Transient Stability

ELEC0047 - Power system dynamics, control and stability
Transient stability analysis and improvement

Thierry Van Cutsem
[email protected]
www.montefiore.ulg.ac.be/~vct
November 2015
1 / 38
Introduction
Classification of power system instabilities
2 / 38
Introduction
(Rotor) angle stability
most of the electrical energy is generated by synchronous machines

in normal system operation:
all synchronous machines rotate at the same electrical speed 2f
the mechanical and electromagnetic torques acting on the rotating masses of
each generator balance each other
the phase angle differences between the internal e.m.f.s of the various
machines are constant = synchronism
following a disturbance, there is an imbalance between the two torques and

the rotor speed varies
rotor angle stability deals with the ability to keep/regain synchronism after
being subject to a disturbance
3 / 38
Introduction
Small-disturbance angle stability

Small-signal (or small-disturbance) angle stability deals with the ability of the
system to keep synchronism after being subject to a small disturbance
small disturbances are those for which the system equations can be
linearized (around an equilibrium point)
tools from linear system theory can be used (in particular eigenvalue and
eigenvector analysis)
following a small disturbance, the variation in electromagnetic torque Te can

be decomposed into:
Te = Ks + Kd
Ks : synchronizing torque
Kd : damping torque
a decrease in synchronizing torque will eventually lead to aperiodic instability

(machine going out of step);
a decrease in damping torque will eventually lead to oscillatory instability
(growing oscillations).
4 / 38
Introduction
Transient (angle) stability
Transient (angle) stability deals with the ability of the system to keep
synchronism after being subject to a large disturbance
typical large disturbances:
short-circuit cleared by opening of circuit breakers
more complex sequences: backup protections, line autoreclosing, etc.
the nonlinear variation of the electromagnetic torque with the phase angle of
the machines internal e.m.f. must be taken into account
numerical integration of the differential-algebraic equations is used to assess
the system response
unacceptable consequences of transient instability:

generators losing synchronism are tripped by protections (to avoid equipment
damages)
large angle swings create long-lasting voltage dips that disturb customers.
5 / 38
Introduction
Remarks
Small-disturbance angle stability:

depends on operating point and system parameters
does not depend on the disturbance (assumed infinitesimal and arbitrary)
is a necessary condition for operating a power system (small disturbances are
always present !)
Transient stability:
depends on operating point and system parameters
depends on the disturbance also
- the system may be stable wrt disturbance D1 but not disturbance D2
- if so, the system is insecure wrt D2, but as long as D2 does not happen, it can
operate. . .
6 / 38
Introduction
Objectives of this lecture
We focus on a simple system: one machine and one infinite bus

allows a complete analytical treatment
and, hence, a good understanding of behaviour
is a good introduction to more complex systems
central derivation: equal-area criterion

analogy with pendulum motion in Mechanics
large-disturbance stability analyzed through energy considerations
certainly the most classical power system stability development
(can be found even in the simplest textbooks on power system analysis!).
7 / 38
Classical model of synchronous machine
Classical model of synchronous machine

1
2
3
4
damper windings d1 et q1 ignored

magnetic flux in f and q2 windings assumed constant
model valid over no more than ' 1 second
same transient reactances in both axes: Xd0 = Xq0 = X 0
stator resistance neglected.
V + jX 0 I = E0 = E 0
Assumption # 2 constant
Using a synchronous reference (angular speed N ):

d
1 d
d
= ( + ) + N
dt
dt
N dt
d
2H pu
dt
= pu 1
= Pmpu Ppu
8 / 38
One-machine infinite-bus system under classical model

System with:
one synchronous machine represented by classical model with constant
mechanical power Pm
one infinite bus with constant voltage
some loads, represented as constant impedances.
System reduction:
replace network, loads and infinite bus by a Thevenin equivalent
merge the machine reactance with the Thevenin impedances into Zeq
take the Thevenin emf as synchronous phase angle reference.
9 / 38
Yeq =
1
= Geq +j Beq = |Yeq | e j
Zeq
in practice: /2 0
Active power produced by the machine:
P = real(E0 I ) = real[E 0 e j Yeq

