medium.
Divide the dough into equal portions, roughly the size of a golf ball. Roll between your
palms, applying a gentle pressure, till the balls are smooth and without cracks. Once
completed, lightly brush each piece of dough with oil and then sprinkle a pinch of flour
on top.
Sprinkle flour over the table where you will be rolling the chapattis out. Use your rolling
pin to push the dough into round flat circles about 5 inches wide. Flip the dough as you
roll and make sure you add flour if it is sticking to the table or the rolling pin.

Figure a: How to roll the Chapatti dough

Heat a pan on a medium flame and put one tablespoon of oil in the pan. Put the rolled out
Chapatti on it to cook. Use your hands to stretch the chapatti to the width of the pan so
that the chapatti is as thin as possible.

Take either a spatula or an empty flour bag and fold it down from the top to the bottom.
Slowly press down on the chapatti as you turn it.
The Chapatti is ready for its first flip when you begin to see raised bumps on its surface.
Use a spatula to turn it on to its other side. Remove from the pan when both sides appear
golden in color as shown in figure b below.

Figure b: The ready golden brown chapatti

Place on a clean paper to absorb excess oil.
119

Place in a polythene paper to keep them soft.

2. Baggia
Sift cassava, soybean and popped grain amaranth flour; this is done to incorporate air into
the flour.
Mix the three flours and salt very well in a large bowl, add together flour and onions.
Adding a little bit of water at a time, mix the ingredients together to form a thick paste.
Place the paste in a Baggia machine or perforated cup or grater machine holes.
Exert pressure on the dough from the top so that it can go through the perforations into
the hot oil for a few minutes.

Figure c: Cold extrusion of the Baggia paste with grater

Deep fry until Baggia is light golden brown and with firm sound when touched
with a spoon.
Remove the ready baggia from oil using a perforated spoon(with holes) and place
on a clean paper to absorb excess oil until they are cold and with no visible oil.
Seal in a polythene paper to keep them crunchy as shown below.

Figure d: the sealed Baggia

3. Pancakes
Make popped G.A Flour(follow instructions)
Obtain cassava flour locally
Mix the two flours in a ratio of 1:2 respectively(see ingredients quantities for direction)
Sift flour (cassava + popped G.A).

120

Remove of the flour and keep aside for dusting the dough and the board
Peel the bananas and place them in the remaining of the sifted flour.
Mash the bananas and ground ginger into the of the flour.
Once fully mashed, knead to make big round dough.
Add 3 tablespoons (21mls) of oil when the dough is sticky.
Dust the rolling stick and board (whenever necessary) with the flour that had been kept
aside
Roll out the dough and cut out into small round shapes as shown below.

Figure e: Cutting out of the pancake dough

Place the cut out dough into hot oil in a frying pan.
Deep fry until golden brown on both sides.
Place on a clear paper to absorb oil.
Place them in a polythene bag so that they remain soft.
4. G.A-Sesame balls
Sort sesame to remove visible stones/dirt
Wash the sesame twice in fresh clean water
Allow it to settle so that the remaining stones settle at the bottom for easy separation
Drain(remove the water from) the Sesame on a big sieve
Roast the sesame over low fire(remember not to salt it) until it begins to pop giving off
sweet aroma(it should be firm when pressed)
Pour the roasted sesame in a large pan once its ready

121

Pop G.A. (as in the instruction for chapatti)

Mix the two (roasted sesame and popped G.A grains) and place them in a dish.
Melt sugar in a separate pan.
Add the mixture (sesame+ G.A) to the melted sugar.
Stir quickly and mould into tiny balls using your hands.
Seal the balls in polythene (as shown below) or in a container with a tight fitting lid.

Figure f: the sealed sesame balls

5. G.A Soup
Roast G.A at low fire until golden brown(see figure below) to acquire a nutty flavor

Figure g: The golden brown roasted/ toasted G.A grains

Soak the roasted G.A in cold water of seven times its weight for one hour.
To this mixture, add salt, ground ginger, chopped tomatoes and finely ground onion and
mix with a wooden spoon.
Boil uncovered for 5 minutes over high open fire.
Cover the sauce pan with a tight fitting lid and place the contents over low fire on the
charcoal stove (with ash on top of the charcoal) for 20 minutes.
At this point, Most of the water has soaked and the amaranth grains are puffed up.
122

