CHAPTER 2

Analogue Measuring Instruments

Electrical Measurement (BEF 23903)

CONTENTS
2.1 PMMC meter movement
2.2 DC Voltmeter
2.3 DC Ammeter
2.4 Ohmmeter
2.5 AC Voltmeter
2.6 Loading effects

Introduction to DC Meters

A meter is any device built to detect accurately and display an

electrical quantity in a form readable by a human being.
Usually this "readable form" is visual: motion of a pointer on a
scale, a series of lights arranged to form a "bar graph," or some
sort of display composed of numerical figures.
Most modern meters are "digital" in design.
Older designs of meters are mechanical in nature, using some
kind of pointer device to show quantity of measurement.

Introduction to DC Meters

The display mechanism of a meter is often referred as a

movement, borrowing from its mechanical nature to move a
pointer along a scale so that a measured value may be read.
Most mechanical movements are based on the principle of
electromagnetism:- electric current through a conductor
produces a magnetic field perpendicular to the axis of electron
flow.
The greater the electric current, the stronger the magnetic field
produced.

Introduction to DC Meters

If the magnetic field formed by the conductor is allowed to

interact with another magnetic field, a physical force will be
generated between the two sources of fields.
If one of these sources is free to move with respect to the other,
it will do so as current is conducted through the wire, the motion
(usually against the resistance of a spring) being proportional to
the strength of current.
Practical electromagnetic meter movements can be made now
where a pivoting wire coil is suspended in a strong magnetic field,
shielded from the majority of outside influences.
Such an instrument design is generally known as a permanentmagnet moving coil (PMMC) movement or dArsonval meter
movement.

PMMC Movement

Permanent-magnet moving coil (PMMC) movement or dArsonval

meter movement.

PMMC Movement

PMMC Movement

The dArsonval meter movement is a current responding device

which used very widely nowadays.
Current from a measured circuit passes through the windings of
the moving coils causes it to behave as an electromagnetic.
The poles of EMT interact with the poles of PM, causing the coils
to rotate.
The pointer deflects up scale whenever current flows in proper
direction in the coil. For this reason, all DC meter movements
show polarity markings.
The moving coil responds to the amount of current through its
windings.

PMMC Movement

The equation for the developed torque are derived from the
basic law for electromagnetic torque;

=
Where,
= Torque (N.m)
= Flux density in air gap (/2 )
= Effective coil area (2 )
= Number of turns of the coil
= Current in the moveable coil (A)

PMMC is a
current
responding
device

Example 2.1
A moving coil instrument has the following data.
Number of turns = 100
Width of the coil = 20 mm
Depth of the coil = 30 mm
Flux density in the gap = 0.1 Wb/m2
Calculate the deflecting torque when carrying a current of 10 mA.
Also calculate the deflection, if the control spring constant is 2 x 10-6
Nm/degree.

Solution 2.1

PMMC Movement

The meter movement "needle" shown is pointing somewhere

around 35 percent of full-scale, zero being full to the left of the arc
and full-scale being completely to the right.
An increase in measured current will drive the needle to point
further to the right and a decrease will cause the needle to drop
back down toward its resting point on the left.

Specification of Typical PMMC Instrument

Practical coil areas generally range from 0.5 - 2.5 cm2.

The flux density for modern instruments usually ranges from 1500
- 5000 Wb/cm2.
The power requirements of D'Arsonval movements are quite
small, typically from 25 - 200 W.
The accuracy of the instrument is generally of the order of 2 - 5%
of full scale deflection.
The permanent magnet is made up of Alnico material.
Scale markings of basic dc PMMC instruments are usually linearly
spaced, because the torque (and hence the pointer deflection) is
directly proportional to the coil current.
The basic PMMC instrument is therefore a linear-reading device.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC

Advantages

Disadvantages

They can be modified with the help of shunts and

resistance to cover a wide range of currents and
voltages.
They display no hysteresis.
Since operating fields of such instruments are very
strong, they are not significantly affected by stray
magnetic fields.