(E 0 e j Eeq )] = Geq E 02 |Yeq |E 0 Eeq cos ( )
P(0) = Geq E 0 (E 0 Eeq )

= + arccos
Geq E 0
|Yeq |Eeq
10 / 38
Network configurations and equilibria

Typical large disturbance:
short-circuit at t = 0, cleared by protections opening the faulted line at t = te
configuration
pre-fault
fault-on
post-fault
symbol
v
d
p
time interval
t<0
t [0 te ]
t > te
stable equilibrium
(vo , vo = 1)
(po , po = 1)
a simpler sequence of events: self-cleared fault (no line opening).

Fictitious scenario, used in quick stability tests
a more complex sequence of events: line reclosing
the fault has been cleared final configuration = pre-fault
the fault is permanent new line tripping (usually stays open for quite
some time)
what follows applies to any sequence

in some cases, there may be no post-fault equilibrium (e.g. if many lines are
tripped to clear the fault). In this case, the system is unstable.
11 / 38
One Thevenin per configuration one P() function per configuration
The relative positions of the curves is realistic:

during fault: capability of evacuating power on the network much decreased
due to low voltage
post-fault: system weaker owing to the line tripping.
Pm and E 0 are supposed to remain constant throughout all configurations.
12 / 38
The equal-area criterion

Swing equation:
M = Pm P()
where M =
2H
and P() changes from one configuration to another.
N
Multiplying by :
M = [Pm P()]
Integrating from 0 to t:
1 2
M
2
[Pm P()] dt = C
Changing variable in the integral:

1 2
M +
2
[P(u) Pm ]du = C
v0
kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

13 / 38
Fault-on period (t [0 te ]): P() = Pd ()
At t = 0 :
= 0
and
= v0 .
1 2
M +
2
At t = te :
Hence, C = 0 and
[Pd (u) Pm ]du = 0

v0
= e and = e . Hence
Z e
1 2
M e =
[Pd (u) Pm ]du
2
v0
(1)
14 / 38
Post-fault period (t [te [): P() = Pp ()

1 2
M +
2
1 2
M +
2
[Pd (u) Pm ]du +

v0
[Pp (u) Pm ]du = 0

e
Z
[Pd (u) Pm ]du +
p0
[Pp (u) Pm ]du = 0
[Pp (u) Pm ]du +
v0
p0
The 2nd and 4th terms being constant:

1 2
M +
|2 {z }
Vk
[Pp (u) Pm ]du = K

p0
{z
Vp
Vk : kinetic energy
Vp : potential energy in final configuration with reference in p0
15 / 38
16 / 38
state space, is a
for small enough te values, the system trajectory in the (, )
closed curve along which:
t te :
Vc (t) + Vp (t) = K = Vc (te ) + Vp (te )
at points C and C: potential energy is maximum, kinetic energy is zero

at points D and D: potential energy is zero, kinetic energy is maximum
there is a te value for which the trajectory passes through the unstable
equilibrium point (pi , 0). For this and for larger te values, stability is lost
the domain of attraction of the post-fault stable equilibrium (p0 , 0) is the
state space bounded by that trajectory; instability results
part of the (, )
from a lack of attraction towards this equilibrium
if the system model was dissipative (as the real system is, e.g. to due
damping) the stable trajectories would spiral up to (p0 , 0) and Vc (t) + Vp (t)
would decrease with time
17 / 38
Stability condition
System stable if (e , e ) belongs to the domain of attraction of (p0 , 0), i.e. if
1 2
M e +
2
pi
[Pp (u) Pm ]du <

p0
[Pp (u) Pm ]du

p0
or, using (1):

Z
[Pd (u) Pm ] +
v0
Z
[Pp (u) Pm ]du <
p0
v0
[Pp (u) Pm ]du

p0
pi
[Pm Pp (u)]du < 0
[Pm Pd (u)]du +
pi
Aacc Adec < 0

Aacc = accelerating area, corresponding to P() < Pm
Adec = decelerating area, corresponding to P() > Pm .
18 / 38
Critical clearing time
Critical clearing time