Gently stir the mixture and remove the cover to allow some of the water to evaporate for
60 minutes.
When the mixture is a little thick add the margarine and allow it to melt.
Strain the contents through a sieve (to get a thick clear soup) into a clean dish ready for
consumption.
6. Sesame-G.A instant porridge
Sort sesame to remove visible stones/dirt
Wash it twice in fresh clean water
Allow it to settle so that the remaining stones settle at the bottom for easy separation
Drain(remove the water from) the Sesame on a big sieve
Roast the sesame over low fire(remember not to salt it) until it begins to pop giving off
sweet aroma(it should be firm when pressed)
Pour the roasted sesame in a large pan once its ready
Pop the amaranth
Pour all the popped amaranth in the pan with the roasted sesame
Add the sugar into this very pan
Stir continuously at low heat
Let the sugar melt but do not let it caramelize (turn brown). At this point the melted sugar
will bind the sesame and G.A.
Remove the contents from fire but continue to stir until they have cooled
Transfer the contents into a motor and pound with a pestle until a powder is formed
Sieve the powder to get a finer powder
Seal in a polythene bag or a clean dry container with a tight fitting lid (in order to make
the instant porridge :)
Boil clean water and milk in a clean pan
Put the flour into a clean container
Add the boiling water/milk mixture while stirring

123

Add sugar to taste if its not enough

7. G.A-Rice porridge
Mill the rice kernels to get flour
Make Popped G.A flour (as in the instruction for chapatti)
Mix the two flours (rice and popped G.A) in a ratio of 1:1 ( 250g (1/4kg) rice to 250g
(1/4kg) of G.A)
then in order to make the porridge
Boil clean water in a clean saucepan
Put the flour into a clean plastic container
Add cold water to the flour and stir to make a light paste using a spoon
Add the paste to the boiling water while stirring and boil for 15 minutes
Add milk to a desired consistence and continue boiling for 10 minutes
Add sugar to taste and serve in cups
8. G.A Maize porridge
Mill the maize grains to get flour
Make Popped G.A flour (as in the instruction for chapatti)
Mix the flours (G.A, Maize) in a ratio of 1:1 ( 250g (1/4kg) maize to 250g (1/4kg) of G.A)
then in order to make the porridge
Boil clean water in a clean saucepan
Put the flour into a clean plastic container
Add cold water to the flour and stir to make a light paste using a spoon
Add the paste to the boiling water while stirring and boil for 15 minutes
Add milk to a desired consistence and continue boiling for 10 minutes (optional)
Add sugar to taste and serve in cups
9. G.A-Millet porridge
Roast the millet for a short time
Grind the millet to obtain flour

124

Roast G.A until golden brown(see figure for roasted grains in making the soup)
Make roasted/ toasted G.A flour by pounding in a motor and sieving to obtain a fine flour
Mix the 2 flours (G.A& Millet) in a ratio of 1:1 ( 250g (1/4kg) millet to 250g (1/4kg) of
G.A) )
then in order to make the porridge
Boil clean water in a clean saucepan
Put the flour into a clean plastic container
Add cold water to the flour and stir to make a light paste using a spoon
Add the paste to the boiling water while stirring and boil for 15 minutes
Add milk to a desired consistence and continue boiling for 10 minutes (optional)
Add sugar to taste and serve in cups
10. G.A Leaf powder-Peanut sauce
Pick G.A leaves from the garden.
Clean them thoroughly to remove dirt and worms.
Wash them in running water.
Place the clean leaves in a sauce pan with a tight fitting lid.
Steam the leaves for 15- minutes.
Remove the sauce pan from the fire but keep the lid on until the contents are cold.
Remove the leaves from the sauce pan and dry them under direct sun shine on a clean
drying stand.
Cover with a transparent polythene to prevent contamination from flies.
Continuously turn the leaves until all have dried and fragile.
Place the leaves into a motor and pound them into powder using a pestle.
Sieve the powder to get the finest powder.
Seal in polythene or store in a dry container with a tight fitting lid.
Roast the Peanut over low fire

125

Then in order to make the sauce

Mix the G.A leaf powder with the pounded peanut in a ratio of 1:5(see ingredients )
Add water and boil to form a thick stew while stirring for 30 minutes.
Add salt to taste.
Serve.

