Solar Pumps

A solution to improving water

security in drought prone areas

Brian McSorley, Mutuku Muema, JJ Singano - 2011

This is part of a series of papers produced under the EC DMI initiative aimed at
documenting measures to improve water security during drought.

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1.0 Introduction
Turkana is the poorest district in Kenya, with 94.9 % of the total population below the absolute poverty line
and not able to meet their basic needs. The Turkana area is characterised by poor soils, low and highly
variable rainfall, geographical isolation, low population density, poor quality and low access to basic services,
poor market integration and historical underinvestment. Historically and culturally the predominant
livelihood is nomadic pastoralism. Whilst the most appropriate and sustainable livelihood for the area it
remains highly vulnerable to environmentally triggered shocks.
Poor access to water results in
increased

trekking

distances

exposes people to risk of water

borne diseases and is a key
contributing factor to persistently
high levels of malnutrition in the
area. In terms of livelihoods it
results in accelerated wasting and
ultimately loss of animals. During
previous

droughts

significant

external support has been required

to ensure critical dry season water
points remained functional to

Children take water from a scoop hole in a river bed

minimize loss of human life and livestock. This has highlighted the vulnerability many communities have
through reliance on a single water point. Many water systems have exceeded their original design life, are
poorly maintained and in the case of mechanized boreholes equipped with diesel powered by diesel are
unreliable and financially unsustainable. The poor infrastructure is exacerbated by weak management systems
within villages and a general failure to collect sufficient revenue to cover operational costs1.
Within this context, with funding from the European Commission, Oxfam is implementing a 3 year drought
mitigation project, known as the Drought Management Initiative (DMI). This project aims to reduce the
impact of drought on rural communities by improving water coverage and reliability. This is achieved by - i)
development of new dry season water points, ii) ensuring that the technology of accessing water (pump) is
appropriate to that communities ability to manage it and iii) community management structures are
strengthened to ensure that infrastructure is in better condition entering the drought and thereby less likely
to fail when demand is greatest.

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2.0 Drought and Water supply challenges in Turkana, Kenya

Communities rely on different water sources at different times of the year due to their own mobility and the
seasonal nature of many water sources. In the weeks and months following rains, surface water sources and
shallow scoop holes augment water from well and boreholes equipped with handpumps. As the dry season
extends, pans, scoop holes and shallow wells dry up and there is an increasing number of people and
livestock dependent on fewer water points. At this time the importance and dependence of higher yielding
mechanised boreholes powered by diesel generators increases. These systems are capable of a very high
output but because of their high operational cost, principally due fuel consumption, and the low efficiency of
revenue collection to meet these costs, operation tends to be intermittent with some systems only
functioning in the dry season. As a dry season turns
into a drought, dependence on diesel powered
systems increases further with generators and pumps
needing to operate for up to 18 hours per day to meet
demand.

However experience from previous

droughts confirms that the failure rate of these water

systems is high due to the following factors; i)
Equipment being poorly maintained going into the
drought therefore there is a high risk of failure when
it is put under operational stress, ii) spare parts and
skilled labour are not readily available to repair
equipment quickly, iii) There is insufficient fuel and
communities struggle to raise money required to

Cost of Fuel & the paradox of diesel

powered systems - The cash economy
shrinks during drought as the productivity
of animals decrease, the market for
livestock breaks down and the terms of
trade for livestock deteriorate against
other goods. This highlights a major
constraint associated with diesel powered
systems, i.e. the time when people are
most dependent on them is the time
when they are least able to afford to
operate them. This could be avoided if
revenue collection was sufficient during
more favourable seasons to enable a fund
to be saved that communities could fall
back on in such times but it rarely
happens.

operate pumps.
Consequently

external

drought

interventions

implemented by Government and NGO partners often provide fuel to subsidise the costs of operation, as
well as spare parts and technical support to overhaul poorly maintained equipment. The challenge being
that by doing so to meet short term humanitarian needs, these measures reinforce a sense of dependency
and fail to address the underlying management or economic issues leading to the problem. Inadvertently
such measures can reward poor management and corruption.
Another consequence of this pattern of water use is that the cheapest water also tends to be the poorest
quality water. So although in appearance a community may have the access to a potable water point, in
reality this may not be the case as a) the pump is not working b) there is no fuel or c) people choose not to

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or cannot afford paying 2-5 shillings for the safe water source and draw water from a scoop hole (similar to
above), which is freely accessible but puts their health at risk in the process.
In light of these observations, as part of the DMI initiative Oxfam has supported seven communities to install
solar pumping systems in their village. Five of these replaced diesel systems, enabling a direct comparison of
the two pumping systems.

