B a s i c I n f o r m a t i o n Te c h n o l o g y C o n c e p t s

ESSENTIAL INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Objectives
Define the term computer and discuss the four basic computer operations: input, processing,
output, and storage
Define data and information
Explain the principle components of the computer and their use
Describe the use and handling of floppy disks and hard disks
Discuss computer software and explain the difference between system software and application
software
Identify several types of personal computer application software
Discuss computer communications channels and equipment and the Internet and World Wide Web
Explain how to purchase, install, and maintain a personal computer, a notebook computer, and a
handheld computer
Define e-commerce

Computer: Input, Processing, Output, and Storage

In today's world, computers are used for almost every task imaginable. Routine activities such as paying
bills, buying groceries, or communicating with a friend can be done with a computer. That is why it is
important not only to know how to use a computer, but also to understand the components of a
computer and what they do.
Recent studies report that almost 40% of homes surveyed have personal computers, and this number is
growing. Given the widespread use of computers, computer literacy - a knowledge and understanding
of computers and computer uses - has become an essential ingredient in the recipe for success in
today's world. Florida was the first state to demand computer literacy of all students by grade 12.
Collectively, the electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment that makes up a personal computer is
called hardware. Devices that surround the system unit (i.e., the keyboard, mouse, speakers, monitor,
and so on) sometimes are known as peripheral devices.
Computers manipulate (process) data (input) to produce information (output) and hold (store) that
information for future use. These operations are completed incredibly quickly. Today's supercomputer
can perform 72 trillion operations per second. If a person did one arithmetic operation a second
without stopping, it would take more than 31,000 years to perform the number of operations a
supercomputer can do in one second.

Data and Information

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A major part of understanding computers is to know what goes into them (data), what comes out of
them (information), and to understand the process of turning data into information, also known as the
information processing cycle.
Understanding the difference between data and information is important. Clifford Stoll - lecturer,
computer security expert, and author (The Cuckoo's Egg: Tracking a Spy through the Maze of
Computer Espionage and Silicon Snake Oil: Second Thoughts on the Information Superhighway are
two of his most popular works) - notes a wide gap between data and information. Information has a
pedigree, or lineage. Its source is known, whether a respected professor or a seventh grader. "The
Internet has great gobs of data," Stoll maintains, "and little, little information."

Comp onents of the Comp uter and Their Use

A computer consists of five primary hardware components: input devices, the central processing unit
(CPU), memory, output devices, and storage devices. These components work together with software
to perform calculations, organize data, and communicate with other computers.
Different types of input devices transmit different types of data or transmit data in different ways. A
keyboard is used to transmit alpha/numeric data by typing. In addition to the standard keys in the
typing area, an enhanced keyboard contains:
Function keys that can be programmed to perform specific tasks
Status lights that indicate modes that can be turned on and off by toggle keys (e.g., caps lock and num
lock)
A numeric keypad that allows for rapid entry of numbers
Arrow keys and other cursor-control keys (e.g., home, end, page up, and page down) that control the
on-screen movement of the insertion point
Special keys such as esc, shift, ctrl, and alt that have varying functions depending on the software
The mouse, like a trackball or joystick, is called a pointing device because it controls the movement of
a pointer, or mouse pointer, on the computer screen. The first mouse was a one-button, rectangle
shaped device invented by Doug Engelbart in 1964. A mouse is very easy to use. It requires empty
desk space, however, and forces the user to remove a hand from the keyboard to give a command.
Different CPUs function at different speeds. The rate at which computer operations take place is
measured in gig hertz (GHz), or billions of electronic pulses per second. This rate varies among
computers and should be a consideration when purchasing a personal computer. Computers have two
basic types of memory. RAM (random access memory) is volatile, meaning that its contents are lost
when the computer is turned off. ROM (read-only memory) is non-volatile because it retains its
contents even when the power is turned off. ROM stores information that does not change, such as the
instructions and data used to start the computer when it is first turned on.
Like input devices, different types of output devices convey different types of information or convey
information in different ways. Printer output sometimes is called hard copy because of its physical,
touchable character. Monitor output, on the other hand, is called soft copy because it has only an
electronic, intangible existence.

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Non-impact printers represent the fastest growing segment of the printer market. The drops of ink that
form an ink-jet printer character are similar to the dots that form a dot matrix character figure, but there
are many more of them. Good quality paper must be used with ink-jet printers so that the ink does not
bleed. The speed quoted for impact printers often is measured in characters per second (cps). Like inkjet printers, laser printer speed is measured in pages per minute (ppm). Although they are fast, all
printers are much slower than computers. Because of this, most printers have a buffer that temporarily
stores a few pages, allowing the computer to dump output into the buffer and continue processing. The
most widely used PC monitors are 14- or 17-inch (measured from one corner to the diagonally
opposite corner). With the growing popularity of portable computers, the clarity of LCD displays
continues to improve. The quality of a monitor's display depends largely on three factors:

Resolution - the number of pixels displayed

Dot pitch - the distance between pixels
Refresh rate - the speed with which images are redrawn on the screen
Storage devices are different from memory. Memory, sometimes called primary storage, is fast,
short-term, volatile, and relatively expensive. Storage devices, on the other hand, are slower, longterm, non-volatile, and less expensive.

Floppy Disks and Hard Disks

The data and information used in a computer needs to be stored for future use. The memory of a
computer only holds items temporarily while they are being processed. When not being processed,
these items must be stored in auxiliary storage devices. These devices include floppy disks, hard disks,
CD-ROM, and DVD-ROM. When selecting a storage device it is important to know that each device
holds different amounts of information.
Although floppy disks once were available in two sizes, the 5.25-inch floppy disk rarely is used today,
and some believe it is destined for the same fate as the eight-track tape. Because of its rigid plastic shell,
it may be difficult to see the 3.5-inch disk as "floppy." The name is justified, however, not only by the
disk's ancestry but also by the flexible character of the disk itself. When a floppy disk drive is reading
from or writing to a floppy disk, a light turns on next to the drive. Floppy disks never should be
inserted into or removed from the drive when this light is on. Most magnetic disks are read/write
storage media. Some optical discs, such as CD-ROMs, usually can be read from but not written to.
Each track on a formatted floppy disk is very narrow. To see how narrow, try to draw 80 lines in a
11/4-inch space (the approximate radius of the floppy disk surface). Floppy disks are soft-sectored,
meaning that the number of sectors is not predetermined. Floppy disk access time depends on the time
needed to locate the correct track, the time required to rotate the disk to the proper sector, and the time
necessary to transfer the data into main memory.
Although personal computer hard disks usually are fixed (i.e., not removable), some portable
computers have removable hard disk drives. Unlike floppy disks, hard disks constantly are spinning, at a
rate 10 to 20 times faster than floppy disks. Therefore, access time for hard disks is significantly less
than access time for floppy disks. While a floppy disk read/write head rests on the disk, the read/write
head for a hard disk hovers about 10 millionths of an inch above the disk surface. Contamination on
the disk - a speck of dust (about 1550 millionths of an inch), a fingerprint (about 600 millionths of an
inch), or a particle of smoke (about 250 millionths of an inch) - can cause a "head crash," destroying
data and rendering the disk drive unusable. For this reason, hard disk drives are sealed and

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manufactured in an environment that typically is cleaner than a hospital operating room. Storage
capacity can be increased on both hard disks and floppy disks with compression programs such as
Stacker, WinZip, or PKZIP.

Computer Software: System Software and Application Software

There are two categories of computer software: system software and application software. System
software serves as the interface between a user and the computer's hardware. An example of system
software would be an operating system such as Microsoft Windows. Application software consists of
programs designed to perform specific tasks. An example of application software would be a
spreadsheet program, such as Microsoft Excel.
A 3.5-inch floppy disk is computer hardware, but the programs stored on it are computer software.
Although there are two types of software, system software and application software are designed to
work hand-in-glove; that is, application software packages are designed to work with specific kinds of
system software. By telling the computer how to perform common functions, the operating system frees
application software to concentrate on producing information. Popular operating systems include
Windows, the Mac OS, OS/2, UNIX, Linux, DOS, and NetWare. Operating systems that have a
graphical user interface (GUI) often are called user-friendly. Studies have found that GUI users
generally complete tasks more accurately, work faster, are more productive, and feel less fatigue.
To understand the relationship between application software and system software, draw four concentric
circles. Label the innermost circle CPU, the next operating system, the next application software, and
the last user. The resultant diagram illustrates how the operating system helps to insulate the user and
application program from computer hardware.

Typ e s o f Per s o n al C o m p ut e r Ap p l i c ati o n S o ft war e

Many types of application software are available. The more popular application software includes word
processing software, electronic spreadsheet software, database software, presentation graphics software,
communications software, and electronic mail software. Knowing the function of each type of
application software is one of the most important ingredients of being computer literate.
Several years ago, a survey of large and small businesses showed that the most often used applications
were:
Word processing and spreadsheet (used by 100% of those surveyed)
Communications, electronic mail, database, and presentation graphics (used by about 95%)
Desktop publishing (used by about 85%)
Project management (used by about 70%)
Personal information management (used by about 50%)
In word processing, any work developed through the writing process is a document. Word processing
software makes it easier to create, edit, format, and print documents. Many word processing packages
include a spell checker, grammar checker, and thesaurus.
The first spreadsheet software, VisiCalc, was introduced in 1979. By immediately displaying the results
of changes, electronic spreadsheet packages provide a capability called what-if analysis. Another
powerful capability, called goal-seek, finds what value is needed to reach a specified goal.
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A database file is a collection of related data called records, each of which consists of a group of related
facts called fields. The data can be manipulated, or a report, called a query, can be created based on
user-specified criteria. Although most spreadsheet packages can manage data tables of a few thousand
records, database software can efficiently handle much larger data tables.
Word processing and spreadsheet software came out around 1980. Presentation graphics software was
not introduced until the mid to late 1980s. Nevertheless, it can be argued that presentation graphics
software has had almost as great an impact on business, and on how people do business, as either of
the older applications. Presentation graphics packages include libraries of clip art that can be inserted
into slides and a slide sorter that can be used to organize the order effectively in which slides are
presented.

Computer Communications Channels

I n t e r n e t a n d Wor l d W i d e W eb

and

Equipment

and

the

Communicating with a computer is becoming the standard today for both business and personal use.
The communications channels are constantly being upgraded in order to send information faster.
Communications technologies have changed the way people interact through the use of e-mail,
videoconferencing, and the Internet.
Many vendors sell network versions of their software. The network version resides on the network
server and can be accessed by each computer on the network. When a network version is purchased, a
site license is obtained from the vendor. The fee for the site license, usually based on the number of
computers on the network, is less than the purchase of individual packages for each computer.
The number of people using the Internet is growing by 5% each month. Paul Moritz, a vice president
at Microsoft, maintains that, "In the long run, it's hard to exaggerate the importance of the Internet."
The Web, an innovation of Tim Berners-Lee, debuted in 1989. Since then, the Web has experienced
astounding growth. Some experts claim that the size of the Web doubles every 60 days. Using links to
move from one document to another often is called surfing the Web. Two popular Web browsers are
Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer.

How t o P u r c h as e, I n st al l , an d Mai n t ai n a C o m p ut e r
At some point in your life, you will probably decide to purchase a computer. Aside from understanding
the components discussed earlier, it also is important to be able to find the computer that best fits your
needs. For example, most new computers come with application software already installed. If you do
not use this software, then it is of no value even though you got it for "free." There are several things to
look for when purchasing a new computer. If possible, speak to someone who is familiar with the
purchasing process and can guide you along.
For most people, buying a computer is an expensive experience. Despite this, many people are woefully
uninformed when they set out to purchase a computer. Although desktop computer systems remain
popular, since 1993 sales of laptop, notebook, and smaller computers have rivalled sales of larger
systems, partly because of their enhanced capabilities and increased use by field sales forces. Be careful
when setting up a computer system. Failure to follow health guidelines can lead to painful, and even

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permanent, disabilities. Government studies indicate repetitive stress disorder (RSI) and cumulative
trauma disorder (CTD), the most commonly reported problems associated with prolonged keyboard
use, are responsible for half of work-related illnesses. Computer security is an increasingly important
issue. A survey of American companies with more than 200 personal computers showed that over 60%
had suffered at least one virus attack. Two of the major sources of viruses, free software and illegally
copied software, more commonly are used by small companies and private individuals, so the
percentage of PC users affected by viruses may be much higher. E-mail attachments have been the
carriers of several recent virus attacks that have infected both business and home computer users.

E-Commerce
Conducting business online is known as electronic commerce, or e-commerce, and includes such
commercial activities as shopping and investing. The three types of e-commerce that exist today are
business to consumer (B2C), consumer to consumer (C2C), and business to business (B2B).
If you have access to a computer, an Internet connection, and a means to pay for products or services,
you can participate in e-commerce. Today, users can participate in e-commerce not only through
desktop computers, but also through mobile devices such as laptop and handheld computers, pagers,
and cellular phones. M-commerce (mobile commerce) is the term some people use to describe ecommerce activities that take place using mobile devices.
The more popular uses of e-commerce include shopping and investing. On the Web, you can buy and
sell stocks, order flowers, purchase groceries and airline tickets, and even buy a car!
Three types of e-commerce exist: business to consumer (B2C), consumer to consumer (C2C), and
business to business (B2B). Of the three, most e-commerce takes place between businesses, making
B2B e-commerce transactions the most common.

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CHAPTER 1: INTROD UCTION TO COMPUTERS

Overview
Explain the importance of computer literacy
Define the term computer
Identify the components of a computer
Explain why a computer is a powerful tool
Differentiate among the various types of software
Explain the purpose of a network
Discuss the uses of the Internet and the World Wide Web
Describe the categories of computers and their uses
Identify the various types of computer users
Understand how a user can be a Web publisher
This chapter presents a broad survey of concepts and terminology related to computers. The idea of
computer literacy is introduced. You discover what a computer is and what it does. You learn about the
components of a computer, the power of computers, computer software, and networks and the Internet.
Categories of computers are identified, including personal computers, minicomputers, mainframe
computers, and supercomputers.
You discover how people employ computers, from home users to large business users. Finally, you
learn how people use computers to provide information. Reading and understanding the material in this
chapter should help you better understand these topics as they are presented in more detail in the
following chapters.

Explain the importance of computer literacy

Computers have touched every part of our lives: the way we work, the way we learn, the way we live,
even the way we play. It almost is impossible to go through a single day without encountering a
computer, a device dependent on a computer, information produced by a computer, or a word that was
introduced or whose meaning has changed with the advent of computers. Because of the significance of
computers in todays world, it is important to be computer literate. Being computer literate means you
have knowledge and understanding of computers and their uses.

Define the term computer

A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data, manipulate the data according to specified rules, produce results, and
store the results for future use.
Computers process data to create information.
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Data is a collection of raw unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols.

Information is data that is organized, meaningful, and useful.
To process data into information, a computer uses hardware and software.
Hardware is the electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment that makes up a computer.
Software is the series of instructions that tells the hardware how to perform tasks.

Identify the components of a computer

Computer hardware components include input devices, output devices, a system unit, storage devices,
and communications devices.
An input device is any hardware component that allows a user to enter data and instructions into a
computer. Six commonly used input devices are the keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital
camera, and PC camera.
An output device is any hardware component that can convey information to a user. Three commonly
used output devices are a printer, a monitor, and speakers.
The system unit is a box-like case made from metal or plastic that protects the internal electronic
components of the computer from damage. The system unit contains the central processing unit and
memory. The central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic device that interprets and carries out the
basic instructions that operate the computer. Memory is a temporary holding place for data and
instructions.
A storage device records and retrieves data to and from a storage medium. Six common storage devices
are a floppy disk drive, a Zip drive, a hard disk drive, a CD-ROM drive, a CD-RW drive, a DVDROM drive, and a DVD+RW drive.
A communications device enables computer users to communicate and exchange items such as data,
instructions, and information with another computer. A modem is a communications device that
enables computers to communicate usually via telephone lines or cable.