11. Convenient bean sauce

Soak beans overnight
Make popped G.A Flour (as in the instruction for chapatti)
Remove testas from the beans and half them(divide each bean into two)
Pour the beans in a saucepan and add water to a level just slightly above the beans
Add salt, curry powder pilau Masala, ginger and onion to the beans, stir and put a lid
Put the beans on fire
Boil and continuously add water to maintain its level (always make sure that the beans do
not get mashed)until beans are ready
Remove the excess water, cool it and pour in the G.A flour to make dough
Shape the dough in tiny little attractive pieces which can easily dry
Sundry the beans and G.A pieces for 3-5 days until they are all dry as seen in the figure
below

Figure h: The sundried beans-G.A Pieces

Seal in polythene or container with tight fitting lid
Then in order to make the sauce:

126

Soak the beans and G.A pieces overnight

Boil for 20 minutes
Add salt to taste
Serve
12. Convenient rice-G.A meal
Soak raw G.A grains in water for 2 hours
Add half of the salt to the soaked G.A and boil until ready(remember to keep stirring to
prevent burning on)
Place rice in a clean saucepan
Add the other half of salt, ground ginger and water to the rice
Boil over low fire until its ready
Mix the ready rice and G.A and spread on the tray
Sundry until all is dry/ crispy
Seal in polythene (as shown below) or in a container with a tight fitting lid

Figure i: Sealed G.A-Rice instant meal

Then in order to cook the meal:
Add clean water to slightly above the level of the rice-G.A mixture
Boil the G.A-Rice mixture for 20 minutes
Add salt to taste(if its not enough for you)
Serve

127

13. G.A-Cassava meal

Make roasted G.A Flour (follow instructions as in G.A Millet porridge above)
Obtain cassava flour locally
Mix the two flours in a ratio of 1:1(see ingredients)
Boil a liter of clean fresh water
Fold in the flour: little at a time, until you reach a desired stiffness
Mingle to make sure that all the flour is absorbed by the water
Cover with a lid for about 5 minute so that it can cook then mingle again (repeat this step
3 times)
Invert the saucepan onto a plate or a tray
Keep the pan on until you are ready to eat
14. G.A-Cassava-Millet meal
Make roasted G.A Flour (follow instructions as in G.A Millet porridge above)
Obtain cassava flour locally
Roast millet and grind to make flour
Mix the three flours in a ratio of 1:1:2 respectively(see ingredients)
Boil the measured clean fresh water
Fold in the flour: little at a time, until you reach a desired stiffness
Mingle to make sure that all the flour is absorbed by the water
Cover with a lid for about 10 minutes so that it can cook then mingle again (repeat this
step 3 times)
Invert the saucepan onto a plate or a tray
Keep the pan on until you are ready to eat
15. G.A-Ginger Masala
Peel the ginger
Wash to remove dirt

128

Pound to fineness
Mix the Popped G.A flour with the grounded ginger so that its fluid will form paste with
the G.A
Mould into tiny flat pieces that can easily dry
Dry the pieces until they can easily break
Pound in a motor to form powder
Sieve to get the finest powder
Seal in polythene as shown below, or pack it in a clean dry container with a tight fitting
lid

Figure j: the sealed G.A-Ginger Masala

Serving instructions
Put 1 tea spoon of the powder
Add tea leaves and sugar ( your usual measure)
Add hot water and stir
Take while its hot
16. G.A-Sesame-Groundnuts Paste
Sort sesame and groundnuts to remove visible stones/dirt
Wash the sesame twice in fresh clean water
Allow it to settle so that the remaining stones settle at the bottom for easy separation
Drain(remove the water from) the Sesame on a big sieve
Roast the sesame over low fire(remember not to salt it) until it begins to pop giving off
sweet aroma(it should be firm when pressed)
Pour the roasted sesame in a large pan once its ready
Pop the amaranth and pound it to make flour(follow instruction above)

129

Roast the sorted ground nuts over low fire

Mix sesame, Groundnuts and popped G.A flour in a ratio of 4:2:1 respectively
Pound continuously until you make a paste as shown below

Figure k: the ground paste

Seal in polythene or a container ( like the one in the figure) with a tight fitting lid
17. G.A-Peanut-Bean snack
Soak beans overnight
Roast groundnuts with salt over low heat until crispy
Make popped G.A Flour (follow instructions above)
Remove testas from the beans and half them
Pour the beans in a saucepan and add water to a level just slightly above the beans
Add salt, curry powder pilau Masala, ginger and onion to the beans, stir and put a lid
Put the beans on fire
Boil and continuously add water to maintain its level (always make sure that the beans do
not get mashed)until beans are ready
Remove the excess water, cool it and pour in the G.A flour to make dough
Shape the dough in tiny little attractive pieces which can easily dry
Sundry the beans and G.A pieces for 1 hour under very hot sun
Deep fry the beans and G.A Pieces separately until they are crispy
Add together the 3 commodities and mix them uniformly.
Seal in polythene or container with tight fitting lid
130

APPENDIX 5: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE FARMER GROUP INTERVIEWS

DATE //
DISTRICT .. PARISH .
NAME OF FARMER GROUP
PRODUCTS

1 Chapatti

2 Baggia

3 Pancakes

4 Balls

5 Soup

6 sesame Instant
porridge
7 Rice-GA Porridge

8 Maize-GA Porridge

9 Millet-GA Porridge

QN 1.

