Contents

UNIT 1

SPATIAL DATA MODELS

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 2
2. OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 2
3. CONTENT ............................................................................................................ 2
4. DATA USED IN GIS ............................................................................................ 3
4.1. Spatial Data ..................................................................................................... 3
4.2. Non-spatial Data ............................................................................................. 3
4.3. Metadata ......................................................................................................... 6
5. SPATIAL ENTITIES ............................................................................................ 6
6. DATA MODELS OF SPATIAL OBJECTS ........................................................... 7
6.1. Raster Data Model........................................................................................... 8
6.1.1. Raster Data Compression Techniques ..................................................... 10
6.2.Vector Data Model ......................................................................................... 13
7. DATA CONVERSION ........................................................................................ 17
8. SUMMING UP.................................................................................................... 18
9. KEY WORDS ..................................................................................................... 18
10. QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................... 18
11. REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 19
12. MODEL ANSWERS ......................................................................................... 19

UNIT-1: SPATIAL DATA MODELS

1. INTRODUCTION
GIS is a computerized spatial information system. It requires spatial and
attribute data for furnishing much needed spatial information to the decision
makers/Executives in map form. Spatial data is about location and relationship of
various geographical features, which are present on the surface of the earth. The data
are being presented adopting two models viz., Raster and Vector. Raster model is
based on cells arranged in grid form; while vector model uses location of points with
a pair of coordinates. The knowledge about these models is very much required by
the GIS user because this helps him/her to choose a particular software and use of
various spatial analytical tools. Sometimes the expected outcome from GIS also helps
in deciding the spatial data model. Hence, the present Unit I discusses about spatial
data, different types of data used in GIS (spatial, non-spatial and metadata), various
kinds of spatial entities (point, line, and polygon), spatial data models (raster and
vector) and their relative advantages and disadvantages and data conversion.

2. OBJECTIVES
1.Understand the various types of data used in GIS
2. Learn about different spatial data models and their relative advantages and
disadvantages and
3. Gain knowledge about spatial data conversion and its use in different GIS
software.
3. CONTENT
Human mind and eye work simultaneously to identify the location of an
object, its spatial arrangements and relationships easily. The same cannot be done by
computer software. The spatial data has to be modeled in such a way, that the
software should allow entry of spatial data; also understand their spatial location and
underlying relationships. This has to be done meticulously keeping in mind retrieval
of stored data for future use e.g. spatial analysis. This can be accomplished by finding

appropriate data models, which makes the spatial data easily understandable to the
software.

4. DATA USED IN GIS

The major datasets used by the GIS are spatial and attribute (or non-spatial).
The spatial data denotes the location of real world geographical features, with their
unique location and relationships. Attribute data is non-locational data that describes
the characteristics of spatial entities in a GIS database. Topological data structure
means spatial relationship of objects by means of their location. Metadata are data
about the spatial/attribute data.
4.1. Spatial Data
Spatial data are characterized by location of real world objects, connections
with other features. Spatial data can be stored in both raster and vector format. All
GIS software has the capability to store and process spatial data.
4.2. Non-spatial Data
Non-spatial data are describing the characteristics of spatial data.

These

datasets are stored and managed in a separate attribute table. Maintaining attribute
table independently from the spatial data increases its flexibility. GIS software has the
capability to link the spatial data with corresponding attribute table. The link is
established by using a unique entity identifier, that exists in both spatial and attribute
data table.
Topology
Topology denotes spatial relationships between geographic entities based on
location. The spatial relationships among spatial entities are implicit on paper maps.
The maps user establishes the relationship using eye-brain communication. Even an
illiterate person can relate spatial objects using directions i.e. north, south, east and
west. The computer builds these relationships by means of explicitly entered/created
topology.

Explicitly encoded topology facilitates advanced analysis and enables

processing of large volume of data easier. This also helps in easy error detection for
correction in future.

Types of Topology
Different types of topology can be established based on the nature of topology.
Connectivity means the connectivity of one geographical entity with another entity or
intersection of one entity by another entity. Adjacency is which entity is adjacent to a
given entity or contiguous entities.