E xp lai n why a c omp ut er is a p owerful t ool

A computer is a powerful tool because it is able to perform the information processing cycle operations
(input, process, output, and storage) with amazing speed, reliability, and accuracy; store huge amounts
of data and information; and communicate with other computers. Computers allow users to generate
correct information quickly, hold the information so it is available at any time, and share the
information with other computer users.

Differentiate among the various types of software

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There are two categories of computer software: system software and application software.
System software consists of the programs that control the operations of a computer and its devices.
Two types of system software are the operating system and utility programs.
An operating system (OS) coordinates all activities among hardware devices and contains instructions
that allow you to run application software.
A utility program performs specific tasks, usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its
programs. You interact with software through its user interface.
Application software consists of programs that perform specific tasks for users. Popular application
software includes word processing software, spreadsheet software, database software, and presentation
graphics software. Application software can be

Packaged software (copyrighted software that meets the needs of a variety of users),
In-house/Custom software (tailor-made software developed at a users request),
Freeware (copyrighted software provided at no cost),
Public-domain software (software donated for public use with no copyright restrictions), or
Shareware (copyrighted software distributed free for a trial period).

Explain the purpose of a network

A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together via communications devices,
such as a modem, and communications media, such as cables, telephone lines, cellular radio, and
satellites. Networks allow users to share resources, such as hardware devices, software devices, data, and
information. Most business computers are networked, either by a local area network (LAN) in a limited
geographic area or by a wide area network (WAN) in a large geographical area.

D i s c u s s t h e u s e s o f t h e I n t e r n e t a n d t h e Wor l d W i d e W eb
The worlds largest network is the Internet, which is a worldwide collection of networks that links
together millions of businesses, government agencies, educational institutions, and individuals. Users
connect to the Internet to send messages, access information, shop for goods and services, meet or
converse with other users, and access sources of entertainment and leisure. Most users connect to the
Internet through an Internet service provider (ISP) or an online service provider (OSP). The World
Wide Web is a popular segment of the Internet that contains billions of documents called Web pages.
These documents can contain text, graphics, sound, video, and built-in connections, or links, to other
Web pages stored on computers throughout the world.

Describe the categories of computers and their uses

The six major categories of computers are personal computers, handheld computers, Internet
appliances, mid-range servers, mainframes, and supercomputers. These categories are based on
differences in size, speed, processing capabilities, and price.

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A personal computer can perform all of its input, processing, output, and storage activities by itself.
Personal computers include desktop computers and notebook computers.
A desktop computer is designed so the system unit, input devices, output devices, and any other devices
fit entirely on or under a desk or table. Variations of desktop computers include

Tower models (computers with tall and narrow system units that can sit vertically on the floor),
All-in-one computers (less expensive computers that combine the monitor and system unit into
a single device), and
Workstations (more expensive and powerful computers designed for work that requires intense
calculation and graphics capabilities).

A notebook computer is a portable personal computer small enough fit on your lap. Notebook and
desktop computers are used at home or in the office to perform application software-related tasks or to
access the Internet.
A handheld computer is a small computer that fits in your hand. Handheld computers can perform
specific, industry-related functions, or can be general-purpose. A PDA (personal digital assistant) is a
handheld computer that provides personal organizer functions, such as a calendar, appointment book,
and notepad.
An Internet appliance is a computer with limited functionality whose main purpose is to connect to the
Internet from home.
A mid-range server is more powerful and larger than a workstation computer. Users typically access a
mid-range server through a personal computer or a terminal, which is a device with a monitor and a
keyboard that usually has no stand-alone processing power.
A mainframe is a large, expensive, very powerful computer that can handle hundreds or thousands of
connected users simultaneously.
A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive category of computer.

Identify the various types of computer users

Computer users can be divided into five categories: home user, small office/home office users, mobile
users, large business users, and power users.
A home user spends time on the computer for personal and business communications, budgeting and
personal financial management, entertainment, and Web access.
A small office/home office (SOHO) user includes any company with fewer than 50 employees, as
well as self-employed people that work out of their home.
A mobile user travels to and from a main office or school to conduct business, communicate, or do
homework.
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A large business user works for a company that has a large number of employees and computers
usually connected to a network.
The power user such as an engineer, architect, or desktop publisher typically works with
multimedia, which combines several media elements into one application, and requires the capabilities
of a workstation or other powerful computer.

U n d e r s t a n d h o w a u s e r c a n b e a W eb p u b l i s h e r
In addition to being a recipient of information, Internet users have the ability to provide information to
other connected users around the world. Users can create a Web page with word processing software or
with Web page authoring software. Publishing a Web page is the process of making it available on the
Internet.

Expand Your Knowledge

Computer literacy
Computer
Computer components
Computer power
Computer software
Networks
The Internet
Computer categories
Types of computer users
Web publishing
Here you will find additional information that will expand and enhance your knowledge beyond that contained in
your textbook. Compare this information to what may be provided in a traditional classroom by your instructor
or peers.

Computer Literacy
It is difficult to think of a field in which computers are not used. In addition to general-purpose
computers, special-purpose computers are used in everything from automobiles to electric razors.
Consider how computers have influenced our daily lives, both positively and negatively. (To err is
human, but to really foul things up requires a computer. Anonymous, from a BBC Radio
broadcast.) List ways in which computers are being used today. What is the most common use? What
is the most unusual use? As a result of the expanding use of computers, in 1986 Florida became the
first state to demand computer literacy of all students by grade 12.

Computer
Although computers are thought of as a relatively recent innovation, the term computer has a long
history. Prior to 1940, computer was a job title that referred to anyone performing calculations.

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Consider how data is different from information. Data is processed into information. Clifford Stoll
lecturer, computer security expert, and author of Silicon Snake Oil: Second Thoughts on the
Information Superhighway notes a wide gap between data and information. Stoll insists that
information has a pedigree, or lineage. Its source is known, whether by a respected professor or a
seventh grader. The Internet has great gobs of data, Stoll maintains, and little, little information.
The first three operations in the information processing cycle input, process, and output are
performed to process data into information, while the fourth operation storage refers to a
computers electronic reservoir capability. Think about how we perform each phase in the information
processing cycle in the human computer (i.e., the human brain) while completing a common task,
such as learning a telephone number.

Computer Components
Different types of input devices are designed to transmit different types of data or to transmit data in
different ways. Think of other input devices (joysticks, scanners, digital cameras, and so on) and the
different types of data they transmit or the different ways they transmit data.
Because it is more lasting than output from a monitor or speaker, the printers output often is called
hard copy. Think of other output devices with which you are familiar (data projectors, computer output
microfilm, and so on).
Some computer components are considered internal, while others are considered external. External
components are called peripherals. Input, output, and communications devices often are peripheral
devices.
The difference between the temporary character of memory and permanent nature of storage will be
made painfully clear the first time you experience a power failure while working on a computer. Think
of other examples of storage devices (magnetic tape, PC Cards, and so on).
The capability to communicate may be one of the most significant factors influencing how computers
are used now and in the future.

C o m p u t e r P ow e r
In one billionth of a second, an electronic signal travels almost 12 inches. This means that todays
supercomputer (the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive category of computers) can perform 1.8
trillion operations per second. If a person did one arithmetic operation a second without stopping, it
would take more than 31,000 years to perform the number of operations a supercomputer can do in
one second. Researchers predict that one day computer speed will be measured in exaflops, or one
quintillion (1 x 1018) calculations per second.
The reliability of computer components often is measured in MTBF (mean time between failure, in
hours). A typical component might be rated 10,000 MTBF.

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Although the term computer error is widespread, most computer errors can be traced to human
mistakes. Consider instances of computer error with which you are familiar. How might human
blunders have resulted in the computer error? Why are people apt to blame computers?
Supercomputers have more than 600 gigabytes of memory, meaning that they can store more than 600
billion letters, numbers, and special characters, and have 2 terabytes (2 trillion bytes) of disk space.
Equally important is the speed at which data can be retrieved, processed, and stored again.
Connected computers can share each operation in the information processing cycle. To recognize the
value of communication, imagine trying to solve a problem individually, and then trying to solve the
same problem with the assistance of several classmates.

Computer Software
The difference between computer hardware and computer software is important. A 3-inch floppy disk
is hardware; however the programs stored on it are software. Programs or software, like data, are input
into the computer.
Because you interact with it directly, you may be more consciously aware of application software than
system software. Remember that system software determines how you interact with application software.
Popular operating systems include DOS (Disk Operating System), Windows 3.x (technically, not an
operating system but an operating environment that makes DOS easier to use), Windows 95, Windows
98, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Mac OS, OS/2, UNIX, Linux (rhymes with cynics), and NetWare.
DOS was developed by Microsoft for IBM personal computers. DOS started Microsofts climb to the
top of the software world -- at one time, versions of DOS were used worldwide by more than 100
million people. DOS has a command-line interface, meaning that people have to memorize and type
instructions.
Today, operating systems with a graphical user interface, such as Microsofts Windows, are far more
popular.
Most application software packages are designed to be used with specific operating systems. Much of
the software with which you are familiar is packaged software. Because of their complexity, most
software programs are written by teams of programmers working together. Just as people understand a
variety of spoken languages (English, French, Chinese, and so on), computers recognize a number of
programming languages.

Networks
A network with which you might be familiar is the school computer lab. Consider resources that can
be shared on a network. For example, the school computer lab may share a single printer. Think of
advantages of sharing resources. Why are most business computers part of a network?

The Internet
Estimates claim that more than 50 percent of U.S. homes are connected to the Internet, and more than
13 million do so through an online service provider. Although the growth rate of the Internet and
online services has slowed from a peak of more than 140 percent in 1994-95, the growth rate still is
around 20 percent annually. Surveys show the number of Web site visitors continues to expand rapidly,
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practically doubling every year. Interestingly, surveys show that teenage boys and girls are accessing the
Internet for different reasons. While boys seem to focus on entertainment, girls use the Internet more
for schoolwork and chat.

Computer Categories
In addition to differences in size, speed, processing capabilities, and price, other factors, such as the size
of main memory and number of peripheral devices, also can be considered when categorizing
computers. Rapid changes in technology make it difficult to define categories precisely. As a rule of
thumb, todays PCs have about as much memory and processing power as the mainframes of a decade
ago.
Think of personal computers with which you are familiar. How is the computer used? What factors
influence the choice of a personal computer? In addition to such obvious considerations as processing
speed and amount of memory, less apparent factors, such as available software or even the computers
footprint (the amount of space it occupies on the work surface) also may be important. A desktop
computer monitor often is placed on top of the system unit case. This sometimes can be an ergonomic
problem, forcing users to look up. Server computers often are used in academic environments. What
features of server computers would make them particularly attractive to schools? In todays mobile
society, notebook computers have become indispensable tools. Since 1993, sales of notebooks and
smaller computers have rivalled sales of larger systems, partly because of their enhanced capabilities and
increased use by field sales forces. The capabilities of handheld computers also continue to expand.
Visor, a new handheld computer from Handspring, is an electronic organizer but also offers video
games, a cell phone, a modem, an MP3 player, and a two-way pager. Called the Swiss Army knife of
handheld computers, Visor uses the Palm operating system, which is the same operating system used
by the Palm Pilot, a popular handheld computer from 3Com, and is available for about $200.
The growing movement toward decentralization in business, coupled with the increasing power of midrange servers, has led to a recent trend away from mainframe computers and toward mid-range servers.
What advantages might mid-range servers have over mainframe computers for a business?
Organizations that deal with huge, constantly changing collections of data accessed simultaneously by
many users, such as banks, insurance companies, universities, and government agencies, often use
mainframe computers. Despite this, mainframe sales are declining approximately 10 percent per year.
One of the most important features of supercomputers is their capability to create complex, threedimensional images almost instantaneously. Television networks often use supercomputers to generate
complicated images and then give viewers the sense of going through the image. Due to their size
and expense, only large businesses and government agencies use supercomputers. IBMs Option Blue
supercomputer was used by the Department of Energy to simulate nuclear explosions, allowing the
effects of aging and adverse conditions on nuclear weapons to be explored without underground
detonations.

Types of Comp uter Users

A major concern related to the home user is the digital divide, which is the idea that the people of the
world can be separated into two distinct groups: those that have access to technology with the ability to
use it and those that do not have access to technology or are without the ability to use it. Recent reports
suggest that the digital divide exists on several levels:
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Individuals in higher income levels have greater access to the Internet than people in lower levels and
the gap may be growing.
Women are under-represented in todays computer classes and technology jobs.
A number of efforts are being made to narrow the digital divide.
Networks have changed the face of both small and large business. In the 1970s, executives usually
worked with monthly reports; in the 1980s, they used weekly reports; today, daily or even hourly
reports are available. How have computers affected the efficiency of businesses? What impact have
computers had on the interpersonal side of business (i.e., employee and customer relationships)?
How have computers changed peoples jobs? Have computers cost any people their jobs?

Web P u b l i s h i n g
With todays Web page authoring software, children as young as 10 years old, and sometimes younger,
can create and publish their own Web pages. If you created a Web page, what type of information
would you provide? Why? Would you be interested in seeing someone elses Web page? Why or why
not? If you have created a Web page, what type of software did you use? What was the most difficult
part of creating your Web page?

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CHAPTER 2
THE INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB
Overview
Discuss how the Internet works
Understand ways to access the Internet
Identify a URL
Search for information on the Web
Describe the types of Web pages
Recognize how Web pages use graphics, animation, audio, video, and virtual reality
Define Webcasting
Describe the uses of electronic commerce (e-commerce)
Explain how e-mail, FTP, newsgroups and message boards, mailing lists, chat rooms, and instant
messaging work
Identify the rules of netiquette
This chapter introduces one of the most significant innovations of the past half century the Internet.
The Internet is defined, and the history of the Internet is detailed. You discover how the Internet works
and learn about Internet service providers and online services, connecting to the Internet, how data
travels the Internet, and Internet addresses. The World Wide Web, search engines, and multimedia on
the Web are explained. You become familiar with Webcasting, electronic commerce, Web publishing,
and other Internet services including e-mail, FTP, Telnet, newsgroups, mailing lists, chat rooms, instant
messaging and VOIP. Finally, netiquette, the Internet code of acceptable behaviour by users, is
described.

Discuss how the Internet works

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that links millions of businesses, government offices,
educational institutions, and individuals. Data is transferred over the Internet using servers, which are
computers that manage network resources and provide centralized storage areas, and clients, which are
computers that can access the contents of the storage areas. The data travels over communications lines.
Each computer or device on a communications line has a numeric address called an IP (Internet
protocol) address, the text version of which is called a domain name. Every time you specify a domain
name, a DNS (domain name system) server translates the domain name into its associated IP address,
so data can route to the correct computer.

Understand ways to access the Internet

You can access the Internet through an Internet service provider, an online service provider, or a
wireless service provider.
An Internet service provider (ISP) provides temporary Internet connections to individuals and
companies.
An online service provider (OSP) also supplies Internet access, in addition to a variety of special
content and services.
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A wireless service provider (WSP) provides wireless Internet access to users with wireless modems or
Web-enabled handheld computers or devices.
Employees and students often connect to the Internet through a business or school network that
connects to a service provider. For home or small business users, dial-up access provides an easy and
inexpensive way to connect to the Internet.
With dial-up access, you use a computer, a modem, and a regular telephone line to dial into an ISP or
OSP. Some home and small business users opt for newer, high-speed technologies.
DSL (digital subscriber line) provides high-speed connections over a regular copper telephone line.
A cable modem provides high-speed Internet connections through a cable television network.

Identify a URL
The most widely used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web. The World Wide Web (WWW
or Web) consists of a worldwide collection of electronic documents called Web pages. A browser is a
software program used to access and view Web pages. Each Web page has a unique address, called a
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that tells a browser where to locate the Web page. A URL consists
of a protocol, domain name, and sometimes the path to a specific Web page or location on a Web
page. Most URLs begin with http://, which stands for hypertext transfer protocol, the communications
standard that enables pages to transfer on the Web.