Some errors may set in due to ageing of control

springs and the permanent magnet.
Friction due to jewel-pivot suspension.

PMMC

DC Ammeter

DC Voltmeter

Ohmmeter

dc current,

dc voltage,

resistance,

by adding a shunt
resistance, forming a
microammeter, a
milliammeter or an
ammeter,

by adding a multiplier
resistance, forming a
millivoltmeter,
voltmeter or
kilovoltmeter.

by adding a battery
and resistive network,
forming an ohmmeter.

DC Ammeter

Basic DC Ammeter
Multi-range Ammeter

DC Ammeter

The meter pointer deflects in direct proportion to the current.

This meter is called an ammeter.

DC Ammeter

A device used to measure current.

Unit Ampere (A)/ mA.
Used the principle of the PMMC / dArsonval meter movement
with slight modification.
Placing a LOW resistance in parallel with the meter movement
resistance to increase the range of current that can be measured
by the meter.

Low resistance

Basic DC Ammeter

DC Ammeter

PMMC galvanometer constitutes the basic movement of a dc

ammeter.
Since the coil winding of a basic movement is small and light, it
can carry only very small currents.
When large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass
a major part of the current through a resistance called a shunt.
The resistance of shunt can be calculated using conventional
circuit analysis.

DC Ammeter

Basic dc Ammeter
Rsh
Rm
Ish
Im
I

= shunt resistor
= internal resistance of the movement
= shunt current
= full-scale deflection current of meter movement
= full-scale current of ammeter + shunt (total current)

DC Ammeter: Calculation of Rsh

Since Rsh is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drop
across the shunt and movement must be the same.
Therefore,
DArsonval
movement

Basic dc Ammeter

Vsh Vm
I sh Rsh I m Rm ,
Rsh

I m Rm

I sh

But

I sh I I m

I m Rm
Hence Rsh
I Im

Example 2.2
A 1mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100 is to
be converted into a 0-100mA. Calculate the value of shunt
resistance required.

Solution 2.2

Given Rm 100, I m 1mA, I 100mA

I m Rm 1mA x 100
Rsh

1.01
I Im
99mA
+

Multirange ammeter

To obtain a multirange ammeter, a number of shunts are

connected across the movement with a multi-position switch.
The circuit has four shunts R1, R2, R3, and R4 which can be
placed in parallel with the movement to give four different
current ranges.

Ayrton Shunt

Also known as universal shunt.

Used on a multiplerange ammeter.
It eliminates the possibility of the
meter movements being in the circuit
without any shunt resistance.
Protect the deflection instrument of
the ammeter from an excessive
current flow when switching between
shunts.
Advantage - maybe used as a wide
range of meter movements.

Rm

Ra

Rb

Rc

2
1

An Ammeter using Ayrton shunt.

Ayrton Shunt

If the switch is in position 1, resistance Ra is in parallel with the series

combination of Rb, Rc and the meter movement. Hence the current through the
shunt is more than the current through the meter movement, thereby protecting
the meter movement and reducing its sensitivity.
If the switch is connected to position 2 resistance Ra and Rb are together in
parallel with the series combination of Rc and the meter movement. Now the
current through the meter is more than the current through the shunt
resistance.

If the switch is connected to position 3 Ra, Rb and Rc are together in parallel

with the meter. Hence maximum current flows through the meter movement
and very little through the shunt. This increases the sensitivity.

Example 2.3
Design an Aryton shunt to provide an ammeter with a current range
of 0-1mA, 0-10mA, 0-50mA and 0-100mA. DArsonval movement with
an internal resistance of 100 and full scale current of 50A is used.