Figure1:Types of Topology

Connectivity

Adjacency

Containment

Proximity

Relative Direction

Containment indicates, which entity is contained in another bigger entity e.g.

an Island within a big lake. Proximity topology shows, which entity is close to another
entity. Relative Position denotes relative location of a spatial entity to another entity.

Topological Data Structure

The basic elements of topological data structures are
Arc - a line segment connecting two nodes
Node - is a meeting point or location of two end points of an arc.
Vertices - are a series of points, which defines the shape of an arc.

 Polygon - Polygon is a closed arc. The origin and destination of an arc

will be the same point. Two adjacent polygons will share a common
arc.
4.3. Metadata
Meta data provides lineage of the data source, along with other valuable
information to maintain accountability and currency of data. It includes information
on data identification, spatial data, image data, distribution network, attribute data,
data quality and metadata reference.

5. SPATIAL ENTITIES
Basically entities that are distributed on the surface of the earth are broadly
categorized as point, line and polygon. An entity assumes it name based on its nature.
If the entity has only location for example temple, well and mine; they are called as
point features. When the entity is a linear segment, which may be connecting one
place with another like road, it is a line entity; other examples are river/stream,
telephone line, electrical line, railways etc. When the entity occupies some area as in
the case of forest, tank, cultivable land, area under red soil etc. are known as polygon
feature. Thus, the real world geographical entities are grouped under three categories
viz., point, line and polygon.
Point entities sometimes represent qualitative data such as temple, railway
station, post office, well etc. then these point datasets are called as qualitative point
data. On the other hand, when qualitative datasets like triangulated station, spot
height, bench mark etc. are presented on map with associated altitude values then they
are known as quantitative point data.
Linear entities like road, railway line, stream etc. are normally represented by
qualitative line. When isopleths (i.e. line connecting point locations with equal value
are called as isopleths) are used to represent quantitative point data, then they are
grouped under quantitative line dataset ( Table 1 ).

Table 1: Classification of Spatial Entities

Type of Entities

Point

Qualitative

Quantitative

Well, temple, well, bore well,

Triangulated station

mine, TB, PTO, RS

Spot height
Bench mark

Road, railway line, power line,

Line

stream/river

Polygon

Soil, Geology, Geomorphology,

Land use / Land Cover

Contour

Density of population, sexratio, percentage of cultivable

land to total geographical area

Natural and areal entities like soils, geology, geomorphology, land use/land
cover etc. are often called as qualitative polygon data. As these datasets have various
sub classes, they are well represented using different conventional colours, which
make the map very colourful and attractive. The tabular form of data, when it is
treated spatially i.e. representing the tabular data in their respective administrative
divisions using range graded symbolization, (i.e. using different shades of same
colour based on the range of data) it brings out spatial information underlying the
tabular data. This type of geographical data are quantitative polygon data e.g. density
of population, percentage of area under forest to the total geographical area etc.

6. SPATIAL DATA MODELS

A data model has to represent location, type and relationships of a spatial
entity. Each and every model supports a set of spatial operations that other models
may not handle effectively. Therefore, the selection of data model has a major
bearing on the spatial data that have to be captured and stored for future use. In GIS,
two data models are used frequently to handle spatial data viz., vector and raster.

6.1. Raster Data Model

The basic element in a raster data model is a grid cell. In raster model, the real
world features are represented in an array of grid cells in terms of rows and columns.
The origin of grid data model is top left corner. Each dataset has Minimum X,
Maximum X, Minimum Y and Maximum Y. Each grid has a fixed location and can
be addressed by its row and column number. In a raster model, grid cells have their
own unique values. The resolution is defined in terms of size of the grid cell. The
shape of the grid cell is normally square; though there are other shapes also in use like
rectangle, triangle, hexagon etc. For finer details, the size of grid cell should be
smaller, for coarser feature the size could be larger. For example, hilly region may
require finer grid, while coastal area may need large grid cell. A map having hilly
area, plateau and coastal plain may require grid cells of different sizes, practically an
image can have grid cell of same size. In a raster data model, the grid size is always
uniform, it cannot be changed according to the nature of the object. ( Figure 2 )
Figure 2: Representation of Objects in Raster Data Model