S e a r c h f o r i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e W eb
A search engine is a software program you can use to find Web sites, Web pages, and Internet files. To
find a Web page or pages, you enter a relevant word or phrase, called search text or keywords, in the
search engines text box. Many search engines then use a program called a spider to read pages on Web
sites and create a list of pages that contain the keywords. Any Web page that is listed as the result of the
search is called a hit. Each hit is a link that can be clicked to display the associated Web site or Web
page.

D e s c r i b e t h e t y p e s o f W eb p a g e s
There are six basic types of Web pages.
An advocacy Web page contains content that describes a cause, opinion, or idea.
A business/marketing Web page contains content that promotes or sells products or services.
An informational Web page contains factual information.
A news Web page contains newsworthy material including stories and articles relating to current events,
life, money, sports, and the weather.
A portal Web page offers a variety of Internet services from a single, convenient location.
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A personal Web page is maintained by a private individual who normally is not associated with any
organization.

R e c o g n i z e h o w W eb p a g e s u s e g r a p h i c s , a n i m a t i o n , a u d i o , v i d e o ,
and virtual reality
Many exciting Web pages use multimedia. Multimedia refers to any application that integrates text with
one of the following elements: graphics, sound, video, virtual reality, or other media elements.
A graphic is a digital representation of information such as a drawing, chart, or photograph. Two
common file formats for graphical images on the Web are JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
and GIF (Graphics Interchange Format), which use compression techniques to reduce the size of
graphics files and thus speed downloading.
Animation is the appearance of motion created by displaying a series of still images in rapid sequence.
One popular type of animation, called an animated GIF, uses computer animation and graphics
software to combine several images into a single GIF file.
Audio is music, speech, or any other sound. A common format for audio files on the Web is MP3, a
popular technology that compresses audio. More advanced Web audio applications use streaming audio,
which transfers audio data in a continuous and even flow, allowing users to listen to the sound as it
downloads.
Video consists of full-motion images that are played back at various speeds. Video files often are quite
large in size. The Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG) defines a popular video compression
standard. Streaming video allows you to view longer or live video images as they are downloaded.
Virtual reality (VR) is the use of computers to simulate a real or imagined environment that appears as
a three-dimensional (3-D) space. A VR world is an entire 3-D site that contains infinite space and
depth.

D e f i n e W eb c a s t i n g
Pull technology is a method of obtaining information that relies on a client such as your computer to
request a Web page from a server. On the other hand, Webcasting, also called push technology, is a
method of obtaining information in which a server automatically downloads content to your computer
at regular intervals or whenever updates are made to the site. Webcasting saves time by delivering
information at regular intervals and allows users to view Web content when they are offline, that is,
when they are not connected to the Internet.

Describe the uses of electronic commerce (e-commerce)

Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is a financial business transaction that occurs over an electronic
network such as the Internet. Today, there are three types of e-commerce.
Business to consumer (B-to-B or B2C) e-commerce consists of the sale of goods to the general public.
Customers visit an online business through an electronic storefront, which contains descriptions,
graphics, and a shopping cart that allows customers to collect their purchases.

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Consumer to consumer (C-to-C or C2C) e-commerce occurs when one consumer sells directly to
another. An online auction is an example of consumer to consumer e-commerce.
Business to business (B-to-B or B2B) e-commerce, which is the most prevalent type of e-commerce,
takes place between businesses, with businesses typically providing services to other businesses.

E x p l a i n h o w e - m a i l , F T P, n e w s g r o u p s a n d m e s s a g e b o a r d s , m a i l i n g
lists, chat rooms, and instant messaging work
A variety of services are used widely on the Internet, including e-mail, FTP, newsgroups and message
boards, mailing lists, chat rooms, and instant messaging.
E-mail (electronic mail) is the transmission of messages and files via a computer network. You use an
e-mail program to create, send, receive, forward, store, print, and delete messages. To receive messages,
you need an e-mail address, which is a combination of a username and a domain name that identifies a
user.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is an Internet standard that allows you to upload and download files with
other computers on the Internet. An FTP server is a computer that allows you to use FTP to upload
files to, and download files from, an FTP site. With anonymous FTP, anyone can transfer some, if not
all, available files.
A newsgroup is an online area in which users conduct written discussions about a particular subject.
The computer that stores and distributes newsgroup messages is called a news server. You use a
program called a newsreader to access a newsgroup, read previously entered messages (called articles),
and add (post) messages of your own. A thread consists of the original article and all subsequent
related replies. In a moderated newsgroup, a moderator reviews articles and posts them, if appropriate.
A message board is a popular Web-based type of discussion group that does not require a newsreader
and typically is easier to use than a newsgroup.
A mailing list is a group of e-mail names and addresses given a single name. To add your e-mail name
and address to a mailing list you subscribe to it; to remove your name, you unsubscribe.
A chat is real-time (meaning everyone involved in the chat is online at the same time) typed
conversation that takes place on a computer. A location on an Internet server that permits users to chat
is called a chat room. Some chat rooms support voice chats and video chats, where you can hear or see
others and they can hear or see you as you chat. A chat client is a program on your computer that
allows you to connect to a chat server and start a chat session.
Instant messaging (IM) is a real-time Internet communications service that notifies you when one or
more people are online and then allows you to exchange messages or join a private chat room.

Identify the rules of netiquette

Netiquette, which is short for Internet etiquette, is the code of acceptable behaviours users should
follow while on the Internet. Rules for e-mail, newsgroups, and chat rooms include:
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Keep messages brief and use proper grammar and spelling.

Be careful when using sarcasm and humour.
Be polite and avoid offensive language.
Avoid sending flames (abusive messages) and spam (unsolicited junk mail).
Do not use all capital letters, which is the equivalent of SHOUTING!
Use emoticons (such as :) for smile) to express emotion.
Use abbreviations (such as BTW for by the way) for popular phrases.
Clearly identify a spoiler, which is a message that reveals a solution to a game or an ending to a
movie or program.
Read the FAQ (frequently asked questions) document.
Do not assume all material is accurate or up-to-date.
Never read someones private e-mail.

Expand Your Knowledge

The Internet
Accessing the Internet
URLs
Searching the Web
Types of Web Pages
How Web Pages Use Multimedia
Webcasting
E-Commerce
Web Publishing
Internet Services
Netiquette
The Internet
The Internet has had a profound affect on the world of computers. Microsoft CEO Bill Gates claims,
The Internet is pervasive in everything were doing. The Internet also has assumed an increasing
prominence in the world at large. Today, the letters www seem an omnipresent part of advertisements
on buses, billboards, and magazines.
The Internet, as it is known today, was born in 1983 when ARPANET was split into two
interconnected networks: ARPANET and MILNET. The size of the Internet doubled when NSFnet
joined the Internet in 1986.
The Internet has proven to be a reliable means of transmitting data. Occasionally, however, transmission
problems do occur. For 30 minutes in the spring of 1995, all of the traffic destined for MIT was sent
through a small wire in Florida, a situation described as equivalent to routing all of the flights bound
for OHare to a driveway.

Accessing the Internet

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National ISPs include AT&T, Earthlink, and WorldCom. Two popular OSPs are America Online
(AOL) and the Microsoft Network (MSN). Some online services supply specific types of information.
For example, Dow Jones provides financial and business news, and Imagination offers games and
entertainment. WSPs include GoAmerica Communications, OmniSky, and SprintPCS. The role of WSP
is expected to grow. Industry analysts predict that by 2003, more than 60 million people will use
wireless Web-enabled devices to connect to the Internet. The CEO of Amazon.com goes even farther,
projecting that in 10 years all Internet connections be wireless.
Although most ISPs charge a standard fee for dial-up access, to attract users (who view advertisements
on an ISPs home page) some ISPs now are providing free service. Following this lead, a Californiabased DSL recently advertised free, high-speed Internet access (a service that usually costs $50 a
month) to users who agree to ads aimed at their demographic group.

URLs
On a Web page, a link is a built-in connection to another related Web page or part of a Web page. A
link can be a word, phrase, or image. URLs make it possible to navigate using links, because each link
is connected to a URL. When you click a link, the Web site or document associated with the URL is
displayed. Some people refer to this activity of jumping from one Web page to another as surfing the
Web.
URLs are registered for a standard fee (usually about $70). To acquire an appropriate URL, some
companies are willing to spend a great deal more for a URL that already has been registered. Recently,
eCompanies paid an entrepreneur $7.5 million for a Web address. This more than doubled the previous
record Compaqs purchase of altavista.com for $3 million.

S e a r c h i n g t h e Web
The World Wide Web is an incredible source of information on almost any topic. There are almost 2.5
billion Web pages. Exploring this vast reservoir for the answer to a search engine users query, which
usually is expressed in just a few keywords, is a daunting task. No wonder an engineering head at
AltaVista described search engines as a combination of wizardry and witchcraft.
Often, simple search queries yield an overwhelming number of results. This is attributed to several
factors:
The limitations of search engines. A query about mustangs on the American plains might produce
results involving Southern Methodist University's football team and the Ford car.
The nature of queries. While a traditional researcher, such as a librarian, uses queries averaging 14
words, the typical Internet query is just over one word.
The creators of Web pages. Developers of commercial Web pages sometimes distort results by
repeating frequently requested keywords in the background, where spiders see them but people do not.
Despite these difficulties, search engines are among the most popular sites on the Web. When choosing
a search engine, experts suggest that novice users, and users looking for obscure information, turn first
to the larger search engines (AltaVista, Yahoo!, Lycos, and so on) because they are easiest to use and
cast the largest net.

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T y p e s o f Web P a g e s
Advocacy Web pages established for political candidates, called e-campaigning, has become an
important part of politics. Surveys show that more than 50 percent of Internet users turn to the Web for
information about political topics.
Business/marketing Web pages used for shopping on the Internet are increasingly popular. In 1999, 17
million households shopped online. This figure is expected to grow to 49 million by 2004. A survey of
back-to-school shoppers 34 years old and younger showed that 17 percent planned to shop online for
their childrens school needs. Perhaps more significant, only 6 percent of surveyed shoppers reported
being uncomfortable with buying on the Internet.
Educational institutions frequently publish informational Web pages. Today, most colleges have Web
sites that offer course descriptions, information about the student population, and registration costs and
deadlines. When shopping for college, surveys show that high school seniors use the Web more than
catalogues or guidebooks; about 80 percent of college-bound students start looking at college Web sites
as sophomores.
News Web pages are the most popular Web sites among Americans with access to the Internet.
Although these Web sites often are associated with newspapers, magazines, television stations, or radio
stations, some are published only online, without a related print or broadcast media.
Portal Web pages often offer the following free services: search engine, news, sports and weather, free
personal Web pages, reference tools, shopping malls, e-mail, instant messaging, newsgroups, and chat
rooms. The dictionary defines a portal as a door or gateway. Portal Web pages are gateways to a host
of services.
Personal Web pages sometimes use Web cams to provide minute-by-minute views of life in a dorm
room, an apartment, a new-born babys crib, or even the inside of a refrigerator. One devotee of these
personal Web pages says visitors often develop a sort of relationship with the Web page developer.
Perhaps this observation is true; some personal Web pages receive more than 1,000 hits a day.

H o w Web P a g e s U s e M u l t i m e d i a
Multimedia can bring a Web page to life, increase the types of information available on the Web,
expand on the Webs potential uses, and make the Internet a more entertaining place to explore.
Because Web pages with multimedia take longer to download, most browsers allow users to turn off
some multimedia elements (such as graphics) and show a text-only version, speeding the display of a
Web page.
Choose a topic for a Web page, such as your school or your class. How could multimedia enhance the
page? What multimedia elements would you use? How?

Web c a s t i n g
Some people use Webcasting to download copyrighted material, such as music, from Web sites. Many
young, unknown musicians see music Web sites as a way to gain exposure, but some already-popular
musicians see sharing music on Web sites as little more than theft. The heavy metal rock band Metallica
sued Napster (a music Web site) for copyright violations. A number of colleges have placed a ban on
music Web sites. These schools maintain that students downloading and sharing music creates a
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tremendous amount of traffic, clogging the schools computer systems. As a result, the schools are
using filtering software to deny access to music Web sites. Several student groups have formed to
protest this response.

E-Commerce
Today, more than 50 percent of Web sites are commercial. Online product sales total more than $6
billion, which represents a twelve-fold increase in just five years. These numbers should be kept in
perspective in 1999, e-commerce still represented only 0.5 percent of U.S. consumer spending.
Business to consumer e-commerce often allows buyers to purchase directly from businesses, eliminating
the middleman and thus providing goods and services at lower costs. Other advantages of e-commerce
include:

Twenty-four hour access

Global presence

Two-way communication

Decreased costs

Lower product display and storage costs

Reduced salesperson costs

Businesses advertise with their own Web site or on another companys Web site. The most successful
Web advertisements are on popular sites, such as search engines. In terms of audience, advertising on
the Web is expensive. The cost to reach 1,000 consumers is about $75 on the Web, $60 in a
newspaper, $44 in a magazine, and $5 on television. Yet, Web advertisements do offer advantages:
Unlike traditional media advertising, which is passive (and often ignored by the audience), Web
advertising is interactive. The audience expresses an interest in the product by clicking a hyperlink and
choosing to view a Web ad.
For many products, Web users are the ideal customers. Web users tend to be students or highly
educated consumers in their late 30s, with average incomes of about $55,000.

W h a t p r o d u c t s c o u l d b e n e f i t m o s t f r o m a d v e r t i s i n g o n t h e Web .
Why?
Web P u b l i s h i n g
Deciding upon the purpose of the Web site and the audience for whom it is intended will make it
easier to determine what should and should not be included on the Web site. Web publishing is an
increasingly commonplace Internet activity. With the assistance of word processing packages, Web page
authoring software, or Web sites that assist in the creation of Web pages, even elementary school
children are developing personal Web pages.

Internet Services
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It is estimated that the number of e-mail users has increased 300 percent during the past five years, and
the number of e-mail messages sent per day has increased 400 percent. While its growth has been
phenomenal, not everyone is happy with e-mails ever-increasing use. In a business setting, some feel
that e-mail can be counter-productive. They contend that employees spend too much time writing and
reading e-mail on inconsequential topics subjects they never would commit to paper. In a social
setting, some wonder if e-mail is fitting in every situation. Although e-mail is suitable for casual
messages, most believe it is inappropriate for more serious or formal communication, such as a
wedding invitation. How do you feel about these reservations regarding e-mail?
Many files on anonymous FTP sites are public domain software, freeware, or shareware. Public domain
software is not copyrighted and therefore can be distributed at no cost. Freeware also is available at no
cost but, because it is copyrighted, it cannot be resold. Shareware can be downloaded and tried for free,
but a license fee must be paid if the software is kept. Shareware users who pay the license fee may
receive a manual, notification of new releases or tips, and access to technical support. The quality of
freeware, public domain software, and shareware varies greatly.
The real-time character of chat makes chat rooms different from newsgroups or mailing lists. The extent
to which a chat room is monitored varies. In some chat rooms, particularly those aimed at adults, a
monitors presence hardly is noticed. Chat rooms intended for minors, however, often are monitored
closely. Chat rooms can be an invaluable experience for children, letting them share thoughts and ideas
with people their own age from around the country, or even around the world. Yet, to ensure that
content is appropriate, parents may want to oversee a childs first few chat room visits.

Netiquette
Netiquette can be applied to all aspects of the Internet. Which netiquette rules are most important?
Which rules are least important? Why? What rules, if any, would you add? In her book, Guide for the
Turn-of-the-Millennium, syndicated columnist Judith Martin (Miss Manners) offers guidelines for use
of
the
Internet
and
other
technological
innovations.
Web
sites
such
as
http://www.fau.edu/netiquette/netiquette.html also offer advice on Internet manners.