QN 2.

QN 3.

What do you
like about this
recipe?

How would you

rate this recipe
in terms of
acceptability?

How would you

rate the
product in
terms of
acceptability?

131

Any other Comments

from group members

10 G.A-Peanut sauce

11 Convenient Bean
sauce
12 Instant rice-G.A
Meal
13 Cassava meal

14 Millet-cassava-G.A
Meal
15 Ginger-G.A Masala

16 Paste

17 Bean-peanut-G.A
Snack

Key: To be used by the interviewer. (The interviewer will clearly explain this table and
take control of the group interview so that the views of the interviewees are within
answers in the table below.)

QN 1.

QN 2.

Ingredients are

It is a simple way of

It is not time

None of

easily

making this product

consuming

these

available

(ease of processing)

Extremely

Moderately

Neither acceptable

Moderately

Extremely

unacceptable

unacceptable

nor unacceptable

acceptable

acceptable

132

QN 3.

Extremely

Moderately

unacceptable

unacceptable

Neither acceptable
nor unacceptable

Moderately

Extremely

acceptable

acceptable

Appendix 6: The 21 farmer groups that participated in the Recipe trials and evaluation
KAMULI

NAKASONGOLA

APAC

Baligema kumunwa F.G

Kyabutaika F.G

Kong apor F.G

Tugezeku women F.G

Atakulaba F.G

Nya amii F.G

Bakuseka majja

Kiralamba integrated F.G

Wan opat F.G

Tibikoma F.G

Tusubira womens F.G

Ocan oyere F.G

Kamukamu F.G

Bakuseka majja F.G

Atana womens F.G

Babigumira F.G

Twekembe F.G

Odongi cen F.G

Bakyala kwelandiza F.G

Okola baseke F.G

Can opwonya F.G

F.G=Farmer Group
Appendix 7: Main ingredients used in the theoretical recipe formulation
MAIN

CODE

Total

INGREDIENTS

Wt

Energy

Protein

lipid

OF PRODUCTS

(g)

(Kcals)

(g)

(fat) (g)

100

144

9.16

100

585

100

565

Ca(mg)

Fe(mg)

Zn(mg)

1.08

62

2.48

1.06

23.68

49.66

54

2.26

3.31

16.96

48

989

14.76

7.16

Beans, yellow,
mature seeds,
cooked, boiled,
A

with salt
Peanuts, all types,
dry-roasted,

without salt
Seeds, sesame
butter, tahini, from
roasted and toasted
kernels (most

common type)

133

Millet flour

100

373

10.75

4.25

14

3.94

2.63

Corn flour, wholeE

grain, white

100

361

6.93

3.86

2.38

1.73

Cassava, raw

100

160

1.36

0.28

16

0.27

0.34

Rice flour, white

100

366

5.95

1.42

10

0.35

0.8

Grain amaranths

100

371

13.56

7.02

159

7.61

2.87

100

441

34.8

21.86

188

5.82

3.58

Soy flour, full-fat,

I

roasted
Wheat flour, white,
all-purpose,

unenriched

100

364

10.33

0.98

15

1.17

0.7

ginger

100

335

8.98

4.24

114

19.8

3.64

Sugar

100

387

0.05

0.01

blue band

100

604

0.2

70

Source: USDA Nutrient Data Base

Appendix: 8 Age group Vs Nutrient requirement
Age group
Infants(7-12)
Children (1-3 years)
children (4-8 years)
9-13 years
14-18 years(Male)
14-18 years(Female)
19-30years(Male)
19-30years(Female)
31-50 years(Male)
31-50 years(Female)
51-70 years(female)
Pregnant(18 years)
Pregnant(18-50 years)
lactating (18 years)
Lactating (18-50 years)

Calcium(mg) iron(mg)
270
11
500
7
800
10
1300
8
1300
11
1300
15
1000
8
1000
18
1000
8
1000
18
1200
8
1300
27
1000
27
1300
10
1000
9

Nutrient Requirement
Zinc(mg) Protein(g)
Energy(Kcals)
Fat(g)
3
11
999
30
5
13
1404 ND
8
19
1789
65
11
34
2265
65
9
52
2840
65
11
46
2000
65
8
56
2818
65
8
46
2000
65
11
56
2554
65
8
46
2000
65
8
46
2000
65
13
71
2500
65
11
71
2500
65
14
71
2700
65
12
71
2700
65

Source: 1999 - 2002 Dietary Reference Intakes, Institutes of Medicine 2005 Dietary Guidelines
Children's Nutrition Research Center at Baylor College of Medicine

134