Tank

Road
Tree

Raster form of analog data can be obtained through scanning. Raster data
model is simple; combining a set of images using overlay tool in easier. In raster
based GIS software satellite images can be used directly. Some GIS analytical tools
such as classification, reclass and overlay can be performed easily. Combination of
analytical tools like Multi Criteria Evaluation, change detection etc., can be carried
out easily on raster data model. Simulation is possible in the absence of topology and
the uniform grid size and shape. In this data model network analysis cannot be

executed. The raster based software is comparatively cheap because the technology is
cheap. The GIS software is originally designed to handle raster data model are
IDRISI, GRASS etc.
The raster file size is very voluminous. If the grid size is too small, that
increases the file size. This leads to retrieval and redisplay of data is slower. The
large grid size will not display objects, smaller than the grid cell size. That means
serious loss of finer data objects and may show individual grid cells. Projection
transformation of raster data model consumes more time. Overlay display is possible
if the lower layer is made transparent. If the grid cells size is large, then the dataset
will look blocky i.e. grid cells will be visible and may lack precision.
Raster data model focus more on modeling continuous phenomenon for
example earth surface. Polygon objects can be displayed and analysed easily in raster
data model. For example rainfall, temperature, forest, land use/land cover, geology,
geomorphology, quality of water, depth of water table, DEM, Slope etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Raster Data Model
Advantages
Geographic location of each cell is shown using its position in the grid of cell.

Data analysis is easy and quick to perform

Ability to store continuous surface data, hence easy to process surface

analysis.

The uniform structure permits the user to perform various analyses such as
query, reclass, overlay etc.

Point, line and polygon features can be combined.

Lossy and lossless compressions can be done for data storage.

The cost of application software is cheaper.

High spatial variability is easily represented.

Disadvantages

Datasets are larger in size

Providing projection and transformation is tougher

Topological representation cannot be done.

Cell size determines the objects that can be shown

 Linear features are hard to represent and so network analysis cannot be

carried out in raster data model.

Stores only single attribute for a cell.

Errors in perimeter and shape.

6.1.1. Raster Data Compression Techniques

Raster data compaction techniques store the data from the top left corner of
the data set. There are four different compression techniques used to reduce the raster
data file. They are

Run length encoding

Block coding

Chain coding

Quadtrees technique

Run Length Encoding

This method reduces the storage space on row by row basis. For storing a
value for each cell, it groups of same type and there number of cell in single value. (
Figure 3 ).

Figure 3: Run Length Encoding

File Structure
5,

5,

(No. of Rows)

(No. of Columns)

(No. of features )

Row

Feature Value

Id

No. of Cells

(0,5)

(0,1)

(1,3)

(0,1)

(0,1)

(1,3)

(0,1)

(0,3)

(1,1)

(0,1)

10

(0,5)

First line of the file structure indicates number of rows and columns present in
the image. And 1 indicates number of objects/ layers shown in the image. In the
second row 0 indicates no data was present and 5 indicates in five cells in the first
row has no data. In the third row
Block Coding
It stores the data in squares. In the file structure, size of the block, number of
blocks in that size and their starting coordinate are stored instead of storing each cell
data. ( Figure 4 ).

Figure 4: Block Coding

File Structure
Block Size

No.

Cell Coordinates

(7,3); (3,4); (7,4); (6,5); (6,6)

(2,2); (4,5)

(4,2)

Chain Coding
In this technique the boundary of the cells with features are defined as directions (
Figure 5 ).

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Figure 5: Chain Coding

File Structure
2,3 1
N,2; E,5; S,1; E,1; S,2; W,1; S,2; W,3; N,2;
W,1; N,1; W,1
The first line of the file structure shows the starting cell where from the chain
coding was started. In the second line, first alphabet ( portrays the direction in which
it moves ) and second letter explains how many cells it has moved in that direction.
Quadtree Technique
The advantage of raster data model is that each cell can be subdivided into
smaller cells of the same shape and orientation. This unique feature has been used for
storing the data. In this technique, the cells in the image are subdivided into quarters
( Figure 6 ).