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CHAPTER 3
A P P L I C A T I O N S O F T WAR E
Overview
Define application software

Understand how system software interacts with application software

Identify the role of the user interface

Explain how to start a software application

Identify the widely used products and explain the key features of different software applications

Identify various products available as Web applications

Describe the learning aids available with many software applications

This chapter discusses the role of the system software with respect to application software. It then
presents an overview of several productivity software applications, graphic design/multimedia software
applications, home/personal/educational software applications, and communications software
applications. The chapter then identifies various Web applications. Finally, learning aids and supports
tools within application software products are presented.

Define application software

Application software consists of programs designed to perform specific tasks for users. Application
software can be used as a productivity/business tool; to assist with graphics and multimedia projects; to
support home, personal, and educational activities; and to facilitate communications. Specific application
software products, called software packages, are available from software vendors. Although application
software also is available as shareware, freeware, and public-domain software, these usually have fewer
capabilities than retail software packages.

Understand how system software interacts with application software

System software consists of programs that control the operations of a computer and its devices. System
software serves as the interface between a user, the application software, and the computers hardware.
One type of system software is the operating system. Before application software can be run, the
operating system, which contains instructions that coordinate the activities among computer hardware
devices, must be loaded from the hard disk into the computers memory.

Identify the role of the user interface

The user interface controls how you enter data or instructions and how information displays on the
computer screen. Many of todays software programs have a graphical user interface. A graphical user
interface (GUI) combines text, graphics, and other visual images to make software easier to use.

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Explain how to start a software application

Both the Microsoft Windows and the Apple Macintosh operating systems use the concept of a desktop.
The desktop is an on-screen work area with common graphical elements such as icons, buttons, menus,
links, windows, and dialog boxes. A software application can be started by clicking its program name
on a menu, or list of commands. Clicking the program name instructs the operating system to transfer
the programs instructions from a storage medium into memory. Once started, the application displays
in a window on the desktop. A window is a rectangular area of the screen that is used to show the
program, data, and/or information. At the top of the window is a title bar that contains the windows
name.

Identify the widely used products and explain the key features of

productivity/business software applications

graphic design/multimedia software applications
home/personal/educational software applications
communications software applications

People use productivity software to become more effective and efficient while performing daily activities.

Word processing software allows users to create and manipulate documents that contain text and
graphics. With word processing software, you can insert clip art into a document; change margins;
find and replace text; use a spelling checker to check spelling; place a header and footer at the top
and the bottom of a page; and vary font (character design), font size (character scale), and font style
(character appearance).
With spreadsheet software, data is organized in rows and columns, which collectively are called a
worksheet. The intersection of a row and column, called a cell, can contain a label (text), a value
(number), or a formula or function that performs calculations on the data and displays the result.
Database software allows you to create and manage a database. A database is a collection of data
organized to allow access, retrieval, and use of that data. A query is used to retrieve data according
to specified criteria, which are restrictions the data must meet.
Presentation graphics software is used to create presentations that communicate ideas, messages,
and other information to a group through a slide show. You can use a clip gallery to enhance your
presentation with clip art images, pictures, video clips, and audio clips.
A personal information manager (PIM) is software that includes an appointment calendar to
schedule activities, an address book to maintain names and addresses, and a notepad to record ideas,
reminders, and important information. A software suite is a collection of individual applications sold
as a single package.
Project management software allows you to plan, schedule, track, and analyze the progress of a
project. Accounting software helps companies record and report their financial transactions.
Power users often use software that allows them to work with graphics and multimedia.
Computer-aided design (CAD) software assists in creating engineering, architectural, and scientific
designs.
Desktop publishing (DTP) software is used to design and produce sophisticated documents. DTP
is developed specifically to support page layout, which is the process of arranging text and graphics
in a document.
Paint software is used to draw graphical images with various on-screen tools.
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Image editing software provides the capability to modify existing images.

Video editing software and audio editing software can be used to modify video and audio
segments.
Multimedia authoring software is used to create electronic interactive presentations that can include
text, images, video, audio, and animation. Web page authoring software is designed to create Web
pages and to organize, manage, and maintain Web sites.
Many software applications are designed specifically for use at home or for personal or educational use.
Integrated software combines several productivity software applications that share a similar interface
and common features into a single package.
Personal finance software is an accounting program that helps pay bills, balance a check book,
track income and expenses, follow investments, and evaluate financial plans.
Legal software assists in the creation of legal documents and provides legal advice.
Tax preparation software guides users through the process of filing federal taxes.
Personal DTP software helps develop conventional documents by asking questions, presenting
predefined layouts, and supplying standard text.
Photo-editing software is used to edit digital photographs.
A clip art/image gallery is a collection of clip art and photographs that can be used in all types of
documents.
Home design/landscaping software assists with planning or remodelling.
Educational software teaches a particular skill and exists for about any subject.
Reference software provides valuable and thorough information for all individuals.
Entertainment software includes interactive games, videos, and other programs designed to support
a hobby or provide amusement.
One of the main reasons people use computers is to communicate and share information.

E-mail software is used to create, send, receive, forward, store, print, and delete e-mail (electronic
mail).
A Web browser is a software application used to access and view Web pages.
A chat client is software that allows you to connect to a chat room, which permits users to chat via
the computer.
A newsreader is a software program used to participate in a newsgroup, which is an online area on
the Web where users conduct written discussion about a particular subject.
An instant messenger is a software program installed to use instant messaging (IM), a real-time
communications service that notifies you when one or more people are online and then allows you
to exchange messages or files.
Groupware is a software application that helps groups of people on a network work together and
share information.
A videoconference is a meeting between two or more geographically separated people who use a
network or the Internet to transmit audio and video data.

I d e n t i f y v a r i o u s p r o d u c t s a v a i l a b l e a s W eb a p p l i c a t i o n s
A Web application is a software application that exists on a Web site. To access the Web application,
you visit the Web site that offers the program. Some Web applications are free; for others, you pay for
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use, service, support, or when a certain action occurs. Web-based training (WBT) is a type of CBT
(computer-based training) that uses Internet technology. Many Web sites offer WBT to the general
public. An application service provider (ASP) is a third-party organization that manages and distributes
software and services on the Web.

Describe
the
applications

learning

aids

avai l able

with

many

software

Many software applications and Web sites provide learning aids.

Online Help is the electronic equivalent of a user manual. Usually integrated into an application
software package, online Help often is context-sensitive, meaning that the Help information is related to
the current task being attempted. Most online Help also provide links to Web sites that have a FAQs
page.
FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) supply answers to common queries. Many books are available to
help you learn to use the features of a personal computer application package.
A wizard is an automated assistant that helps complete a task by asking questions and then performing
actions based on the answers.
Expand Your Knowledge
Application software
System software
The user interface
Starting an application
Software
Web applications
Learning aids

Application Software
Popular types of application software can be categorized by their general use: productivity software,
graphics design/multimedia software, home/personal/educational software, and communications
software. An application can belong to more than one category. For example, an e-mail program can be
considered both productivity software and communications software.

System Software
Many application programs are designed to run with a specific operating system. When shopping for
an application software package, buyers must make sure they have a compatible operating system. A
software package designed to be used with the Macintosh operating system may not work with the
Windows operating system. The operating system version also is important. An application designed for
Windows XP may not work with Windows 3.1. Yet, because most operating systems are downward
compatible, software written for earlier versions of an operating system (such as Windows 98) usually
can be used with recent versions of the operating system (such as Windows XP).

The User Interface

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The user interface plays a key role in application software. Studies have found that GUI users generally
complete tasks more accurately, work faster, are more productive, and feel less fatigue than users of a
text interface. The Macintosh operating system the first popular GUI actually was developed from
an earlier GUI-based operating system created by Xerox.
The first version of Windows (1985) imitated the Macintoshs GUI (Apple sued Microsoft,
unsuccessfully, for copyright infringement). Although some users still feel the Macintosh interface is
superior, today some form of Windows is used on almost 90 percent of personal computers. Because
of this, even competitive products often use similar features, such as the same menu names.

Starting an Application
To click an object on the screen, you move the pointer to the object and then press and release a button
on the mouse. Often, applications also can be started by double-clicking the icon that represents the
application.
When an application is started, the right-hand corner of the application window title bar usually
displays three buttons:
Minimize When clicked, this button reduces a window to a button on the taskbar.
Restore When clicked, this button returns a window to its initial size. When a window does not
fill the desktop, the Restore button is replaced by a Maximize button that, when clicked, enlarges
the window so it covers the entire desktop.
Close When clicked, this button closes the window. The Close button removes the window from
the desktop and its button from the taskbar.

A dialog box can contain option buttons, check boxes, text boxes, and command buttons. Option
buttons stipulate desired alternatives; check boxes turn specific capabilities on or off; text boxes allow
text to be entered; and command buttons immediately perform an action, such as implementing (OK)
or ignoring (Cancel) the choices made in a dialog box. Shortcut menus can change depending on
where the pointer rests when the mouse is right-clicked. Dimmed commands on a menu or shortcut
menu are unavailable.
Some applications use automatically display a smart tag when you perform a certain action. Clicking
the smart tag displays a menu of commands related to the action.

Software
Word processing software is used for creating, editing, formatting, saving, and printing documents. In
the modern office, word processing software has replaced the typewriter for almost all written work.
The editing capabilities of word processing software have altered the creative process. The freedom to
express yourself without reservation, knowing you easily can revise what you have written, can improve
the quality of written work. It is good practice to save a document before printing it. When a document
is saved, it exists as a file, or named collection of data, instructions, or information. A file name
uniquely identifies each file. Restrictions on file names once were severe; file names could be no more
than eight characters long, and many characters, including spaces, could not be used. In Windows XP,
however, a file name can have up to 255 characters, including spaces.

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Some spreadsheet programs offer more than 200 internal functions. When creating a spreadsheet,
formulas and functions usually must be preceded by a special character (such as =, +, or @) to
distinguish them from labels or values. Formulas use cell references, or addresses, of cells that contain
values. When formulas are copied from one cell to another, the cell references change to reflect the new
location. This update is called relative referencing. Another powerful capability, called goal-seek, finds
what value is needed to reach a specified goal.
While spreadsheet packages can manage data tables of a few thousand records, database software can
efficiently handle much larger data tables. In a database, common data types include text, numeric,
currency, date, memo, hyperlink, and object. When identifying data types, numbers treated as text (such
as zip codes, Social Security numbers, or telephone numbers) sometimes are referred to as
alphanumeric data because they are not used in calculations. The results of a database query are placed
in an ANSWER table.
Although introduced years after word processing and spreadsheet software, presentation graphics
software has had almost as great an impact on business, and on how people do business, as either of
the older applications. Presentations often include an outline with the text from each slide, audience
handouts that can be distributed to the audience, and a notes page with additional notes for the
presenter. Some presentation graphics packages offer templates for various presentations (company
meeting, financial report, marketing plan, progress report, employee orientation, training, and so on).
PIMs essentially are free style database managers. They are very popular with people who spend
much of their time in business travel. These people, often called road warriors, find PIMs a valuable
part of the arsenal they bring to their daily battles. Like a daily planner, PIMs must be reviewed
regularly to be effective.
Unlike word processing software, DTP software increases hardware requirements. Because of its
relatively low cost (an advanced DTP system can be purchased for less than $10,000) and the speed,
control, security, and flexibility offered by desktop publishing, many companies are using DTP instead
of outside printing firms for their publishing needs.
Paint software and image editing software have had a tremendous impact on commercial art.
Commercial artists praise the capabilities offered by these applications. At the same time, many feel
these applications have led clients to demand more, both in terms of time and expectations. As a result,
some commercial artists believe their income, actually has dropped because of graphic software.
Most software for home, personal, and educational use is relatively inexpensive. It still pays to shop
around. Prices for some software for home/personal use, such as integrated software, can vary greatly
for the same brand depending on the vendor. Some personal finance packages can prepare reports on
income and expenses, budget, net worth, taxes, and investments.
Personal finance software wizards (automated assistants) can help to balance accounts, prepare budgets,
plan mortgages, calculate savings, and arrange retirements. Legal software is designed to facilitate
creation of standard documents; unusual circumstances might still demand the services of a lawyer. Tax
preparation software also is best used by people in fairly common circumstances.

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For some students, educational software is a welcome alternative to traditional classes, allowing them to
work privately at their own pace. Reference software articles often include links that, when clicked,
display related articles. Because referenced material can change frequently, some reference software
packages can be updated via the World Wide Web.
Computer communications touch everyones life. Consider the ATM that knows a bank balance even
though it is located 500 miles from the bank. Many e-mail programs allow users to send registered
mail with a return receipt guaranteeing the recipient received the message. E-mail and personal
information management (PIM) software sometimes also are considered part of groupware. Although
e-mail has assumed an important role in business messages, traditional paper letters and memos still are
used In fact, some maintain that the amount of paper correspondence has increased.

Web A p p l i c a t i o n s
Web applications can be a better buy than packaged applications. For example, a $50 packaged
antivirus program can be replaced by a Web application that costs less than $30 annually, is updated
frequently, and uses less space on a hard disk. In addition, packaged software might include features
you will never use, which increases the cost of the package. Often, you can use the standard version of
a similar Web application for less money or even for free, and only pay more for the additional features
you want. Web applications can save businesses money with reduced installation, upgrade, and
maintenance costs. Some social analysts believe that the lower cost of Web applications also can help
close the digital divide.
For Web application vendors, benefits include easier updating and debugging (error correcting),
removal of packaging and distribution costs, and elimination of software piracy (the illegal copying and
selling of software). Despite their advantages, analysts point out that Web applications may not be right
for everyone. For some consumers, paying a monthly fee ultimately costs more than the one-time
purchase of packaged software. Also, many households do not have the fast Internet connection needed
for certain Web applications to run smoothly. Finally, some people worry that files stored at a Web
application site can be infected with viruses. Web application vendors believe these worries are
groundless and that Web applications benefit both buyers and sellers.

Learning Aids
In many applications, an audible beep indicates an error, and the last entry should be reviewed.
Function key f1 often is used to activate the Help feature. Some applications have a Help button that,
when clicked, changes the mouse pointer to a Help arrow. This arrow can be used to obtain help on a
command, button, or bar by pointing at the item and clicking. Many software developers have
eliminated users manuals in favor of extensive online Help. Computer stores occasionally carry a few
trade books, but entire aisles of computer-related books can be found in most large book stores.
For some applications, other learning aids, such as tutorials or keyboard templates, are available.
Tutorials are step-by-step instructions using real examples that show how to use an application.
Tutorials can be printed, software-based, or Internet-based. Keyboard templates (plastic sheets that fit
around a portion of the keyboard) illustrate the keyboard commands for various tasks. Wizards can be
used to help create memorandums, meeting agendas, fax cover sheets, flyers, letters, resumes, charts,
forms, reports, awards, pleadings, calendars, postcards, envelopes, mailing labels, newsletters, and Web
pages. Some applications also offer document templates, which are special documents that provide basic
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tools for shaping a final document. The availability of learning aids and support tools is an important
consideration in selecting an application package.

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CHAPTER 4
THE COM PONE NTS OF THE SYSTE M UNI T
Overview
Describe the components in the system unit

Explain how the CPU uses the four steps of a machine cycle to process data

Define a bit and describe how a series of bits represents data

Differentiate between the various types of memory

Describe the types of expansion slots and cards in the system unit

Explain the difference between a serial, a parallel, and a USB port

Describe how buses contribute to a computer's processing speed

Identify components in a notebook computer

Identify components in a handheld computer

Chapter presents the components in the system unit, described how memory stores data, instructions,
and information, and discusses the sequence of operations that occur when a computer executes an
instruction. The chapter included a comparison of various microprocessors on the market today.

Describe the components in the system unit

The system unit, sometimes called the chassis, is a box-like case housing the electronic components of a
computer that are used to process data. System unit components include the processor, memory
module, cards, ports, and connectors. Many of the system units components reside on a circuit board
called the motherboard. The motherboard contains many different types of chips, or small pieces of
semiconducting material, on which one or more integrated circuits (IC) are etched. An integrated
circuit is a microscopic pathway capable of carrying electronic current. Each IC can contain millions of
transistors, which act as switches for electronic signals.