Solution 2.3
Given Rm 100, I m 50 A

For 0 1mA range,

I sh I I m 1mA 50 A 950 A
I sh Rsh I m Rm
950 A (R1 R2 R3 R4 ) 50 A x100
R1 R2 R3 R4

50 A x 100
5.26
950 A

(1)

Solution 2.3
For 0 10mA,
9950 A R1 R2 R3 50 A 100 R4

(2)

For 0 50mA,
49950 A R1 R2 50 A 100 R3 R4

(3)

For 0 100mA,

99950 A R1 50 A(100 R2 R3 R4 )

(4)

Solution 2.3
From 3.1, R1 R2 R3 5.26 R4
Subtituting in Eq. 3.2,
9950 A 5.26 R4 50 A 100 R4

9950 Ax 5.26 500 Ax R4 5000 A 50 AR4

(9950 A x 5.26 5000 A) 9950 AR4 50 AR4

9950 A x 5.26 5000 A
R4
4.734
10mA

Solution 2.3

Hence, the value of shunts are

R1 = 0.05263
R2 = 0.05263

R3 = 0.4147
R4 = 4.734

Example 2.4
Im
Rm

I - Im

Compute the value of the shunt

resistors for the circuit.
Rc

Rb

Ra

I2
5A

I3
I

I1
10A

1A

Given that Rm = 1k, Im = 100

mA,
I1=10mA, I2=100mA, I3=1A.

Check :

An Ammeter using Ayrton shunt.

Rsh = Ra + Rb + Rc always!

Ammeter Loading Effect

It is important that an ammeter to have as small resistance as

possible, since large resistance would effect the circuit under
test.
This called circuit loading.
Introduce error in reading.
Example;

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Ammeter Loading Effect

Reading

Actual/calculation

% =
100%

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Precautions When Using an Ammeter

Never connect an ammeter across a source of emf, because of its

low resistance it would draw a high current and destroy the
movement.
Always connect an ammeter in series with a load capable of
limiting the current.
Observe the correct polarity - reverse polarity causes the meter
to deflect against the mechanical stopper, which may damage the
pointer.
When using a multirange meter, first use the highest current
range, then decrease the current range until substantial
deflection is obtained. To increase the accuracy use the range
that will give a reading as near full scale as possible.

Summary DC Ammeter
In this sub-topic, we have discussed about :
Introduction to electrical meters
Shunt resistor in a single-range Ammeter
Aryton shunt in multiple-range Ammeter
Calculation of shunt resistors

DC Voltmeter

Basic DC Voltmeter
Multi-range Voltmeter

DC Voltmeter

A basic DArsonval movement can be converted into a dc

voltmeter by adding a series resistor known as multiplier (Rs).
The function of multiplier is to extend the voltage range of the
meter and to limit the current through the movement so that the
current does not exceed the full scale deflection value.
A dc voltmeter measures the potential between two points in a
dc circuit or a circuit component
Im

Rs

Rm

Basic dc voltmeter

DC Voltmeter

The value of Rs required is calculated as follows:

Im

V I m (Rs Rm )

V I m Rm V
Rs

Rm
Im
Im

Rs

Rm

V
Rs
Rm
Im
Im = full scale deflection current of the movement (Ifsd)

Example 2.5
A basic DArsonval movement with a full scale deflection of 50A and
internal resistance of 500 is used as a voltmeter. Determine the
value of the multiplier resistance needed to measure a voltage range
of 0-10V.

Example 2.5
Im

Rs

Rm

V
10
Rs Rm
500 199.5k
Im
50 A

How to measure voltage?

To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc

circuit/component, a dc voltmeter is always connected across
them with proper polarity.

Multirange Voltmeter

A dc voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by

connecting a number of resistors (multipliers) along with a range
switch to provide a greater number of workable ranges.
Example: a multirange voltmeter using four position switch and 4
multipliers R1, R2, R3, and R4 for voltage values V1, V2, V3 and V4.

Multirange voltmeter

Multirange Voltmeter

Multipliers connected in series String - which is a more practical

arrangement of the multiplier resistors of a multirange voltmeter.
In this arrangement, the multipliers are connected in a series
string, and the range selector selects the appropriate amount of
resistance required in series with the movement.