2.1 Diesel Pump Challenges

Submersible pumps powered by diesel generators are used widely in Turkana. Milimatatu, Loarengak,
Kachoda and Kataboi are large centres and strategic water points in NE Turkana. Oxfam has previously
provided short term humanitarian support to keep systems operating and water flowing during drought to
ensure basic human and livelihood needs can be met. This has included supporting short term operational
costs such as servicing of equipment
and provision of fuel to subsidise the
running costs.
Table

summarises

challenges

communities faced. All villages had to

ration

water

and

experienced

intermittent supply as a result of the

cost of fuel and challenges around
operation and maintenance.

The

operator from Millimatatu travels to

Lodwar which is over a 500km round
trip once per month to collect two (20 litre) jerry cans full of fuel. All other villages have to make a similar
trip to source fuel, which in the absence of public transport and considering the poor condition of roads
takes several days. The cost of transport plus fuel uses up the majority of tariffs collected and there is often
little or none left over to pay the operator.

Table 2: Community reported Challenges with Diesel Pumps in Turkana

Milimatatu Kachoda
Rationing of Water
Intermittent supply (affecting income)
Cannot afford fuel to operate pump
Fuel storage per month (litres)
Cost of Fuel (90KES/litre) Transport not Inc
O&M
Breakdown

X
X
X
40
3600

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Loarengak

Kataboi

X
X
X
60
5400

X
X
X
160
14400

X
X
X
120
10800

Cannot carry out services/repairs

Kataboi is affected by both challenges with fuel supply and operation and maintenance issues. Fuel price
increases often mean that not enough water can be pumped to supply the community. They are also greatly
affected by seasonal income. Kataboi is a fishing community and the number of fish in the lake reduces
during the dry season, impacting fishermens income and the ability of the community to afford fuel. The
community has requested support to switch from a diesel powered system to solar, but to date this has not
been possible due to the high pumping head from the source to the storage tank upstream of the centre.

2.2 Benefits of Solar Pumps

Table 3 highlights some the benefits reported by
the communities as a result of the solar water
systems. Most significantly is improved access to
water and reliability of supply.

The tangible

evidence of this is that during the 2011 drought,

which is widely been reported as the worst in 60
years, all these villages have been self reliant in
terms of water supply.
The

community

of

Meyan

was

previously

dependent on traditional scoop holes which was

not only unsafe as regard to water borne diseases
but physically dangerous as scoop holes had
previously collapsed, burying and killing people as
they collected water. The solar pump has provided
this village with a continuous water supply with
which they have started to grow kitchen gardens,

Kitchen garden in Kaaleng village, photo taken in June

build a dispensary, cook for children at the school

2011 during the worst drought in East Africa for 60 years

and, according to community testimony, has reduced many disease experienced in the community.
Women interviewed in Kokoro reported that hygiene has improved and house construction increased.
There has also been a reported impact on personal safety. With the water supply piped to the centre of the
community the risk of bandits attacking women who had to previously travel for water outside the village
has significantly reduced.

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Table 3: Benefits of Solar Pumps in Turkana, Kenya

Kaikor
Improved access to water
x
Improved continuity of water
x
More affordable water supply
x
Reduced travelling time to collect water
Improved personal safety due to proximity
of water supply
Growing kitchen gardens
Building construction
Water supply for school
Improved hygiene
Reduction in diseases

Meyan
x
x

Kokoro
x
x

Kaaleng
x
x
x

Loaren'
x
x
x

Kachoda
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

Kaikor and Kaaleng are both larger communities who operated diesel engines prior to the solar pumps being
installed so a direct comparison is possible between the performance of solar and diesel is possible. Both
communities cite the continuity of water supply as being a major improvement. This continuity is a result of
the large reduction in operational and maintenance challenges and the complete removal of reliance on fuel.
Although tariff collection is still carried out in order to plan for longer term maintenance issues, there is still
a water supply during periods when it is difficult to collect tariffs. The diesel pumps would often not be
useable during these times due to lack of fuel purchasing so the solar has made a marked improvement on
access and continuity to a safe water supply.

An irrigation plot adjacent to Kachoda borehole set up within one week of installation of the solar pump

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The water needs of Kaikor are now supplied 100% by renewable energy (two solar powered boreholes and a
handpump).

Whilst the reduced carbon footprint is a benefit that Turkana villagers do not consider,

improved reliability and cheaper access to water is something that has had a major impact on daily life As
Akai Eripon, a resident of Kaaleng explains.installation of solar pump has made life easier for me, there is
constant flow of water, I dont have to use the unclean water from scoop holes as was the case when we use
to go without water for a number of days as we wait for fuel to be purchased or wait for a mechanic to come
all the way from Lodwar to fix the genset.
Particular care was taken in explaining the differences between solar and diesel pumps to ensure
communities could make informed decisions in their choice to switch from diesel to solar. Of concern was
whether the output of a solar pump would be able to meet demand (output for solar pumps is constrained
by the 1400W maximum power output. In reality, due to improved continuity and reliability, the actual net
output from the solar systems is significantly greater than that of the diesel systems.

2.3 Challenges & limitations of Solar Pumps

There have been some challenges with the new solar pumps. The main constraint is the ability to pump a
sufficient quantity of water from deep boreholes. For Meyan village this meant that water could be pumped
to the primary school adjacent to the village1 (but outside the villages security fence).

Piping the water all

the way to the village was an extra 25-30 metres elevation which would have meant that the final
production would have been inadequate to meet demand from the village. As Meyan is in an insecure area
some of the community members still worry about bandit attacks whilst collecting water, although the
location is a significant improvement on previous water supplies. Similarly the current solar systems would
not be able to replace the existing generator system at Kataboi as the pumping head required is over 100
metres.

Challenges
Poor water availability when cloudy
Theft of panels
Control Box problems
Distance of kiosk from community (due to
pumping capacity of solar)
Pump breakdown due to pump sucking sand

Kaikor

Meyan

Kokoro

Kaaleng

Loaren'

x
x

x
x
x

x
x

Kachoda

At a total head of 70 metres

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As would be expected the output of solar drop significantly in cloudy conditions. The lowest daily recorded
output from Kaaleng is 4.5m3/day, 30% of the average daily output. To compensate for such an eventuality
and enable pumps to operate during night time to meet peak demand during drought, the pump is able to
operate off a small back-up petrol generator (which each village has).
The experience in Kachoda highlights another weakness of the solar submersible pump. In 2005 a wind
turbine system (which uses the same submersible pump as solar), was installed in the village. The motor in
this pump has broken three times, which each time required replacing of a whole new pump. The first
failure was not investigated, the second (not involving Oxfam) was believed to be due to faulty installation
but when the third pump which had been funded by Oxfam as part of the DMI programme failed, a detailed
investigation was done and it was discovered that the pump had clogged with silt leading to burnout of the
motor. The cause of this is believed to be a cracked casing or corrosion in the borehole. As a temporary
measure to keep water flowing whilst a new borehole was drilled, a standard Grundfos submersible pump
was installed at exactly the same depth and operated without problem. This and other observations
elsewhere indicate that the SQflex pump (which relies on a helical rotor) is more sensitive to a high silt load
than an impeller type pump (used more commonly in electric submersibles).
Theft and vandalism have also occurred at two locations and the majority of communities have responded to
this by improving security. This is involves raising the panels above head height and fencing them in. In
some cases the solar panels also have a 24 hour security guard.

2.4 Comparison of Capital and Recurrent Costs of Solar and Diesel Pumps
Several studies2 have indicated that the capital cost of solar is significantly more expensive than a diesel
powered system. The field reality in Turkana indicates this is not the case. Solar pumps tended to replace
larger capacity submersible pump and generator of comparable or greater cost. For example, in Kaaleng an
11KVA generator costing KES850,000 (8,000) was replaced with 1500 watts of solar panels costing
KES750,000 (7,150). This is a result of a common tendency to oversize generators and pumps, a bigger is
better mentality which persists not just within communities but also within District Water Offices and
agencies who supply the equipment. There are also other capital investment and running costs for
generators that are not required for solar; for example -. i) infrastructure required to house a generator

CONCERN water supply for IDP camps in Uganda (ECHO Nairobi, technical briefing paper). This looks at per capita cost
of water production taking into account capital investment costs and running costs of diesel and solar systems. Initially
water supplied from solar is more expensive than diesel, but within 1-3 years of operation, solar becomes more cost
effective, with diesel remaining competitive for longer where water production is highest.

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(secure, well ventilated pumphouse) significantly exceeds the cost of a steel support structure to securely fix
the solar modules in place and ii) routine maintenance and daily operation is more costly.
Looking at like-for-like power generation, a 2.5 KVA petrol generator3 running for 8 hours per day to operate
the same SQFlex pump would incur an annual cost of KES365,000 (3,500). Based on fuel consumption
alone, in two years the capital costs of the solar panels would be recouped.
The most significant difference though is the lower operating costs of a solar pump as the short term
operational costs are negligible as it depends on the input from the sun, an abundant resource in Turkana.
As the Chairperson of Kaaleng Water User Association explained - We never use to have any savings
before; the revenue collected was never enough to cater for all our monthly needs i.e. fuel purchase,
salaries, genset servicing, cost of transporting fuel from Lodwar to Kaaleng. Since the installation of solar
pump, weve been able to save 110,000 Kenyan Shillings (approximately 1,000) and paid all the debts.

3.0 Wider suitability of solar systems

The Turkana environment is ideally suited for solar. However for other areas, e.g. North East Province where
depth of groundwater is greater and demand from livestock very high, solar may not be appropriate. The
table below highlights some factors to consider in deciding whether solar is appropriate.

Favourable Conditions for Solar

Unfavourable Environments

Depth of pumping </= 50 metres and total pumping Pumping depth >50m or total pumping head >75m
head <75 metres
Panels installed within village which acts as a Borehole and solar panels located some distance
deterrent against theft.
from community, exposed and at risk of theft.
Borehole yields in range of 2-5m3/hr

Yields below 1.5m3/hr may result in over pumping.

Where yields are greater than 4m3/hr a solar pump
may not optimally utilise the source.

Populations not exceeding 2000 people and without Populations >2000 people or where demand from
high demand from livestock
livestock is high
Average demand not exceeding 20m3/day

Average demand exceeds 20m3/day

Pumps and spares can be sourced in country

Absence of local or national supplier of equipment.

Favourable solar radiation. Turkana averages 5.5-6 Cloudy conditions are common
KWh/m2 per day and seasonal reliability.
variability affects performance.

or

seasonal

These have been installed as back-up power sources at some sites to enable night time pumping to meet peak demand
from livestock.

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Based on a successful use in South Africa, Oxfam is planning to install two solar pumps in the same borehole
as a means of overcoming the limitations of depth and yield which is currently preventing installation of
solar systems in Kataboi and Milimatatu villages. 4

4.0 Conclusion
The overall performance of the solar systems installed in Turkana has been very positive. This has been
clearly demonstrated during 2011. Widely reported as the worst drought to hit East Africa in 60 years, six
villages that had received solar systems as part of the Drought Manage Initiative programme, received an
uninterrupted supply of water and were even able to set up small irrigation plots. Turkana district is ideal
for solar combining favourable year round sunshine, with aquifer potential, demand for water and depth
of groundwater all within the comfortable range of the pump. Such conditions are not always present
elsewhere for example where demand is very high or groundwater is deeper so solar is not a solution
everywhere. Technology is also only part of the solution and it should be stressed that there is no substitute
for good management and effective support services. For this reason Oxfams WASH programme in parallel
has been investing a considerable amount of effort in capacity building of village level management
committees and working closely with the District Water Officers from the Rift Valley Water Services board
that is mandated with the responsibility for providing longer term technical support for water provision
across the County. Nevertheless considering the context of Turkana where the cost of fuel is beyond the
financial means of the average person, and where sourcing spare parts and technical support is problematic,
the use of a simpler, more reliable pumping system, that runs off an abundant supply of renewable energy
has clearly demonstrated itself to be a step in the right direction in terms of increasing the level of self
reliance communities have during dry seasons and drought and reducing the need for external support.

These can be installed in a standard 6 inch borehole, one below the other and connected with a specially fabricated

manifold system. It should be capable of producing yields of up to 15m3/day against a pumping head of 100-120 metres.

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Appendix - Performance of Solar Water Pump at Kaaleng

In order to verify the performance of the solar pumps in Turkana, the

Technical Considerations for

solar pumps

operator at Kaaleng has been taking meter readings daily since early

This project has used Grundfos

2009. The original pump (SQF 2.5-2) was equipped with 8 x 100 Watt

SQflex solar pumps. The pump

solar panels, hence capable of generating upto a maximum of 800

relies on a 1400 watt motor and

watts when the sun is high.

consequently has a much more

provided by the manufacturer this should provide a daily quantity of

limited pumping range compared

an average of 16m3/day for a 40m head. Analysis of the Kaaleng

to diesel powered submersible

pumps. As output and/or depth of

Based on the performance charts

records for May 2009 show that the pump was actually providing

pumping increases the power

between 4.55m3/day at the very lowest output days and 19.48m3/day

input (number of solar panels)

at the highest. The average daily output was 14.71m3/day which is

needs to increase. Manufacturers

similar to the manufacturers expected output.

performance curves indicate that

solar pumps can pump water upto
200 metres total head. However
as

the

performance

chart

opposite shows there is a trade

off between output and head. For
Turkana beyond 50-60 metres it
is

typically

not

possible

to

provide sufficient water to meet

the needs of a community (1020,000 litres per day - which is
sufficient to meet the minimum
basic needs of 1,000 - 2,000
people.

SQflex pumps operate

between 30-300V and against a

maximum current and power

Chart A: Performace Range of SQFlex Solar Pumps.

input of 8 Amps and 1400 Watts

The pump was upgraded to a more powerful SQF3A-10 and equipped

respectively,

with additional solar panels, comprising a total rating of 1600W. This

with

optimal

performance achieved when the

V, A or W limit is reached.. In

pump has a maximum power of 1400 Watts and the expected average

Turkana this, this means the

daily output is approximately 22m3/day. The solar pump at Kaaleng

pump starts running at around

had an output range from 16.27 to 41.70m3/day with an average of

7.30am, achieving a maximum

27.32m3/day for the month of January 2010.

output around the middle of the

day (11-3pm) when the sun is
highest before reducing again
and stopping at about 5.30pm.

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Average daily flow rates were also analysed for the two pumps which
can be seen in Charts D and E. Charts B and C below show the

SQFlex Solar Performance

Guidelines

manufacturers expected performance curves.

Performance range
Kaaleng
Pump type = SQflex 3A-10
Total pumping head = 40m
Panels = 10x85 +6x120 (1570)W
rating
Daily average output = 27m3
Kaikor (A)
Pump type = SQflex 2.5-2
Total pumping head = 55m
Panels = 8x65 +8x80 (1160 W)
rating
Daily average output = 20 m3
Kaikor (B)
Pump type = SQflex 3A 10
Total pumping head = 45m
Panels = 12x 150 (1800 W) rating
Daily average output = tbc

Chart B: Manufacturers Performance Curve for the SQF3A-10

Meyan
Pump type = SQflex 2.5-2
Total pumping head = 70m
Panels = 12x80W rating
Daily average output = 18m3
Loarengak
Pump type = SQflex 2.5-2
Total pumping head = 30-35m
Panels = 16x80 (1280)W rating
Daily average output = 30m3
Kokuro
Pump type = SQflex 2.5-2
Total pumping head = 40m
Panels = 8x80 (640)W rating
Daily average output = 27m3
Kachoda
Pump type = SQflex2.5-2
Total pumping head = 60m
Panels
=
4x120W
4x150W(1080W) rating
Daily average output = tbc

Performance charts
Chart C: Manufacturers Performance Curve for the SQF3A-10

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Chart D: Performance of the SQF 3A-10 Solar Power Pump in Kaaleng V the Manufacturers Performance Curves

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