Explain how the CPU uses the four steps of a machine cycle to
process data
The central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, significantly impacts overall computing
power and manages most of a computers operations. The CPU contains the control unit and the
arithmetic/logic unit.
The control unit directs and coordinates most of the operations in the computer. For every instruction,
the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine cycle:

fetching the instruction or data item from memory,

decoding the instruction into commands the computer understands,

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executing the commands, and, if necessary,

Storing, or writing the result to memory.

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs the execution part of the machine cycle. Specifically, the
ALU carries out three operations:
Arithmetic operations performing calculations, which include addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division
Comparison operations comparing data items to determine if the first item is greater than, equal to,
or less than the other item
Logical operations working with conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT

Compare and contrast various personal computer processors on the

market today
A personal computers CPU usually is contained on a single chip, which some call a microprocessor.
Intel is a leading manufacturer of personal computer processors.
Most high-performance PCs use a processor from Intel called the Pentium processor.
A second Intel brand, called the Celeron, is designed for less expensive PCs.
Two more brands, called the Xeon and Itanium processors, are ideal for workstations and low-end
servers. Intel-compatible processors have the same internal design as Intel processors and perform the
same functions, but are made by other companies and often are less expensive.
An alternative design to the Intel-style processor, the Motorola processor, is found in Apple
Macintosh and Power Macintosh systems.
A new type of processor designed for lower-costing personal computers and Internet appliances, called
an integrated CPU, combines functions of a processor, memory, and a video card on a single chip.
Todays processors are equipped with MMX technology, a built-in set of instructions that
manipulates and processes multimedia data more efficiently. Intels SSE instructions and AMDs
3DNow! are two other technologies that improve a processors performance of multimedia, the Web,
and 3-D graphics. To optimize and extend battery life for notebook computers, Intel mobile
processors use SpeedStep technology and AMD processors use PowerNow! technology.

Define a bit and describe how a series of bits represents data

Most computers are digital, meaning they understand only two discrete states: on and off. These states
are represented using two digits, 0 (off) and 1 (on). Each on or off value is called a bit (short for
binary digit), the smallest unit of data a computer can handle. Eight bits grouped together as a unit

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form a byte. A byte provides enough different combinations of 0s and 1s to represent 256 individual
characters including numbers, letters of the alphabet, punctuation marks, and other characters.
The combinations of 0s and 1s used to represent data are defined by patterns called coding schemes.
Popular coding schemes are ASCII, EBCDIC, and Unicode. Coding schemes make it possible for
humans to interact with a digital computer that recognizes only bits. Every character you type on a
keyboard is converted into a corresponding byte, a series of on/off electrical states the computer can
process.

Differentiate between the various types of memory

Memory is a temporary storage place for data, instructions, and information. Memory stores the
operating system, application programs, and the data processed by application programs. A byte is the
basic storage unit in memory. Memory size is measured by the number of bytes available for use.

A kilobyte (KB or K) of memory is approximately one thousand bytes,

a megabyte (MB) is approximately one million bytes, and

a gigabyte (GB) is approximately one billion bytes.

T h e s y s t e m u n i t c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l t y p e s o f m e m o r y.
RAM (random access memory) consists of memory chips that the processor can read from and write
to. Most RAM is volatile memory, meaning that its contents are lost when the computers power is
turned off. Two basic types of RAM chips are dynamic RAM and static RAM.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) must be re-energized constantly or it loses its contents.
Static RAM (SRAM) is faster and more reliable than DRAM and has to be re-energized less often, but
it is much more expensive.
Memory cache, also called a cache store or RAM cache, improves processing time by storing frequently
used instructions and data.
ROM (read-only memory) refers to memory chips that only can be read and used; that is, they cannot
be modified. ROM is non-volatile memory (NVM), meaning that its contents are not lost when the
computers power is turned off. A variation of the ROM chip, called programmable read-only memory
(PROM), is a blank chip on which you can place items permanently.
Flash memory, also known as flash ROM or flash RAM, is non-volatile memory that can be erased
electronically and reprogrammed.
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) memory, another type of memory chip, stores
configuration information about the computer and uses battery power to retain information when the
power to the computer is off.
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Describe the types of expansion slots and cards in the system unit
An expansion slot is an opening, or socket, where you can insert a circuit board into the motherboard.
These circuit boards called cards, expansion cards, boards, expansion boards, adapters, adapter cards,
interface cards, add-ins, or add-ons -- add new devices or capabilities to the computer. Four types of
expansion cards found in most computers are a video card, a sound card, a network interface card,
and a modem card.
A video card converts computer output into a video signal that is sent through a cable to the monitor,
which displays an image.
A sound card enhances the sound-generating capabilities of a personal computer by allowing sound to
be input through a microphone and output through speakers.
A network interface card (NIC) is a communications device that allows the computer to communicate
via a network.
A modem card is a communications device that enables computers to communicate via telephone lines
or other means. Many of todays computers support Plug and Play, a capability with which the
computer automatically can configure expansion boards and other devices as you install them.
Notebook and other portable computers have a special type of expansion slot used for installing a PC
Card, which is a thin credit card-sized device that adds memory, disk drives, sound, fax/modem, and
communications capabilities to a mobile computer.

Explain the difference between a serial, a parallel, and a USB port

A cable often attaches external devices to the system unit. A port is the interface, or point of
attachment, to the system unit. Ports have different types of connectors, which are used to join a cable
to a device. Male connectors have one or more exposed pins, while female connectors have matching
holes to accept the pins.
Most computers have three types of ports: serial, parallel, and USB.
A serial port is a type of interface that connects a device to the system unit by transmitting data only
one bit at a time. Serial ports usually connect devices that do not require fast data transmission rates,
such as a mouse, keyboard, or modem.
A parallel port is an interface that connects devices by transferring more than one bit at a time. Many
printers connect to the system unit using a parallel port.
A universal serial bus (USB) port can connect up to 127 different peripheral devices with a single
connector type, greatly simplifying the process of attaching devices to a personal computer.
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Describe how buses contribute to a computer's processing speed

Bits are transferred internally within the circuitry of the computer along electrical channels. Each
channel, called a bus, allows various devices inside and attached to the system unit to communicate with
each other.
The bus width, or size of the bus, determines the number of bits that can be transferred at one time.
The larger the bus width, the fewer number of transfer steps required and the faster the transfer of data.
In most computers word size (the number of bits the CPU can process at a given time) is the same as
the bus width.
Every bus also has a clock speed. The higher the bus clock speed, the faster the transmission of data,
which results in applications running faster.
A computer has two basic types of buses.
A system bus connects the CPU to main memory.
An expansion bus allows the CPU to communicate with peripheral devices.

Identify components in a notebook computer

Users with mobile computing needs often have a mobile computer, such as a notebook computer
and/or handheld computer. A notebook computer, also called a laptop computer, can run either using
batteries or using a standard power supply. In addition to the motherboard, processor, memory, sound
card, PC Card slot, and drive bay, the system unit for a notebook computer also houses other devices,
such as the keyboard, pointing device, speakers, and display.

Identify components in a handheld computer

Handheld computers run strictly on battery. Similar to desktop and notebook computers, handheld
computers have a system unit that contains electronic components that process data. A handheld
computers system unit also contains a display and may house speakers and some form of keyboard
and/or pointing device. Handheld computers often have an IrDA port so you can communicate
wirelessly with other computers. Many also include a serial port.

Expand Your Knowledge

The system unit
The CPU
Processor comparison
Data representation
Memory
Expansion slots and expansion cards
Ports
Buses
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Notebook computers
Handheld computers

The System Unit

The motherboard in the system unit contains different types of chips. Manufacturers package chips so
the chips can be attached to circuit boards, such as the motherboard.
Types of chip packages include:
Dual inline package (DIP), which consists of two parallel rows of downward-pointing thin metal feet
(pins)
Pin grid array (PGA) package, which holds a larger number of pins because the pins are mounted on
the surface of the package
Flip chip-PGA (FC-PGA) package, which places chips on the opposite side (flip side) of the pins
Single edge contact (SEC) cartridge, which connects to the motherboard on one of its edges

The CPU
The power of personal computer processor chips (the chips that contain the CPU) has grown at an
astounding rate. As chips become older and more widely used, price cuts usually are introduced.
Several factors affect CPU processing speed. CPUs in most of todays personal computers use
pipelining, a technique that increases processing speed by beginning execution of a second machine
cycle instruction before the first instruction is completed. CPUs also use high-speed storage locations,
called registers, to hold data and instructions temporarily. The control unit relies on a small chip called
the system clock to synchronize all computer operations. The speed at which a processor executes
instructions is called clock speed, or clock rate, and is measured in megahertz (MHz). The system clock
is a major factor affecting processor speed. A higher clock speed means the CPU can process more
instructions per second.

Processor Comparison
Although once frequently used, the term microprocessor is much less common today.
Sometimes you can upgrade your processor to increase the computers performance. There are three
forms of upgrades:

With a chip for chip upgrade, the existing processor chip is replaced with a new one

With a piggyback upgrade, the new processor is stacked on top of the old one

With a daughterboard upgrade, the new processor is on a small circuit board (the daughterboard)
that plugs into the motherboard

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The past three years have seen a steady drop in the cost of computers. PC prices plunged as a result of
lower prices for processors, memory chips, and hard drives. Consumers also are showing increased
interest in new less powerful, but less expensive, personal computers that work perfectly well for the
most popular uses word processing, Internet access, and spreadsheet applications. The surge in lowpriced computer sales has had an impact on Intel, the worlds largest processor manufacturer. By
focusing on making inexpensive processor chips, rivals AMD and Cyrix are making inroads into Intels
dominance. Intels response, the Celeron, has proven popular, but the lower-priced chip offers a
smaller profit margin.

Data Representation
Just as the decimal system (10 digits) is suited to human anatomy (10 fingers), the binary system (2
digits) is perfect to represent the on-off states (2 states) of a computer. Basic coding standards make it
possible for components within computers to communicate, allow manufacturers to be confident that
the components they produce will operate correctly in a computer, and enable consumers to purchase
components that are compatible with their systems. In the ASCII-8 and EBCDIC codes, the first four
characters represent the zone, and the last four characters represent the digits 1 through 8. ASCII,
originally a seven-bit code, was expanded to eight bits in an effort to provide for symbols used in other
nations. Unicode, a 2-byte (16-bit) code, can represent 216, or 65,536, characters. The system employs
the codes used by ASCII and also includes other alphabets (such as Cyrillic and Hebrew), special
characters (including religious symbols), and some of the word writing symbols used by various
Asian countries.

Memory
Because computers use the binary number system, the actual values for the units in which memory and
storage are measured are based on powers of 2. For example, one kilobyte = 210 = 1,024.
RAMs volatility, and its ability to be changed, are its most distinguishing characteristics. When RAM is
purchased it comes in banks of nine chips eight are needed to represent a byte and the ninth is
needed for parity. RAM chips usually are packaged on small circuit boards called single inline memory
modules (SIMMs) or dual inline memory modules (DIMMs) that are inserted into the motherboard.
During the past 20 years, the price of RAM has dropped an average of 20 percent each year, but its
capacity has more than doubled every two years.
Similar to flash ROM, another variation of ROM, called EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory), can be erased electrically and rewritten. Because of its non-volatile nature,
EEPROM is used in electronic cash registers to store item prices.
The amount of time it takes the processor to read data from memory, called access time, directly affects
how fast the computer can process data. Memory access time is measured in terms of nanoseconds, or
billionths of a second.

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CHAPTER 5
INPUT
Overview
Describe the two types of input
List the characteristics of a keyboard
Identify various types of keyboards
Identify various types of pointing devices
Explain how a mouse works
Describe different mouse types
Explain how voice recognition works
Understand how to input data into a handheld computer
Identify the uses of a digital camera
Describe the various techniques used for video input
Describe the uses of PC video cameras and web cams
Explain how scanners and other reading devices work
Identify alternative input devices for physically challenged users

In this chapter, you learn what input is and what input devices are. The keyboard is presented and
different keyboard types are described. You are introduced to various pointing devices, such as the
mouse, trackball, touchpad, pointing stick, joystick, touch screen, and pen input. Scanners and reading
devices, including optical scanners, optical readers, magnetic ink character recognition readers, and data
collection devices are explained. You learn about digital cameras, audio input, speech recognition, video
input, and videoconferencing. Finally, input devices for physically challenged users are explored.

Describe the two types of input

Input is any data or instructions entered into the memory of a computer. Two types of input are data
and instructions.
Data is a collection of unorganized items that can include words, numbers, pictures, sounds, and video.
A computer processes data into information, which is organized, meaningful, and useful.
Instructions can be in the form of programs, commands, or user responses.

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A program is a series of instructions that tells a computer how to perform the tasks necessary to
process data into information.
A command is an instruction given to a computer program.
A user response is an instruction you issue to the computer by responding to a question posed by a
computer program.
Any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs, commands, and user responses into
a computer is an input device.

List the characteristics of a keyboard

The keyboard is an input device that contains keys you press to enter data into a computer. Desktop
computer keyboards usually have from 101 to 105 keys, while keyboards for smaller computers contain
fewer keys.
All keyboards have a typing area used to type letters of the alphabet, numbers, punctuation marks, and
other basic characters.
Many desktop computer keyboards also have

a numeric keypad designed to make it easier to enter numbers,

function keys programmed to issue commands and accomplish certain tasks,
arrow keys used to move the insertion point (a symbol on the screen that indicates where the next
typed character will display), and
Toggle keys that can be switched between two different states.

Identify various types of keyboards

A standard computer keyboard sometimes is called a QWERTY keyboard because of the layout of its
typing area.
An enhanced keyboard has 12 function keys along the top row, 2 ctrl keys, 2 alt keys, and a set of
arrow and additional keys between the typing area and the numeric keypad.
Cordless keyboards transmit data via infrared light waves.
Keyboards for notebook and handheld computers usually have smaller and fewer keys than desktop
computers.
A portable keyboard is a full-sized keyboard you can attach to and remove from a handheld computer.
Some manufacturers have designed ergonomic keyboards to reduce the chance of workplace injuries.
The goal of ergonomics is to incorporate comfort, efficiency, and safety into the design of workplace
items.
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Identify various types of pointing devices

In a graphical user interface, the pointer is a small symbol on the screen. A pointing device is an input
device that allows you to control the pointer. Common pointing devices include the mouse, trackball,
touchpad, pointing stick, joystick, touch screen, light pen, and a stylus.

A mouse is a pointing device, designed to fit comfortably under the palm of your hand, that is
moved across a flat surface.
A trackball is a stationary pointing device with a ball mechanism on its top.
A touchpad is a flat, rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to pressure and motion.
A pointing-stick is a pressure-sensitive pointing device shaped like a pencil eraser that is positioned
between keys on the keyboard.
A joystick is a vertical lever mounted on a base.
A light pen is a handheld device that contains a light source or can detect light.
A touch screen is a touch-sensitive display on the screen.
A stylus looks like a ballpoint pen but uses pressure, instead of ink, to write text and draw lines.
An electronic pen can be used on a graphics tablet, which consists of a flat, rectangular, electronic
plastic board used to input graphical data.

Explain how a mouse works

As you move a mouse across a flat surface, the movement is translated into signals that are sent to the
computer, and the pointer on the screen also moves. When you move the mouse to the right, the
pointer moves to the right on the screen. For Windows users, the top of a mouse has at least two
buttons and sometimes also a wheel. Generally, you use a mouse to move the pointer on the screen to
an object and then press a button, or click, to perform a certain action on that object. Other operations
you can perform using a mouse include right-click, double-click, drag, right-drag, rotate wheel, and
press wheel button.

Describe different mouse types

A mechanical mouse has a rubber or metal ball on its underside. When the ball rolls in a certain
direction, electronic circuits in the mouse translate the movement into signals that are sent to the
computer. For better traction, you should place a mechanical mouse on a mouse pad.
An optical mouse has no moving parts; instead it uses devices that emit and sense light to detect the
mouses movement. An optical mouse can be used on nearly all surfaces, is more precise than a
mechanical mouse, and does not require cleaning.
A cordless mouse, or wireless mouse, is a battery powered device that transmits data using wireless
technology, such as radio waves or infrared light waves. A cordless mouse uses technology very similar
to that of a cordless keyboard.