Multipliers connected in series String

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Example 2.6
Convert a basic DArsonval movement with an internal resistance of
50 and a full scale deflection current of 2 mA into a multirange dc
voltmeter with voltage ranges of 0 - 10 V, 0 - 50 V, 0 - 100 V and 0 250 V.

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Solution 2.6

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Solution 2.6

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DC Voltmeter: Sensitivity

The sensitivity (Ohms per Volt rating of a voltmeter) is the ratio

of the total circuit resistance Rtto the voltage range. Sensitivity is
essentially the reciprocal of the full scale deflection current (Ifsd)
of the basic movement. Therefore,
=

The sensitivity Sof the voltmeter has the advantage that it can be
used to calculate the value of multiplier resistors in a dc
voltmeter.

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Example 2.7
Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on the 50 V of a dc
voltmeter, that uses a 200 A meter movement with an internal
resistance of 100 .

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Solution 2.7

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Example 2.8
Calculate the values of Rs for the multiple- range DC Voltmeter circuit as
shown below:

Rm = 1 k

Ifs = 50 A
Rs1

5V

Rs2

Rs3

10V

50V

+ -

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Solution 2.8
S

1
I fsd

20k / V
50 A

For 5V range,

Rs1 S xV Rm 20k / V x 5V 1k 99k

For 10V range,

Rs 2 S xV Rm 20k / V x10V 1k 199k

For 50V range,

Rs3 S xV Rm 20k / V x 50V 1k 999k

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Voltmeter loading effects

A Voltmeter when connected across two points in a highly

resistive circuits, acts as a shunt for that portion of the circuit,
reducing the total equivalent resistance of that portion.
The meter then indicates a lower reading than what existed
before the meter was connected.
This is called the loading effect of an instrument and is caused
mainly by low sensitivity instruments.

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Example 2.9
Figure below shows a simple series circuit of R1 and R2 connected to a
100 V dc source. If the voltage across R2 is to be measured by
voltmeters having
a. a sensitivity of 1000 /V, and
b. a sensitivity of 20,000 /V,
Find which voltmeter will read the accurate value of voltage
across R2. Both the meters are used on the 50 V range.

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Solution 2.9
Case 1
Inspection of the circuit indicates that the voltage across the R2
resistance is

This is the true voltage across R2

Using a voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000 /V.

It has a resistance of 1000 x 50 = 50 k on its 50 V range.
Connecting the meter across R2 causes an equivalent parallel resistance
given by

Solution 2.9

Now the voltage across the total combination is given by

Hence this voltmeter indicates 45.43 V.

Case 2

Using a voltmeter having a sensitivity of 20,000 /V. Therefore it has a

resistance of
20,000 x 50 = 1000 k = 1 M

Solution 2.9

This voltmeter when connected across R2 produces an equivalent

parallel resistance given by

Now the voitage across the total combination is given by

Hence this voltmeter will read 49.74 V.

This example shows that a high sensitivity voltmeter should be used to
get accurate readings.

High sensitivity (S) voltmeter should be used to get accurate reading

Example 2.10
Two different voltmeters are used to measure the voltage across RB in
the circuit below. The meters are:
Meter A : S= 1k/V; Range =10V
Meter B : S=20k/V; Range = 10V
Calculate:
Voltage across RB without any meter.
Voltage across RB when meter A is used.
Voltage across RB when meter B is used.
Loading Errors in both voltmeter readings.