Maximum duration tc of the fault-on period after which the system still
returns to (or remains in the neighbourhood of) its post-fault equilibrium
Let us denote by c the rotor angle at t = tc , i.e. c = (tc ).
The system is at the stability limit when e = c and Aacc Adec = 0, or
Z
pi
[Pm Pp (u)]du = 0
[Pm Pd (u)]du +
v0
solve the above equation with respect to c

integrate the system trajectory in the fault-on configuration, to find the time
tc such that c = (tc ).
except in some simple configurations (e.g. Pd = 0), this integration has to be
performed numerically.
19 / 38
Extensions of the equal-area criterion
Accounting for damping

stability becomes asymptotic
equal-area criterion pessimistic in terms of c and tc
the first angle deviation is little decreased by damping. Damping is effective
in subsequent oscillations, for which a more detailed model is required.
20 / 38
Two-machine system
M2 2 = Pm2 P2 (1 2 )
M1 1 = Pm1 P1 (1 2 )
can be combined into:
Pm1
Pm2
1 2 =
M1
M2
P1 (1 2 ) P2 (1 2 )
M1
M2

(2)
Defining:
M12
Pm12
M1 M2
12 = 1 2
M1 + M2
Pm1 M2 Pm2 M1
P1 (12 ) M2 P2 (12 ) M1
P12 =
M1 + M2
M1 + M2
(2) can be rewritten as:

M12 12 = Pm12 P12 (12 )
which is the swing equation of an equivalent one-machine infinite-bus system.
Remark. If M1 = M2 = M, then M12 = M/2 : two machines of inertia M oscillate
against each other as one machine of inertia M/2 against an infinite bus.
21 / 38
Extensions to multi-machine systems ?

rigorously speaking, the equal-area criterion does not apply to systems with
more than two machines
but the underlying energy concept inspired much research into direct
methods for transient stability analysis
it also inspired hybrid methods:
detailed time simulation complemented with stability assessment inspired of
equal-area criterion
relying on a two-machine equivalent: one machine corresponds to the
machine(s) loosing synchronism, the other machine to the rest of the system
the concept of critical clearing time tc applies, whatever the complexity of

the model
critical group: the set of machines which loose synchronism with respect to
the remaining of the system, for a clearing time a little larger than tc .
22 / 38
Exercise
Exercise
Revisit the 5-bus system
1
149
-22
225
3
The files to be used in RAMSES:
EQU.
-295
39
active power (MW)

reactive power (Mvar)
data: lf1solv.dat or
lf2solv.dat,
solveroptions.dat, dyn.dat
225
3
149
-22
150
30
450
68
observables: obs.dat
disturbance: events.dst.
Determine the critical clearing time of:

1
a short-circuit without impedance on line 1-3, next to bus 3, cleared by
opening that line, when the generator produces 450 MW
2
the same fault cleared without line opening, when the generator produces
450 MW
3
the same sequence as in 1, when the generator produces 400 MW (file
lf2solv.dat).
23 / 38
Transient stability improvement
Decrease the accelerating area and/or increase the decelerating area
24 / 38
Modifying the pre-disturbance operating point:

reducing the active power generation
operating with higher excitation
Automatic emergency controls:
actions on network:
line auto-reclosing
fast series capacitor reinsertion
fast fault clearing - single pole breaker operation
actions in generators:
(turbine) fast valving
generation shedding
action on load: dynamic braking

Other means:
equip generators with fast excitation system
control voltage at intermediate points in a long corridor: through
synchronous condensers or static var compensators.
25 / 38
Modifying the pre-disturbance operating point
Modifying the pre-disturbance operating point