Explain how voice recognition works

Voice input is the process of entering data by speaking into a microphone that is attached to the sound
card on a computer. Voice recognition is the computers capability of distinguishing spoken words. The
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first voice recognition programs were speaker dependent. With speaker-dependent software, the
computer makes a profile of your voice, which means you have to train the computer to recognize your
voice. Today, most voice recognition programs use speaker-independent software, which has a built-in
set of word patterns and does not have to be trained to recognize your voice. Some voice recognition
software requires discrete speech, meaning that you have to speak slowly and separate each word with a
short pause. Most voice recognition products, however, support continuous speech, allowing you to
speak in a flowing conversational tone.

Understand how to input data into a handheld computer

To satisfy the input needs of many different types of users, handheld computers provide many different
ways to input data. A handheld computer typically includes a basic stylus. With the stylus, you can enter
data using an on-screen keyboard or using handwriting recognition software that translates handwritten
letters and characters into symbols the computer understands. Other input alternatives available with
some handheld computers include attaching a full-sized keyboard, transferring data from a desktop
computer, using voice input, and attaching a digital camera.

Identify the uses of a digital camera

A digital camera is used to take pictures and store the photographed images digitally instead of on
traditional film. Pictures are stored on a storage medium, such as a floppy disk, SuperDisk, Clik! disk,
PC Card, compact flash card, memory stick, mini-CD, or microdrive. Many digital cameras allow you
to review and edit the images while they are in the camera. You also can download, or transfer a copy
of, the stored image to a computer. Once on a computer, the pictures can be edited with photo-editing
software, printed, faxed, sent via electronic mail, included in another document, or posted to a Web site.
There are three basic types of digital cameras.
A studio camera is a stationary digital camera used for professional studio work.
A field camera is a portable camera, often used by photojournalists, that has many lenses and other
attachments.
A point-and-shoot camera is more affordable and lightweight and provides acceptable quality
photographic images for the home or small business user.

Describe the various techniques used for video input

Video input, or video capture, is the process of entering a full-motion recording into a computer and
storing the video on a storage medium.

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Many video devices use analogue video signals. To input video from these devices, the device is
plugged into a video capture card, an expansion card that converts the analogue signal into a digital
signal the computer can understand.
A digital video (DV) camera is a new generation of video camera that records video as digital signals,
instead of using analogue signals, and therefore does not require a video capture card. Video files can
demand huge amounts of storage space.
Video compression reduces the size of video files by recognizing that only a small portion of an image
changes from frame to frame. Instead of storing every frame in its entirety, a video compression
program might store an initial frame and then store only the changes from one frame to the next.
A video decoder is a card that decompresses video. A video digitizer can be used to capture an
individual frame from a video and save the still picture in a file.

D e s c r i b e t h e u s e s o f P C v i d e o c a m e r a s a n d Web c a m s
A PC camera is a DV camera that allows home users to record, edit, capture video and still images, and
make video telephone calls on the Internet. During a video telephone call, both parties can see each
other as they talk. Although usually placed on top of the monitor and attached to a computers USB
port, some PC cameras are portable and can be used anywhere.

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CHAPTER 6
OUTPUT
Overview

Define the four categories of output

Identify the different types of display devices

Describe factors that affect the quality of a display device

Identify monitor ergonomic issues

Explain the differences among various types of printers

Describe the uses of speakers and headsets

Identify the purpose of data projectors, fax machines, and multifunction devices

Explain how a terminal is both an input and output device

Identify output options for physically challenged users

In this chapter, you learn what is output and what are output devices. Display devices are introduced,
including CRT monitors, flat-panel displays, video cards, and high-definition television. You explore
monitor quality and monitor ergonomics. Various types of printers are presented, such as impact
printers, non-impact printers, portable printers, plotters and large-format printers, and special-purpose
printers. You find out about audio output and other output devices, including data projectors, facsimile
machines, and multifunction devices. Finally, you become acquainted with terminals and output devices
for physically challenged users.

Define the four categories of output

Output is data that has been processed into a useful form called information. Four types of output are
text, graphics, audio, and video.
Text consists of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or any other symbol requiring one byte
of computer storage space) that are used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs.
Graphics are digital representations of non-text information such as drawings, charts, photographs, and
animation (a series of still images in rapid sequence that gives the illusion of motion).
Audio is music, speech, or any other sound.
Video consists of images played back at speeds to provide the appearance of full motion.
An output device is any computer component capable of conveying information to a user.

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Identify the different types of display devices

A display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video information.
Information shown on a display device is called soft copy because the information exists electronically
and is displayed for a temporary period of time. Display devices include CRT monitors, LCD monitors
and displays, gas plasma monitors, and televisions.
A CRT monitor is a monitor that is similar to a standard television set because it contains a cathode
ray tube. A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a large, sealed, glass tube. The front of the tube is a screen
coated with phosphor material that glows as an electron beam moves back and forth, which produces
an image on the screen.
LCD monitors and LCD displays use liquid crystal to present information on the screen. A liquid
crystal display (LCD) has liquid crystals between two sheets of material. When an electric current
passes through the crystals, they twist, causing some light waves to be blocked and allowing others to
pass through, which creates the images.
Similar to an LCD display, a gas plasma monitor is a flat-panel display. A gas plasma monitor,
however, substitutes a layer of gas for the liquid crystal material. When voltage is applied, the gas
releases ultraviolet light that causes pixels on the screen to glow and form an image.
An NTSC converter converts a computers digital signal into an analogue signal that a standard
television set can display. High-definition television (HDTV) is a type of television set that works with
digital broadcasting signals and supports a wider screen and higher resolution than a standard television
set.

Describe factors that affect the quality of a display device

The quality of a CRT monitor depends largely on its resolution, dot pitch, and refresh rate. The quality
of an LCD monitor or display depends primarily on its resolution.
A CRT monitors screen is coated with tiny dots of phosphor material, called pixels, that glow when
electrically charged to produce an image.
Resolution, which describes the sharpness and clearness of that image, is related directly to the number
of pixels a monitor can display. The greater the number of pixels the display uses, the better the quality
of the image.
Dot pitch, a measure of image clarity, is the distance between each pixel on a display. The smaller the
distance between pixels (dot pitch), the sharper the image.
Refresh rate is the speed that a monitor redraws images on the screen. Refresh rate should be fast
enough to maintain a constant, flicker-free image.
The resolution of an LCD monitor or display generally is proportional to the size of the monitor or
display. That is, the resolution increases for larger monitors and devices.
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Identify monitor ergonomic issues

The goal of ergonomics is to incorporate comfort, efficiency, and safety into the design of items in the
workplace. Features that address monitor ergonomic issues include controls to adjust the brightness,
contrast, positioning, and height and width of images. Newer monitors have digital controls that allow
you to fine-tune the display. Many monitors also have a tilt and swivel base so the angle of the screen
can be altered to minimize neck strain and glare. Monitors produce a small amount of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR), which is a magnetic field that travels at the speed of light. High-quality monitors
should comply with MPR II, a standard that defines acceptable levels of EMR for a monitor.

Explain the differences among various types of printers

A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper or
transparency film. Printed information is called hard copy because the information exists physically and
is a more permanent from of output. Printers can be grouped in two categories: impact and nonimpact.
Impact printers form characters and graphics by striking a mechanism against an ink ribbon that
physically contacts the paper.
A dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that prints images when tiny wire pins on a print head
mechanism strike an inked ribbon.
A line printer is an impact printer that prints an entire line at one time. Two popular types of line
printers are band printers and shuttle-matrix printers.
Non-impact printers form characters and graphics without actually striking the paper.
An ink-jet printer is a non-impact printer that sprays drops of ink onto a piece of paper.
A laser printer is a non-impact printer that creates images using a laser beam and powdered ink, called
toner.
A thermal printer is a non-impact printer that generates images by pushing electrically heated pins
against heat-sensitive paper. Although the print quality of standard thermal printers generally is low, two
special types of thermal printers, thermal wax-transfer printers and dye-sublimation printers, have a
much higher print quality.
Some printers are used for special purposes.
A photo printer is a colour printer that can produce photo lab quality pictures as well as printing
everyday documents.

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A label printer is a small printer that prints on an adhesive type material that can be placed on a variety
of items.
A portable printer is a small, lightweight printer that allows a mobile user to print from a notebook or
handheld computer while travelling.
Plotters are sophisticated printers used to produce high-quality drawings such as blueprints, maps, and
circuit diagrams.
A large-format printer, which operates like an ink-jet printer but on a larger scale, creates photorealistic quality colour prints.

Describe the uses of speakers and headsets

An audio output device produces music, speech, or other sounds. Two commonly used audio output
devices are speakers and headsets.
Most personal computers have an internal speaker that outputs low-quality sound. Many users add
high-quality stereo speakers or purchase PCs with larger speakers built into the sides of the monitor. A
woofer can be added to boost low bass sounds.
A headset plugged into a port on the sound card allows only the user to hear sound from the
computer.

Identify the purpose

multifunction devices

of

data

projectors,

fax

machines,

and

A data projector takes the image on a computer screen and projects it onto a large screen so that an
audience of people can see the image. Two smaller, lower priced data projectors are an LCD projector,
which uses liquid crystal display technology, and a digital light processing (DLP) projector, which uses
tiny mirrors.
A facsimile (fax) machine transmits and receives documents over telephone lines. A fax modem is a
communication device that allows you to send (and sometimes receive) electronic documents as faxes.
A multifunction device (MFD) is a single piece of equipment that looks like a copy machine but
provides the functionality of a printer, scanner, copy machine, and sometimes a fax machine.

CHAPTER 7
STORAGE
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Overview
Differentiate between storage and memory

Identify various types of storage media and storage devices

Explain how a floppy disk stores data

Identify the advantages of using high-capacity disks

Describe how a hard disk organizes data

Identify the advantages of using an Internet hard drive

Explain how a compact disc stores data

Understand how to care for a compact disc

Differentiate between CD-ROMs, CD-RWs, and DVD-ROMs

Identify the uses of tape

Understand how an enterprise storage system works

Explain how to use PC cards and other miniature storage media

Identify uses of microfilm and microfiche

This chapter explains various storage media and storage devices. Students discover how memory is
different from storage. Floppy disks are introduced, and characteristics of a floppy disk, floppy disk
drives, care of floppy disks, and high-capacity floppy disks are presented. Hard disks are explained, and
students find out about characteristics of a hard disk, how a hard disk works, removable hard disks,
hard disk controllers, RAID, and maintaining data on a hard disk. Compact discs, including CD-ROMs
and DVD-ROMs, are described. Finally, students learn about tapes, PC Cards, and other types of
storage such as smart cards, microfilm and microfiche.

Differentiate between storage and memory

Memory, which is composed of one or more chips on the motherboard, is a temporary holding place
for data and instructions during processing. The contents of volatile memory, such as RAM, are lost
when the power to the computer is turned off. The contents of nonvolatile memory, such as ROM, are
not lost when power is removed from the computer.
Storage holds items such as data, instructions, and information for future use; that is, storage holds these
items while they are not being processed. Storage is nonvolatile, which means the items in storage are
retained even when power is removed from the computer. Compared to memory, the access time (the
time it takes to locate a single item) for storage is slow.

Identify various types of storage media and storage devices

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A storage medium (media is the plural) is the physical material on which items are kept. A storage
device is the computer hardware that records and retrieves items to and from a storage medium. Storage
devices can function as sources of input and output.
When storage devices transfer items from a storage medium into memory a process called reading
they function as sources of input.
When storage devices transfer items from memory to a storage medium a process called writing
they function as sources of output.
Types of storage media include floppy disks, hard disks, compact discs, tape, PC Cards, microfilm, and
microfiche.

Explain how a floppy disk stores data

A floppy disk is a portable, inexpensive storage medium that consists of a thin, circular, flexible plastic
disk with a magnetic coating enclosed in a square-shaped plastic shell. A floppy disk drive (FDD) is a
device that can read from and write on a floppy disk. When you insert a floppy disk into a floppy disk
drive, a shutter on the disks plastic shell slides to the side to expose the disks recording surface. A
floppy disk is a type of magnetic media because it uses magnetic patterns to store items.
Data is stored in tracks and sectors. A track is a narrow recording band that forms a full circle on the
surface of the disk. The disks storage locations consist of pie-shaped sections, which break the track
into small arcs called sectors. For reading and writing purposes, sectors are grouped into clusters. A
cluster consists of two to eight sectors and is the smallest unit of space used to store data. Formatting is
the process of preparing a disk for reading and writing.

Identify the advantages of using high-capacity disks

A high-capacity disk drive is a disk drive that uses disks with capacities of 100 MB and greater
(remember, a typical floppy disk can store only up to 1.44 MB). High-capacity disks are used to store
large graphics, audio, or video files and for backup. A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk
that can be used if the original is lost, damaged, or destroyed.
Three high-capacity disk drives are the SuperDisk drive, the HiFD drive, and the Zip drive.
The SuperDisk drive reads from and writes on a 120 MB or 250 MB SuperDisk.
The HiFD (High-Capacity FD) drive reads from and writes on a 200 MB HiFD disk.
The Zip drive is a high-capacity disk drive that uses a Zip disk. The Zip disk is larger and
thicker than a 3.5-inch floppy disk and can store 100 MB or 250 MB of data.

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Describe how a hard disk organizes data

A hard disk, or hard disk drive, consists of several inflexible, circular platters that store items
electronically. A platter in a hard disk is made of aluminium, glass, or ceramic and is coated with a
material that allows items to be recorded magnetically on its surface. Each platter has two read/write
heads, one for each side. Because of the stacked arrangement of the platters, the location of the
read/write heads often is referred to by its cylinder, which is the location of a single track through all
platters. Some computers improve hard disk access time by using a disk cache, which is a portion of
memory that the processor uses to store frequently accessed items. A hard disk can be divided into
separate areas, called partitions, each of which functions as if it were a separate hard disk drive.

Identify the advantages of using an Internet hard drive

An Internet hard drive is a service on the Web that provides storage to computer users. People use
Internet hard drives to:
Eliminate the need to transport files when away from a desktop computer
Instantaneously save large audio, video, and graphics files when surfing the Web
Make audio files, video clips, or pictures available to family, friends, co-workers, and customers
Immediately view time-critical data and images while away from a main office or location
Store offsite backups of data

Explain how a compact disc stores data

A compact disc (CD) is a flat, round, portable metal storage medium that usually is 4.75 inches in
diameter and less than one-twentieth of an inch thick. Compact discs store items using microscopic pits
(indentations) and land (flat areas) that are in the middle layer of the disc. A high-powered laser light
creates the pits in a single track, divided into evenly spaced sectors, that spirals from the centre to the
edge of the disc. A low-powered laser reads items by reflecting light off the disc surface. The reflected
light is converted into a series of bits that the computer can process.

Understand how to care for a compact disc

With proper care, a compact disc is guaranteed to last five years, but could last up to 50 years. Compact
discs should not be stacked or exposed to excessive heat, cold, sunlight, or contaminants. A compact
disc should be held by its edges (do not touch the underside of the disc) and placed in its protective
case, called a jewel box, when it is not being used. You can clean the bottom surface with a soft cloth

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and warm water or a specialized CD cleaning kit, and you can repair scratches on the bottom surface
with a specialized compact disc repair kit.

D i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n C D - R O M s , C D - RW s , a n d DVD - R O M s
A CD-ROM, or compact disc read-only memory, is a compact disc that uses the same laser technology
as audio CDs. For a computer to read items stored on a CD-ROM, you insert the disc into a CDROM drive or CD-ROM player. When viewing animation or video, the speed of a CD-ROM drive, or
data transfer rate, is important. A higher the data transfer rate, results in smoother playback of images
and sounds.
Most standard CDs are single-session because manufacturers record (write) all items to the disc at one
time. Variations of standard CD-ROMs, such as PhotoCD, CD-R (compact disc-recordable), and CDRW (compact disc-rewritable), are multisession, which means additional data, instructions, and
information can be written at a later time.
A PhotoCD is a compact disc that contains digital photographic images.
A CD-R (compact disc-recordable) is a multisession compact disc onto which you can record your
own items.
A CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable) is an erasable disc you can write on multiple times.
A DVD-ROM (digital video disc-ROM) is an extremely high-capacity compact disc capable of storing
from 4.7 GB to 17 GB. In order to read a DVD-ROM, you must have a DVD-ROM drive. You also
can obtain recordable and rewritable versions of DVD.
A DVD-R (DVD-recordable) allows you to write on it once and read (play) it many times.
With the new rewritable DVD, called a DVD+RW, you can erase and record on the disc multiple times.

Identify the uses of tape

Tape, one of the first storage media used with mainframe computers, is a magnetically-coated ribbon of
plastic capable of storing large amounts of data and information at low cost. Because it requires
sequential access, or consecutive reading and writing of data, tape is used for long-term storage and
backup. (Floppy disks, hard disks, and compact discs all use direct access, which means you can locate
a data item immediately, without having to move through all the items stored in front of it.)

Understand how an enterprise storage system works

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An enterprise storage system is a strategy that focuses on the availability, protection, organization, and
backup of storage in a company. To implement an enterprise storage system, a company uses a
combination of techniques.

A server stores items needed by users on a network. A RAID system ensures that data is not
lost.

A tape library is a high-capacity tape system that works with multiple tape cartridges for storing
backups of data, information, and instructions.

A CD-ROM jukebox holds hundreds of CD-ROMs that can contain application programs and
data.

An Internet backup can store data, information, and instructions on the Web.

A network attached storage (NAC) is an easy way to add hard disk space to a network.

A storage area network (SAN) is a high-speed network that connects storage devices.

Explain how to use PC Cards and other miniature storage media

A PC Card is a thin, credit card-sized device that fits into a PC Card slot on a notebook or personal
computer. PC Cards are used to add storage, memory, communications, and sound capabilities.
A smart card stores data on a thin microprocessor embedded in a card similar in size to an ATM card.
Two types of smart cards exist: intelligent and memory.
An intelligent smart card contains a processor and has input, process, output, and storage capabilities.
A memory card has only storage capabilities.

Identify uses of microfilm and microfiche

Microfilm and microfiche store microscopic images of documents on roll or sheet film. Microfilm uses
a 100- to 215-foot roll of film. Microfiche uses a small sheet of film, usually about four inches by six
inches. Libraries and large organizations use microfilm and microfiche to archive relatively inactive
documents and files.

Expand Your Knowledge

Memory vs. storage
Storage media and devices
Floppy disks
High-capacity disks
Hard disks
Advantages of an Internet Hard Drive
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Compact discs
Caring for compact discs
CD-ROMs, CD-RWs, and DVD-ROM
Tape
Enterprise storage systems
PC cards and miniature storage media
Microfilm and microfiche

Memory vs. Storage

In general, memory (RAM) is fast, short-term, and volatile. Storage, on the other hand, is slower, longterm, and non-volatile. Like non-volatile memory, the contents of storage are retained when a
computers power is turned off. Unlike most non-volatile memory, however, the contents of storage
usually can be erased or changed.

Storage Media and Devices

The first computer storage medium was a punched card. Herman Holleriths punched card tabulating
machine helped complete the 1890 census in just 2 years (compared to 8 years for the 1880 census)
at a savings of more than $5 million. Hollerith later founded the Tabulating Machine Company, which
eventually became known as International Business Machines (IBM). An understanding of storage
terms is very important for purchasers, and users, of storage devices.

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 thousand bytes

1 Megabyte (MB) 1 million bytes

1 Gigabyte (GB) 1 billion bytes

1 Terabyte (TB) 1 trillion bytes

1 Petabyte (PB) 1 quadrillion bytes

1 KB stores approximately page of text. Depending on speed and size, rough costs for RAM are
about $40 to $50 per megabyte, while hard disk storage costs are around $0.20 per megabyte.

Floppy Disks
Although the 5.25-inch floppy disk is physically larger, the storage capacity for a 5.25-inch floppy disk is
less than for a comparable 3.5-inch floppy disk. Because of the 3.5-inch floppy disks greater durability
and superior storage capacity, the 5.25-inch floppy disk at best can be considered a very endangered
species. With its rigid plastic shell, it may be difficult to see the 3.5-inch disk as floppy. The name is
justified, however, by the disks ancestry and the fact that, if the protective shell is removed, the disk on
which the data is written is indeed floppy. Today, most new computers (although not the new Apple
iMac) come with a 3.5-inch floppy disk drive; a few manufacturers still will, for a price, add a 5.25-inch
floppy disk drive.

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The procedure for formatting a floppy disk depends on the operating system. Floppy disks are softsectored, meaning that the number of sectors is not predetermined. The cluster concept creates an odd
situation: one file with 100,000 bytes requires less disk space (about 25 clusters at 8 sectors per cluster
and 512 bytes per sector) than 1,000 small files of 100 bytes each (1,000 clusters).
A floppy disk spins at about 300 revolutions per minute. When writing data, the floppy disk drives
read/write head generates electronic impulses that change the magnetic polarity of areas along a track to
represent the 1 or 0 bits being recorded. When reading data, the read/write head senses the magnetic
areas that have been recorded.

High-Capacity Disks
The three types of high-capacity disks were developed by three different manufacturers: SuperDisk is
from Imation, HiFD is from Sony Electronics, Inc, and the Zip drive is from Iomega.
Although manufacturers always are concerned about software piracy (unlawfully duplicating or
distributing proprietary software), many recommend that users create a backup of programs before
installing them on a computer. Backup guards against system failures, such as a head crash, and human
errors, such as inadvertently deleting key files. If you ever accidentally delete a file, seek help
immediately from a computer support person who sometimes can recover the erased file.

Hard Disks
In the early 1980s, hard disk drives were called Winchester drives because they had two 30-megabyte
disks, a characteristic reminiscent of the Winchester 30-30 rifle. In addition to making hard disks more
efficient and allowing the installation of multiple operating systems, large hard disks may be partitioned
to:

Limit software disasters (which usually are confined to one partition)

Shorten path lengths and assist in file keeping
Save keystrokes (operating systems usually return to the directory they left)
Enhance security (different partitions may warrant different safety levels)
Permit variable frequencies of backup
Allow unattended backups (smaller partitions may fit on a single tape)

Unlike floppy disk read/write heads, hard disk read/write heads do not touch the disk surface. Because
of the close tolerance between the disk head and the rotating disk surface, hard disk drives are
manufactured in an extremely clean setting, typically cleaner than a hospital operating room. Many hard
disk drives are warranted for five years, but most warranties are prorated, meaning that if it fails in the
first year it can be replaced at 20 percent of the original cost. All warranties are void, however, if the
drive is opened, because contaminated air and dust render the drive unusable.
On a personal computer, a hard disk controller (HDC) is the interface for the hard disk. Many external
hard drives use a USB port as their interface. Two other types of HDCs are the EIDE (Enhanced
Integrated Drive Electronics) controller, which can support up to four hard disks, and SCSI (small
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computer system interface) controllers, which can support multiple disk drives as well as other
peripherals.
A removable hard disk is a disk drive in which a plastic or metal case surrounds the hard disk so that
you can remove it from the drive. Two reasonably priced, removable hard disks are the Jaz disk,
which can store up to 2 GB, and the Peerless disk, which can store up to 20 GB.
A RAID (redundant array of independent disks) system integrates two or more hard disks, duplicating
data, instructions, and information to improve data reliability.

Advant ages of an Internet Hard Drive

When your computers hard disk is full, an Internet hard drive can provide additional storage space.
Ease of use, number of features, and amount of storage space varies, based on the specific Internet hard
drive Web site. Do you trust the security of online storage services? What types of information might
you store online? What are other advantages and disadvantages of Internet hard drives?

Compact Discs
Laser disks first were developed by RCA for showing home movies. The 14-inch optical disk was a
derivative of these early 1980s video disks. Advantages that compact discs offer over hard disks include:
greater data density, less expense (bit for bit), increased durability, and no head crashing.

Caring for Compact Discs

Compare the proper care guidelines for using floppy disks (page 7.9) with the proper care guidelines
for using compact discs (page 7.19). How are the guidelines similar? How are they different?

C D - R O M s , C D - RW s , a n d DVD - R O M
On a computer, screen displays for software used to play audio CDs resemble typical CD players, but
the controls are accessed with a pointing device. A single CD-ROM can store the entire Encyclopedia
Britannica with room left over. You write on a CD-R using a CD recorder or a CD-R drive and special
software. To write on a CD-RW disc, you must have CD-RW software and a CD-RW drive. A
multiread CD-ROM drive can read audio CDs, data CDs, CD-Rs, and CD-RWs.
On one side, a DVD-ROM can store up to 13 times the amount of information that can be stored on a
CD-ROM. Double-sided DVD-ROMs (DVD-ROMs that store data on both sides), can store up to 26
times the amount of information stored on a CD-ROM.
A DVD+RW is similar to a CD-RW, except it has storage capacities up to 4.7 GB. To write on
DVD+RW discs, you must have a DVD writer.

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Along with processor speed, amount of memory, and hard disk capacity, CD-ROM drive speed is a
featured element of almost every personal computer advertisement. Like CD-ROM drives, DVD-ROM
drive speeds are indicated with the letter X to represent the standard speed of a DVD drive. That speed,
however, is considerably faster than the data transfer rate of the original CD-ROM. While a 24X CDROM drive has a data transfer rate of 3,600 KB per second, a 5X DVD-ROM has a data transfer rate of
6,750 KB per second.

Tap e
Magnetic tape was developed in the mid-1950s to replace the earlier method of storing data on punched
cards. To better understand the difference between sequential access and direct access (or random
access), compare an audio cassette tape to a CD-ROM. An audio cassette tape is sequential; to listen to
the fourth song it is necessary to listen to (or fast-forward through) the first three songs. A CD is
direct; it is possible to go straight to the fourth song. For what applications would sequential storage be
appropriate? For what applications would it be unsuitable? Tape cartridges can be purchased formatted
or unformatted. One-quarter-inch wide cartridge tapes typically are 600 feet long. Unattended tape
backup is a great time saver. Consider how many 1.44 MB floppy disks are needed and how much time
is required (removing disks as they become full and inserting new disks) to back up 150 MB of data.
With tape backup, you can press a key, go about other business, and return to remove the finished
backup tape.

Enterprise Storage Systems

Large business users often utilize an enterprise storage system strategy. Why? What makes an enterprise
storage system strategy attractive to large business users?

PC Cards and Miniature Storage Media

Smart cards can hold the equivalent of 30 typewritten pages of data and cost from $5 to $50. Smart
card readers are about $100. As a storage media for an individuals medical history, smart cards offer
obvious benefits. The cards can be carried in a wallet with, or in lieu of, an insurance card, providing
both insurance records and an immediate, up-to-date medical history. A form of smart cards, called
Personal Information Carriers (PICs) is being adopted by the army to replace dog tags. Think of other
ways that smart cards and electronic money (e-money) could be used. Will digital cash someday replace
conventional currency? Why or why not?

Microfilm and Microfiche

Microfilm and microfiche images are so small that they can be read only with a microfilm and
microfiche reader. Large organizations use microfilm and microfiche to archive inactive files.

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CHAPTER 8
OPERATI NG SYSTE M S AND UTI L I TY PROGR AM S
Overview
Describe the two types of software
Understand the startup process for a personal computer
Describe the term user interface
Explain features common to most operating systems
Know the difference between stand-alone operating systems and network operating systems
Identify various stand-alone operating systems
Identify various network operating systems
Recognize devices that use embedded operating systems
Discuss the purpose of the following utilities: file viewer, file compression, diagnostic,
uninstaller, disk scanner, disk defragmenter, backup, and screen saver

System software is an essential part of a computer system. This chapter defines system software and
discusses two types of system software: operating systems and utility programs. You learn what an
operating system is and explore user interfaces, operating systems features, and operating system
functions. A variety of popular operating systems are described including DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows
95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows CE, the Mac OS, OS/2, UNIX, Linux, and
NetWare. You discover what happens when they start a computer and why a boot disk is important.
Finally, a number of utility programs are explained.

Describe the two types of software

Two types of software are application software and system software.
Application software consists of programs that perform specific tasks for users, such as a word
processing program, e-mail program, or Web browser.
System software consists of the programs that control the operations of a computer and its devices. The
two types of system software are operating systems and utility programs.
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing instructions that coordinate all the activities
among computer hardware devices.

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A utility program performs a specific task, usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its
programs.

Understand the start-up process for a personal computer

Booting is the process of starting or restarting a computer.

When you turn on the computer, the power supply sends an electrical signal to devices located in
the system unit.

The processor chip resets itself and looks for the ROM chip that contains the BIOS (basic
input/output system), which is firmware that holds the startup instructions.

The BIOS executes the power-on self test (POST) to make sure hardware is connected properly
and operating correctly.

The POST results are compared with data in a CMOS chip on the motherboard. If the POST
completes successfully, the BIOS searches for specific operating system files called system files.

Once located, the boot drive (the drive from which your personal computer starts), loads the
system files from storage (the hard disk usually drive C) into memory (RAM) and executes them.

Next, the kernel of the operating system loads into memory and takes control of the computer.

The operating system loads configuration information. In Windows XP, the registry consists of
several file that contain the system configuration information.

When complete, the Windows XP desktop and icons display, and programs in the Start-Up folder
are executed.

Describe the term user interface

A user interface controls how you enter data and instructions and how information displays on the
screen. Two types of user interfaces are command-line and graphical.

With a command-line interface, you type keywords or press special keys to enter data or
instructions.

A graphical user interface (GUI) allows you to use menus and visual images such as icons, buttons,
and other graphical objects to issue commands.

A menu is a set of commands from which you can choose.

An icon is a small image that represents a program, an instruction, a file, or some other object.

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Explain features common to most operating systems

Most operating systems perform similar functions that include managing programs, managing memory,
scheduling jobs, configuring devices, accessing the Web, monitoring performance, providing
housekeeping services, and administering security. Managing programs directly affects your productivity.

A single user/single tasking operating system allows only one user to run one program at a time.

A multitasking operating system allows a single user to work on two or more applications that
reside in memory at the same time.

A multi-user operating system enables two or more users to run a program simultaneously.

A multiprocessing operating system can support two or more CPUs running programs at the same
time. Managing memory involves assigning items to an area of memory while they are being
processed. The purpose of memory management is to optimize use of random access memory
(RAM).

With virtual memory (VM), the operating system optimizes memory by allocating a portion of a
storage medium, usually the hard disk, to function as additional RAM.

Scheduling jobs (operations the processor manages) involves determining the order in which jobs
are processed.

Spooling increases efficiency by placing print jobs in a buffer (an area of memory or storage where data
resides while waiting to be transferred) until the printer is ready, freeing the processor for other tasks.
Configuring devices establishes communication with each device in the computer. A device driver is a
small program that tells the operating system how to communicate with a device. Accessing the Web
may entail including a Web browser and e-mail program in the operating system. Monitoring
performance helps to identify and solve system problems.
A performance monitor is a program that assesses and reports information about various system
resources and devices. Providing housekeeping services entails performing storage and file management
functions. A file manager performs such functions as formatting and copying disks; listing the files on a
storage medium; checking the amount of used and unused space on a storage medium; organizing,
copying, deleting, moving, and sorting files; and creating shortcuts (icons on the desktop that run a
program when clicked).
Administering security involves establishing user accounts on a network. Each account typically requires
a user name and a password to log on, or access, the network.