Electrical Measurement (BEF 23903)

RA

10k

RB

1.8k

E = 20V

58

Solution 2.10
i)

The voltage across the resistance RB, without any meter connected is
calculated using the voltage divider formula:

5k
150k
VRB
x30
5v
25k 5 K
30k
ii)

Starting with meter A, having sensitivity S = 1k/V. Therefore, the total

resistance it presents to the circuit is:

1k
Rm1 S x range
x 10 10k
V

The total resistance across RB is RB in parallel with meter

resistance, Rm1:
RB xR m1
5k x 10k
Req

3.3k
RB Rm1 5k 10k

Solution 2.10
Therefore, the voltage reading obtained with meter 1 using the voltage
divider equation is:

VRB
iii)

Req
Req Ra

xV

3.33k
x30 3.53V
3.33k 25k

The total resistance that meter 2 presents to the circuit is:

Rm 2 S x range

20k
x 10V 200k
V

The parallel combination of RB and meter 2 gives:

RB x Rm 2 5k x 200k
Req

4.88k
RB x Rm 2 5k 200k

Solution 2.10
Therefore, the voltage reading obtained with meter 2 using the voltage
divider equation is:

4.88k
VRB
x 30 4.9V
25k 4.88k

iv) The error in the reading of the voltmeter is given by:

% error

Actual voltage Voltage reading observed in meter

x 100%
Actual voltage

Voltmeter 1 error

5V 3.33V
x 100% 33.4%
5V

Similarly voltmeter 2 error

5V 4.9V
x 100% 2%
5V

Example 2.11
Find the voltage reading and the percentage of loading error of each
reading obtained with a voltmeter on:
i) 5-V range.
ii) 10-V range
iii) 50-V range.
The meter has a 20-k/V sensitivity and connected across RA.
RA

45k

RB

5k

E = 50V

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Solution 2.11

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Summary
In this sub-topic, we have learned about:
The purpose of multipliers put in series with a meter
movements.
The basic dArsonval meter movement can be converted to a DC
Voltmeter by connecting a Multiplier (Rs) with the meter
movement.
Calculation of the multiplier resistance of a Voltmeter
Sensitivity, S is the reciprocal of the full-scale deflection current.
Voltmeter loading effects.

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Ohmmeter

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Series Ohmmeter

A D'Arsonval movement is connected in series with a resistance

R1 and a battery which is connected to a pair of terminals A and
B, across which the unknown resistance is connected.
In a series ohmmeter the scale marking on the dial has "0" on the
right side, corresponding to full scale deflection current, and ""
on the left side corresponding to no current flow.
The current flowing through the movement then depends on the
magnitude of the unknown resistance.

Series Ohmmeter
1 =
2 =
=
=
=

When the unknown resistance Rx = 0 (terminals A and B shorted)

maximum current flows through the meter. Under this condition
resistor R2 is adjusted until the basic movement meter indicates full
scale current Ifs. The full scale current position of the pointer is
marked 0 on the scale.

Similarly when Rx is removed from circuit Rx = (that is when

terminal A and B are open), the current in the meter drops to the
zero and the movement indicates zero current which is the marked
.

Determine R1 and R2

Values of R1 and R2 can be determined from the value of Rx which gives half the
full scale deflection.

where Rh = half of full scale deflection resistance.

The total resistance presented to the battery then equals 2Rh and the battery
current needed to supply half scale deflection is lh = V/2 Rh.
To produce full scale current, the battery current must be doubled.
Therefore, the total current of the ckt, /t, = V/Rh
The shunt current through R2 is given by 12 = It- lfsd
The voltage across shunt, Vsh, is equal to the voltage across the meter.

Determine R1 and R2

Example 2.12
A 100 , basic movement is to be used as an ohmmeter requiring a
full scale deflection of 1 mA and internal battery voltage of 3 V. A half
scale deflection marking of 2 k is desired. Calculate
(i) value of R1 and R2, and
(ii) The maximum value of R2 to compensate for a 5% drop in
battery voltage.

Solution 2.12
(i) Using the equations for R1 and R2 we have,

Multirange Ohmmeter

To measure resistance over a wide range of values, we need to

extend the ohmmeter ranges.
This type of ohmmeter is called a multirange ohmmeter.

How to use multimeter?

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END

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