Active power generation
Decreasing Pm :
decreases the accelerating area
increases the decelerating area
(side effect: pre- and post-fault equilibria also modified)
Reactive power generation
r
0
E (0 ) = E (0 ) =
(V + X 0
Q 2
P
) + (X 0 )2
V
V
For given values of V and P, increasing the reactive power production Q

increases the emf E 0 which prevails in the post-fault period
this, in turn, somewhat increases the magnitude of the P() curve
and, hence, the decelerating area and the stability margin.
26 / 38
Line auto-reclosing
Line auto-reclosing
coming back to pre-fault configuration increases the decelerating area

reclosing possible only after air has recovered its insulating properties
(delay ' 0.5 s).
27 / 38
Fault clearing
Fault clearing
Fault clearing delay:
should be as short as possible
typical values : 5 cycles (0.1 s at 50 Hz)
stability must be checked with respect to scenarios where primary protection
fails clearing the fault (due to protection or breaker malfunction), which is
eliminated by the slower backup protection.
Single-phase tripping-reclosing:
most of the faults (' 75 %) are of the phase-ground type
for such faults, it is of interest to open the faulted phase only and keep the
other two in service protect each phase separately
in case of 3-phase fault with malfunction of one breaker, the other two
operate and the fault changes into phase-ground (less severe, cleared by
backup protection)
at EHV level, the three poles of the breaker are usually separate (for insulation
reasons); it does not cost much to add a separate control on each phase.
28 / 38
Turbine fast valving

Principle
Decrease the mechanical torque as fast as possible
Pm () curves obtained from the Pm (t) and (t) evolutions (eliminating t)

fast valving not fast enough to act during fault
main effect = increase of decelerating area.
29 / 38
Speed of action
mechanical torque must be decreased rapidly: typically less than 0.5 s
gates of hydro turbines cannot be moved so quickly applies to steam
turbines
delays:
to take the decision from measurements (selectivity !)
to close the valves. They are closed much faster than in normal operating
conditions by emptying the servomotor of its oil.
Decision criterion
cannot rely on rotor speed only: due to inertia it takes time to reach an
emergency value
additional signal: rotor acceleration, drop of electrical power, difference
between electrical power and an image of mechanical power.
30 / 38
Implementation
Action:
on Control Valves (CV), normally controlled by Speed Governor (SG)
on Intercept Valves (IV): fully open in normal conditions, closed to cancel the
torque developed in Medium Pressure (MP) and Low Pressure (LP) bodies
31 / 38
Temporary valving:
Pm returns to its pre-disturbance value
typical sequence:
intercept valves are closed for a short time, then re-opened
control valves are left unchanged
Sustained valving:
Pm remains at a lower than pre-disturbance value
e.g. because post-disturbance network configuration expected to be too weak
even if it produces less, the generator remains synchronized with the network
typical sequence:
intercept valves are quickly closed
control valves are closed partially and at a lower speed
intercept valves are re-opened
control valves remain partially closed.
Valve re-opening:
after some delay due to servomotors
with a limited speed to avoid wearing the turbine, but this is not an issue if
stability has been preserved.
32 / 38
Exercise: design of a fast valving protection scheme

Temporary fast valving
parameter ivo decreased from one to zero

maximum rate of decrease: 1 pu / 0.3 s
dead time before reopening the intercept valve (required by servomotors): 3 s
reopening of valve at limited rate: 1 pu / 10 s
33 / 38
Simulation to check that the countermeasure is effective:

consider operating point #1 with the generator producing 450 MW
disturbance: short-circuit without impedance on line 1-3, next to bus 3,
cleared in 0.12 s by opening that line
from exercise in slide # 23, we know that the system is unstable
implement the fast valving, assuming that the intercept valve starts closing
0.10 s after the fault inception (time to take the decision)
check that the system is stabilized
determine the new critical clearing time
the initial delay on valve closing remains at 0.10 s
assess the evolution of the electrical power produced by the generator

check final value
which uncomfortable transient behaviour is observed?
Explain this with the equal-area criterion
assess the evolution of the voltage at bus 2