Figure 6: Quadtree Encoding

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6.2. Vector Data Model

The basic element of vector data model is a point with a pair of x, y
coordinates, and hence the model is very explicit. Points are used to build complex
features. Vector data can be generated through the use of digitizer or on-screen
digitization. Vector data concentrates on modeling discrete features like roads,
buildings, boundaries etc.
This data model represents real world phenomenon in a good way. Topology
of objects can be described completely. For accurate cartographic output, this model
is the most appropriate one. One of the advantages of this model is retrieval, updating
and generalization of features and attributes is simple and possible because it is a
compact one.
Vector model is complex. Overlaying of a number of vector polygon maps
creates too many polygons, which creates visual clutter and fallacy. Simulation is
difficult because each object has different topological unit. Display and plotting is
quite expensive for high quality cartographic output. Technology is expensive, hence
the vector based software are costly. Spatial analysis like filtering and polygon based
analysis are quite impossible.
Figure 7: Representation of Objects in Vector Model

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Tree
Road
Tank

Vector formats normally have points/multipoint, line/ polyline, polygon and

labels. Point entities like temple, bridge, well, bore well; linear objects like road,
river; and polygon features such as tank, forest, soil type, lake etc. can be represented
in a vector data model ( Figure 7 ).
The vector based GIS software is so designed to accept only vector data
because it can do specific type of spatial analysis very efficiently for example network
analysis. Vector data model uses geometry coordinates e.g. GeoMedia pro, ArcGIS
MapInfo, QGIS etc.
The polygons are also created by s series of points, which are defined by x, y
coordinates and connected by directional lines with the same origin and destination
point; which makes the object as a closed polygon. It is a many sided feature with
homogeneous character. Complex spatial objects are constructed with the use of series
of points ( Figure 8 ).
Figure 8: Simple and Complex Vector Data Structure
Vector Data
Structure

Simple Data Structure

Point

Line

Polygo
n

Complex Data
Structure
TIN

Networ
ks

Comple
x
polygon
s
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Vector Data Model ( Table 2 & Figure 9 )

Advantages

Data will be represented in its original form.

Since most of the hard copy maps such as SOI maps, represent the data in
vector form, it will be easy to show the data in vector format than in raster.

Correct geographic location of the data is maintained.

Topological construction can be carried out easily for checking adjacency,

containment, analyzing the network etc.

Occupies less storage space.

One layer can consist of more attribute information. Hence it occupies lesser
memory space.

Projection and transformation can be done easily to the vector data.

Disadvantages

Data structure is complex to build.

Analyses are hard to perform.

Needs higher end software for complex analysis.

Needs costly software and hardware for vector analysis

Point, line and polygon layers can be overlaid in a single coordinate system.

Table 2: Spatial Data : Comparison between Vector and Raster Data Structures

Parameter
Inputs

Vector

Raster

Mainly digitization or vector Amenable to scanning or

conversion of scanned outputs

raster

conversion

of

digitized outputs.
Precision

Accurate and more precise

Limited to grid size

Redundancy

Less

More; as each cell is

partitioned. Need to use
encoding scheme

Attributes

Direct linkage to DBMS, which Cell

stores attribute data

value

represents

attribute
15

Remote

Sensing Need to convert the image to Direct analysis of image

interface

vector

possible

Spatial Analysis

Complexity is higher

Amenable to map algebra

and easy to analyze

Simulation

Complex and difficult

Outputs

High

quality;

Simulation is possible

Cartographic Mainly DeskJet / laser

quality on plotters.

printer outputs

Figure 9: Spatial Entities :Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Model

Raster Model

Spatial Entities

Vector Model

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7. DATA CONVERSION
GIS is a computerized spatial information system. It has the capacity to
integrate any number of datasets with same coordinate system. Data is a central
component to be considered when talk about GIS; though there are other components
like hardware, software and people, who are directly and indirectly involved in the
successful execution of GIS project.

Data is the single most component, which

consumes major share of project time and cost. The GIS has the capacity to accept
data collected from any source and in any form. Majority of the data used in GIS are
frequently changes over time and space ( Figure 10 )

Figure 10: Data Conversion

Various types of
Data & Formats

Maps

Images

GPS

Descriptive Text
DATA

Tabular Data

Geodatabase
DATA
Spatial Analysis
AnalysisAnalysis
Analysis
Maps

Data has to be converted /transformed / changed from vector to raster or vice

versa. Based on the needs of the GIS project, the conversion will be taken up. If the
selected GIS is a vector GIS then for analysis, all layers should be in vector data
model. Raster to Vector conversion provides a generalized output as it converts
pixels to lines of polygons, which may not be as accurate as digitized output. To
make it accurate, high resolution raster data model can be used for conversion.
Therefore, the conversion of raster to vector model has to be carried out only, when it
is absolutely necessary.
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Conversion module is available in all software so as to bring all layers in one

single common data model for easier analysis. For example, ArcGIS has got a data
transformation tool for the purpose.

Similarly, some of the software, has data

transfer/exchange file formats, which are well structured and documented; to cite an
example in AutoCAD, we have dxf file format, which is one of the widely accepted
file formats by graphics / GIS software. Similarly, shp file format of ArcGIS is
another example.

8. SUMMING UP
The unit explained the topics like various types of data used in GIS like spatial
and non-spatial, then topological data structure and metadata. The spatial entities
such as point, line and polygon were briefly described. Spatial data are being modeled
adopting two models viz., raster and vector data models. Raster data model is a 2D
array of grid of pixels while in vector data model, point is the basic entity with a pair
x, y coordinates with which other entities like line and polygon are built. The relative
advantages and disadvantages of these two models were discussed and also a table
was used to explain the use of data model and their advantages. As there are two
types of spatial data models, we have two kinds of GIS i.e. vector based GIS and
raster based GIS. Therefore, there is always a need for converting data from one data
model to another model or data available in one file format to another file format. It
is an important criterion hence it is also explained in the unit.

9. KEY WORDS
GIS-Spatial data & Non-spatial data, Topological data structure, Metadata,
Spatial entities, Raster data model, Vector data model, advantages and disadvantages
of models, Data conversion.

10. QUESTIONS
1. What are spatial entities and classify spatial entities ?
2. Explain spatial data models ?

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3. Bring out the salient features of spatial data models ?

4. Compare and contrast spatial data models ?
5. What do you mean by data conversion ?

11. REFERENCES / FURTHER READING

1. Ian Heywood, Sarah Cornelius, Steve Carver and Srinivasa Raju, An
Introduction to Geographical Information System, 3 /E, Pearson Education,
United Kingdom, 2009
2. C.P.Lo, Albert K.W.Yeung, Concepts and Techniques of Geographic
Information System, Printice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2006
3. Michael N.Demers, Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems,
2/E,John Wiley & Sons, INC, New York, 1999
4. Peter A. Burrogh and Rachael A. McDonnell, Principles of Geographical
Information Systems, Oxford University Press, 1998.
5. Kang-tsung Chang, Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, Tata
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2008
URL

http://gis-lab.info/docs/books/aerial-mapping/cr1557_05.pdf

http://www.nuim.ie/staff/dpringle/gis/gis11.pdf

http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0027_BGD3/ch01s02.html

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w0615e/w0615e05.htm

http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/u16.html#SEC16.1.1

12. MODEL ANSWERS

1. What are spatial entities ?
Basically entities that are distributed on the surface of the earth are broadly
categorized as point, line and polygon. An entities assumes it name based on its

19

nature. If the entity has only location for example temple, well and mine; they are
called as point features. When the entity is a linear segment, which may be
connecting one place with another like road, it is a line entity; other examples are
river/stream, telephone line, electrical line, railways etc. When the entity occupies
some area as in the case of forest, tank, cultivable land, area under red soil etc. are
known as polygon feature. Thus, the real world geographical entities are grouped
under point, line and polygon.
2. Compare and contrast spatial data models ?.

Spatial Data : Comparison between Vector and Raster Data Structures

Parameter
Inputs

Vector

Raster

Mainly digitization or vector Amenable to scanning or

conversion of scanned outputs

raster

conversion

of

digitized outputs.
Precision

Accurate and more precise

Limited to grid size

Redundancy

Less

More; as each cell is

partitioned. Need to use
encoding scheme

Attributes

Direct linkage to DBMS, which Cell

stores attribute data

Remote

value

represents

attribute

Sensing Need to convert the image to Direct analysis of image

interface

vector

possible

Spatial Analysis

Complexity is higher

Amenable to map algebra

and easy to analyze

Simulation

Complex and difficult

Outputs

High

quality;

Simulation is possible

Cartographic Mainly DeskJet / laser

quality on plotters.

printer outputs

***
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