Know the difference between stand-alone operating systems and

network operating systems
A stand-alone operating system is a complete operating system that works on a desktop or notebook
computer. A network operating system (also called network OS or NOS) is an operating system that
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supports a network. A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together via
communications media and devices such as cables, telephone lines, and modems. In some networks, the
server is the computer that controls access to the hardware and software on a network and provides a
centralized storage area. The other computers on the network, called clients, rely on the server(s) for
resources.

Identify various stand-alone operating systems

Stand-alone operating systems include DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows NT Workstation,
Windows 98, Windows 2000 Professional, Windows Millennium Edition, Windows XP Home
Edition, Windows XP Professional Edition, Mac OS, OS/2 Warp Client, UNIX, and Linux. UNIX and
Linux also function as network operating systems.

DOS (Disk Operating System) refers to several single user, command-line and menu-driven
operating systems developed in the early 1980s for personal computers.

Windows 3.x refers to early operating environments that, although not operating systems, provided
a graphical user interface to work in combination with DOS and simplify its use.

Windows 95 is a true multitasking operating system not an operating environment with an

improved graphical interface.

Windows NT Workstation is a client operating system that can connect to a Windows NT Server.

Developed as an upgrade to Windows 95, the Windows 98 operating system is easier to use and
more integrated with the Internet. Windows 98 includes Microsoft Internet Explorer, a popular Web
browser, Windows Explorer, a file manager, and an Active Desktop that works similarly to Web
links.

Windows 2000 Professional is a complete, reliable multitasking client operating system for
business desktop and business notebook computers.
Windows Millennium Edition is an operating system that has features specifically for the home
user.
Windows XP is Microsofts fastest, most reliable Windows operating system, providing quicker
startup, better performance, and a new, simplified visual look.
Windows XP Home Edition is an upgrade to Windows Millennium Edition, while Windows XP
Professional Edition is an upgrade to Windows 2000 Professional.
The Mac OS, the latest version of the Macintosh operating system (the first commercially successful
graphical user interface), is a multitasking operating system available only on Apple computers.
OS/2 Warp Client is IBMs GUI multitasking client operating system that supports networking,
Java, the Internet, and speech recognition.

Identify various network operating systems

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Network operating systems include NetWare, Windows NT Server, Windows 2000 Server,
Windows .NET Server, OS/2 Warp Server for E-business, UNIX, Linux, and Solaris.

Novells NetWare is a widely used network operating system designed for client/server networks.
Windows NT Server is the operating system used by servers in the Windows NT client/server
network environment.
The Windows 2000 Server family consists of three products:
Windows 2000 Server (for the typical business network),
Windows 2000 Advanced Server (for e-commerce applications), and
Windows 2000 Database server (for demanding, large-scale applications).
Windows .NET Server is an upgrade to Windows 2000 Server. The Windows .NET Server family
includes four products:
Windows .NET Standard Server (for the typical small- to medium-sized business network),
Windows .NET Enterprise Server (for medium- to large-sized businesses, including those with ecommerce applications),
Windows .NET Datacenter (for business with huge volumes of transactions and large-scale
databases), and
Windows .NET Web Server (for Web server and Web hosting businesses).
OS/2 Warp Server for E-business is IBMs network operating system designed for all sizes of
business.
UNIX is a multitasking, command-line operating system implemented on many different types of
computers. Because it is both a stand-alone operating system and a network operating system, some
call UNIX a multipurpose operating system.
Linux is a popular, free, multitasking UNIX-type operating system.
Solaris, a version of UNIX developed by Sun Microsystems, is a network operating system
designed for e-commerce applications.

Recognize devices that use embedded operating systems

The operating system on most handheld computers and small devices, called an embedded operating
system, resides on a ROM chip. Popular embedded operating systems include Windows CE, Pocket PC
OS, and Palm OS.
Windows CE is a scaled-down Windows operating system designed for use on wireless
communications devices and smaller computers such as handheld computers, in-vehicle devices, and
Web-enabled devices.
Pocket PC OS is a scaled-down operating system developed by Microsoft that works on a specific type
of handheld computer, called a Pocket PC.

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The Palm OS is the operating system used on Palm handheld computers from Palm, Inc., and Visor
handheld computers from Handspring.
Discuss the purpose of the following utilities: file viewer, file compression, diagnostic, uninstaller,
disk scanner, disk defragmenter, backup, and screen saver
Most operating systems include several utility programs that perform specific tasks related to managing
a computer, its devices, or its programs.

File viewer is a utility that allows you to display and copy the contents of a file.
A file compression utility shrinks the size of a file.
A diagnostic utility compiles technical information about a computers hardware and certain system
software programs and then prepares a report outlining any identified problems.
An uninstaller is a utility that removes an application, as well as any associated entries in the system
files.
A disk scanner is a utility that (1) detects and corrects both physical and logical problems on a hard
disk, and (2) searches for and removes unnecessary files.
A disk defragmenter is a utility that reorganizes files and unused space on a computers hard disk
so data can be accessed more quickly and programs can run faster.
A backup utility copies, or backs up, selected files or an entire hard drive onto another disk or tape.
A screen saver is a utility that causes the monitors screen to display a moving image on a blank
screen if no keyboard activity occurs for a specified period.

Expand Your Knowledge

System software
Starting a computer
User interface
Features of operating systems
Stand-alone and network operating system
Stand-alone operating systems
Network operating systems
Embedded operating systems
Utility programs

System Software
Software is a key component of any information system. Of the total number of corporate dollars spent
on computing, the software share is increasing while the hardware share is decreasing. Typically,
different sizes of computers use different operating systems, and even the same types of computers may
not use the same operating system. The operating system that a computer uses sometimes is called the
software platform, or platform. Application software packages often require a specific software platform.
A cross-platform application, however, is one that runs on multiple operating systems.

Starting a Computer
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When you turn on a computer after it has been powered off, you are performing a cold boot. When
you restart a computer that already has been powered on, you are performing a warm boot. Your
typically can perform a warm boot by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard (in Windows,
CTRL+ALT+DEL), selecting options from a menu, or pressing a Reset button on the computer.
If you watch the screen closely as the POST is conducted, the value for the total amount of memory
can be seen to change as it is measured in the memory test. If the POST results do not match the data
on the CMOS chip, an appropriate message should appear. The boot program typically is the first side,
first track, and first sector of the hard disk. When you install an operating system, one of the installation
steps involves making an emergency disk from which you can start your computer if the hard disk is
damaged.

User Interface
You can interact with an operating system directly (as you do when copying files, moving files,
formatting disks, and so on) or indirectly (as you do when working with an application program). An
operating system is intended to be transparent; that is, it does not have to be understood, considered, or
even known. The operating system with which an application program will work is specified on the
application software package. The application programs you want to use should be considered before
deciding on an operating system, and the operating system must be considered when choosing
application software.
A graphical user interface is designed to be easier to use (more user-friendly) than a command-line
interface. As an example of this user-friendly nature, consider how a relatively simple task, such as
deleting a file, is performed with a command-line interface and with a GUI. With a command-line
interface, you might type DEL followed by the file name in quotation marks. Therefore, you must
remember the command, type it correctly, and use the proper syntax. On the other hand, with a GUI
you need only select (click) the file name in the file manager window and then click the Delete
command on a menu or the Delete button on a toolbar. Although most people find a GUI the easiest
interface to use, some long-time computer virtuosos still feel a command-line user interface is more
efficient.

Features of Operating Systems

Early operating systems were single user/single tasking, but today most operating system are
multitasking. Multitasking can be cooperative, in which programs switch when they reach a logical
break point, or pre-emptive, in which programs switch based on priority and an allocated amount of
time. Early versions of Windows used cooperative multitasking; Windows 95 and subsequent versions
use pre-emptive multitasking. Upon termination, most programs relinquish their space in memory,
which then is reallocated by the operating system. Some programs, however, stay in memory after they
terminate. As a class, these programs are called TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) programs.
Virtual memory is employed with multitasking operating systems to maximize the number of programs
that can use memory at one time. Paging, or the technique of swapping items between memory and
storage, was developed before processors could address directly more than 1 MB of memory. All
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printers have buffers, and printer manufacturers are eager to sell DRAM. The term spooling comes
from the observation that placing print jobs temporarily in a buffer is somewhat like winding thread
onto a spool so that it can be used at a later time. Today, adding and configuring devices is easier
because most devices support Plug and Play, which means the computer can recognize a new device
and automatically load the necessary drivers. A feature of Windows 95, Plug and Play initially was
greeted with mixed reviews. In fact, some wags claimed the new technology was more accurately called,
Plug and Pray.
Processor utilization the amount of time that the processor is working and not idle is one way of
monitoring system performance. In addition to the programs that come with most operating systems,
several utility programs are available to monitor system performance. Formatting a disk is the process of
preparing it for reading and writing. Today, most floppy and hard disks are preformatted by the
manufacturer. If you format a disk that already contains data, the formatting process erases the file
location information, but it does not erase the actual files on the disk. Therefore, if you accidentally
format a disk, often you can unformat it with a utility program. System security usually is most
important for large systems or networks. For single-user PCs, adequate system security can be a key in
the users pocket.

Stand- Alone and Network Op erating System

Many early operating systems were device dependent and proprietary. Device-dependent operating
systems run only on a specific type of computer. Proprietary software is privately owned and limited to
a specific vendor or computer mode. Today, the trend is towards device-independent operating systems
that run on many manufacturers computers. Software that is not proprietary (i.e., that can work with a
variety of computer models) sometimes is called portable or generic. Most of the operating systems
discussed in this section are portable. When an operating system is proprietary, usually it is to boost
hardware sales.
Operating systems for Apple computers and most mainframes initially were proprietary. Steve Wozniak,
cofounder of Apple Computers, believes the decision to make its innovative Macintosh operating system
proprietary was one of the companys greatest mistakes. We had the most beautiful operating system,
Wozniak writes, but to get it you had to buy our hardware at twice the price. Wozniak now feels the
operating system should have been licensed.

Stand- Alone Operating Systems

Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft and one of the wealthiest men in the world, began his fortune with the
MS-DOS operating system. Although developed for IBM, Microsoft retained the rights to the operating
system and licensed the source code to several hardware manufacturers, which resulted in multiple
variations. An application written for one type of DOS, however, will work with any other variation. A
number follows each version of PC-DOS or MS-DOS. The integer portion of the number indicates a
major release, while the decimal portion indicates updates. Thus, MS-DOS 6.2 means major version
six, which has been updated twice. To a great extent, the popularity of DOS was a result of the large
number of applications written to work with the operating system.

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Windows 1.0, released in 1985, was Microsofts first attempt with a graphical user interface. It was not
until five years later, however, with the release of Windows 3.0, that computer users began to take
Windows seriously. Windows required 2 MB of memory (with 4 MB recommended) and an 80386 or
newer processor, so it could not be used with many older PCs. Nevertheless, because Windows 3.0 was
easier to use than DOS, eventually most software was written, and many popular DOS programs were
rewritten, to work with Windows.
Despite the advantages of Windows 95 and a heavily-funded promotional campaign, a poll of DOS
and Windows 3.x users showed not everyone immediately embraced the new operating system. When
asked how likely they were to adopt Windows 95 within the next six months, respondents replied:

extremely likely
possible
not likely
dont know

10%
35%
53%
2%

W h y a r e p e o p l e o f t e n r e l u c t a n t t o a d o p t a n e w o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m?
The inclusion of Internet Explorer in the Windows 98 operating system led to an antitrust suit against
Microsoft. Prosecutors insisted that the incorporation of a browser was an attempt by Microsoft to
eliminate competition from rival Web browsers (such as Netscape Navigator). Microsoft maintained that
the addition simply was an enhancement to the operating system. Although Microsoft advertised
Windows 98 less heavily than Windows 95, many vendors took up the slack. One retailer offered
Windows 98 with the opportunity to buy a new computer for $98. The promotion evidently worked. A
buyer waited in line 11 hours for a chance to buy the new operating system and discount computer.
When asked if he would have come out simply for Windows 98 (his current computer ran Windows
3.1), he replied, Not a chance.
Windows 2000 was released in February, 2000 and was touted as a boon for all businesses, from small
companies with no more than two desktop computers to large corporations with vast networks.
Windows Millennium is a result of Microsofts recognition that the needs of business and home users
are different.
For years, the Macintosh operating system had features that made it far easier to use than other
operating systems. For example, people could give files sensible names (like Letter to Grandma)
instead of the cryptic, eight-character strings (like letgrand.txt) demanded by DOS and Windows 3.x.
While Windows 95 incorporated many of these features, Macintosh devotees still feel their operating
system is easier to use. Until recently, the Macintosh operating system was proprietary. In 1994 the
operating system was licensed, but experts feel Apples promotion has been lukewarm. New standards
let IBM computers run Apple software. More than 4,000 applications are designed to run under the
Mac OS. Microsoft has developed the more popular Mac OS applications.
IBM supplies OS/2 (Operating System/2) Warp with its high-end personal computers. OS/2 originally
was developed jointly by IBM and Microsoft to replace MS-DOS. As an interim measure, Microsoft
developed Windows, an operating environment to work with DOS. The eventual popularity of
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Windows, coupled with the initial poor sales of OS/2, resulted in Microsoft and IBM going their
separate ways, with Microsoft concentrating on Windows and IBM continuing to develop OS/2.
Features offered in OS/2 Warp include:

An enhanced graphical user interface

Integrated business application software
Speaker-independent speech recognition software
Desktop objects that allow users to connect directly to the Internet
Integrated Java programming language that allows Java applications to run without a Web browser
Support for multiple CPUs using multiprocessing

Network Operating Systems

Many consider UNIX to be the most portable operating system. Although it has some shortcomings,
UNIX often is used in turnkey systems designed for retail stores, doctors, dentists, veterinarians, and
other small- to medium-businesses. Do you know what operating system is mentioned in the film
Jurassic Park? UNIX.
Despite the current dominance of Windows, some believe Linux is the operating system of the future.
Because Linux is freeware, users can modify and improve the program code. In addition, Linux is
capable of running efficiently with less powerful processors, even the 80386. The story of Linuxs
originator, Linus Torvalds, is told in the Technology Trailblazer on page 8.25.

Embedded Operating Systems

The latest Palm handheld computer, Palm IIIC, offers a colour screen. When paired with a portable,
expandable, attachable, nearly full-sized keyboard and file compression software, some reviewers say the
Palm IIIC almost can replace a laptop. The Visor handheld computer runs the same operating system
as the Palm but offers several additional features videogames, cell telephone, modem, MP3 player, and
two-way pager at about half the cost.

Utility Programs
Utilities generally reside in storage until summoned by the user or operating system kernel. Microsoft
was the target of several lawsuits for allegedly incorporating utility programs developed by others into
their DOS operating system. Some versions of DOS were modified because of this litigation. In light of
the ever-increasing number of utility programs included with operating systems, will a market remain
for separate utility programs?
In addition to the utilities mentioned in this chapter, other Windows 98 utilities include:

DirectX Enhances multimedia capabilities on the computer, providing better playback of different
types of multimedia and managing 3-D graphics better than console computers.
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Drive Converter (FAT 32) Converts the hard drive to the FAT32 file system, an enhancement that
stores data more efficiently, creating extra disk space and helping programs run faster.
Registry Checker Finds and fixes registry problems each time the computer is started,
automatically scanning the registry for inconsistent data structures.
System File Checker Keeps track of critical files that make the computer run, restoring the files if
they are moved or changed.
Microsoft Magnifier Makes the screen more readable by displaying a magnified portion in a
separate window and making it possible to alter the colour scheme and contrast of the magnification
window for easier visibility.

Some stand-alone utilities include:

Desktop enhancers Change the desktop look and organization, allowing users to create and switch
between multiple desktops.
File conversion Converts from one file format to another so that a file can be used by another
application.
Internet organizers Helps in the management and use of favorite Web sites, searching the Web
and reporting on site changes.
Antivirus programs Prevent, detect, and remove computer viruses.

Some utility programs are used primarily by select groups. For example, text editors -- utility programs
that make it easy to work with lists and records -- are popular with programmers and people who work
with databases. PC Tools and Norton Utilities are popular utility software packages for personal
computers.

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