how is the voltage recovery?
34 / 38
Available measurements:
accelerating power Pa (t) = Pm Pd (t) = P(0 ) Pd (t)
rotor speed (t)
Activation criterion:
if the system is stable without the protection scheme, the latter must not act
(no false alarm)
if the system is unstable without the protection scheme, the latter should
contribute to increasing the critical clearing time
if the clearing time is still larger than the critical value, the tripping of the
generator is accepted
fast valving is triggered when the system trajectory in the (Pa , ) space
crosses a curve c(Pa , ) = 0.
Determine a few points of that curve using the set of operating points provided
(P = 450, 420, . . . 270 MW 1 : see files p450.dat, p420.dat, . . . , p270.dat)
1 all
other power flow data are unchanged

35 / 38
Generation shedding
Generation shedding
Principle
Trip one or several generators in order to preserve synchronous operation of the
remaining generators
applies mainly to hydro plants
those including multiple generators
combinations of 1, 2, 3, . . . generators can be dropped
may be also used with thermal plants:

tripped generator not stopped, used to feed its own auxiliaries
(called tripping to houseload)
plant remains in operation and can be re-synchronized with shorter delay
usually applies to large power plants evacuating power through long corridors.
36 / 38
Generation shedding
Simple illustrative example
Assumptions:
two identical machines oscillating in phase (coherent machines)
each machine: inertia M, transient reactance X 0 , mechanical power Pm
both machines = machine of inertia 2M, reactance X 0 /2, mech. power 2 Pm
Equal-area criterion:
area ABCD > area DEF system unstable
ABCD area = energy acquired by both machines at the time the fault is
cleared.
37 / 38
Generation shedding
Assume that one machine is tripped intentionally.

Assume for simplicity that this takes place at the time the fault is cleared.
The right figure relates to the remaining generator. Compared to the left figure:
the P() curve has lower magnitude, since the reactance between the emf
0
and the infinite bus is Xe + X 0 instead of Xe + X2
the mechanical power is Pm instead of 2Pm .
The system is stable if area GHK is larger than half of area ABCD .
38 / 38

Transient Stability

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ELEC0047 - Power system dynamics, control and stability

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Classification of power system instabilities

Transient stability analysis and improvement

(Rotor) angle stability

most of the electrical energy is generated by synchronous machines

following a disturbance, there is an imbalance between the two torques and

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Small-disturbance angle stability

following a small disturbance, the variation in electromagnetic torque Te can

a decrease in synchronizing torque will eventually lead to aperiodic instability

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Transient (angle) stability

unacceptable consequences of transient instability:

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Small-disturbance angle stability:

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Objectives of this lecture

We focus on a simple system: one machine and one infinite bus

central derivation: equal-area criterion

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Classical model of synchronous machine

Classical model of synchronous machine

damper windings d1 et q1 ignored

Using a synchronous reference (angular speed N ):

Transient stability analysis and improvement

One-machine infinite-bus system under classical model

One-machine infinite-bus system under classical model

Transient stability analysis and improvement

One-machine infinite-bus system under classical model

P = real(E0 I ) = real[E 0 e j Yeq

P(0) = Geq E 0 (E 0 Eeq )

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Network configurations and equilibria

Network configurations and equilibria

a simpler sequence of events: self-cleared fault (no line opening).

what follows applies to any sequence

Transient stability analysis and improvement

Network configurations and equilibria

One Thevenin per configuration one P() function per configuration

The relative positions of the curves is realistic:

Transient stability analysis and improvement

The equal-area criterion

The equal-area criterion

Changing variable in the integral:

kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

Transient stability analysis and improvement

The equal-area criterion

Fault-on period (t [0 te ]): P() = Pd ()

[Pd (u) Pm ]du = 0

Transient stability analysis and improvement

The equal-area criterion

Post-fault period (t [te [): P() = Pp ()

[Pd (u) Pm ]du +

[Pp (u) Pm ]du = 0

[Pp (u) Pm ]du = 0

[Pp (u) Pm ]du +

The 2nd and 4th terms being constant: